Dynamic modeling of wind power generation
Héctor A. Pulgar-Painemal and Peter W. Sauer.
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
E-mail: hpulgar@ieee.org and psauer@illinois.edu
Abstract—This paper presents a dynamic model appropriate
for power system analysis. This article shows modeling assump-
tions, derivation of a third order model for a doubly-fed induction
generator and its controller models. Due to the detail level,
it can be used as a tutorial for students and engineers that
are new in this area. A four-bus system with one synchronous
machine and one wind turbine is used to perform a small signal
stability analysis. No considerable difference is observed between
the modal behavior of our test system and a small system with
just one synchronous generator.
Index Terms—Power System Dynamics, Wind Power Modeling
I. I NTRODUCTION
The energy consumption over the world has been sus-
tainedly increased in the last decades due to the rate of growth
in world gross domestic product—the main driver of energy
demand. It is expected that the electricity demand will increase
at a rate of 2.6% per year during the period 2004-2030.
Additionally, global energy-related carbon-dioxide emissions,
a major cause of global warming, are expected to increase by
1.7% per year during the same period—reaching 40.4 × 109
tonnes in 2030. Unfortunately, power generation is projected
to contribute almost 50% of that increased emission [1]. Thus,
the power generation sector is under scrutiny and has to be
expanded to fulfill the high-energy demand scenario but taking
into account environmental effects such as global warming.
Due to the notorious impact on environmental problems and
the depletion of fossil fuels, renewable energy sources have
been considered appealing to face the forthcoming energy sce-
nario. Hydraulic, wind, solar, biomass and geothermal sources
are the most common alternative generation systems. Hy-
draulic systems are attractive due to their robustness, reliability
and high rated power levels. However, the main drawbacks are
the scarce available locations and the negative impact on the
local ecosystem by flooding extensive areas. At present, among
the other alternatives, wind generation systems are the most
qualified to produce electricity in power systems. Although
being irregular in their electricity production, wind farms are
able to provide energy: (a) without the risk of depletion of
their primary energy source, and (b) being able to comply with
operations standards. Additionally, wind generation systems
have the fastest payback period [2], less than a year; the lowest
project gestation period, due to modular concept; and low
operation-maintenance costs [3]. These characteristics make
wind power attractive for mass production which is reflected
by the increase of the worldwide installed wind-power capacity
over the last years [4].
In the 1990s, typical wind power turbines were characteri-
zed by a fixed-speed operation. Basically, they consisted of the
coupling of a wind turbine, a gearbox and an induction ma-
chine directly connected to the grid. Additionally, they used a
soft starter to energize the machine and a bank of capacitors to
compensate the machine power-reactive absorption. Although
being simple, reliable and robust, the fixed-speed wind turbines
were inefficient and power fluctuations were transmitted to the
network due to wind speed fluctuations [5].
In the mid-1990s, variable-speed wind power turbines gave
an impulse to the wind power industry. A better turbine
control is able to reduce power fluctuations. Besides, optimal
power extraction from the wind was possible by operating the
turbine at optimal speed. Among the different configurations
of variable-speed wind turbines, the doubly-fed induction gen-
erator (DFIG), at present, is the most used in the development
of new wind farm projects. This configuration consists of the
coupling of a turbine, a gearbox and an induction machine
doubly connected to the grid—directly connected from the
stator circuits and indirectly connected from the rotor circuits
by using converters. Its main drawbacks are the use of slip
rings and protection in case of grid disturbances [6]. The
control can be done (a) by controlling the voltage applied
to the rotor circuits, (b) by adjusting the pitch angle of the
turbine blades—angle of incidence of the blade and the wind
direction—, and (c) by designing aerodynamically the turbine
blades to stall when the wind speed exceeds its limit [7].
Due to the importance of wind power generation on the
current and future worldwide energetic scenario, dynamic
models are required for teaching and training purposes. One
major problem is that dynamic models of commercial wind
power turbines contain proprietary information and require
confidentiality agreements between the company and the user
[8]. In the literature, there are several articles dealing with
different issues related to wind power generators. However, a
rather general description of the dynamic model can be found
and a complete dynamic model appropriate for power system
analysis is not directly available. Thus, this paper presents
a detailed dynamic model for wind power generation which
is suitable for power system analysis. Modeling assumptions,
derivation of a third order model for the DFIG and its
controllers are described through out the article which can be
used as a tutorial for students and engineers that are new in
this area. Using a four-bus test system with one synchronous
generator and a wind turbine, the modal behavior is similar
to a small system with just one synchronous generator. The
paper is structured as follow: in Section II a description of the
turbine, induction machine generator and its controllers are
presented; in Section III a four-bus system is used to perform
a small signal stability analysis; and in Section IV conclusions
are presented.
II. DYNAMIC MODEL
In Figure 1, the scheme of a variable-speed wind turbine
based on doubly-fed induction generator is presented. Typi-
cally, the DC/AC converter on the grid side is controlled to
have a constant Vdc and a unity power factor. The AC/DC
converter on the rotor side is usually controlled to have (a)
optimal power extraction from the wind and (b) a specified
reactive power at the generator terminal. Note that this con-
verter provides sinusoidal three-phase voltages at the slip rotor
frequency. Fig. 1. Wind power generator scheme
A. General considerations
A gearbox required to increase the angular speed from the
wind turbine to the induction-machine shaft is shown in Figure
1. It is characterized by its gearbox ratio, k, which is the ratio
between the wind turbine speed ωwt and the machine shaft
speed ωms . Assuming a machine of p poles, these speeds and
the electrical rotor speed of the machine, ωr , are related as
p p
ωr = ωms = ωwt (1) Fig. 2. Schematic of the wind turbine generator model
2 2k
Another important definition is the tip speed ratio, λ, which
is the ratio between the speed of a blade tip vtip [ ms ] and the C. Wind turbine model
wind speed vwind [ m s ]. If R is the radius of the turbine, the
tip speed ratio is The wind turbine model basically represents the relation
between the mechanical power extracted from the turbine,
vtip ωwt R 2k ωr R Pwind , and the wind speed as [11]
λ= = = (2)
vwind vwind p vwind 1 3
Pwind = ρAwt Cp (λ, θ)vwind [W ] (3)
Additionally, a crowbar—an electronic device—is some- 2
times considered to protect the machine and converters from kg
where ρ is the air density [ m 3 ], Awt is the wind turbine swept
grid disturbances. When the protection is activated, the area [m ], vwind is the wind speed [ m
2
s ] and Cp is the power
machine-rotor phases are short-circuited protecting them from coefficient. Cp is dimensionless and depends on both the tip
over-voltages and protecting the rotor-side converter from speed ratio, λ, and the pitch angle, θ [degrees]. Using a fixed
over-currents. This crowbar protection is activated whenever pitch angle, typical power curves in function of the wind speed
the rotor-current limit is surpassed [9]. Note that there are wind and the electrical rotor speed is depicted in Figure 3.
turbines equipped with fault ride-through capability which can Considering manufacturer data and optimization techniques,
withstand a fault during some cycles without using the crowbar a power coefficient function has been derived for a variable-
protection [6]. speed wind turbine [12]. Using an intermediate parameter λi
B. Assumptions
 
116 − 12.5
Cp (λi , θ) = 0.22 − 0.4θ − 5 e λi (4)
Ideal converters are considered and the dc voltage between λi
converters is assumed to be constant. Therefore, the conversion  −1
1 0.035
is lossless and the converters on the rotor- and grid-side are where λi = − 3 (5)
λ + 0.08θ θ + 1
modelled as a controlled-voltage source and a controlled-
current source, respectively. By power balance, the active- A torque expression is required to model the motion of the
power absorbed by the grid-side converter is the same than rotatory mass—turbine, gearbox and machine shaft. Assume
the power injected by the rotor-side converter. Using this that the power transmission from the wind turbine to the
active-power and the grid voltage, the current on the grid-side machine shaft is lossless. Then, the torque in [N m] at the
converter is calculated. Other premises can be found in [10]. machine shaft is
A scheme of the wind-power generation model is depicted in Pwind k
TM = = ρπR3 Cp (λ, θ)vwind
2
[N m] (6)
Figure 2. ωms 2λ
 where V , I, R and ψ correspond to the voltages [pu], currents
[pu], resistances [pu] and flux linkages [pu], respectively. Te =
ψdr Iqr − ψqr Idr is the electrical torque at the machine shaft
[pu]. All variables and parameters are in per unit except ωr ,
ωs and HD —D stands for DFIG.
The stator and rotor flux equations define the following set
of algebraic equations
ψqs = −Xs Iqs + Xm Iqr ψds = −Xs Ids + Xm Idr (13)
Fig. 3. Extracted power from the wind turbine for various wind speeds
ψqr = −Xm Iqs + Xr Iqr ψdr = −Xm Ids + Xr Idr (14)
where Xm is the mutual reactance between the stator and the
rotor, Xs = X`s + Xm is the stator reactance and Xr =
Use the per-unit base of the induction-machine to define power X`r + Xm is the rotor reactance. X`s and X`r are the stator
base, Sb , voltage base, Vb , and electrical speed base, ωb . The and rotor leakage-reactance, respectively. All reactances are in
torque base can be calculated as Tb = Sb 2ωp b . More details per unit.
about per unit system in electrical machines can be found in 2) Third order model: In dynamics simulations, it has been
[13]–[15]. As in the next sections all expressions are in per observed that stator dynamics are faster than rotor dynamics
unit, the torque equation in per-unit becomes [15]–[17]. In order to visualize it, solve for Idr and Iqr from
equation (14)
TM 1 ρπR2 ωb 3
Tm = = Cp (λ, θ)vwind [pu] (7) Xm ψqr Xm ψdr
Tb 2 Sb ωr Iqr = Iqs + Idr = Ids + (15)
Xr Xr Xr Xr
D. DFIG model Multiply equations (10)–(11) by XRm and replace Iqr and Idr
r
A DFIG is simply a wound rotor induction machine where to obtain
X
the stator- and rotor-circuits are energized. Both stator and Xr d Xmr ψdr Xm Xm X2
rotor windings participate in the electromechanical energy = Vdr − ψdr − m Ids
ωs Rr dt Rr Xr Xr
conversion. Consequently, a DFIG model is basically the same (ωs − ωr ) Xr Xm
than the model of an induction machine in which the rotor + ψqr (16)
ωs Rr Xr
voltages are supplied by an electric source, i.e., rotor side X
AC/DC converter. This configuration allows the machine to Xr d Xmr ψqr Xm Xm X2
= Vqr − ψqr − m Iqs
operate in a wide speed range. ωs Rr dt Rr Xr Xr
The induction machine model requires the use of reference (ωs − ωr ) Xr Xm
− ψdr (17)
frame theory. Basically, a model using a-b-c stator- and rotor- ωs Rr Xr
phases is referred to a particular reference frame with two Define
orthogonal axis, namely, quadrature axis (q − axis) and direct Xr X2
axis (d−axis). A stationary reference frame, a rotor reference T00 = Xs0 = Xs − m (18)
ωs Rr Xr
frame or a synchronously rotating reference frame can be Xm Xm
0 0
used [15]. The last is adopted in this article. Note that a EqD = ψdr EdD =− ψqr (19)
Xr Xr
generator convention is used, i.e., the stator and rotor currents
are positive when they are leaving and entering the machine, where T00 is the transient open-circuit time constant, Xs0 is the
0 0
respectively. Likewise, a frame in which the q − axis leads transient reactance, EqD and EdD are the quadrature and direct
the d − axis is considered. axis rotor-voltages, respectively. For large machines T00  ω1s ,
1) Fifth order model: The stator and rotor circuits as well thus, stator dynamics are faster than rotor dynamics [16], [17].
as the equation of motion of the rotatory mass define the Using a zero-order integral manifold to represent the stator
following set of differential equations dynamics, the reduced-order machine model becomes
Vqs = −Rs Iqs − Xs0 Ids + EqD
0
(20)
1 dψqs
= Vqs + Rs Iqs − ψds (8) Vds = −Rs Ids + Xs0 Iqs
+ 0
EdD (21)
ωs dt
0
1 dψds dE qD
T00 0
+ (Xs − Xs0 )Ids


= Vds + Rs Ids + ψqs (9) = − EqD
ωs dt dt  
1 dψqr (ωs − ωr ) Xm
= Vqr − Rr Iqr − ψdr (10) + T00 ωs 0
Vdr − (ωs − ωr )EdD (22)
ωs dt ωs Xr
0
1 dψdr (ωs − ωr ) dE
= Vdr − Rr Idr + ψqr (11) T00 dD = − (EdD 0
− (Xs − Xs0 )Iqs )
ωs dt ωs dt  
2HD dωr 0 Xm 0
= Tm − Te (12) + T0 −ωs Vqr + (ωs − ωr )EqD (23)
ωs dt Xr
 Fig. 4. Equivalent circuit of a DFIG connected to a grid
Fig. 5. Power reference for the rotor speed controller

To obtain the stator algebraic equations (20)–(21), use equa-

tions (13), (15) and (19). Rotor flux equations can be stated
0 0
in terms of the new variables EqD and EdD as,
0 0
EqD Xm EdD Xm
Idr = + Ids Iqr = − + Iqs (24) Fig. 6. Rotor speed controller
Xm Xr Xm Xr
The third-order model of the DF IG is completely defined by
equations (20)–(24) plus the equation of motion (Equation 12). E. Controllers
π
Notice that multiplying Equation (21) by e−j 2 and adding
Equation (20), a phasor machine representation to calculate 1) Rotor speed controller: The rotor speed controller is
0
stator algebraic-variables, given EqD and EdD0
, is obtained. designed to extract maximum power from the wind turbine.
As stated in Section II-C, the power extraction depends on
0 0
EqD − jEdD = (Rs + jXs0 )(Iqs − jIds ) + Vqs − jVds (25) both the wind speed, which is uncontrollable, and the tip
speed ratio, which is controllable. Actually, λ depends on
3) Machine and grid connection: Consider a DF IG send- ωr as stated in equation (2). Therefore, controlling ωr we
ing active power, through a short-length transmission line, to can move along the power curve for a given wind speed to
an infinite bus—the line and the infinite bus may represent maximize the power. Joining the maximum-power points for
the Thevenin’s equivalent of a more complex grid. In order to every given wind speed of figure 3, we can obtain a one-
integrate the generator model in power system modeling, it is to-one correspondence between the optimal power and the
necessary to relate the synchronously rotating reference-frame rotor speed. Additionally, cut-in and maximum speed due
variables to a phasor. Applying the proper transformation to to converter ratings [18] must be taken into account. The
the machine stator voltage, it is obtained that the terminal- cut-in point corresponds to the minimum speed—typically
voltage phasor at phase-a is V D = VD ejθD = Vq − jVd [15]. 0.7 × ωrated —required to produce power. If the speed is
Consequently, the machine model to be used in power system below this point, the DF IG is shutdown. The maximum speed
modeling is defined by equation (25) (see Figure 4). The grid- point corresponds to the maximum power that the DF IG
side converter is represented by a controlled-current source. As can produce. If the speed is above the maximum—typically
this converter does not absorb reactive power, the controlled- 1.2 × ωrated —the turbine aerodynamic must be modified to
current I GC —GC stands for grid-side converter —is, reduce the power extracted from the wind turbine. To this
Protor Vqr Iqr + Vdr Idr jθD end, pitch angle control must be performed. It turns out that
I GC = ∗ = e (26) the power reference is piece-wise defined as in Figure 5. A
V D
VD
tracking control capable to follow Pref is used. Based on
4) Decoupled control of active and reactive power: Assume equation (29), a P I controller with an internal Iqr -control
that the d-axis is oriented along the stator flux axis, i.e., ψs = loop is considered [19] (Figure 6).
ψds with ψqs = 0. Besides, neglect Rs and use equations (8)– 2) Pitch angle controller: The pitch angle control modifies
(9) in steady-state to get Vds = ψqs = 0 and Vqs = ψds = VD . the aerodynamic efficiency of the turbine in order to limit
Consider the flux equation (13) to obtain the power production to the rated power. Note that the pitch-
Xm Xm VD angle time-constant is quite high depending on both the size
Iqs = Iqr Ids = Idr − (27) of the turbine blades and economical/practical limitations of
Xs Xs Xs
the blade drives [10]. A P I controller with an internal pitch-
Then, the complex power leaving the generator’s stator is angle control loop is considered [19] (see figure 7). ωref is
P + jQ = (Vds Ids + Vqs Iqs ) + j(Vqs Ids − Vds Iqs ) (28) chosen such that the pitch-angle is around zero when the speed
    is located at the optimal tracking curve and it is positive and
Xm Xm Idr − VD
= Vs Iqr + j VD (29) less than 90o when the maximum speed is binding.
Xs Xs
3) Reactive power controller: According to the Federal
It turns out that the control of active and reactive power can Energy Regulatory Commission, USA, [20] large wind plants
be performed independently varying Iqr and Idr , respectively. seeking to interconnect to the grid need “to maintain a power
 Fig. 7. Pitch angle controller

Fig. 8. Reactive power controller

factor within the range of 0.95 leading to 0.95 lagging,

measured at the high voltage side of the substation trans-
formers.” Although, this requirement is mandatory only in
the case that a power factor out of this range jeopardizes the Fig. 10. Trajectory of dominant eigenvalues with vwind = 10 [m/s] and
security and reliability of the system, it makes a precedent 0.32 ≤ P0 ≤ 1
for control capability requirements. In this article, a reactive-
power tracking control is used (see Figure 8). Based on
equation (29), a P I controller with an internal Idr -current
control loop is considered [19].
III. T EST SYSTEM SIMULATION
Consider the four-bus system of Figure 9. Assume an expo-
nential model for the load as PL = P0 VLkp and QL = Q0 VLkq .
The synchronous generator (SG) is represented by a two-axis
model [14] and the transient reactance at both quadrature
and direct axis are equal, i.e., Xd0 = Xq0 . An IEEE Type 1
Exciter and a linear speed governor without droop [21] are
considered. Besides, assume that the wind speed is such that
the rotor speed is above and below of the cut-in and maximum
speed, respectively. Consequently, the rotor speed controller is
operating in the optimal tracking curve and no pitch control is
required. The optimal curve is defined as Pref = Cωr3 [pu].
The system is modelled by a set of differential algebraic
equations (DAE) of the Hessenberg index-1 form [22]. In Fig. 11. Trajectory of dominant eigenvalues with vwind = 12 [m/s] and
general, this set of DAE can be written as dx dt = f (x, y, λ),
0.32 ≤ P0 ≤ 1
0 = g(x, y, λ) where x ∈ Rnd ×1 is the vector of differential
variables, y ∈ Rna ×1 is the vector of algebraic variables and
λ ∈ Rnp ×1 is the vector of parameters—nd , na and np are around an equilibrium point,
the number of differential variables, algebraic variables and ∆ẋ = A∆x + B∆y (30)
parameters, respectively. gy = ∂g(x,y,λ) is nonsingular along
∂y 0 = C∆x + D∆y (31)
the solution of the DAE.
In order to perform a small signal stability analysis, a linear Using Kron’s reduction, the system’s equations can be reduced
approximation of the set of DAE have to be obtained. Then, to ∆ẋ = (A − BD−1 C)∆x = Asys ∆x. Eigenvalues of Asys
determine the stability of the operating point. It is desired to
study the system stability as the load is increased. Then, the
eigenvalues of Asys are calculated at every equilibrium point.
Note that if all eigenvalues are located on the left half of the
complex plane, i.e., all eigenvalues have a negative real part,
then the equilibrium point is stable. If some eigenvalue has
a positive real part, then the equilibrium point is unstable.
The point at which a complex pair of eigenvalues crosses the
Fig. 9. Four-bus test system imaginary axis to the right half plane, while the other remain
on the left half plane, is called a Hopf Bifurcation (HB)
point. The system becomes critically stable. The eigenvalues
trajectories are shown in Figures 10 and 11 for a wind speed
of 10 [m/s] and 12 [m/s], respectively. The load is varied
from P0 = 0.32 [pu] to P0 = 1 [pu].
The incidence of eigenvalues on state variables can be
estimated by using participation factors [14]. For the two
presented cases, the pathway of eigenvalues are notably differ-
ent. This difference may be related to parameter sensibilities
on system stability [23] due to the increase of generated
power of the DF IG. Note that the eigenvalues associated
to ωr , ω and Pm do not move when load and wind speed
are varied. The eigenvalues that cross the imaginary axis are
associated to states (Eq0 ,Ed0 ,Ef d ,VR ) and (Eq0 ,Ef d ,VR ) when
the wind speed is 10 [m/s] and 12 [m/s], respectively. The
HB points for these two cases happen at P0 = 0.941 [pu]
and P0 = 0.971 [pu], respectively. This does not considerably
differ from the modal behavior of a system with a conventional
synchronous generator [14], [24]. For all wind speeds and
loading simulated, up to the HB point, eigenvalues associated
to the DF IG state-variables are stable. From these results, it
seems that the dynamic of the wind-power generator does not
have a serious impact on the system behavior. Probably the
major interaction between the machines is the interchange of
active-power due to wind variations. Thus, as future work, a
reduced-order equivalent model that captures the active-power
dynamic of the wind-power generator is going to be derived.
IV. C ONCLUSION
A complete dynamic model appropriate for power system
analysis is presented. This article contains several details such
as modeling assumptions, derivation of a third order model for
the DFIG and its controller descriptions, thus, it can be used as
a tutorial for students and engineers that are new in this area.
A four-bus system with one DFIG and one SG is considered
to perform a small signal stability analysis. The results reveal
that the state-variables associated to the unstable modes around
the HB point are those associated to the SG voltage controller.
Based on the eigenvalue pathways, the modal behavior does
not considerably differ from the modal behavior of a system
with only one SG.
A PPENDIX
Parameters are in per unit unless otherwise is specified.
Synchronous machine
Xd = 2.2, Xq = 1.76, Xd0 = 0.2, Xq0 = 0.2, Td0 0
= 8 [s],
0 182, 1999.
Tq0 = 1 [s], H = 10 [s], KE = 1, TE = 0.7 [s], KF = 0.03,
TF = 1 [s], KA = 200, TA = 0.04 [s], TG = 5 [s],
Vref = 1.0078
Network
R1 = 0.03 and X1 = 0.10 (Line 1); R2 = 0.10 and
X2 = 0.10 (Line 2); pv = 0 and qv = 0 (Load Parameters),
XT = 0.07 (Transformer)
Doubly-fed induction generator
Xm = 3.5092, Xs = 3.5547, Xr = 3.5859, ωs =
120π [rad/s], Rs = 0.01015, Rr = 0.0088, H = 2 [s],
p = 4, ρ = 1.225 [kg/m3 ], R = 15 [m], Sb = 1 [M V A],
C = 3.2397 × 10−9 [s3 /rad3 ], k = 1/45, KP 1 = KP 2 =
KP 3 = KP 4 = 1, KI1 = KI2 = KI3 = KI4 = 5, Qref = 0
R EFERENCES
[1] World Energy Outlook 2006. International Energy Agency, 2006.
[2] L. Schleisner, “Life cycle assessment of a wind farm and related
externalities,” Renewable Energy, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 279–288, 2000.
[3] N. Golait, R.M. Moharil, P.S. Kulkarni, “Wind electric power in the
world and perspectives of its development in india,” Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 13, pp. 233–247, 2009.
[4] World Wind Energy Report 2008. World Wind Energy Association, 2008.
[5] Z. Saad-Saoud, N. Jenkins,, “Simple wind farm dynamic model,” IEE
Proceedings: Generation, Transmission and Distribution, vol. 142, no. 5,
pp. 545–548, 1995.
[6] T. Ackermann, Wind power in power systems. John Wiley and Sons,
Ltd., 2005.
[7] R. Scherer, “Blade design aspects,” Renewable Energy, vol. 16,
pp. 1272–1277, 1999.
[8] R. Zavadil, N. Miller, A. Ellis, E. Muljadi, E. Camm, B. Kirby, “Queuing
up: Interconnecting wind generation into the power system,” IEEE Power
and Energy Magazine, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 47–58, 2007.
[9] M.V.A. Nunes, J.A. Peças Lopes, H.H. Zürn, U.H. Bezerra, R.G.
Almeida, “Influence of the variable-speed wind generators in transient
stability margin of the conventional generators integrated in electrical
grids,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 692–
701, 2004.
[10] J.G. Slootweg, Wind power modelling and impact on power system
dynamics. 2003. Ph.D. Thesis, Delft University of Technology,
Netherlands.
[11] S. Heier, Grid integration of wind energy conversion systems. John
Wiley and Sons Ltd., 1998.
[12] J.G. Slootweg, H. Polinder, W.L. Kling, “Dynamic modeling of a wind
turbine with doubly fed induction generator,” Proceeding of IEEE PES,
Summer meeting, vol. 1, pp. 664–649, 2001.
[13] P. Kundur, Power system stability and control. McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[14] P. W. Sauer and M. A. Pai, Power systems dynamics and stability.
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1998.
[15] P.C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk, S.D. Sudhoff, Analysis of Electric Machin-
ery and Drive Systems. Wiley-IEEE Press, 2nd ed., 2002.
[16] S. Ahmed-Zaid, M. Taleb, “Structural modeling of small and large
induction machines using integral manifolds,” IEEE Transactions on
Energy Conversion, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 529–535, 1991.
[17] E. Drennan, S. Ahmed-Zaid, P.W. Sauer, “Invariant manifolds and
start-up dynamics of induction machines,” Proceeding of the 21th
Annual North American Power Symposium, pp. 129–138, October 1989.
University of Missouri-Rolla by IEEE Power Engineering Society.
[18] J. Ekanayake, L. Holdsworth, N. Jenkins, “Control de DFIG wind
turbines,” IEE Power Engineer, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 28–32, 2003.
[19] R.G. de Almeida, J.A. Peças Lopes, “Participation of doubly fed induc-
tion wind generators in system frequency regulation,” IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 944–950, 2007.
[20] Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, USA, “Standard interconnec-
tion agreements for wind energy and other alternative technologies,”
http://www.ferc.gov.
[21] W.D. Rosehart, C.A. Cañizares, “Bifurcation analysis of various power
system models,” Electrical Power and Energy Systems, vol. 21, pp. 171–
[22] Brian Fabien, Analytical System Dynamics: Modeling and Simulation.
Springer, 1st ed., 2008.
[23] P. Gonçalves, “Behaviour modes, pathways and overall trajectories:
eigenvector and eigenvalue analysis of dynamic systems,” System Dy-
namic Review, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 35–62, 2009.
[24] H. Pulgar-Painemal, P.W. Sauer, “Bifurcations and loadability issues
in power systems,” IEEE Powertech Conference, 2009. Bucharest,
Romania.