Chapter # 01

Introduction

1
Energy Scenario in Pakistan
The economic stability of developing countries like Pakistan depends upon the growth of the
energy sector to influence social prosperity and long-term planning for utilization of domestic
energy resources. Pakistan has been facing an unprecedented energy crisis since last few years.
Its current energy demand far exceeds its indigenous supplies, fostering dependency on
imported oil that places substantial burden on economy of the country.
In order to ensure security of country’s energy supplies, the Government of Pakistan is pursuing
policies of increasing our domestic supplies, attracting foreign investment, diversifying imports
to include natural gas, coal and electricity, encouraging economic inter-fuel substitution,
promoting energy efficiency d renewable energy, and supporting regional and interregional
cooperation. Pakistan is an ideal location for foreign private investment in the upstream and
downstream hydrocarbon sectors as it provides a deregulated transparent and level playing
field to all.
During financial year 2009-10,primary commercial energy supplies witnessed an increase by
0.8% (from 62.6 million tons of oil equivalent (mtoe) in 2008-09 to 63.1 mtoe in 2009-10).
Increase in the supplies came from natural gas (0.6 mtoe), nuclear electricity (0.3 mtoe), hydel
electricity (0.1 mtoe) and imported electricity (0.01 mtoe). Supplies from oil, coal and LPG
showed decrease as compared to the last year. The share of natural gas in primary ergy
supplies during 2009-10 was 48.8% followed by oil 31.4%, hydro-electricity 10.6%, coal 7.3%,
nuclear electricity 1.1%, LPG 0.6% and imported electricity 0.1%.
Natural gas production during this year increased from 4,002 to 4,063 million cubic feet per day
(1.5% increase) while oil production decreased to 64,948 from 65,845 barrels per day (1.4%).
The drilling activity showed slow progress as compared to the preceding two years. During
2009-10, 26 exploratory wells were drilled as compared to 27 in 2008-09 and 2007-08. The
number of development wells drilled during 2009-10 was 42 as against 59 during 2008-09 and
53 during 2007-08. The drilling efforts resulted in 15 discoveries mostly of gas/condensate, out
of which 7 were by OGDCL and 8 by the private sector companies.
Oil consumption increased by 7% during 2009-10 over the preceding year. This increase was due
to 27% increase in motor spirit consumption in transport sector and 16% increase in furnace oil
consumption in power sector over the last year. The consumption of E-10 fuel was also added in
the transport sector this year. The consumption declined in domestic, agriculture and other
government sectors by 7%, 17% and 12% respectively. Consumption of furnace oil in cement
industry dropped by 41% from 105,424 tons in 2008-09 to 61,787 tons in 2009-10.
Import of petroleum products increased by 12% while the crude oil decreased by 15% as
compared to the previous year. This increase in POL import was mainly due to increase in
imports of furnace oil, motor spirit and aviation fuel by 10%, 132% and 140% respectively
during 2009-10. The refineries production was down by 8% resulting in production of 21%,
29%, 19% and 11% less quantities of Kerosene, diesel furnace oil and naphtha respectively,
during 2009-10 as compared to the preceding year.
Natural gas consumption increased slightly by 1% during 2009-10 as compared to the previous
year. This increase in consumption was due to fertilizer 22%, transport 12%, industry 5%,
commercial 4% and domestic 3%. Natural gas consumption decreased during 2009-10 in cement
industry by 73%, Pakistan Steel Mills by 7% and power sector by 9% over the previous year.

2
Coal production decreased by 7% in 2009-10 over the previous year due to lesser production
from Baluchistan and KPK coalfields. Coal imports have increased slightly by 0.13% resulting in
overall decrease in coal supplies/consumption by 3% over the last year. Consumption of coal in
power generation increased by 12% from 112,520 tons in 2008-09 to 125,482 tons in 2009-10.
In the power sector five new IPPs (Atlas, Engro, Orient, Nishat and Saif power) were
commission during 2009-10. This helped increase the installed capacity of thermal power plants
by 1,089 MW during 2009-10.
Electricity generation during 2009-10 increased by 4.1% (with major increase of 79% in nuclear
generation) over the last year and reached 95,608 GWh (including 249 GWh of electricity
imported from Iran). Electricity generation included 67.3% thermal, 29.4% hydel, 3.0% nuclear,
while 0.3% of the electricity was imported this year. Electricity consumption increased by 5.7%
to 74,348 GWh during 2009-10 as compared to 70,371 GWh last year. Major increases in
consumption were in the domestic sector (1990 GWh), agriculture (894 GWh), industry (494
GWh), commercial (354 GWh) and bulk supplies (241 GWh). T&D losses of public sector
power system were reduced from 21.6% to 20.6% during 2009-10.

3
Roots of Energy Crisis

Historical crises

 1973 oil crisis - Cause: an OPEC oil export embargo by many of the major Arab oil-
producing states, in response to western support of Israel during the Yom Kippur War

 1979 energy crisis - Cause: the Iranian revolution

 1990 spike in the price of oil - Cause: the Gulf War

 The 2000–2001 California electricity crisis - Cause: failed deregulation, and business
corruption.

 The UK fuel protest of 2000 - Cause: Raise in the price of crude oil combined with
already relatively high taxation on road fuel in the UK.

 North American natural gas crisis

 Argentine energy crisis of 2004

 North Korea has had energy shortages for many years.
 Zimbabwe has experienced a shortage energy supplies for many years due to financial
mismanagement.

While not entering a full crisis, political riots that occurred during the 2007 Burmese anti-
government protests were initially sparked by rising energy prices. Likewise the Russia-Ukraine
gas dispute and the Russia-Belarus energy dispute have been mostly resolved before entering a
prolonged crisis stage.

Emerging shortages
Kuwait's Al Burqan Oil Field, the world's second largest oil field, will be depleted within 40
years.
Crises that currently exist include:
 Oil price increases since 2003 - Caused by continued global increases in petroleum
demand coupled with production stagnation, the falling value of the U.S. dollar, and a
myriad of other secondary causes.

4
  2008 Central Asia energy crisis, caused by abnormally cold temperatures and low water
levels in an area dependent on hydroelectric power. Despite having significant
hydrocarbon reserves, in February 2008 the President of Pakistan announced plans to
tackle energy shortages that were reaching crisis stage. At the same time the South
African President was appeasing fears of a prolonged electricity crisis in South Africa.

 South African electrical crisis. The South African crisis which may last to 2012, lead to
large price rises for platinum in February 2008 and reduced gold production.

 China experienced severe energy shortages towards the end of 2005 and again in early
2008. During the latter crisis, they suffered severe damage to power networks along with
diesel and coal shortages. Supplies of electricity in Guangdong province, the
manufacturing hub of China, are predicted to fall short by an estimated 10 GW.


Current Energy Shortage in Pakistan

Pakistan, the world’s sixth most populous country, has a power crisis. And it’s
not political power – its electric pow. As recently as 2001, the country had 4,000 megawatts of
excess power capacity. Today, it has about a 15 percent shortfall of the capacity it needs. This
shortfall is due in part to dry weather, which is reducing hydropower output. But it is also due to
poor planning. Pakistan has a huge capacity for hydropower and large d posits of coal, but it has
been slow to exploit those resources.
Country is plunging deeper and deeper into the energy crisis the electricity shortfall has hit the
record level of 7,075 MW on July owing to the forced shutdown of more than 24 units of power
generation plants following the severe fuel scarcity. This situation has pushed the consumers to
bear the brunt of 18 to 20 hours’ load shedding, which the sources said, might increase due to
multiple factors, the most important being the liquidity crunch being faced by the Water and
Power Development Authority (WAPDA), currently heading the new face of power sector,
Pakistan Electric Power Company (PEPCO).
The WAPDA is facing 5750 MW electricity shortfalls within its own system whereas 1325 MW
shortfall was recorded from IPPs.
The situation on ground is that that lack of capacity addition would cause power shortage to the
extent of 5,500MW in 2010. The current shortfall in electricity demand and supply was because
of the government’s inability to make full payments to the oil supplier and power generation
companies and forced closure of a few thermal power plants.
The generation from Pepco’s own thermal power plants, according to official record, has shrunk
to the lowest ebb because of Pepco’s inability to purchase fuel oil from its suppliers. On August
20, the Wapda’s thermal plants could produce a maximum of

5
1,900MW electricity against their capacity of 4,829MW because of their inability to purchase
furnace oil and minor technical faults in gears, clutches and switches.
Likewise, the generation from IPPs stood at about 3,470MW on August 19 against their capacity
of 6115MW, again because of their fiscal constraints. Similar has been the case all along for the
last two months as total thermal power generation remained less than 6,000MW against total
capacity of about 12,000MW.
As a result, Pakistan State Oil — the country’s largest and state-owned supplier — has refused to
make payments to the refineries or lift fuel oil. As a result, refining capacity of some of the
refineries has reduced by one-third due to storage constraints that could lead to shortage of
petroleum products in the consumer market.
Despite an available generation capacity of about 18,000MW, Pepco plants have not been able to
produce more than 12,000MW in the last two months despite maximum generation by
hydropower projects as river flows improved in the monsoon season.
During the current month, the countrywide load shedding peaked at 4,810MW on August 25 and
it was all because of financial and fuel supply constraints. That meant that generation capacity
was available but the plants did not have fuel stocks to run their units.

Karachi Situation
In the Karachi, Electric Supply Company’s system, thermal plants in Karachi could not
generate more than 1,300MW electricity against their capacity of about 1,800MW.
This was more because of technical problems that fuel shortages.
Oil and gas companies are now demanding to make law empowering the suppliers to discontinue
supplies to power companies if they fail to make payments in time up to a certain limit. Some
international lenders also feel that unless it was done, the continuous inter-corporate circular debt
in the energy sect r would keep various oils and gas companies in the financial turmoil and keep
foreign investors at bay since some of these firms are either listed abroad or were multi nationals

Reason for less electricity production

1. The inter-corporate circular debt has crossed over Rs400 billion and widespread default is
looming large in the energy sector. A number of companies have, in fact, started
defaulting in their commitments technically and financially.
2. Oil firms have expressed their inability to ensure smooth supplies in the days ahead and
independent power producers (IPPS) are running at less than them generating capacity
because of financial crunch to purchase fuel.
3. Partially, because of previous government’s dilly-dallying on major economic decisions
and mainly because of current government’s pre-occupation with political crisis, the
administration finds it hard to take even day-to-day decisions in a prudent manner.

6
 4. The government has started eliminating subsidies. Electricity rates have been raised by 16
per cent last month by withdrawing of general sales tax and another 61 per cent increase
would be made soon after the presidential elections to be held on September 6.
5. Natural gas rates have been increased twice by more than 40 per cent since the democratic
government took over and oil prices have surged more than 50 per cent since February this
year. Rise in utilities’ cost is resulting in escalation of all essential and not-so-essential
commodities.
6. At the heart of problem is non-payment of arrears by public sector companies and
government entities. The receivables of Pakistan Electric Power Company (Pepco) and its
allied power companies have gone beyond Rs150 billion. Karachi Electric Supply
Company (Kesco) has been holding over Rs56 billion payments to Pepco while arrears
payable by Federally Administered Tribal Areas have gone beyond Rs75 billion as of July
31.
7. The federal government, provinces, AJK and some public-sector corporations together
owe another Rs18 billion to electricity distribution companies.

In return, the PEPCO and KESC have accumulated payables of about Rs100 billion. Of this,
Pepco has to pay about Rs64 billion to IPPs, limiting their capacity to purchase fuel oil and hence
run on less than half of their capacity. The Pepco also has to pay about Rs10 billion and Rs8
billion each to oil and gas companies respectively. The problem is that unless the public-sector
clears electricity bills of distribution companies, they would not be able to release finances to the
IPPs and oil and gas companies.
On top of that is the government’s inability to clear over Rs84 billion dues to the oil companies
and refineries on account of price differential claims.
The PDC amount might have been much higher but the burden has been replaced with even more
expensive borrowing from the commercial banks. So far, the government has paid about Rs50
billion to the oil companies and refineries by arranging syndicated loans from the market. PSO has
over Rs25 billions of receivables from Pepco and IPPs.
Since, the government has not been able to liquidate petroleum differential claims (PDCs), the oil
marketing firms have also informed the government about their inability to make payments to the
oil refineries. This is despite the fact that oil marketing companies have reported 20 per cent
higher fuel consumption during the current month.

Gasification
Gasification is basically a technological process that involves the conversion of carbonaceous
(carbon based) raw material into synthesis gas using heat, steam & pressure. This process involves
the reaction of carbonaceous feedstock with an oxygen containing reagent which may either be
oxygen, air, steam or carbon dioxide, generally at temperatures in excess of 800°C. This process
takes into account the partial oxidation of substance which means that amount of oxygen is
supplied in a limited way such that the fuel is not completely oxidized and it causes combustion to
not occur completely. Although the process is largely exothermic, however, some heat is still
required to initiate the gasification process & to sustain it for effective operation. The demand of
Gasification systems is also increasing because they are seed to turn feed stocks like coal into
useful chemical products like ammonia.

7
The main product is a synthesis gas (syn gas), which contains

1. Carbon monoxide
2. Hydrogen
3. Methane

Typically, the gas generated from gasification will have a net calorific value of 4 – 10
MJ/Nm3.The other main product produced by gasification is a solid residue of non-combustible
materials (ash) which contains a relatively low level of carbon.

History of Gasification

To produce ―town gas‖ for light & heat.

1850-1940
Gasification of coal- All gas for fuel & light

To produce synthetic fuel

1940-1975
To produce liquid fuel & chemicals

First Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)

1975-1990
electric power plant

1990-2000 US Agencies provide financial support for IGCC process

2000-present Turnkey thermal & power Greenhouse gas from biomass

8
Chemistry of Gasification
During the process of gasification of solid carbon whether in the form of coal, coke, char
or biomass, the principal chemical reactions are those that involve formation of:
a. Carbon
b. Carbon dioxide
c. Carbon monoxide
d. Hydrogen
e. Water (Steam)
f. Methane
These are as follows:

1. Combustion Reactions:

C+1/2O2 = CO -111 MJ/kmol (1)

CO+1/2O2 = CO2 -283 MJ/kmol (2)

H2+1/2O2 = H2O -242 MJ/kmol (3)

2. The Boudouard R action:

C+CO2 = 2CO +172 MJ/kmol (4)

3. Water gas Reaction:

C+H2O = CO+H2 +131 MJ/kmol (5)

4. Methanation Reaction:

C+2H2 = CH4 -75 MJ/kmol (6)

9
10
Stages of Gasification
The process of gasification takes place through four different stages which are as
follows:

1. Dehydration or drying

2. Pyrolysis

3. Combustion

4. Gasification

5. Equilibrium

Dehydration or drying

The feedstock is dried before the gasification process and the moisture extracted is
used in later chemical reactions.

Pyrolysis
In this stage, organic materials are thermo chemically decomposed at elevated
temperatures in the absence of oxygen which causes release of volatiles and produces
char. This prepares the chemically changed feedstock for combustion.

Combustion
A carefully controlled burn using small amounts of air allows the volatiles and the
char to react with the oxygen to form primarily carbon dioxide, water and trace
amounts of carbon monoxide. The heat created in the process is used in the
gasification process.

11
Gasification
The char reacts with the carbon dioxide and the steam produced in previous steps to
form carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

Equilibrium

A chemical reaction known as the ―water gas shift reaction‖ helps to balance the
carbon monoxide, steam, carbon dioxide and hydrogen in the gasifier establishing a
chemical equilibrium during the final step of the process.

Types of Gasification

There are two types of gasification on the basis of temperature.

1. Low Temperature Gasification

2. High Temperature Gasification

12
Low Temperature Gasification
If gasification takes place at a relatively low temperature, such as 700-1000°C, the
producer gas produced will contain a relatively higher % age of hydrocarbons as
compared to high temperature gasification. As a result, it may be used directly to be
burned for heat or electricity generation via a steam turbine or with suitable gas clean
up to run an internal combustion engine to produce electricity.

High Temperature Gasification

This type of gasification involves a temperature range of 1200-1600oC which leads to
few hydrocarbons in the product gas, & higher proportion of CO & H2. The gas
produced during this process is call d Synthesis Gas, as it is used to synthesize longer
chain hydrocarbons using techniques such as Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis.

If the ratio of H2 to CO is correct .e., 2:1, FT synthesis can be used to convert syn gas
into high quality synth sis diesel biofuel, which is compatible with conventional fossil
diesel & diesel engine.

Gasifier

A chemical reactor that converts feedstock (wood, biomass, coal) into a combustible
gas that can be used for:
a. Heating,

b. Cooking or

c. Running an internal combustion engine.

This is achieved by partial combustion of feedstock in the reactor & using the heat
generated to pyrolyze or thermally breaks down the rest of the material into volatile
gases.
Feedstock + Limited Oxygen = CO2 + H2O + C + Associated Volatile Hydrocarbons +
Heat
Thus, the gasifier converts most of the feedstock into the flammable gases with only
some ash & unburned charcoal residue.

13
Types of Gasifier

Since there is an interact on of air or oxygen & feedstock in the gasifier, they are
classified according to the way in which oxygen or air is introduced in it. So there are
three types of gasifier:

1. Updraft Gasifier or Counter-current Gasifier

2. Downdraft Gasifier or Co-Current Gasifier

3. Cross draft Gasifier

Updraft or Counter-Current Gasifier

In this type of gasifier, the air is introduced at the bottom of the gasifier from where it
moves upwards & leaves from the top of the gasifier. Near the grate at the bottom, the
combustion reaction occurs, which are followed by the reduction reactions (occur
higher up in gasifier). In the upper part of the gasifier, the feedstock undergoes heating
& pyrolysis due to heat transfer by forced convection & radiation from the lower
zones.
The tars & volatiles produced during this process will be carried in the gas stream.
Ashes are removed from the bottom of the gasifier.

14
Downdraft or Co-Current Gasifier
In order to find a solution of the problem of entrainment of tar in the gas stream, the
design of gasifier is changed from counter current to co-current (down draft) gasifier,
in which primary gasification air is introduced at or above the oxidation zone in the
gasifier. The producer gas is removed at the bottom of the gasifier so that both fuel &
gas move in the same direction.
On their way, down, the acid & tarry distillation products from the fuel must pass
through the glowing bed of charcoal & therefore, the y are converted into permanent
gases hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide & methane.
Depending on the temperature of the hot zone & the residence time of the tarry vapors,
a more or less complete breakdown of the tars is achieved.

15
Cross draft Gasifier
This type of gasifier is adapted for the use of charcoal. Charcoal gasification results in
very high temperatures in the oxidation zones which can lead to materials problem.

16
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Types of Gasifier

Gasifier
Sr. No. Advantages Disadvantages
Type

Great sensitivity to tar

Small pressure drop

& moisture & moisture

content of fuel
Good Thermal Efficiency
Relatively low time
1- Updraft
required for startup of
IC engines.
Little tendency towards
Poor reaction capability
slag forma on
with heavy gas load

Flexible adaption of gas Design tends to be tall

production to load Not feasible for very

2- Downdraft
Low sensitivity to charcoal small particle size of
dust & tar content of fuel fuel.

Short design height Very high sensitivity to

3- Cross draft Very fast response time to slag formation

load High pressure drop

17
Distinct Attributes of Gasification

• A clean, flexible, and reliable way of turning fossil fuels into clean energy.

• Ability to convert low-value feedstock (coal) into high-value products.

• Provides a cost-effective way to capture CO2.
• Gasification enables use of domestic natural resources that would otherwise
not be economically viable.
• Provides economic benefits with respect to investment and job creation.
• Gasification is enabling redefinition of "clean energy."

Benefits of Gasification

• Syngas is cleaned before combustion which reduces air pollutants to the

atmosphere.

• Gasification enables the use of low-value feedstock (i.e., e.g. deep stranded
coal) to produce energy.

• Gasification plants use less water than coal combustion plants.

• CO2 can be cost-effectively captured from the gasification process.

• Syn gas can be us d to produce electricity.

• Gasification systems are also increasingly being used to turn feed stocks like
coal into useful chemical products like ammonia.

• Limits the formation of dioxins & large quantities of SOx & NOx.

• Gasification can compete effectively in high-cost energy environments

• Gasification converts abundant low-value feed stocks into high-value products.

18
Environmental Benefits of Gasification

The environmental benefits of gasification are as follows:

1. Reduced air emissions

Significant air emission reductions achieved through gasification with CO2 capture, at
reduced cost compared to other post-combustion capture alternatives

2. Water usage
Swan Hills Synfuels ISCG uses virtually no fresh water in the gasification
process but instead uses non-fresh water such as saline water.
3. Ability to sequester carbon dioxide (CO2)
In a gasification system, CO2 can be cost-effectively captured and sequestered
using commercially available technologies before it would otherwise be vented
to the atmosphere.
4. Ability to Use Coal Gasification for Clean Power Generation
Low- carbon content ISCG syngas can fuel combined cycle power generation, leading
to air emissions levels much lower than those of conventional coal-fired power or even
natural gas-fired combined cycle generation.

Disadvantages of Gasification

The process of gasification, although involves a lot of advantage, but it has

certain disadvantages:
• Tars, heavy metals, halogens and alkaline compounds are released within the
product gas and can cause environmental and operational problems.

• Tars are high molecular weight organic gases that ruin reforming catalysts,
sulfur removal systems, ceramic filters and increase the occurrence of slagging
in boilers and on other metal and refractory surfaces.

• Alkalis can increase agglomeration in fluidized beds that are used in some
gasification systems and also can ruin gas turbines during combustion

• Heavy metals are toxic and accumulate if released into the environment.

• Halogens are corrosive and are a cause of acid rain if emitted to the
environment.

19
Comparison of Gasification to other Technologies

Gasification Combustion/ Incineration

Converts solid fuel into a gaseous fuel Converts solid fuel into gaseous products of
through a process of high temperature combustion through high temperature
oxidation-reduction reactions. oxidation reactions.

Gasification packages heat into Combustion releases the energy into high
chemical bonds by converting the temperature product gas
energy into those in gaseous fuels

Designed to maximize conversion of Designed to maximize conversion of waste

waste to CO & H2 to CO2 & H2O

Operates under controlled amount of Employs large quantities of excess air

oxygen.

Cleaned syngas used for chemical Treated flue gas discharged to atmosphere.
production and / or power production Flue gas contains dioxins and furans
(with subsequent clean flue gas
discharge)

20
Biomass:
Biomass is a natural product of solar energy & therefore, a renewable source of carbon

& hydrogen which are the basic constituents of energy & chemical products.

Following is an attempt to define biomass:

1) Total amount of animal & plant life.

2) Biomass is an organic matter i.e. photochemical approach to harness solar

energy can be converted into other forms of energy like heat, electricity etc.
using available conversion processes.

3) Biomass energy in the context of the present day industrialized.

4) Biomass is the organic matter derived from plants as a result of photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis is the process by which solar energy is converted into chemical
energy by the plants with help of pigments called chlorophyll.

6CO2 + 6H2O + Sunlight + Chlorophyll = C6H12O6 + 6O2 + Chlorophyll

The term biomass refers to all plant life-trees, agriculture plants, bush, grass & algae
& their residue after processing. Biomass may be obtained from forest, woods &
agricultural lands. The term is also generally understood to include animal & human
waste.

21
Advantages of Biomass Systems

1. Renewable

2. Dependent on energy already available, with minimum capital input.

3. Can be developed with present manpower & material sources.

4. Reasonably priced.

5. When biomass is burnt, the oxygen from the atmosphere combines with the
carbon in the plant to produce CO2 & water. This CO2 & water are again
available for the plant growth & hence cyclic process continues making
biomass, a renewable source of energy.

6. Biomass energy is unique because:

a. It is available in majority of geographical locations.

b. It effectively stores solar energy

c. It is a renewable source of energy in the form of carbon which can

be processed into solid, liquid & gaseous fuel.

7. The vast majority of the rural population is dependent on biomass as fuel.

Some sources of biomass are as follows:
a. Agricultural Wastes
b. Crop Residues

c. Wood & Woody Wastes

d. Organic Wastes

8. Biomass doesn’t contribute to global warming. Low level of sulfur & ash in
biomass prevents acid rain formation. Biomass energy brings in numerous
benefits such as:

a. Reduction in usage of conventional

fuels. b. Reduction in environmental
pollution.

c. Improving the Nation`s Economy.

d. Meets the basic needs of the rural poor.

9. The environmental benefits include reduction in air & water pollution

reducing CO2 emission, greenhouse gases like SO2.

22
 10. Low gestation period.

11. Rural employment generation.

12. Results in less ash production minimizing ash disposal

cost.
13. Electrical energy can be produced in large scale at low
cost.

Applications of Biomass
The applications of biomass are:

1. Direct thermal application:

a. Boiler

b. Institutional cooking & other thermal

applications.
2. Production of producer gas used as a fuel in:

a. IC engines, vehicles

b. Irrigation water pumping/ village water supply.

3. Bio fuel applications

a. Ethanol for transport applications

4. Generation of electricity

23
Composition of Producer Gas from various fuels
Different types of fuel when undergoes gasification produces different
composition of producer gas. They are depicted as follows:

Volume Percentage Calorific

Gasification
Fuel Value
Method CO H2 CH4 CO2 N2 3
MJ/m
Charcoal Downdraft 28-31 5-10 1-2 1-2 55-60 4.60-5.65

Wood with
12-20%
Downdraft 17-22 16-20 2-3 10-15 50-55 5.00-5.86
moisture
content
Wheat
straw Downdraft 14-17 17-19 - 11-14 - 4.50
pellets
Coconut
Downdraft 16-20 17-19.5 - 10-15 - 5.80
husks
Coconut
Downdraft 19-24 19-15 - 11-15 - 7.20
shells
Pressed
Downdraft 15-18 15-18 - 12-14 - 5.30
Sugarcane
Charcoal Updraft 30 19.7 - 3.6 46 5.98

Corn cobs Downdraft 18.6 16.5 6.4 - - 6.29

24
Rice hulls
Downdraft 16.1 9.6 0.95 - - 3.25
pelleted
Cotton
stalks Downdraft 15.7 11.7 3.4 - - 4.32
cubed

25
Chapter # 02
Process Description

26
2.1. RAW MATERIALS:

Following are the raw materials used in the manufacturing of syngas from biomass:

1. Biomass (Rice Husk)

2. Superheated Steam

3. Air

4. Process Water

5. Selexol

BIOMASS SELECTION:
We have selected the average composition of biomass (rice husk) found in different regions of
Pakistan. The composition of biomass selected for design purposes is as follows:

Biomass %

C 36.66

H2 4.37

O2 31.68

N2 0.23
S 0.04

H2O 8.76
Ash 18.26

27
28
PROCESSES INVOLVED:
The major steps involved in the formation of syngas from biomass are:
1. Biomass Preparation
2. Biomass Drying
3. Gasification
4. Gas Cooling

5. Gas Purification
6. CO2 Removal
7. Compression of Syngas

PROCESS EQUIPMENTS:
The major equipment’s used are as follows:
1. Rotary Dryer

2. Fluidized Bed Gasifier

3. Waste Heat Exchanger

4. Cyclone Separator

5. Scrubber

6. Knock out drum

7. Absorber

8. Stripper

9. Cooler

10. Compressor

11. Boiler
12. Turbine

29
BIOMASS PREPARATION:
Before rice husk can be introduced in the rotary dryer it is necessary to pass it through some
preparation steps. Which are necessary to remove dust particles and other unnecessary material
associated with risk husk for this purpose screening is done by using specific sieves keeping in
mind the average particle size of rice husk is 1mm. In case of rice husk as particle size is already
quite small therefore further size reduction is not required.

BIOMASS DRYING:
Next step after preparation of biomass is drying of rice husk as it contains 8.76% moisture so it is
necessary to reduce the moisture contents otherwise it may cause problems in the gasifier
specially in combustion process and will make it difficult to maintain the stoichiometric ratio of
biomass to steam in gasifier and will also increase the load on heat exchanger used after gasifier.
For this purpose, rotary dryer is used that reduces the moisture contents from 8.76% to 2.80%
and the operating efficiency of the rotary dryer is considered as 80%.

GASIFICATION:
Now the rice husk is ready to be introduced in the gasifier. Gasifier used for this purpose is
Fluidized Bed Gasifier because it gives well mixing of the biomass with oxidant. In our case, it
makes easier to control biomass and oxidant amounts to be introduced and as rice husk contains
large amount of slag contents so it helps in to avoid the slagging of ash in the gasifier.

Air is used as oxidant required for combustion process taking place in the gasifier. Before
sending it to the gasifier, it is firstly compressed in the Air Compressor which compresses it to
increases its pressure. The operating power of air compressor is 19.6 kW. After compression, it
is then introduced into the gasifier.
Steam is required for the endothermic reactions taking place in the gasifier i.e. partial
combustion /gasification process. It is introduced at temperature of 400o C and at a pressure of
62 bar by using a boiler (run by syn gas produced).
SELECTED GASIFIER:
Oxygen-Blown Fluidized Bed Gasifier is the selected type of gasifier it has advantages given
below:
1. Dry Ash (which makes its removal relatively simple)

2. The air-to-fuel ratio can be changed, so the bed temperature can be controlled easily.
3. Feedstock-fluidized beds are more tolerant.

4. Excellent gas–solid contact, large contact surface area.

5. Higher throughput than fixed bed gasifiers.
6. Smaller gas handling & cleanup equipment
7. Produces high heating value gas.

30
 8. Reduced gasifier size
9. Low power requirement.
10. Reduced heat exchangers size

11. Improved heat and mass transfer

12. Reduced char

GAS COOLING:
Syn gas leaving the gasifier is at 800oC so it is necessary to remove excess heat from it this is
done by using a heat exchanger right after the gasifier that reduces its temperature to 500oC and
serves the purpose of preheating the boiler water as well. For this purpose, shell and tube type
heat exchanger is used.
GAS PURIFICATION:
Syn gas produced contains large amount of ash contents, water vapors and some quantity of
unburnt rice husk so it is necessary to remove such material from syn gas before it can be used as
combustible gas. Solid particles are removed by using a cyclone separator and a filter moisture
contents are removed by knock out drum.

SELEXOL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION:

The Selexol process uses a physical solvent to remove acid gas from the streams of syngas. It is
ideally suited for the selective removal of H2S and other Sulphur compounds, or for the bulk
removal of CO2. The Selexol process also removes COS, mercaptans, ammonia, HCN and metal
carbonyls.
The selexol solvent is a mixture of dimethyl ethers of polyethylene glycol, and has the
formulation of CH3 (CH2CH2O) n CH3, where n is between 3 and 9. Amine solvents react to
form a chemical bond between the acid gas and the solvent. However, selexol solvents are true
physical solvents and do not react chemically with the absorbed gases. The ability of selexol
solvents to remain chemically non-reactive with the gas is a desirable feature. This avoids t
formation of heat-stable salts that plague amine systems. Its high selectivity for sulphur
compounds over CO2 makes a selexol solvent ideal for partial oxidation processes. It produces a
highly enriched feed to the Claus unit and provides maximum CO2 for any downstream process.
The solvent may be regenerated by releasing the absorbed sour gases. The regeneration step for
Selexol can be carried out by either thermally, or flashing, or stripping gas. In addition to its
solubility, the Selexol solvent has some other positive advantages to gasification applications.

1. A very low vapour pressure that limits its losses to the treated gas.
2. Low viscosity to avoid large pressure drop
3. High chemical and thermal stability (no reclaiming or purge)
4. Selexol is true physical solvent and does not react chemically with the absorbed gases
5. Non-toxic for environmental compatibility and worker safety
6. Non-foaming for operational stability
7. Compatibility with gasifier feed gas contaminants

31
8. High solubility of selexol with nickel and iron carbonyls allows their removal from the
synthesis gas.
9. Low heat requirements for regeneration of selexol because the solvent can be regenerated by
a simple pressure letdown.
10. Non-corrosive for mainly carbon steel construction: the Selexol process allows mostly for
carbon steel construction due to its non-aqueous nature and inert chemical characteristics.

32
Chapter # 03
Material Balance

33
 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND GASIFIER

F2 (Oxygen)

F1 (Rice husk) GASIFIER F5 (Synthesis Gas)

F3 (Steam) F4 (Ash + un-burnt contents)

Where:

COMPOSITION OF RICE HUSK

COMPOSITION OF SYNTHESIS GAS
C 36.66%
CO2 ?
H2 4.37%
CO ?
N2 0.23%
O2 31.68% H2 ?

S 2.04% N2 ?

S ?
H2O 6.76%
ASH 18.26% H2S ?

34
Now, applying material balance around gasifier.

Basis:
1050 kg/hr of feed (Rice husk)
Let 95.3% of feed is processed in gasifier.
So,
Amount of feed processed = 1050×0.953 = 1000 kg/hr
Amount of un-burnt contents = 1050 – 1000 = 50 kg/hr

(1)

Ash Balance:
Mass in = Mass out
(18.26×1000)/100 = Ash
Ash = 182.26 kg/hr (2)
So,
F4 = Ash + un-burnt contents
F4 = 182.26 +50 = 232.26 kg/hr

Nitrogen Balance:
Mass in = Mass out
(0.0023×1000)/ (100×28) = nN2
nN2 = 0.082 kg mol/hr (3)

Sulphur Balance:
Mass in = Mass out
(0.0204×1000)/ (100×32) = nH2S
nH2S = 0.6375 kg mol/ hr (4)
35
Carbon Balance:
Mass in = Mass out
(36.66×1000)/ (100×12) = nCO2 + nCO
nCO2 + nCO = 30.55 kg mol/hr (5)

Hydrogen Balance:
Mass in = Mass out
(4.37×1000)/ (100×2) + (6.76×1000)/ (100×18) + F3 = nH2 + nH2S
nH2 + nH2S =21.85 + 3.756 + F3
Putting the value of “nH2S” from (4) in above equation
nH2 = 22.2 + 3.49 + F3 -1.24
nH2 = 24.97 + F3 (6)

Oxygen Balance:
Mass in = Mass out
F2 + (31.68×1000)/(100×32) + (6.76×1000×0.5)/(100×18) + 0.5×F3 = nCO2 +
0.5×nCO
F2 + 9.9 + 1.878+ 0.5×F3 = nCO2 + 0.5×nCO
nCO2 + 0.5×nCO = F2 + 0.5×F3 + 11.778 (7)

Chemical reaction:
2.2C + 0.6O2 + H2O 2.2 CO + H2

0.6 kg mol O2 366.6 kg mol C

2.2 kg mol C 12 kg C

36
 F2 = 8.33 kg mol O2 (8)
F2 = 8.33×32
F2 = 266.6 kg/hr (9)
Now, solving for F3
2.2C + 0.6O2 + H2O 2.2 CO + H2

1 kg mol H2O 366.6 kg mol C

2.2 kg mol C 12 kg C

F3 = 13.886 kg mol H2O (10)

F3 = 13.886×18
F3 = 249.95 kg/hr (11)
Putting F3 from (10) in equation (6),
nH2 = 24.97+13.886
nH2 = 38.856 kg mol /hr (11)
Putting F2 from (8) & F3 from (10) in equation (7),
nCO2 + 0.5×nCO = 8.33 + 0.5×13.886 + 11.778
nCO2 + 0.5×nCO =27.05 kg mol /hr
nCO2 = 27.05 – 0.5×nCO (12)
Putting “nCO2” from (12) in equation (5),
27.05 – 0.5×nCO + nCO = 30.55
nCO =9 kg mol/hr (13)
Putting “nCO” from (13) in equation (5),
nCO2 = 21.55 kg mol/hr (14)

37
So, from equation (14), (13), (12), (11), (3), (4) the composition of F5 (synthesis gas),

COMPOSITION OF F5 (SYNTHESIS GAS)

Component Kg mol/hr Kg/hr Mole %

CO2 21.55 979 30

CO 9 252 13.9

H2 38.856 77.712 56.1

N2 0.082 2.296 0.0012

H2S 0.6375 21.675 9

Total = 70.12 Total = 1333.9 Total = 100

Hence,
F5 = 70.12kg mol/hr
OR
F5 = 1333.9 kg/hr
Suppose ash + un-burnt contents present in F5 (synthesis gas) is 15.5% of F4.
Ash = (15.5×232.3)/100
Ash = 36.542 kg ash/hr
So, finally F5 will be,
F5 = Mass of synthesis gas + ash
F5 = 1333.973 + 36.542
F5 = 1370.5 kg/hr (15)

38
If F5 = 1370.5 kg/hr then F4 will be,
F4 = 232.3 – 36.542
F4 = 195.758 kg/hr (16)

Finally, from equation (1), (9), (10), (16) & (15)

MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND GASIFIER

MASS IN MASS OUT

Stream Kg/hr Stream Kg/hr

F1 1050 F4 195.758

F2 266.6 F5 1370.5

F3 249.5

Total = 1566.1 kg/hr Total = 1566.3 kg/hr

39
 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND HEAT EXCHANGER

F13 (Cooling Water In)

F5 (Synthesis Gas)
HEAT F6 (Synthesis Gas)
EXCHANGER

F14 (Steam Out)

For F5:
F5 = 1370.5 kg/hr, T5 = (920℃)

For F6:
F6 = 1370.5 kg/hr, T6 = (60℃)

For F13:
F13 =? T13 = (25℃)

For F14:
F14 =? T14 = (275℃)
To find out the flow rate of cooling we have to apply energy balance.
Energy In (Gas) – Energy Out (Gas) = Energy In (water) – Energy Out (water)
Above equation can be written as:
m×Cpgas∆T = mCpH2O× ∆T + m × 𝜆s
OR
F5 × Cpgas × (T5 – T6) = F13 × (CpH2O × (T14 – T13) + 𝜆s) (1)
40
Where,
Specific Heat of Gas = Cpgas = 1.942 KJ/kg ℃
Specific Heat of Water = CpH2O = 4.6525 KJ/kg ℃
Latent Heat = 𝜆s = 1569.15 KJ/kg ℃
Putting all values in equation (1),
1370.5 × 1.942 × (920 – 60) = F13 × (4.6525 × (275– 25) + 1569.15)
Solving for F13,
F13 = 837.73 kg/hr

MATERIAL BALANE AROUND HEAT EXCHANGER

Mass In Mass Out
Stream Kg/hr Stream Kg/hr
F5 1370.5 F6 1370.5

F13 837.73 F14 837.73

Total = 2208.23 kg/hr Total = 2208.23 kg/hr

So, material balance around heat exchanger is satisfied.

41
 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND CYCLONE SEPARATOR

F6 (Synthesis Gas) CYCLONE F7 (Synthesis Gas)

SEPARATOR

F8 (Ash + Un-burnt contents)

As,
F6 = 1370.5 kg/hr (having 36.62 kg/hr of Ash)
Or,
F6 = 1333.97 (Gaseous Product) + 36.62 (Ash)
In cyclone separator of 84% of efficiency, 84% of solids (Ash Contents) will be removed.
Solid removed = 36.62 ×0.84
Solid removed = 30.62 kg/hr
Or,
F8 = 30.62 kg/hr
And,
Solid un-removed = 36.62 – 30.62
Solid un-removed = 5.832 kg/hr
Hence,
F7 = gaseous product + solid un-removed
F7 = 1333.97 + 5.832
F7 = 1339.9 kg/hr

42
 MATERIAL BALANE AROUND CYCLONE SEPARATOR
Mass In Mass Out
Stream Kg/hr Stream Kg/hr
F6 1370.5 F7 1339.9

F8 30.62

Total = 1370.5kg/hr Total = 1370.5kg/hr

So, material balance around cyclone separator is satisfied.

43
 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND FILTER

F7 (Synthesis Gas) FILTER F9 (Synthesis Gas)

F10 (Ash + Un-burnt contents)

As,
F7 = 1339.9 kg/hr (having 5.832 kg/hr of Ash)
Or,
F7 = 1339.9 (Gaseous Product) + 5.832 (Ash)
Let in filter, 95% of solids (Ash Contents) will be removed.
Solid removed = 5.832 ×0.95
Solid removed = 5.54 kg/hr
Or,
F10 = 5.54 kg/hr
And,
Solid un-removed = 5.832 – 5.54
Solid un-removed = 0.2916 kg/hr
Hence,
F9 = gaseous product + solid un-removed
F9 = 1333.97 + 0.2916
F9 = 1334.3 kg/hr

44
 MATERIAL BALANE AROUND FILTER
Mass In Mass Out
Stream Kg/hr Stream Kg/hr
F7 1339.9 F9 1334.3

F10 5.54

Total = 1339.9 kg/hr Total = 1339.84 kg/hr

So, material balance around Filter is satisfied.

45
 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND H2S & CO2 ABSORBER

F12 (selexol In)

H2S & CO2

F9 (Synthesis Gas) F11 (Synthesis Gas)
ABSORBER

F15 (selexol + H2S+& CO2)

Composition Of F9:
CO2 =979 kg/hr
CO = 252 kg/hr
H2 = 77.712 kg/hr
N2 = 2.296 kg/hr
H2S = 21.675 kg/hr
Ash = 0.2916 kg/hr
As,
F9 = 1334.3 kg/hr

H2S in F9:
H2S = 21.675 kg/hr
Or
H2S = 0.64 kg mol/hr
Suppose, 98.5% of H2S is removed from F9,
So,
H2S removed = 21.35 kg/hr = 0.63 kg mol/h

46
CO2 in F9:
CO2= 979 kg/hr
Or
CO2 = 22.25 kg mol/hr
Suppose, 90% of CO2 is removed from F9,
So,
CO2 removed = 979×0.9 = 881.1 kg/hr = 20.02 kg mol/hr

Now,
F11 = F9 – H2S removed – CO2 removed
F11 = 1334.3 – 21.35 – 881.1
F11 = 431.85 kg/hr

To find out the flow rate of selexol we have to take given assumptions.
11.5m3 of CO2 is absorbed in 100kg of selexol.
13 m3 of H2S is absorbed in 100kg of selexol.
Density of CO2 = ρ = 1.98 kg/m3
Density of H2S = ρ = 1.38 kg/m3
Mass flow rate of CO2 removed = 881 kg/hr
H2S removed= 21.35 kg/hr

47
Volumetric flow of CO2 removed = ρ × (Mass flow rate of CO2 removed)

881 kg m3

hr 1.98 kg

Volumetric flow of CO2 removed = 495 m3/hr

Volumetric flow of H2S removed = ρ × (Mass flow rate of H2S removed)

21.35 kg m3

Hr 1.38 kg

Volumetric flow of H2S removed = 15.47

12.5 m3 of CO2 ------------------------- 100 kg of selexol
1 m3 of CO2 ------------------------- 100/12.5 kg of selexol
495 m3 of CO2 ------------------------- (100/12.5) × 495 kg of selexol
495 m3 of CO2 ------------------------- 4304 kg of selexol

Selexol for CO2 removal = 4304 kg/hr

13 m3 of H2S ------------------------- 100 kg of selexol

1 m3 of H2S ------------------------- 100/13 kg of selexol
15.47 m3 of H2S ------------------------- (100/15.47) × 495 kg of selexol
15.47 m3 of H2S ------------------------- 119 kg of selexol
48
Selexol for H2S removal = 119 kg/hr
Total amount of selexol required = Selexol for CO2 removal + Selexol for H2S removal
Total amount of selexol required = F12 = 4304 + 119
Total amount of selexol required = F12 = 4423 kg/hr

F12 = Amount of selexol + Amount of CO2 removed + Amount of H2S removed

F12 = 4423+881.1+21.35
F12 = 5325.45

MATERIAL BALANE AROUND H2S & CO2 ABSORBER

Mass In Mass Out
Stream Kg/hr Stream Kg/hr
F9 1334.3 F11 431.85

F12 4423 F15 5325.45

Total = 5757.3 kg/hr Total = 5757.3 kg/hr

So, material balance around CO2 & H2S absorber is satisfied.

49
 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND COMPRESSOR

F11 (Synthesis Gas) COMPRESSOR F16 (Synthesis Gas)

Compressor is applies only to compress the gas. So, no material charge will take place in
compressor.

MATERIAL BALANE AROUND COMPRESSOR

Mass In Mass Out
Stream Kg/hr Stream Kg/hr
F11 431.85 F16 431.85

Total = 431.85 kg/hr Total = 431.85kg/hr

50
Chapter # 04
Energy Balance

51
 ENERGY BALANCE AROUND GASIFIER

F2 (Oxygen)

F1 (biomass) GASIFIER F5 (Syn Gass)

F3 (Steam) F4 (Ash)

Total Energy In:

Total energy in = energy in biomass + energy in oxygen + energy in steam

Energy In Biomass
Biomass Entering in Gasifier = F1
F1 =1050 kg/hr
Temperature of Biomass = T1
T1 = 35+273=308 K
Reference temperature = TR
TR =25+273=298K
Specific heat Cp = 1.37 KJ/kg.K
So,
Energy entering in gasifier from biomass = m×Cp× ∆T
Energy entering in gasifier from biomass = [1050 × 1.37 × (308 − 298)]/3600
Energy entering in gasifier from biomass = 3.996 KW

52
Energy In Oxygen:
Oxygen entering in Gasifier = F2
F2 = 266.6 kg/hr
Temperature of oxygen = T2
T2 = 300+273=573K
Reference Temperature = TR
TR = 25+273=298K
Cp of oxygen = 0.9955 KJ/kg.K
So,
Energy entering in gasifier from Oxygen = m×Cp× ∆T
Energy entering in gasifier from Oxygen = [266.6 × 0.9955 × (573 − 298)]/3600
Energy entering in gasifier from Oxygen = 20.28 KW

Energy In Steam:
Steam entering in Gasifier = F3
F3 = 249.5 kg/hr
Temperature of Steam = T3
T3 = 400+273=673 K
Reference Temperature = TR
TR = 298 K
Cp of Steam = 2.083 KJ/kg.K
Latent Heat of Steam = 2350 KJ/kg.K
So,
Energy entering in gasifier from Oxygen = m×[Cp× ∆T + 𝜆S]
Energy entering in gasifier from Oxygen = [249.5/3600] × [2.083 × (673 − 298) + 2350]
53
 Energy entering in gasifier from Oxygen = 217 KW
So,
Total Energy in = Energy in Biomass + Energy in Oxygen + Energy in Steam
Total Energy in = 3.996 + 20.28 + 217
Total Energy in = 241.28 KW

Total Energy Generated:

Total Energy Generated = [1000 × 1.37 × (1173 − 308)]/3600
Total Energy Generated = 329.2 KW

Total Energy Out:

Total Energy out = Energy in Flue Gases + Energy in Ash

Energy In Syn Gas:

Sync Gas coming out of Gasifier = F5
F5 = 1370 kg/hr
Temperature of Syn gas = T5
T5 =900+273=1173K
Reference Temperature = TR
TR = 25+273=298 K
Cp of Syn Gas = 1.9420 KJ/kg.K
So,
Energy in Syn Gas = m×Cp× ∆T
Energy in Flue Gases = [1370 × 1.488 × (1173 − 298)]/3600
Energy in Flue Gases = 495.5KW

Energy In Ash:
Ash Coming Out of Gasifier = F4
F4 = 195.76 kg/hr
Temperature of Ash = T4
54
 T4 = 800+273=1073K
Reference Temperature = TR
TR =25+273=298k
Cp of Ash = 0.84 KJ/kg.K
So,
Energy = m×Cp× ∆T
Energy in Flue Gases = [195.76 × 0.84 × (1073 − 298)]/3600
Energy = 35.4 KW
Now,
Total Energy coming out of Gasifier = Energy in Syn Gas + Energy in Ash
Total Energy coming out of Gasifier =495.5 + 35.4
Total Energy coming out of Gasifier = 530.9 KW

Overall Energy around Gasifier:

Energy Losses = Total Energy in + Total Energy Generated – Total Energy Out
Energy losses = 241.28+329.2-530.9
Energy losses = 39.5 KW

55
 ENERGY BALANCE AROUND HEAT EXCHANGER
F13 (Cooling Water In)

F5 (Synthesis Gas)
HEAT F6 (Synthesis Gas)
EXCHANGER

F4 (Steam Out)

For F5:
F5 = 1370.5 kg/hr, T5 = 900 + 273 = 1173𝐾)

For F6:
F6 = 1370.5 kg/hr, T6 = 353K (80℃)

For F13:
F13 =? T13 = 298K (25℃)

For F14:
F14 =? T14 = 371K (98.5℃)
Qin = Qout
Qgas(in) + Qwater(in) = Qgas(out) + Qwater(out)
Qgas(in) – Qgas(out) = Qwater(out) – Qwater(in)
OR
F5 × Cpgas × (T5 – T6) = F13 × CpH2O × (T14 – T13) (1)
Where,
Specific Heat of Gas = Cpgas = 1.488 KJ/kg ℃
Specific Heat of Water = CpH2O = 4.18 KJ/kg ℃

56
Putting all values in equation (1),
1370.5 × 1.488 × (900 – 80) = F13 × 4.18 × (98.5 – 25)
Solving for F13,
F13 =5442.92kg/hr
So heat in gas (Release)
m×Cp× ∆T
So; for Gas,
Qgas = m×Cpgas× (T5 – T6)
Putting values,
Qgas = m×Cpgas× (T5 – T6)
Qgas = [1370.5× 1.488×(1173 – 353)]/3600
Qgas = 464.5 KW
Now, for cooling water,
Qwater = m ×Cpwater× (T14 – T13)
Qwater = 5442.92 × 4.18 × (371.5 – 298)/3600
Qwater = 464.5 KW

57
 ENERGY BALANCE AROUND H2S ABSORBER

F12 (selexol In)

H2S
F9 (Synthesis Gas) F11 (Synthesis Gas)
ABSORBER

F15 (selexol + H2S)

Suppose, 98.5% of H2S is removed

90% of CO2 is removed

For Gas:
F9 = 1334.3 kg/hr
Cpgas = 1.488 KJ/kg ℃
F9 = 343K (70℃)
F11 = 338K (65℃)
As,
Q = m×Cp× ∆T
So,
Q = F9×Cpgas ×(T9 – T11)
Putting all values in above formula,
Q = (1334.3×1.488×(70 – 65))/3600
Q = 2.76KW

58
For Selexol:
Cpselexol = 4423 KJ/kg ℃
Tin = 298.15 (25℃)
Tout = ?
As,
Q = m×Cp× ∆T
So,
Q = F10×Cpselexol ×(Tout – Tin)
Putting all values in above formula,
2.76=4423×2.05×(Tout-25)
Tout=26.8ᵒC.

59
Chapter # 05
Equipment Design

60
 GASIFIER DESIGN
Designing Steps:
 Flow Rate
 Operating conditions & properties
 Volume Of Reactor
 Diameter Of Reactor
 Length Of Reactor
 Distribution Plate
 Material Of Construction
 Insulation Around Gasifier

Flow Rate:
Flow rate of Gaseous product coming out of gasifier = F5
And,
F5 = 1370 kg/hr
OR
F5 = 0.38 kg/sec

Operating conditions & Properties:

T = 1200k
P = 40 atm
Density = 𝜌gas = 0.216 kg/m3
Molecular weight = M = 21.3 kg/kgmol

Volume of Reactor:
Chemical Reactions

C + H2O 2CO

CO + H2O CO2 + H2

C + H2O CO + H2

61
Rate Determining Step

Thermodynamic study of these reactions shows that reaction 3 is the slowest and rate
determining step

C + H2O CO + H2

Order of Reaction

Order of reaction = 2

It is considered that the selected gasifier shows behaviour of a plug flow reactor.

For Plug Flow Reactor

Performance equation is:

ɽ = ∫ dCA / -rA

= CAo ∫ dXA / -rA

For 2nd order reaction

-rA = K CA2

Or -rA= K [CC][CH2O]

Cc = concentration of carbon (kmol/m3)

CH2O = concentration of water (kmol/m3)

XA = Fractional conversion

-rA = Reaction rate (kmol/m3.s)

k = Rate constant

Reaction Rate

Fractional conversion of C = Xc = 0.8

62
Initial concentration = CCo = 0.041 kmol/m3

Final concentration = CC =?

CC = CCo (1-XA/1+ᶓXA)

ᶓ = Fractional change in volume

ᶓ= (2-2)/2

ᶓ= 0

CC = CCo(1-Xc)

CC = 0.041(1-0.8)

CC = 0.008 kmol/m3

Since reaction is second order the rate of reaction is

-rc = kCC2

-rc = k[CC][CH2O]

For [CH2O]

PV = nRT

CH2O = P/RT

40
CH2O =
0.082 ×673

CH2O = 0.7 Kmol/m3

-rc = 1[CC][ CH2O]

= 0.008x0.74

-rc = 0.0059 Kmol/ m3. sec

63
Residence Time

ɽ = CAo 0∫ 0.8dXA / -r A

0.041×0.8
=
0.0059

= 5.5 sec

Volume of Reactor:
Volume of gasifier can be calculated as:
Volume of gasifier = Volumetric flow rate × Residence time (2)
For Volumetric flow rate,
Volumetric flow rate = Mass flow rate/Density
Where,
F5 = Mass flow rate = 0.38 kg/sec
𝜌gas = 0.216 kg/m3
So,
Volumetric flow rate = 0.38/0.216
Volumetric flow rate = 1.86 m3/sec
As, Residence time = 5.5 sec
So; equation (2) will be
Volume of Gasifier = 1.86 × 5.5
Volume of Gasifier = 9.66 m3 (3)

Diameter of Reactor:
As,
Volume = лD2L/4

64
From (3),
9.66 = лD2L/4 (4)
For reactor, L/D ratio is between 3-6.
Suppose,
L/D = 4.5
So,
L =4.5D
Equation (4) will,

𝜋𝐷2 4.5𝐷
9.66 =
4
So,
D3 = 2.73 m3
D = 1.4 m

Length of Reactor:
So,
L = 4.5 × 1.4
L = 6.3 m
For safety assuming 10% margin for length & diameter.
So; Finally
L = 6.93 m
D = 1.54 m

Material of Construction:
Material used for the construction of gasifier is 316L stainless steel.

Insulation around Gasifier:

To prevent heat losses from gasifier insulation of gasifier is necessary. For thermal insulation of
gasifier fibreglass or mineral wool (ceramic fibber wool) can be used.

65
 GASIFIER DESIGN DATA SHEET

Gasifier Data Sheet Equipment No. 1

Sheet No. 1

Operating Data Numeric Value Units

Mass flow rate of Coal (In) 1050 Kg/hr

Mass flow rate of Oxygen (In) 266.6 Kg/hr

Mass flow rate of Steam (In) 249.5 Kg/hr

Mass flow rate of Gaseous Product (Out) 1370.5 Kg/hr

Density of Gaseous Product 0.204 Kg/ m3

Vol. Flow rate of Gaseous product (Out) 1.86 m3/sec

Volume of Gasifier 9.66 m3

Diameter of Gasifier 1.54 m

Length of Gasifier 6.93 m

66
 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN
Design Steps:
 Flow rate and physical properties
 Heat load on heat exchanger
 Log mean temperature difference
 Overall heat transfer coefficient
 Heat transfer area
 Exchanger type and dimensions
 Number of tubes
 Bundle diameter
 Shell diameter
 Tube side heat transfer coefficient
 Shell side heat transfer coefficient
 Overall heat transfer coefficient
 Tube side pressure drop
 Shell side pressure drop

Flow Rate & Physical Properties:

Mass flow rate of Gas (In) = F5 = 1370.5 kg/hr = 0.38 kg/sec
Mass flow rate of Gas (Out) = F6 = 1370.5 kg/hr = 0.38 kg/sec
Mass flow rate of Cooling Water (In) = Fi = 5418 kg/hr
Mass flow rate of cooling Water (Out) = Fo = 5418 kg/hr
Temperature of Gas (In) = T5 (T1) = 1173K (900℃)
Temperature of Gas (Out) = T6 (T2) = 353K (80℃)
Temperature of cooling water (In) = Ti (t1) = 298K (25℃)
Temperature of cooling water (Out) = To (t2) = 371.5K (98.5℃)
Cpgas = 1.488 KJ/kg. ℃
Cpwater = 4.18 KJ/kg. ℃

67
Heat Load on Heat Exchanger:
As,
Q = m×Cp× ∆T
For gas; putting all values in formula;
Q = [0.38 × 1.488 × (900 − 80)]
Q = 463.6 KW

Log Mean Temperature Difference (∆TLM):

As,

[(T1 – t2) – (T2 – t1)]

LMTD = ∆TLM =
[ln {(T1 – t2)/ (T2 – t1)}]

Where,
T1 = 1173K (900℃)
T2 = 353K (80℃)
t1 = 298K (25℃)
t2 = 371.5K (98.5℃)
Putting all the values, we get
∆TLM = 279 ℃

Corrected LMTD (∆TM):

R = T1 – T2/t2 – t1

= (900 - 80) / (98.5 - 25)

R = 11.1

S = t2 – t1 / T1 – t1

= 98.5 – 25 / 900 – 25

S = 0.084

68
So from Graph (Temp. correction factor) Ft = 0.99

Corrected LMTD = ∆Tm = ∆Tlm * Ft

= 279 * 0.99

= 278.7°C

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient:

Suppose,
Overall Heat Transfer coefficient = 70 W/m2. ℃

Heat Transfer Area:

Suppose,
Overall Heat Transfer coefficient = 80 W/m2. ℃
Q = U×A× ∆TM
A = Q/ (U× ∆TM)
Putting values,
A = 463.6 × 1000/ (80 × 278.7)
A = 20.8 m2

Exchanger Type & Dimensions:

Choosing “Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger”
Choosing standard dimensions of heat exchanger.
Inner Diameter of tubes (i.d) = 16mm = 0.016m
Outer Diameter of Tubes (o.d) = 20mm = 0.02m
Cupro-Nickel tubes of Length = L = 4.88m
As,
Area of one Tube = Ao
Ao = л × do × L
69
 Ao = 3.4159 × 0.020 × 4.88
Ao = 0.31 m2

Number of Tubes:
Number of tubes = Nt
Nt = heat transfer area / area of one tube
Nt = A/Ao
Nt = 20.8/0.31
Nt = 68

Bundle Diameter:
Diameter of bundle = Do
Do = do × [Nt/K1](1/n1)
Using 1.25 triangular pitch.
For 1.25 triangular pitch & two tube passes: (Table 12.4)
K1 = 0.249
N1 = 2.207
So,
Db = 0.02 × [68/0.249](1/2.207)
Db = 0.254m

Shell Diameter:
Diameter of Shell = Ds
Ds = Db + Clearance
Using split floating head type.
For split ring floating head type:
Clearance = 0.0520m (Using fig. 12.10)
So,
Ds = 0.254 + 0.0540
70
 Ds = 0.306 m

Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient:

(1)

Syngas viscosity = µ = 0.02257 mNs/m2

Syngas thermal conductivity = kf = 0.2501 W/m°C
𝑑𝑖 𝑢 𝜌
Re =
𝜇
As, gas mass velocity G = u.ρ
So,
𝑑𝑖 𝐺
Re =
𝜇
For G
Tube cross section area = Ai
Ai = (л × di2)/4
Ai = (3.14 × 0.0162)/4
Ai = 201 × 10-6 m2
Tube per pass = Tpp
Tpp = Nt/2
Tpp = 68/2
Tpp = 34
Total flow area = At
At = Tpp × Ai
At = 34 × 201 × 10-6
At = 0.0068 m2
Water mass velocity = G

71
 G = mass flow rate of gas/At
G = 0.38/0.0068
G = 55.6 kg/m2.sec
𝑑𝑖 𝐺
So, Re =
𝜇
Re = (16×10-6 × 55.6) / 0.02257×10-6
Re = 39415
Prandtl number = Pr
Pr = (Cpgas × 𝜇 gas)/kgas
Pr = (1.488×103 × 0.02257×10-3)/0.251
Pr = 0.14
Also,
𝐿 4.88
= = 305
𝐷𝑖 0.016

Using graph (12.23), the value of JH using Re with 25% baffle cut,
JH = 0.0034

Putting all the values in equation (1)

0.0032×0.2501×39415×0.140.33
Hi =
0.016
Hi = 1030 W/m°C

Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient:

Shell side heat transfer coefficient can be calculated as:

K𝑔𝑎𝑠 ×Jh×Re×Pr0.33
Ho = (2)
De

72
Baffle Spacing = Lb
Lb = Ds × 0.2
Lb = 0.0612m
Tube Pitch = pt
pt = 1.25 × do
pt = 1.25 × 0.20
pt = 0.025 m
Cross flow area = As
As = (pt - do) × Ds × Lb /pt
As = (0.025 – 0.02) × 0.306 × 0.0612 /0.025
As = 0.003745 m2
Mass Velocity Gs
Gs = Mass flow rate of Water / As
Gs = 1.5/0.003745
Gs = 400 kg/m2.sec
Equivalent Diameter = de
de = (1.10/do) × (pt2 – 0.917do2)
de = (1.10/0.02) × (0.0252 – 0.917 × 0.022)
de = 0.0142 m
Mean shell side Temperature =T
T = (T1 + T2)/2
T = (98.5 + 25)/2
T = 61.77℃
We have,

Density of Water = 𝜌water = 1000 kg/m3

Viscosity of Water = 𝜇 Water = 0.89 mN.s/m2

73
 Heat Capacity of Water = Cpwater = 4.18 kJ/kg ℃

Thermal Conductivity of Water = kWater = 0.66 W/m℃

Reynolds number = Re
𝑑𝑒 𝐺𝑠
Re =
𝜇
Re = (400 × 14.201×10-3) / 0.89×10-3
Re = 6382
Prandtl number = Pr
Pr = (Cp × 𝜇)/k
Pr = (4180 × 0.89×10-3)/0.66
Pr = 6.09
Using graph (12.29) to find the value of JH using Re with 25% baffle cut,
So,
JH = 0.021
Putting all value in formula,
Ho = (kgas × jH × Re × Pr0.33)/(de)
Ho = (0.021 × 0.66 × 6382 × 6.09.33)/(0.0142)
Ho = 11300 W/m2.℃

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient:

1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑜
= + + 𝑙𝑛
𝑈𝑜 𝐻𝑜 𝐻𝑖 2𝐾𝑤 𝑑𝑖
Where,
Thermal Conductivity of Cupro-Nickel alloy = Kw
Kw = 50 W/m2.℃
Now, putting all value in the formula,
1
= (1/11300) + (0.02/0.016) × (1/1030) + [{0.02 × ln (0.02/0.016)}/2×50]
𝑈𝑜

74
 1
= 134.31×10-5 W/m2.℃
𝑈𝑜

So,
Uo = 745 W/m2.℃
Hence,
Uo is high enough to our assumed value.

Tube Side Pressure Drop:

Using the relation to find out the pressure drop for tube side:
∆Pt = Np × [8 × jf × (L/di) + 2.5] × (𝜌 × Ut2/2)
Or,

𝐺2
∆Pt = Np × [8 × jf × (L/di) + 2.5] ×
2𝜌
Where,
Np = 2 (2 tube side pass)
Re = 39415
From graph (12.24) find out the value of jf using Re
Jf = 0.0035
Now, putting all value is the above formula,
∆Pt = 2 × [8 × 0.0035 × (4.88/0.016) + 2.5] × (55.62/2×13.6)
∆Pt = 31604 N/m2
Pressure drop on tube side is low. So, we can increase the number of tubes passes.

Shell Side Pressure Drop:

Using relation to find the pressure drop for shell side:
∆Ps = 8 × jf × (Ds/de) × (L/Lb) × (𝜌gas × Us2/2)
Where,
Us = Gs/ 𝜌water
Us = 400/1000
75
 Us = 0.4 m/s
Re = 6382
From graph (12.30) find out the value of jf using Re.
jf = 0.05
Now, putting all value is the formula
∆Ps = 8 × 0.05 × (0.306/0.0142) × (4.88/0.976) × (1000 × 0.42/2)
∆Ps = 3400 N/m2

76
 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN DATA SHEET

Heat Exchanger Data Sheet Equipment No 2

Sheet no 1
Operating Data Numeric Value Units
Heat load 463.6 KW
Log Mean Temperature Difference 278 ℃
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient(Assumed) 80 W/m2.℃
Heat Transfer Area 20.8 m2
Flow Rate of Cooling Water (In) 5418 Kg/hr
Flow Rate of Cooling Water (Out) 5418 Kg/hr
Temperature of Cooling Water (In) 25 ℃
Temperature of Cooling Water (Out) 98.5 ℃
Density of Water 1000 Kg/m3
Heat Capacity of Water 4.18 KJ/kg. ℃
Flow Rate of Gas (In) 1370.5 Kg/hr
Floe Rate of Gas (Out) 1370.5 Kg/hr
Temperature of Gas (In) 900 ℃
Temperature of Gas (Out) 80 ℃
Thermal Conductivity of Gas 0.00257 W/m.℃
Density of Gas 0.74 Kg/m3
Viscosity of Gas 0.00257 mN/m2
Heat Capacity of Gas 1.488 KJ/kg. ℃
Number of Tube Passes 2
Number of Tubes 68
Outside Diameter of Tube 0.020 m
Inside Diameter of Tube 0.016 m
Length of Each Tube 4.88 m
Tube Arrangement Triangular
Thermal Conductivity of Material 50 W/m.℃
Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient 1030 W/m2.℃
Tube Side Pressure Drop 4.6 psi
Number of Shell Pass 1
Shell Diameter 0.4708 m
Bundle Diameter 0.306 m
Material of Construction Carbon Steel
Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient 11300 W/m2.℃
Shell Side Pressure Drop 0.5 psi
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 745 W/m2.℃
77
 CYCLONE SEPARATOR
Design Steps:
 Feed Rates
 Physical Properties
 Design Inlet Velocity
 Area of Inlet Duct
 Cyclone Diameter
 Diameter of Gas Exit
 Diameter of Ash Discharge
 Length of Body
 Length of Cone
 Area of Exit Pipe
 Pressure Drop In Cyclone Separator
 Material of Construction

Feed Rate & Physical Properties:

Mass Flow Rate of Gas (In) = F6 = 1370.5 kg/hr = 0.38 kg/s
Mass Flow Rate of Gas (Out) = F7 = 1339.9 kg/hr = 0.37 kg/s
Solid Removed = F8 = 30.62 kg/hr
𝜌gas = 0.74 kg/m3 (at 80°C)
As,
Volumetric flow rate of gas = mass flow rate of gas/density of gas
Volumetric flow rate of gas = 0.38/0.74
Volumetric flow rate of gas = 0.513 m3/sec
The optimum velocity of separation having range 10-20

Let

U1 = 15 m/sec

78
Inlet Duct Area:

We know that

G = ῥU1A

Inlet Duct Area of gas = G =ῥU1A1

0.38 = (0.74) (15) A1

A1 = 0.034 m2

Diameter of cyclone:

From figure,

Area of duct = Ai = 0.5xDcx 0.2Dc

0.034 = Ai = 0.1Dc2

Dc2 = 0.034/0.1

Dc = 0.58

Dc = 1.516 m

Length of upper section:

Lc = 1.5Dc

Lc = 1.5 × 0.58

Lc = 0.88 m

Length of lower Section:

Zc = 2.5Dc

Zc = 2.5 × 0.58

Zc = 1.45 m
79
Total length:

H = Lc + Zc

H = 0.88 + 1.45

H = 2.33

Outlet Duct dia & Area of gas:

Do = 0.5Dc

Do = 0.5 × 0.58

Do = 0.29 m

Ao = π/4 Do2

Ao = 3.14/4 (0.29)2

Ao = 0.07 m2

Dia of Dust Collector:

Dd = 0.357 × Dc

Dd = 0.357 × 0.58

Dd = 0.21 m

Outlet gas velocity:

G =ῥU2Ao

0.37 = (0.74) (U2) (0.07)

U2 = 7.14 m/s

80
Pressure drop:

(1)

For value of ɸ from figure 10.47, we evaluate

As = π Dc H

As = 3.14 × 0.58 × 2.33

As = 4.25 m2

Ψ = 0.005 × 4.25/0.034

Ψ = 0.62

Also,

Dc / Db = 0.58/0.21 = 2.76

From figure 10.47

ɸ = 0.97

Putting all values in equation (1), we get

ΔP = 8.17 bar

Material of Construction:
Stainless steel will be the suitable material for the construction of cyclone separator.

81
 CYCLONE SEPARATOR DESIGN SHEET
Gasifier Data Sheet Equipment No. 3
Sheet No. 1
Operating Data Numeric Value Units
Flow Rate of Gas (In) 1370.5 Kg/hr
Flow Rate of Gas (Out) 1339.9 Kg/hr
Solid Removed 30.6 Kg/hr
Density of Gas 0.74 Kg/m3
Design Inlet Velocity 15 m/s
Area of Inlet Duct 0.034 m2
Area of Exit Pipe 0.07 m2
Cyclone Diameter 0.58 m
Diameter of Gas Exit 0.29 m
Diameter of Ash Discharge 0.21 m
Length of Body 0.88 m
Length of Cone 1.45 m

Exit Duct Velocity 7.14 m/s

Pressure Drop 8.17 bar

Material of Construction Stainless Steel

82
 H2S ABSORBER
Design steps:
 Flow Rates & Physical Properties
 Packing Specifications
 Column Area Required
 Column Diameter
 Height of Absorption Column
 Liquid Distribution
 Packing Support

Flow Rates & Physical Properties:

Flow Rate of Gas (In) = 1334.3kg/hr
Flow Rate of Gas (In) = V = 0.37 kg/sec
Flow Rate of Liquid (In) = 4423 kg/hr
Flow Rate of Liquid (In) = L = 1.23 kg/sec
Flow Rate of Gas (Out) = 431.85 kg/hr
Flow Rate of Liquid (Out) =5325.45 kg/hr
Temperature of Gas (In) = 348 K (75℃)
Temperature of Gas (Out) = 343 K (70℃)
Temperature of Liquid (In) = 298 K (25℃)
Temperature of Liquid (Out) = 300 K (27℃)
Density of Gas = ρgas = ρv = 0.74 kg/m3
Viscosity of Gas = µgas = µv
µv = 3.62*10-5 Ns/m2
Heat Capacity of Gas = Cpgas = Cpv
Cpv = 1.488 kJ/kg. ℃
Density of Liquid = ρliquid = ρL
ρL = 1031.8 kg/m3

83
 Viscosity of Liquid = µ liquid = µL
µL = 0.0058 Ns/m2
Heat Capacity of Liquid = CpLiquid = CpL
CpL = 2.05 kJ/kg. ℃
Molecular Weight of Liquid = (Mol Wt.)L
(Mol Wt.)L = 206 kg/kmol

Packing Specifications:
Packing Type = Intaiox Saddle (Ceramic)
Packing Size = dp = 1 .1/2 in (38 mm) = 0.038m
Packing Factor = Fp = 170 m-1
Surface Area of Packing = a = 194 m2/m3
Porosity of Packing Factor = ε = 0.76

Column Area Required:

Column Area Required = Ax
Ax = V/Vw
First we have to find out Vw (Gas mass flow rate)

Where,
K4 = Pressure drop factor
For K4, we use graph 11.44
FLV = (L/V)*(ρv/ ρL) 0.5
FLV = (1.23/0.37)*(0.75/1031.8)0.5
FLV = 0.1

84
Using graph (11.44) “FLV” vs “K4”
K4 = 1.3
And, at flooding:
K4 = 3.1
To find out Vw using following relation:
Vw = [{K4 × ρv×(ρL - ρv)}/ {13.1×Fp ×(µL/ ρL) 0.1}] 0.5
Now, putting all value in the above formula.
Vw = [{1.3×0.74(1031.8 – 0.74)} / {13.1×170×(0.0058/1031.8)0.1}] 0.5
Vw = 1.22 kg/m2.sec
As we know that the column area required = Ax
Ax = V/Vw
Ax = 0.37/1.22
Ax = 0.31 m2

Column Diameter:
Column Diameter = d
d = (4×A/π) 1/2
d = (4×0.31/3.14159)1/2
d = 0.63 m

Height of an Overall Gas Phase Transfer Unit Using Onda’s Method:

Height of an Overall Gas Phase Transfer Unit = H OG

The film or mass transfers co-efficient are given by:

85
Where,
P = column operating pressure,
Ct = total concentration, kmol/m3,
Gm = gas flow-rate per unit cross-sectional area,
Lm = molar liquid flow-rate per unit cross-sectional area,
aw = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume.
To Calculate HOG first we have to find out the “effective area (aw)” & the mass transfer co-
efficient by using following Formula:

Where,

86
Effective interfacial area aw:
Effective interfacial area is given by:

Now,
σc = 0.061 N/m (Ceramic)
σL = 0.03 N/m
Lw = L/Ax
Lw = 1.23/0.31
Lw = 3.97 kg/m2.sec
a = surface area of packing = 194 m2/m3
Putting all values in formula,
aw/194 = 1 – exp [{-1.45}×{(0.061/0.03)0.75}×{(3.97/194×0.0058)0.1}×
{(3.972*194/1031.82*9.8)-0.05}×{(3.972/1031.8*0.03*194)0.2}]
Solving for “aw”
aw = 162.3272 m2/m3

Liquid film mass transfer co-efficient (KL):

Liquid film mass transfer co-efficient (KL) can be calculated by following formula:

Putting all the values in formula,

KL×{(1031.8/0.0058×9.81)0.33} = {0.0051}×{(3.97/139.5×0.0058)2/3}× {(0.0058/1031.8)-
0.5
}×{(194*0.038)0.4}
Solving for KL
KL = 5.3×10-5 m/s

87
Gas film mass transfer co-efficient (KG):
Gas film mass transfer co-efficient (KG) can be calculated by following formula:

Putting all the values in formula,

(KG/194)×(0.08314×348) = {5.23}×{(1.22/194×3.62×10-5)0.7}×{(3.62×10-
5
/0.94)0.33}×{(194×0.038)-2}
Solving for KG
KG = 9.2×10-4 k mol/m2.sec.atm

Gas film transfer Unit HG:

Where,
Gm = Vw/Mol Wt.
Gm = 1.22/21.3
Gm = 0.057 k mol/m2.sec
Now, putting all the value in the formula,
HG = 0.057/9.2×10-4×139.5×1.013
HG = 4.5 m

Liquid Film Transfer Unit HL:

Where,
Lm= L/Mol Wt. × Ax
Lm = 1.23/206×0.31
88
 Lm = 0.019 k mol/m2.sec
And,
Ct = ρL/ (Mol Wt.)L
Ct = 1031.8/206
Ct = 5.01 k mol/m3
Now, putting all the values in the formula,
HL = 0.019/5.3×10-5×139.5×5.01
HL = 0.52 m

Overall height of transfer unit:

As,
HOG = HG + [m(Gm/Lm)]*HL
Optimum value of [m(Gm/Lm)] is between 0.7 to 0.8
Suppose,
[m (Gm/Lm)] = 0.75
HOG = 4.5 + (0.75)*0.513
HOG = 4.9 m
Or HOG = 5 m

Packing Support:
The main function of packing support as shown in the Figure below is to physically support the
packed bed and prevent the downward migration of packing pieces. Packing support should have
sufficient open area to permit unrestricted flow of liquid and vapour. Grid supports are
commonly used. A layer of structured packing can sometimes be used as support.

Liquid Distributors:
As the name implies, its function is to distribute liquid evenly across the packings.
The two most commonly used designs are:
i. Orifice type
ii. Weir type

89
In the orifice type the liquid flows through holes in the plate and the gas through short stand
pipes. The gas pipes should be sized to give sufficient area for gas flow without creating a
significant pressure drop. For large-diameter columns, the trough-type distributor can be used.

Absorber Design Data Sheet

Absorber Data Sheet Equipment No. 4
Sheet No. 1
Operating Data Numerical value Units
Flow Rate Of Gas(In) 1334.3 Kg/hr
Flow Rate Of Gas(Out) 431.85 Kg/hr
Flow Rate Of Liquid(In) 4423 Kg/hr
Flow Rate Of Liquid(Out) 5325 kg/hr
Temperature Of Gas(In) 75 °C
Temperature Of Gas(Out) 70 °C
Temperature Of Liquid(In) 25 °C
Temperature Of Liquid(Out) 27 °C
Density Of Gas 0.74 kg/m3
Viscosity Of Gas 3.62*10-5 Ns/m2
Heat Capacity Of Gas 1.488 kJ/kg.℃
Molecular Weight Of Gas 21.3 kg/k mol
Density Of Liquid 1031.8 kg/m3
Viscosity Of Liquid 0.0058 Ns/m2
Heat Capacity Of Liquid 2.05 kJ/kg.℃
Molecular Weight Of Liquid 206 kg/k mol
Packing Type Intalox Saddle Ceramic
Packing Size 0.038 m
Packing Factor 170 m-1
Surface Area Of Packing 194 m2/m3
Column Area Required 0.31 m2
Column Diameter 0.63 m
Height Of Absorption Column 6 m

90
Chapter # 06
Instrumentation

91
INSTRUMENATION:
Instrumentation is applied in order to monitor and control the key processes variables during
plant operation. Instruments may be incorporated in automatic control loops or used for the
manual monitoring of the process operation. Instruments monitoring critical process variables
will be fitted with automatic alarms to alert the operators to critical and hazardous situations.

Process control objectives:

 To detect dangerous situations to provide alarms and automatic shut-down system.
 Provide interlocks and alarms to prevent from dangerous operating procedures.
 Maintain the product composition within the specified quality standards.
 Achieve the desired output of the product.
 Operate at the lowest production cost, commerce with the other objectives.
 Typically, these objectives are achieved by a combination of automatic control, manual
monitoring and laboratory analysis.

Elements of control system:

a) Measuring instruments or sensors
b) Transducers
c) Transmission lines
d) Controllers
e) Final control element

a. Measuring instruments or sensors:

Measuring instruments are used to detect the disturbances, the controlled output variables, and to
measure what is going on in the process. The measuring instrument depends upon the types of
variable which is to be measured, and these variables must be recorded as well.

Following are some typical sensors which are used:

 Pressure sensors
 Temperature sensors
 Flow rate sensors
92
  Level sensors

b. Transducers:
Transducers are the devices which are used to convert the mechanical signal to electronic signal.
Many measurements cannot be used for control until they are converted to electric voltage,
current or a pneumatic signal.
For example, stream gauges are metallic conductors whose resistance changes when mechanical
strain is imposed on them.

c. Transmission Lines:
These are used to carry measurements signal from measuring device to the controller. Mostly,
the measurements coming from a device are very weak so it is very common to find amplifiers in
the transmission lines.

For example the output of a thermocouple is only a few milli-volts so they must be amplified to
few volts to get to the controller.

d. Controller:
This is a hardware element that has "intelligence".
It receives the information from the measuring device and decides what action must be carried
out. The older controllers were of limited intelligence and could perform very limited and simple
operations.
The use of digital computers in this field has increased the use of complicated control laws.

e. The Final Control Element:

This is the hardware element that implements the decision taken by the controller. For example,
if the controller decides that flow rate of the outlet stream should be increased or decreased in
order to keep the level of the liquid in a tank then the final control element which is a control
valve in this case implements the decision by slightly opening or closing the valve.

Modes of control:
The different modes depend upon the types of controllers and the action they take to control any
process variable. This signal is compared with the set point to the controller and the error
between these two is used to control the process.

93
Simple modes:
 On-off control
 Proportional control
 Derivative control
 Integral control
 Composite control
 Composite modes:
 Proportional-Derivative controller (PD-controller)
 Proportional-Integral controller (PI-controller)
 Proportional-Integral Derivative controller (PID-controller)

Selection of controller:
Actually in industry, only P, PI and PID control modes are the usual practice. The selection of
most appropriate type of controller for any particular environment is a very systematic
procedure. Usually it is selected using only quantitative considerations stemming from the
analysis of the system and ending at the properties of that particular controller and the control
objective.
In short best controller is selected on following basis;
 Severity of process
 Accuracy required
 Cost

Control loops:
For instrumentation and control of different sections and equipment of plants, following control
loops are mostly used.
 Feedback control loop
 Feed forward control
 Auctioneering control loop
 Split range control loop
 Cascade control loop

Feedback Control Loop:

A method of control in which a measured value of a process variable is compared with the
desired value of the process variable and any necessary action is taken.

94
Feedback control is considered as the basic control loops system. Its disadvantage lies in its
operational procedure.

For example if a certain quantity is entering in a process, then a monitor will be there at the
process to note its value. Any changes from the set point will be sent to the final control element
through the controller so that to adjust the incoming quantity according to desired value (set
point).

Feed Forward Control Loop:

A method of control in which the value of a disturbance is measured, then action is taken to
prevent the disturbance by changing the value of a process variable.
This is a control method designed to prevent errors from occurring in a process variable. This
control system is better than feedback control because it anticipates the change in the process
variable before it enters the process takes the preventive action.

Ratio Control:
A control loop in which, the controlling element maintains a predetermined ratio of one variable
to another. Usually this control loop is attached to such a system where two different streams
enter a vessel for reaction that may be of any kind. To maintain the stoichiometric quantities of
different streams this loop is used so that to ensure proper process going on in the process vessel.

Auctioneering Control Loop:

This type of control loop is normally used for a huge vessel where, readings of a single variable
may be different at different locations. This type of control loop ensures safe operation because it
employs all the readings of different locations simultaneously, and compares them with the set
point, if any of those readings is deviating from the set point then the controller sends
appropriate signal to final control element.

Split Range Loops:

In this loop controller is per set with different values corresponding to different action to be
taken at different conditions. The advantage of this loop is to maintain the proper conditions and
avoid abnormalities at very differential levels.

Cascade Control Loop:

This is a control in which two or more control loops are arranged so that the output of, one
controlling element adjusts the set point of another controlling element. This control loop is used
95
where proper and quick control is difficult by simple feed forward or feed backward control.
Normally first loop is a feedback control loop. We have selected a cascade control loop for our
heat exchanger in order to get quick on proper control.

Control loop for Gasifier:

In the gasifier reactor it is very important to control the temperature of the gasifier, because with
the rise in temperature in the gasifier may be desired reaction cannot be obtained.
So, using of the temperature control in the gasifier can solve this problem. In the gasifier the
temperature is controlled by the steam entering in the gasifier.

96
Control loop for Heat Exchanger:
Heat Exchangers are inherently stable operating units. However, control on flow parameters is
necessary and proper indication and recording of the inlet and outlet conditions is recommended.
Temperature measuring elements and heat exchanger installation should be placed as close as
possible to the active heat exchanger surface for adequate mixing of the process stream.
The temperature is control by feedback control loop system.

97
Control loop for Compressor:
The compressor is used to obtain the require pressure for the absorption column so pressure
controller is used to check the pressure of the stream.

98
Control loop for Absorber:
During absorption process we must have to control the pressure inside the absorbing column and
the temperature at the top outlet of the column. The pressure is controlled by the feedback
control system.
The level is controlled by controlling the flow of the rich solvent beneath of the by feedback
control system. The feedback control system is important in controlling the pressure, level inside
the absorber and the temperature inside the absorber.

99
Chapter # 07
Cost Estimation

100
COST ESTIMATION:
Cost engineering is an area of engineering practice concerned with the “application of scientific
principles and techniques to problems of cost estimating, cost control, business planning and
management science, profitability analysis, project management, planning and scheduling.”
Cost engineering is most important part of construction engineering, engineering management,
and related construction capital projects. Engineering economics is a core skill and knowledge
area of cost engineering.
Fixed Capital:
Fixed capital is the total cost of the plant ready for start-up. It is the cost paid to contractors.
It includes the cost of:
1. Design, and other engineering and construction supervision.
2. All items of equipment and their installation.
3. All piping, instrumentation and control systems.
4. Buildings and structures.
5. Auxiliary facilities, such as utilities, land and civil engineering work.
It is a once-only cost that is not recovered at the end of the project life, other than the scrap
value.
Working Capital:
Working capital is the additional investment needed, over and above the fixed capital, to start the
plant up and operate it to the point when income is earned.
It includes the cost of:
1) Start-up.
2) Initial catalyst charges.
3) Raw materials and intermediates in the process.
4) Finished product inventories.
5) Funds to cover outstanding accounts from customers.
Most of the working capital is recovered at the end of the project. The total investment needed
for a project is the sum of fixed and working capital.

101
Operating Costs:
An estimate of the operating costs, the cost of producing the product, is needed to judge the
viability of a project, and to make choices between possible alternative processing schemes.
These costs can be estimated from the flow sheet, which gives the raw material and service
requirements, and the capital cost estimate.
The cost of producing a chemical product will include the item listed below. They are divided
into two groups.
Fixed Costs:
Fixed operating costs are the costs that do not vary with production rate. These are the bills that
have to be paid whatever the quantity produced.
 Maintenance (labor and materials)
 Operating labor
 Laboratory costs
 Supervision
 Plant overheads
 Capital charges
 Rates (and any other local taxes)
 Insurance
 License fees and royalty payments.

Variable Costs:
1) Variable operating costs are the costs that are dependent on the amount of product produced.
2) Raw materials
3) Miscellaneous operating materials
4) Utilities (Services)
5) Shipping and packaging
The costs listed above are the direct costs of producing the product at the plant site. In addition to
these costs the site will have to carry its share of the Company’s general operating expenses.
These will include:
 General overhead
 Research and development costs
 Sales expense
 Reserves

102
Direct Costs:
The direct cost items that are incurred in the construction of plant, in addition to the cost of
equipment are:
 Equipment erection, including foundations and minor structural work.
 Piping, including insulation and painting.
 Electrical, power and lighting.
 Instruments, local and control room.
 Ancillary buildings, offices, laboratory buildings, workshops.
 Storages, raw materials and finished product.
 Utilities (Services), provision of plant for steam, water, air, firefighting services (if not
casted separately).
 Site and site preparation.

Indirect Costs:
 Design and engineering costs, which cover the cost of design and the cost of
“engineering” the plant: purchasing, procurement and construction supervision. Typically
20 percent to 30 percent of the direct capital costs.
 Contractor’s fees, If a contractor is employed his fee (profit) would be added to the total
capital cost and would range from 5 percent to 10 percent of the direct costs.
 Contingency allowance, this is an allowance built into the capital cost estimate to cover
for unforeseen circumstances (labor disputes, design errors, adverse weather)
 Typically 5 percent to 10 percent of the direct costs.

103
Total Purchased Cost of Major Equipment (PCE):
1. Cost Estimation of Feed Hopper:
As,
Volume of hopper = S = 4 m3
Material of construction: Carbon steel (CS)
From table 6.2, page.259, Coulson Vol.6,
Cost = C = 2400
Index = n = 0.6
So,
Ce = C*Sn = ($2,400)*(4)0.6
The purchase cost = $6,303 (in-mid 2004)
As,
2.5% increase occurs every year;
The purchase cost = ($6,303)*(1.025)12

= $8,480 (in-mid2016)

Hence,

Purchase Cost of Hopper = C1 = $8,480

2. Cost Estimation of Conveyor:

As,
Width = 1 m
Length = S = 15 m
From table 6.2, page.259, Coulson Vol.6;
Index = n = 0.75

104
Cost = C = $2,900
So,
Ce = CSn = ($2,900)*(15)0.75
The purchase cost = $22,104 (in-mid 2004)
As,
2.5% increase occurs every year;
The purchase cost = ($22,104)*(1.025)12

= $29,700 (in-mid2016)

Hence,

Purchase Cost of Conveyor = C2 = $29,700

3. Cost Estimation of Gasifier:

Diameter = 1.54 m
Height = 6.93 m
Pressure = 40 bar
Material = Carbon Steel
From figure 6.5b, page.256, Coulson Vol.6;
Pressure factor = 1.6
Material factor = 1
Bare cost from figure = $19,000 (19*$1,000)
So,
The purchase cost = (Bare Cost)*(Pressure Factor) *(Material Factor)
= ($19,000)*(1.6)*(1)
= $30,400 (in mid-2004)
As,
2.5% increase occurs every year;

105
The purchase cost = ($30,400)*(1.025)12

= $40,884 (in-mid2016)

Hence,

Purchase Cost of Gasifier = C3 = $40,890

4. Cost Estimation of Heat Exchanger

Area = 20.8 m2

Pressure = 40 bar

Type = Floating head

Material = Cu-Ni alloy

From figure 6.3b, page.254, Coulson Vol.6;

Pressure factor = 1.3
Material factor = 1
Bare cost = $16,000 (16*$1,000)
So,
Purchase cost = (Bare Cost)*(Pressure Factor)*(Material Factor)
= ($16,000)*(1.3)*(1)
= $20,800 (in mid-2004)
As,
2.5% increase occurs every year;
The purchase cost = ($20,800)*(1.025)12
= $27,040 (in-mid2016)

Hence,

Cost of Heat Exchanger = C4= $27,040

106
 5. Cost Estimation of Cyclone Separator:
Diameter = 0.58 m

Height = 2.33 m

Pressure = 22 bar

Material = Carbon steel (CS)

From figure 6.5b, page.256, Coulson Vol.6;

Pressure factor = 1.4
Material factor = 1
Bare cost = $5,100 (5.1*$1,000)
So,
Purchase cost = (Bare Cost)*(Pressure Factor)*(Material Factor)
= ($5,100)*(1.4)*(1)
= $7,140 (in mid-2004)
As,
2.5% increase occurs every year;
The purchase cost = ($7,140)*(1.025)12
= $9,600 (in-mid2016)

Hence,

Cost of Cyclone Separator = C5 = $9,600

6. Cost Estimation of Absorber:

i. Cost of absorbing column:

Diameter = 0.63 m
107
Height = 5 m

Pressure = 30 bar

Material = Carbon steel (CS)

From figure 6.5b, page.256, Coulson Vol.6;

Pressure factor = 1.4
Material factor = 1
Bare cost = $10,000 (10*$1,000)
So,
Purchase cost = (Bare Cost)*(Pressure Factor)*(Material Factor)
= ($10,000)*(1.4)*(1)
= $14,000 (in mid-2004)
As,
2.5% increase occurs every year;
The purchase cost = ($14,000)*(1.025)12
= $18,830 (in-mid2016)

ii. Cost Estimation of Packing:

Column type: Packed

Packing type: Saddles, ceramic

Size of saddles: 38 mm

From table 6.3, page.259, Coulson Vol.6;

Packing height: (0.8)*(5 m) = 4 m

Cost of column packing/m3 = $1,020/m3

Volume of packing = (𝜋/4)*(Height of packing)

= (3.14/4)*(4) = 3.14 m3

108
So,

Purchase cost of 3.14 m3 volume = ($1,020)*(3.14)

= $3,200 (in-mid 2004)

As,
2.5% increase occurs every year;
The purchase cost = ($3,200)*(1.025)12
= $4,300 (in-mid 2016)

Cost Estimation of Absorber = Cost of column + Cost of packing

= $18,830 + $3,200 = $22,030 (in-mid 2016)

Hence,

Total Cost of Absorber = C6 = $22,030

7. Cost Estimation of Filter:

Area = S = 1.5 m2

Material of construction = Cast iron

From table 6.2, page.259, Coulson Vol.6;

Cost = C = $8,800

Index = n = 0.6
So,
Ce = CSn = ($8,800)*(1.5)0.6
The purchase cost = $11,225 (in-mid 2004)
As,
109
2.5% increase occurs every year;
The purchase cost = ($11,225)*(1.025)12

= $15,100 (in-mid2016)

Hence,

Cost of Filter = $15,100

8. Cost Estimation of Syngas Compressor:

Types = 4 stage centrifugal compressor

Power driver = 15 kW

From table 6.6, page.313, ChE Design Ray Sinnot, Ed.5th;

Size = S = 15 kW

a = 490,000

b = 16,800

n = 0.6

So,

Ce = a + b*(S)n = 490,000 + 16,800*(15)0.6

The purchase cost = $575,000

Hence,

Cost of Syngas Compressor = C8 = $575,000

110
9. Cost Estimation of HE Water Feed Pump:
Type = Single stage centrifugal

Flow rate = S= 1.5 L/h

From table 6.6, page.314, ChE design Ray Sinnot, Ed.5th

a = 6,900

b = 200

n = 0.9

So,

Ce = a + bSn = 6900 + 206*(1.5)0.9

The purchase cost = $7,200

Hence,

Cost Estimation of HE Feed Water Pump = C9 = $7,200

Total Purchased Cost of Equipment (PCE):

PCE = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 + C6 + C7 + C8 + C9

= $8,480 + $29,700 + $40,890 + $27,040 + $9,600 + $22,030 + $15,100 + $575,000 + $7,200

PCE = $735,040

Hence,

Purchase Cost of Equipment's (PCE) = $735,040

111
Total Fixed Capital Cost (FCC):
Typical factors for estimation of project fixed capital cost.

Total Physical Plant Cost (PPC):

PPC = CPE*(1+f1+f2+f3+f4+f5+f6+f7+f8+f9)

PPC = ($735,040)*(3.15)

PPC = $2,315,376

Hence,

Total Physical Plant Cost (PPC)= $2,315,000

Total Fixed Capital Cost (FCC):

Total Physical Plant Cost (PPC) PCF (fluids-solids)

f10 Equipment erection 0.45
f11 Piping 0.45
f12 Instrumentation 0.15
1+f10+f11+f12 1.40
FCC = (PPC)*(1+f10+f11+f12)
FFC = ($2,315,000)*(1.40)
FFC = $3,241,000

Hence,

Total Fixed Capital Cost (FFC)= $3,241,000

112
Estimation of Working Capital:
Working capital = (5%)*(Fixed Capital Cost)

= (0.05)*($3,241,000)

= $162,000

Hence,

Working Capital = $3,241,000

Total Capital Investment Required:

Total Investment Required = Fixed Capital Cost + Working Capital

= $3,241,000 + $162,000

= $3,403,000

Hence,

Total Capital Investment Required = $3,241,000

113
Total Annual Production Cost:
1. Fixed Cost:
Plant attainment = 85%

Operating time = 365*0.85 = 310 days/year

i. Maintenance Cost = (10%)*(Fixed Capital Cost)

= (0.10)*($ 3,241,000)

Maintenance Cost = $324,100

ii. Operating Labor = (15%)*(Fixed Capital Cost)

= (0.15)*($3,241,000)

Operating Labor = $486,150

iii. Capital Charges = (10%)*(Fixed Capital Cost)

= (0.1)*($ 3,241,000)

Capital Charges = $324,100

iv. Plant Overheads = (50%)*(Operating Labor)

= (0.5)*($486,150)

Plant Overheads = $243,075

v. Insurance = (1%)*(Fixed Capital Cost)

= (0.01)*($3,241,000)

Insurance = $324,104

vi. Local Taxes = (2%)*(Fixed Capital Cost)

= (0.02)*($3,241,000)
114
 Local Taxes = $64,820

vii. License fee = (5%)*(Fixed Capital Cost)

= (0.05)*($714,420)

License fee = $162,050

viii. Laboratory Cost = (22%)*(Operating Labor)

= (0.22)*($486,150)

Laboratory Cost = $106,953

ix. Supervision = (20%)*(Operating Labor)

= (0.20)*($486,150)

Supervision = $97,230

Total Fixed Cost:

Fixed Cost = $324,100 + $486,150 + $324,100 + $243,075 + $324,104 + $64,820 + $162,050 +
$106,953 + $97,230

= $2,132,582

Hence,

Total Fixed Cost = $21,32,000

2. Variable Cost:
i. Biomass cost = 62.5 $/ton
Biomass used = 1050 kg/h

Biomass cost = $574,875/year

ii. Miscellaneous material = (10%)*(Maintenance Cost)

= (0.10)*($324,100)
115
 Miscellaneous Material = $32,410

iii. Utilities cost = (5%)*(Maintenance cost)

= (0.05)*(324,100)

Utilities cost = $16,205

iv. Selexol cost = $2866/ton

Selexol used = 100kg/h

Selexol cost = 2,510,616 $/yr

Total Variable Cost = $574,875 + $32,410 + $16,205 + $2,510,616

= 3,134,106

Hence,

Total Variable Cost = $31,34,000

3. Direct Production Cost:

Direct Production Cost = Total Fixed Cost + Total Variable Cost

= $2,132,000 + $3,134,000

Direct Production Cost = $5,266,000

Hence,

116
 Direct Production Cost = $52,66,000

4. (Sale Expenses + General Overhead):

(Sale Expenses + General Overhead) = (20%)*(Direct Production Cost)

= (0.20)*($5,266,000)

(Sale Expenses + General Overhead) = $1,053,200

Hence,

(Sale Expenses + General Overhead) = $1,053,200

Total Annual Production Cost:

Total Annual Production Cost = Total fixed cost + Total raw material cost + (sale expenses +
general overhead)

= $2,132,000 + ($574,875 + $2,510,616) + $1,053,200

= $6,271,691

Total Annual production Cost = 6,250,000 $/yr.

Hence,

Total Annual Production Cost = 6.25*106 $/yr.

117
Chapter # 08
References

118
David M. Himmelblau, “Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering”, 6th
Edition, Prentice Hall PTR, 1996.
Coulson, J.M., and Richardson, J.F., “Chemical Engineering”, 4th Edition, Volume 6,
Butterworth Heminann, 1991.
D. Q. Kern, “Process Heat Transfer”, Mc-Graw Hill, 2000.
Levenspiel, O., “Chemical Reaction Engineering”, 3rd Edition, John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
1999.
Gasification by Christopher Higman and Maarten V. Burgt
[
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_Pakistan
International Journal of Renewable Energy Research by Himadry Shekhar Das
http://www.maverickpakistanis.com/2011/01/punjab-produce-500mw-power-biomass/
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/201507/documents/biomass_combined_heat_and
_power_catalog_of_technologies_4._biomass_preparation.pdf
www.researchgate.net/publication/258071575_Energy_generation_from_fluidized_bed_gas
ification_of_rice_husk
http://www.syngaschem.com/syngaschem
www.engineering.dartmouth.edu/~d30345d/courses/engs37/cyclones
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256544342_Carbon_dioxide_capture_by_single_
droplet_using_Selexol_Rectisol_as_absorbents_A_theoretical_approach

119