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HEAT
Heat is a form of energy and is defined as:
"The total kinetic energy of all the molecules of a body "
SYMBOL
It is denoted by "Q" or "q"
UNITS
(1) Joule
(2) B.T.U
(3) Calorie
CONVERSION
1 B.T.U = 251.996 Cal ( or 252 Cal)
1 calorie = 4.186 Joule ( or 4.2 joule)
FLOW OF HEAT
Natural flow of heat always takes place from a region of high temperature to a region
of lower temperature.
THERMOMETRIC
PROPERTIES
Properties of a substance that vary uniformly with the variation in temperature are
referred to as Thermometric properties.
EXAMPLES:
Volume , Density ,Viscosity , Pressure , Surface Tension , Area
THERMAL
EQUILIBRIUM
When two bodies at different temperatures are brought into thermal contact , heat
flows from hot
body to cold body till the temperature of both the bodies becomes equal .This state is
referred to as THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM.
TEMPERATURE
"Average kinetic energy of the molecules of a body is called temperature."
CALORIC
THEORY
Up to nineteenth century it was believed a weightless fluid called caloric which existed
in every material body. Caloric is a hypothetical weightless fluid. Every object contains
a specific amount of caloric. Hot bodies contains more caloric than the cold bodies.
If caloric is added to a body ,its temperature increases. When a body is broken, a
large amount of caloric is released.
FAILURE OF
CALORIC
THEORY
Caloric Theory has discarded now because it was unable to explain a number of
thermodynamics process including production of heat by friction.
SHOW THAT P = Nv KT
Where Nv = No of molecules per unit volume
PROOF
According to kinetic equation of pressure
P = 1/3 v2 ………………(1)
We know that:
= mass / volume
= mN / V
Putting the value of "" in equation (1)
P = 1/3 mN/V v2
N/V = Nv
P = 1/3 Nv mv2
P = 2/3 Nv (1/2mv2)
P = Nv KT
QUESTION Starting from the expression P =1/3 show that the
Average translational
kinetic energy of the molecules of a gas is directly proportional to
absolute temperature.
PROOF
According to the kinetic equation of pressure of a gas:
P =1/3
But = density of gas
= density of gas = mass of gas / volume of
gas
= density of gas = mN / V
Putting the value of density ()
P =1/3 (mN / V )
P V=1/3 (mN)
But PV = nRT
putting the value of PV, we get,
nRT=1/3 (mN)
Since
number of mole (n) = molecules/Avogadro's number
number of mole (n) = N/NA
Therefore,
NA R T=1/3 (m)
3 [NA R] T=(m)
But NA R = Boltzman's constant (K), thus,
3 K T=(m)
Multiplying both sides by 1/2
(3/2) K T=(1/2) m
(1/2) m = (3/2) K T
Objects undergo changes in dimension when they are heated. This change in length or area or volume is called
"Thermal Expansion".
WHY BODIES EXPAND ON HEATING
At a given temperature, inter-molecular distances are definite. When a body is heated it's molecules vibrate more
energetically against the action of inter-molecular forces and the displacement of molecules is increased. Since the
average distance between the molecules increases, the dimension of the body increases. Consequently body
expands.
TYPES OF THERMAL EXPANSION
There are three types of thermal expansion:
(1) Linear Expansion
(2) Superficial Expansion
(3) Volumetric Expansion
LINEAR EXPANSION
Expansion in length of solid bodies on heating is called linear expansion.
FACTORS ON WHICH LINEAR
EXPANSION DEPENDS
Consider a metallic bar of length "L1" at temperature "T1" k .Let the bar is heated to "T2" k.
.................
OR
............
.....
From figure:
....................
L2 = L1 (1+ T)...............
L2 = L1 {1+ (T2 - T1)}......
Where [ T= T2 - T1]
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COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION
It is a characteristic property of a material of solid and is defined as
" increase in length per unit original length per Kelvin rise in temperature is known as coefficient of linear
expansion".
It is denoted by " "(alpha). Value of is constant for a given material but different for different materials. It is
independent of mass & dimensions of body . coefficient of linear expansion depends on the nature of material.
UNIT OF :
VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION
V V1---------(1)
V T---------(2)
combining (1) and (2)
V V1 T
OR
V2 = V1 + V
V2 = V1 + V1 T
V2 = V1( 1+ T)
COEFFICIENT OF VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION
Coefficient of volumetric expansion ( ) is defined as:
"increase in volume per unit original volume per Kelvin rise in temperature is called
coefficient of volumetric expansion."
Unit:
. .
SHOW THAT:
Consider a metallic cube of each side of length of "L".
1 + T = 1 + 3 T
This expression shows that the coefficient of the cubical expansion is three times of the
coefficient of the linear expansion.
BIMETALLIC THERMOSTAT
FUNCTION
Thermostat is a device which is used to maintain a desired temperature in a system like
refrigerator, air-conditioner,iron and in a number of devices.
PRINCIPLE
Thermostat works on the principle of thermal expansion of solid materials.
CONSTRUCTION
A bimetallic thermostat device consists of a strip of two different metals having different
coefficients of linear expansion.
The bimetallic strip works as an electric contact breaker in an electric heating circuit. The
circuit is
broken when the desired temperature is reached.
Due to difference in the coefficients of linear expansion of two metals, The bimetallic strip
bends in the
form of a downward curve and the circuit is broken. The metallic strip is in contact with a
screw 'S'.
When it becomes hot, bends downward and contact at 'P' is broken. Thus the current
stops flowing
through the heating coil. When the temperature falls, the strip contracts and the contact
at 'P' is
restored.
USES
Bimetallic thermostats are widely used in numerous appliances such as refrigerator,
airconditioner, Iron, ice plants etc.
GAS PRESSURE
Gaseous molecules are in continuous motion. They collide with each other and with the
walls of the container. When they collide with the walls of container, they transfer an
amount of their momentum to the walls. Since a number of molecules collide the walls
of container, therefore the walls of the container are constantly under the influence of the
force. This force expressed per unit area is called "GAS PRESSURE". Mathematically
P = F/A
EXPRESSION FOR GAS PRESSURE
Consider "N" molecules of a gas enclosed in a cubical container of each side equal to "L".
mass of each molecule is "m".
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F = (mN/L)
---- (2)
Velocity of gas molecules in different directions may be different but on the average and
randomness of
the molecular motion we can assume that the components of velocities are same in all
three dimensions.
OR
OR
Putting the value of in equation (1)
P=
P = 1/3
P = (1/3) r
Since [mN/V = r ]
PV = (1/3) mN
PV = (2/3) N (1/2 m )
PV = (2/3) N (K.E)av
We know that K.E. is proportional to temperature. Since temperature is
constant therefore K.E. will also be constant and 2N/3 is also a constant factor.
Thus the factor 2/3 N (K.E)av is constant.
PV = constant
P =( 1/3) r
Since [mN/V = r ]
P = (1/3) mN/V
Multiply and dividing by 2 on R.H.S
V = (2N/3P) (1/2 m )
V = (2N/3P) (K.E.)av
V = (constant) T
V/T = constant
Q m .......(i)
Q T ........(ii)
or
Q=mcT
where ‘C’ is the constant called specific heat of substance.
OR
c=Q/mT
UNIT OF SPECIFIC HEAT
Unit of specific heat is J/kg K in S.I. system
Experiments show that specific heat of a particular material varies with temperature.
Specific heat is not a precious concept for calculation because numbers of molecules per unit mass changes from
material to material.
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DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT
Specific heat of a solid substance can be determined by the "Method of Mixture" using the concept of the
"law of Heat Exchange" i.e.
heat lost by hot body = heat gained by cold body
The method of mixture based on the fact that when a hot substance is mixed with a cold substance, the hot body
loses heat and the cold body absorbs heat until thermal equilibrium is attained. At equilibrium, final temperature of
mixture is measured. The specific heat of the substance is calculated with the help of the law of heat exchange.
Let
Mass of substance = ms kg
Mass of liquid = ml kg
"During any process total energy of a system and its surroundings is constant."
OR
"It is impossible to construct a machine which performs work
continuously with taking energy from an external source."
OR
"Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can be
converted from one form of energy to another form of energy."
MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION
Let a system absorbs Q amount of heat energy. Addition of heat energy increases the
internal energy of system from U1 to U2 and some useful work is also performed by the
system.
Increase in internal energy is given by:
U = U1 – U2
and
work done is W
According to the first law of thermodynamics:
Q = U+ W
SIGN CONVENTION:
Q = positive if heat is added to a system
Q = negative if heat is released from a system
W = positive if work is done by the system
W = negative if work is done on the system
APPLICATIONS OF THE
FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Heat can be supplied to a thermodynamic system under the following conditions:
ISOBARIC PROCESS
ISOCHORIC PROCESS
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
ADIABATIC PROCESS
ISOBARIC PROCESS
A thermodynamic process in which pressure of the system remains constant during the
supply of heat is called an ISOBARIC PROCESS.
EXPLANATION
Consider a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. The piston is free to move in the
cylinder. An ideal gas is enclosed in the cylinder.
Let the initial volume of system is V1 and initial internal energy is U1. Let QP the gas is
the heated from
T1 K to T2 K. Addition of heat causes the following changes in the system:
Internal energy increases from U1 to U2.
Volume of the system increases from V1 to V2.
Temperature increases from T1 K to T2 K.
Work (W) is done by the gas on the piston.
According to the first law
thermodynamics:
of
Q = U+ W
But W = PV
Thus
QP = U+ PV
As
V = (V2 - V1)
QP = U+ P (V2 - V1)
GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION
Graph between P & V for an isobaric process is a straight line which is parallel to V-axis.
ISOCHORIC PROCESS
ISOCHORIC
PROCESS
A thermodynamic process in which the volume of the system remains constant during the
supply of heat is called an ISOCHORIC PROCESS.
EXPLANATION
Consider a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. An ideal gas is enclosed in the
cylinder.The piston is fixed at a particular position so that the volume of cylinder remains
constant during the supply of heat.
Let Q amount of heat is added to the system. Addition of heat causes the following
changes in the system:
Internal energy increases from U1 to U2.
Volume of the system remains unchanged.
Temperature increases from T1 K to T2 K.
Pressure increases from P1 to P2.
No work is performed.
FOR EXAMPLE:
A BALLON FILLED WITH AIR
A BEAKER FILLED WITH WATER
TYPES OF SYSTEM
There are three types of thermodynamic systems.
open system
closed system
Isolated system.
OPEN SYSTEM
An open system is one in which both mass & energy transfer takes place across the
boundaries.
An open tank of water.
CLOSED SYSTEM
A closed system in which there is no transfer of mass takes place across the boundaries of
system but energy transfer is possible.
A gas in a balloon.
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ISOLATED SYSTEM
An isolated system is that in which there is no transfer of mass & energy takes place
across the boundaries of system.
A thermo flask containing hot or cold liquid.
MACROSCOPIC PROPERTIES
all the properties of a system in bulk which are easily measurable are known as
macroscopic properties.
TYPES OF MACROSCOPIC
PROPERTIES
macroscopic properties can be divided in to two main classes.
Intensive properties
Extensive properties
INTENSIVE PROPERTIES
Macroscopic properties of a system which are independent of mass are known
as intensive properties. whatever is the mass but properties remain unchanged.
FOR EXAMPLE: MELTING POINT, BOILING POINT, DENSITY, TEMPRATURE, PRESSURE,
VISCOSITY.
EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
Macroscopic properties of a system which are strictly dependent on there mass or quantity
of matter are known as extensive properties.
If mass is halved the property will also be half.
FOR EXAMPLE: volume, mole, mass, enthalpy, internal energy, kinetic energy.
PRESSURE-VOLUME WORK
PRESSURE-VOLUME
WORK
Consider a cylinder fitted with a frictionless and weightless non-conducting piston of
area of cross
section "A" . An ideal gas is enclosed in the cylinder. Let the volume of gas at initial
state is "V1". An external pressure "P"is exerted on the piston.
If we supply "q" amount of heat to the system then it will increase its internal energy
by . "After a certain limit gas exerts pressure on the piston . If piston is free to
move, it will be displaced by "h" & volume of system increases from V to V.