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Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Section Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 4
TEST METHODOLOGIES FOR ACCEPTABILITY OF DYNAMIC AND POSITIVE-
DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS ............................................................................... 5
Hydrostatic Test.................................................................................................... 5
Helium Leak Test.................................................................................................. 6
Mechanical Running Test (Including Rotor Dynamics) ......................................... 7
Gas Leakage Test .............................................................................................. 18
Performance Test ............................................................................................... 19
String Test .......................................................................................................... 21
Post-Test Inspection........................................................................................... 22
DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR ACCEPTABILITY .................................... 23
Acceptability Criteria (31-SAMSS-001)............................................................... 26
Calculating Inlet Flow ......................................................................................... 26
Polytropic Calculations ....................................................................................... 28
Calculating Pressure Ratio from Head ............................................................... 30
Calculating Horsepower and Efficiency .............................................................. 31
Use of Fan Laws to Find the Operating Point at
Difference Tip Speeds ........................................................................................ 35
DETERMINING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR ACCEPTABILITY ....... 38
Acceptability Criteria (31-SAMSS-002/31-SAMSS-003)..................................... 38
Calculating Capacity........................................................................................... 39
Volumetric Efficiency................................................................................ 40
Cylinder Displacement ............................................................................. 43
Percent Clearance ................................................................................... 44
Calculating Discharge Temperature ................................................................... 44
Calculating Power............................................................................................... 45
WORK AIDS.................................................................................................................. 47
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
Gas compressor inspection and testing for acceptability are
performed as indicated on the compressor data sheets and the
referenced Saudi Aramco Form 175 based on the compressor
type and the associated auxiliary equipment. The inspection
requirements for gas compressors will vary with the compressor
type and application. The Engineer must become familiar with
the requirements and criteria used for the acceptance of a gas
compressor. This module provides background information on
the testing and the inspection requirements, the methods, and
the Gas compressor inspection and testing for acceptability
criteria for dynamic and positive-displacement compressors.
Hydrostatic Test
Hydrostatic tests are performed by the vendor, and they do not
require visual inspection or witnessing by a Saudi Aramco
representative. The vendor is required to provide Saudi Aramco
with certificates and data for the hydrostatic test results for
evaluation.
hour test. The speed range that is covered by the plots must be
from zero to the specified driver trip speed. The critical speeds
of the compressor must be verified during the mechanical
running test. Taped recordings of all real-time vibration data
should be made during the mechanical running test. These
recordings provide the initial data for vibration analysis.
Nc1
AF =
N2 − N1
The bode plot is a graph of amplitude versus the rotor speed (in
revolutions per minute) and phase (between the shaft reference
mark and peak vibration) versus rotor speed (in revolutions per
minute. The polar plot is a graph of amplitude versus phase for
a range of compressor speeds Figure 1 represents an actual
centrifugal compressor rotor response. The specific points of
interest on the bode and polar plots are identified. A rotor
response plot provides the following information:
• The rotor’s first critical speed in revolutions per minute (Nc1).
• The rotor’s initial (or lesser) speed (N1). The initial speed
occurs at the first peak-to-peak amplitude that is equal to
0.707 times the peak-to-peak amplitude at the critical speed
(Ac1).
• The rotor’s final or greater rotational speed (N2) occurs after
the displacement at the first critical speed. The value of
peak-to-peak displacement at N2 is equal to 0.707 of peak-
to-peak displacement at N1.
• The peak-to-peak amplitude (Ac1) at the rotor’s first critical
speed (Nc1).
6
SM = 100 − 84 +
AF − 3
Where:
SM = Separation Margin
AF = Amplification Factor
• If the amplification factor is greater than 3.55 and if the
critical response peak is above the trip speed, the required
separation margin, as a percentage of maximum continuous
speed, is determined by the following equation:
6
SM = 126 − − 100
AF − 3
Where:
SM = Separation Margin
AF = Amplification Factor
A shop verification of the unbalanced-response analysis must
be performed. The actual responses are the criteria used to
confirm the validity of the damped unbalanced response
analysis. The shop verification is performed on a test stand with
a rotor unbalanced magnitude of at least two times and no more
than eight times the specific unbalanced limit, typically placed at
the coupling. The actual critical speed responses are recorded
on the test stand. The dynamic response of the machine on the
test stand is a function of the test conditions. The test results
should be obtained at the conditions of pressure, temperature,
speed, and load that are the expected in the field; otherwise, the
test stand results may not be comparable with what occurs
during actual operation in the field.
The performance of a torsional analysis includes a
determination of the excitations of torsional resonances of the
compressor. Excitations of torsional resonances should be
considered in the dynamics analysis. These excitations may be
produced from any of the following partial list of sources:
• Gear problems, such as unbalanced gears and pitch line
runout.
12,000
A=
N
Where:
Performance Test
In accordance with SAES-K-402 for centrifugal compressors, as
a minimum, a performance test must be specified and
witnessed for each centrifugal compressor duty. For a series of
identical units, only one unit needs to be performance tested.
Tests must be in accordance with ASME Power Test Code 10-
1965 (compressors and exhausters), Class I, II, or III. Tests
must be to Class III specifications unless otherwise specified.
Class I or Class II tests must be considered for medium to high
discharge pressures (500 psia) where rotor instability that is due
to high gas densities could be encountered or where
compressors are located on an offshore platform. In these
circumstances, Saudi Aramco’s Engineer must be consulted
concerning advisability of Class I or II full load, full pressure
tests. The extra costs of such tests, as compared to a Class III
test, must be weighed against the cost (and delay) to correct
any malperformance after the compressors are installed.
A gas sample should be taken at the top of the suction and the
discharge of the compressor at the beginning and the end of the
test. To avoid condensation in the sample, the gas sample
must be analyzed at a temperature that is equal to or greater
than the expected field conditions. The gas sample should be
analyzed by a gas chromatograph. The equipment speed
should be determined through use of two independent phase
reference transducers. Mass flow rates are measured through
use of the process flow indicator but should be verified through
calculations; therefore, metering device upstream temperature,
upstream pressure, and differential pressure must also be
recorded.
Post-Test Inspection
In accordance with SAES-K-402 for centrifugal compressors, all
bearings and seals (except labyrinth types) must be removed
and inspected after the completion of the mechanical running
test. Additional dismantling, inspection, and re-assembly of the
compressor should be considered an optional extra for
application only in special circumstances. The merits of a post-
test inspection of the casing internal should be evaluated
against the benefits of shipping a unit with proven mechanical
assembly and casing joint integrity.
14.7 T1
ICFM = SCFM× × ×Z1
P1 520°R
Where:
P1 = Inlet pressure (psia)
14.7 T1
ICFM = SCFM× × ×Z1
P1 520°R
14.7 560°R
= 60,000× × ×1.0
100psia 520°R
= 60,000×.147×1.08×1.0
= 9525 ft 3 /min
W
ICFM =
ρ
Where:
ρ = Density (lb./ft3)
MW P1
ρ = 2.7 x x
28.95 T1 x Z1
Where:
MW = Molecular weight
5 100
= 2.7 × ×
28.95 560 × 0.98
= 0.085
ϖ
Q=
p
3600 lb/min
=
0.085 lb/ft 3
= 42,353 ft 3 /min
Polytropic Calculations
The actual compression path does not follow any reversible
process (isothermal, isentropic, or polytropic). The actual
compression path is most closely approximated by the
polytropic process in which PVn = a constant. In such cases,
polytropic calculations must be used. The polytropic head is
obtained through use of the following equation:
Where:
T1 = Inlet temperature
P1 = Inlet pressure
P2 = Discharge pressure
n = Polytropic exponent
MW = Molecular weight
Zavg = Average compressibility factor
Runiv = Universal gas constant (1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm-Mol-
°R)
n − 1 k − 1 1
=
n k ηP
Where:
k = Isentropic exponent
ηP = Polytropic efficiency
Where:
T2 = Discharge temperature
T
Ln 2
n −1 T
= 1
n P
Ln 2
P1
ρ
ln 2
ρ
n= 1
ρ
ln 2
ρ1
Where:
ρ1 = Inlet density
ρ2 = Outlet density
Where:
rP = Pressure ratio
P1 = Inlet pressure
P2 = Discharge pressure
The pressure ratio can be calculated from the head through use
of the following equation:
n
H xMW n − 1 n −1
rP = p + 1
avg univ 1 n
Z R T
Where:
Hp = Polytropic head
MW = Molecular weight
Zavg = Average compressibility factor
Runiv = Universal gas constant
T1 = Inlet temperature
n = Polytropic exponent
For the same compressor that is operating at the same flow and
speed, rP will change if MW, Z, η-1/η, or η/η-1 changes.
These losses include losses that are external and internal to the
main flow path. Losses that are external to the main flow path
include losses such as windage losses, disk friction losses, and
leakage losses. Losses that are internal to the main flowpath
are actual losses of blade input energy, and they include the
following:
• Skin friction
• Blade loading and diffusion
• Incidence angle
• Exit mixing losses
• Clearance losses
HxM
GHP =
ηx33,000
Where:
GHP = Gas horsepower
H = Head (ft-lbf/lbm)
M = Weight flow (lb./min)
η = Efficiency
(k −1)/k
T1 (P2 /P1 ) − 1
ηad =
T2 − T1
Where:
ηad = Adiabatic efficiency
T1 = Inlet temperature
T2 = Discharge temperature
P1 = Inlet pressure
P2 = Discharge pressure
k = Isentropic exponent
Head
=
Work Input
Hp (ft − lbf/lbm)
778(ft − lbf/BTU)
=
h2 (BTU/lbm) − h1(BTU/lbm)
Where:
ηP = Polytropic efficiency
Hp = Polytropic head (BTU/lb.)
h2 = Discharge enthalpy (BTU/lb.)
h1 = Inlet enthalpy (BTU/lb.)
kavg = Average isentropic coefficient
n = Polytropic coefficient
Use of Fan Laws to Find the Operating Point at Difference Tip Speeds
The fan laws for centrifugal compressors are similar to the
affinity laws for centrifugal pumps. The following equations
show the relationship between the volume flow rate (Q), the
head (H), the horsepower (bhp), and compressor speed (N):
Equation 1
N
Q2 = Q1 2
N1
Equation 2
2
N
H2 = H1 2
N1
Equation 3
3
N
bhp 2 = bhp1 2
N1
Where:
Q = Suction flow, actual
H = Polytropic head
bhp = Brake horsepower
N = Speed, rpm
Calculating Capacity
The value for the capacity of a positive-displacement
compressor is used to determine other pertinent compressor
operating characteristics. The theoretical capacity of the
positive-displacement compressor is used to compare against
the actual measured capacity of a compressor that is installed in
a system. A large difference between the calculated theoretical
compressor capacity and the measured compressor capacity
indicates that there may be compressor component degrada-
tion. The following equation is used to calculate the theoretical
maximum capacity of a reciprocating compressor cylinder:
Ps Z std
Q = 0.0509 x x xDISP x VE
Ts Zs
Where:
Q = Theoretical maximum capacity in million
standard cu ft per day (mmscfd) at 14.7 psia
and 520°R
PS = Suction pressure in psia
TS = Suction temperature in °R
Zstd = Compressibility factor at standard conditions
ZS = Compressibility factor at suction conditions
DISP = Cylinder displacement in cu ft per minute
(cfm)
VE = Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric
Efficiency
VE = 1 - C(R1/k - 1)
Where:
C = Percent clearance as a decimal fraction of
displaced volume
R = Pressure ratio across the cylinder (discharge
pressure divided by suction pressure, psia)
k = Isentropic volume exponent at operating
conditions (the specific heat ratio for ideal gas,
Cp/Cv)
Z
VE = 100 - R - C s R 1/k − 1
Zd
Where:
Pd = Discharge pressure in psia
Ps = Suction pressure in psia
Zd = Compressibility factor at discharge conditions
Zs = Compressibility factor at suction conditions
R = Pressure ratio across the cylinder (discharge
pressure divided by suction pressure, psia)
k = Isentropic volume exponent at operating
conditions (the specific heat ratio for ideal gas,
Cp/Cv)
C = Cylinder clearance as a percentage
VE = 1 - L - C (R1/k - 1)
Where:
C = Percent clearance as a decimal fraction of
displaced volume
R = Pressure ratio across the cylinder (discharge
pressure divided by suction pressure, psia)
k = Isentropic volume exponent at operating
conditions (the specific heat ratio for ideal gas,
Cp/Cv)
L = Loss correction factor as a decimal fraction
or
Z
VE = 100 - R - L - C s R1/k − 1
Zd
Where:
C = Cylinder clearance as a percentage
L = Loss correction factor as a percentage
The loss correction factor (L), which accounts for the valve
packing losses and the piston ring losses, can be obtained from
Figure 7. The loss correction factor is determined by locating
Cylinder
Displacement
Single-acting compressor:
A × m × Ls × n
D=
1728
D=
(2A − a) × m × Ls × n
1728
Where:
D = Displacement, ACFM (actual cubic feet/minute)
A = Cross-sectional area of cylinder, sq. in.
a = Cross-sectional area of piston rod, sq. in.
m = Number of cylinders (for each stage)
Ls = Length of stroke, in.
n = Speed, strokes/minute, or rpm of crankshaft
Percent Clearance
Td = Ts x (R(k-1)/k)
Where:
Td = Discharge temperature, °R
Ts = Suction temperature, °R
R = Pressure ratio cylinder (discharge pressure
divided by suction pressure, psia)
k = Isentropic volume exponent at operating
conditions (the specific heat ratio for ideal gas,
Cp/Cv)
Calculating Power
The manufacturer’s performance predictions should always be
used as a first choice in the calculation of the power of a
compressor. If the performance predictions are not available,
the equations that are provided below can be used to make
reasonable approximations. The equations to calculate
isentropic horsepower are as follows:
k
HP = 43.67 × Q × (R(k-1)/k-1)
k −1
Where:
HP = Isentropic horsepower
Q = Compressor capacity in million standard cubic
feet per day (mmscfd) at 14.7 psia and 520°R
R = Pressure ratio cylinder (discharge pressure
divided by suction pressure, psia)
k = Isentropic volume exponent at operating
Any factors that affect capacity - for example, valve losses and
leakage - increase the horsepower that is actually consumed by
a compressor. To compensate for these factors, the isentropic
horsepower equation can be modified by factoring the
compressor’s efficiency and its mechanical efficiency. The
following equation provides a more accurate calculation of a
compressor’s brake horsepower:
k
bhp = 43.67 x Q x (R(k-1)/k-1) x
k −1
Where:
bhp = Brake horsepower
Q = Compressor capacity in million standard cubic
feet per day (mmscfd) at 14.7 psia and 520°R
R = Pressure ratio cylinder (discharge pressure
divided by suction pressure, psia)
k = Isentropic volume exponent at operating
conditions (the specific heat ratio for ideal gas,
Cp/Cv)
ηc = Compression efficiency
ηm = Mechanical efficiency
WORK AIDS
n P2
(n -1)/n
=
Hp Zavg RT1
- 1
n - 1 P1
To calculate Zavg:
.
Pc = ( ) psia
Tc = ( ) °R
At the inlet
P1 ( )
Pr = = =( )
Pc ( )
T1 ( )
Tr = = =( )
Tc ( )
At the outlet
P2 ( )
Pr = = =( )
Pc ( )
T2 ( )
Tr = = =( )
Tc ( )
Z1 + Z2 ( )+( )
Zavg = = =( )
2 2
To calculate (n-1)/n
(n -1)/n
T 2 P2
=
T1 P1
(n -1)/ n
( ) ( )
=
( ) ( )
(n - 1) ln ( )
= =( )
n ln ( )
Runiv ( )
R= = =( )
MW ( )
n P2
(n −1)/n
(
( )
( ) )
=( )( )( ) -1
( ) ( )
=( ) ft
14.7 T1
ACFM = SCFM Z1
P1 520
14.7 ( )
=( ) ( )
( ) 520
=( )
(k - 1)/k ( - 1)/( )
ηp = = =( )
(n - 1)/n ( )
(Hp)xFlowRate(lb/min )
GHP =
η(33000)
( )( )
=
( )(33000)
=( ) hp
= ( )+ ( )
=( ) bhp
Nomenclature
Hp = Polytropic head
R = Gas constant
T1 = Inlet temperature
n = Polytropic exponent
P1 = Inlet pressure
P2 = Discharge pressure
p = Polytropic efficiency
k = Isotropic exponent
r = Compression ratio
Z = Compressibility factor
Critical Constants
Mol. Wt. Pressure Temp.
Compound Formula M psia Pc °R Tc
Acetylene C2H2 26.036 905.0 557.4
Air N+O2 28.966 547.0 238.7
Ammonia NH3 17.032 1,657.0 731.4
Benzene C6H6 78.108 714.0 1,013.0
1,2-Butadiene C4H6 54.088 653.0 799.0
1,3-Butadiene C4H6 54.088 628.0 766.0
N-Butane C4H10 58.120 550.7 765.6
Isobutane C4H10 58.120 529.1 734.9
N-Butene C4H6 56.104 583.0 755.6
Isobutene C4H6 56.104 579.8 752.5
Butylene C4H6 56.104 583.0 755.6
Carbon dioxide CO2 44.010 1,073.0 548.0
Carbon monoxide CO 28.010 510.0 242.0
Chlorine Cl2 70.914 1,120.0 751.0
Ethane C2H4 30.068 708.3 550.1
Ethyl alcohol C2H5OH 46.069 927.0 629.6
Ethylene C2H4 28.052 742.1 509.8
N-Hexane C6H14 86.172 439.7 914.5
Helium He 4.003 480.0 510.0
Hydrogen H2 2.016 188.0 60.2
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 34.076 1,306 672.7
Methane CH4 16.042 673.1 343.5
Methyl alcohol CH3OH 32.042 1,157.0 924.0
Nitrogen N2 28.016 492.0 227.2
N-Octane C8H18 114.224 362.1 1,025.2
Oxygen O2 32.00 730 278.2
N-Pentane C5H12 72.146 489.5 845.9
Isopentane C5H12 72.146 483.0 830.0
Propane C3H8 44.094 617.4 666.2
Propylene C3H6 42.078 667 657.4
Sulfur dioxide SO2 64.060 1.142 775.0
Toulene C7H8 92.134 611 1,069.5
Water H2O 18.016 3,206 1,165.4
Hydrogen chloride HCl 36.465 1,199.2 584.5
R=
P2
R=
( )=( )
P1 ( )
Z
VE = 100 - R - L - C s R1/k − 1
Zd
) ( )
)( )
1
VE = 100 − ( )− ( )− ( ( )
− 1
(
VE = ( )
DISP =
(2A − a) × m × Ls × n
1728
DISP =
(2( )− ( )) × ( )× ( )× ( )
1728
DISP = ( )
Ps Z std
Q = 0.0509 × × × DISP × VE
Ts Zs
Q = 0.0509 ×
( )× ( )×( )× ( )
( ) ( )
Q =( )
bhp = 43.67 x Q x
k
k −1
( )
Rk −1/k − 1 x
1
x
1
ηc ηm
)× ( )
( )
(( )−1)
1 1
= 43.67 × ( ( )
− 1 × ×
( ) − 1 ( ) ( )
= ( )
GLOSSARY