1

TRINITY 2019 ISSUE 1


Editing: Syeda Maah-Noor Ali, Ali
Arsalan Pasha, Malhar Khushu
Logo design: Srishti Arora
Cover design: Malhar Khushu
Welcome to the first edition of the Majlis Magazine in many,
many years! We’re not sure how many years it’s been, but it
certainly has been too long. I would first like to thank Malhar
who has compiled this edition and played an important role in
the resurrection of the society.
Majlis is a very historically significant society which was started
in Oxford in about 1896. It has a twin society, of the same
name, in Cambridge. Throughout South Asian history, it played
a crucial part in creating seminal leaders such as Benazir Bhutto
and Indira Gandhi.
We want Majlis to be stronger and more impactful than ever.
The Society has already put on a number of debates this year,
each designed to ask significant and thought-provoking ques-
tions about issues that affect the region. We want to work to-
wards having an open and honest dialogue, allowing students
from different countries to bring their own perspectives as it is
key to have an open forum where we can come to constructive
solutions to tackling the complex problems of our region.
Please do watch out for further events as the Steering Commit-
tee builds a solid foundation for the future. We’re going to be
holding socials and debates throughout Trinity and we want to
see as many of you there as possible for a chance to strengthen
the South Asian community at Oxford.
Let’s hope Majlis continues going from strength to strength.
Musty Kamal
Steering Committee Member
Jama Masjid, New Delhi. Malhar Khushu
In this issue:

Jay Jadav

Sanaa Asim

Syeda Maah-Noor Ali

Ruqayah Juyel

Rabii Malik

Mohammed Alam

Hamza Shad
 1
Mental Health and the South Asian Community
How do you feel: Excited? Worried? Adventurous after Park End? Take a minute out of your
day and message someone, be it an old friend, an acquaintance or even a colleague and have a
conversation. This minute may help bring a smile to their face.
A research study on mental health within the South Asian community carried out in Harrow
UK, identified certain attitudes that are perceived when discussing mental health like, ‘shame
or sharam, fear and secrecy surround mental illness’. ‘The family can be both caring and isolat-
ing’. ‘Marriage prospects can be damaged’. It’s time to raise awareness and challenge the stig-
ma around mental health within the Asian community. Often, we not only overlook these
issues, we deny their very existence.
Specific problems are more prominent such as anxiety, depression and alcohol abuse as pre-
sented by ‘mentalhealth.org’. Taraki is a fantastic example of an organisation trying to raise
awareness and make a positive change and break down the barrier of silence around mental
health problems. Further to this, British Asians seem to find negotiating western culture even
more difficult due to the pressure of remaining true to one’s identity. There are examples of
people who get disowned from their families due to marrying someone from a different cul-
ture or religion, going against the social pressure to conform. These scenarios can cause men-
tal health issues.
If you feel the need to talk, do not hesitate when reaching out to a friend or getting counsel-
ling. If you want to speak confidentially, reach out to the ‘Samaritans’ or ‘Mind’. Three years
ago, I wouldn’t have dreamt of talking to anyone, because I wanted everyone around me to
be happy. I felt I could deal with my feelings in my own time but closing off was the wrong
thing to do and it made things worse. I partook in a social action project on mental health and
speaking to individuals and carers, allowed me to gain an insight into issues that can spiral out
of control. I felt encouraged to seek advice, and I wouldn’t go back. No one will judge you
for being you. Only you live your life; no one else controls it. Take a step back a focus on
yourself. Be the sugar that holds your laddu together rather than the crumbs that roll away.
Jay Jadav
Photograph by Rohin Patel
Varanasi, India: Often referred
to as "Kashi," or "Benares," this
city is revered by over 1 bil-
lion Hindus globally. It is situated
on the banks of the Ganges River
in the state of Uttar Pradesh and
is home to the ancient Kashi
Vishvanath Mandir, one of the
twelve original Jhyotirlingas.
 2
Pakistani Music Today
When I was younger, my family’s car had a cassette player and a glovebox, filled with cas-
settes upon cassettes. My parents got them in regular shipments from Pakistan; whenever
someone visited, they brought music, from Junaid Jamshed to Vital Signs, Tina Sani to
Nazia Hassan. The music was drummed into my head, albeit as music I was “forced” to
listen to. Then, I came across Patari, the online music streaming service.
There has been some awful news regarding the platform–sexual harassment allegations,
employees walking out, corruption, none of which I condone in any way, shape or form.
Nevertheless, I cannot deny the role Patari and similar platforms have played in reconnect-
ing me with the musical aspect of my culture. I stumbled upon Patari during my A Levels
and regularly played a 1980s and 1990s playlist while I worked. I had not listened to any of
these songs for years, having abandoned our cassette playing car a long time ago.
This wave of nostalgia led me to explore further. Pakistani funk? It exists. Pakistani post-
rock? Also exists. I was completely unaware of this complexity of Pakistani music, espe-
cially since I felt the best of Pakistani music was stuck in the era of cassettes. This is proba-
bly due to oversight on my part but Pakistan’s musical image is never something that stood
out to me, other than the “golden oldies” my parents played on occasion.
With the massive international popularity of Coke Studio, it is not a stretch to say that Pa-
kistani music today is thriving. The program is a leader in the development of pop culture
in Pakistan, reimagining songs played by my parents in a modern context, electronic beats
and electric guitars abound. A bridge has been built to connect my love of music to the
older generations of my family, piquing my curiosity: what else is coming out of Pakistan?
While I love Coke Studio, it is not confined to one genre and does not feature many of the
genres that I personally enjoy. But the existence of the show gave me hope that my person-
al tastes could be found in the Pakistani music scene. Enter “//orangenoise”, Pakistan’s
only shoegaze–or as they prefer to call it “chappalgaze”–and post-rock band with high quali-
ty soundscapes crafted in Karachi. The Lyari Underground showcase home-grown rap from
the streets of Lyari, the oldest and most densely populated area of Sindh.
At the same time, Shajie makes gentle acoustic music in Urdu more akin to a Wes Ander-
son background score. As a British-born Pakistani, this makes Pakistan more familiar to
me, dispelling my image of it being a different place where people have different ideas.
There are people making music I love, music that I will play in my car like my parents did.
It is connects me to my parents, and I have had so many meaningful conversations sharing
new music with them and listening to music from their childhood. We still listen to Paki-
stani music in our car on road trips. Only now, we stream it.
Sanaa Asim

Art by Ruqayah Juyel

 3
Jadoon Plaza, Abbottabad, Pakistan
Jadoon Plaza is an area full of opposites, yet so conjoined that one goes there to witness
worlds collide and combine. It is located in
Abbottabad, which is a beautiful mountain-
ous region in the North of Pakistan. The city
is a multicultural melting pot, with every
kind of person you could possibly imagine.
This diversity and richness of culture is mir-
rored perfectly throughout the three sections
of the plaza, where each leads to an unex-
pected mixture of people, places and things.
The city itself is an example of sharp con-
trasts. As one exits Habibullah Colony, the
sound of trumpets from the Pakistan Military
Academy–quite literally music to the ears–
becomes fainter and fainter. It is almost as
though one is flitting in and out of small
worlds on my way to the plaza.
The street vendor, the ice cream man, and
the rubbish collector, all stand out against
the mansions and the large walls enclosing them. When I get to one of the three sections of
the plaza, it is the same. There is a huge Junaid Jamshed Outlet and right outside it, there
is the limu pani (lemonade) stall, each cup of lemon goodness selling for 50 Rupees.
Overlooking the whole plaza is the incredibly renowned Army Burn Hall School. It is also
one of the key players in showcasing the image of Abbottabad as a highly literary city. The
school looks over the bustle, like a stern parent watching over its children ensuring they
function in harmony.
It is an odd dichotomy, really, a juxtaposition of sorts. Hundreds and thousands of solid
cemented-shops and a few hundred tent-shops or even stalls add flavour and rawness to the
place. Everyone works hand in hand offering different areas of expertise. For me Jadoon
Plaza encapsulates this idea of everything working together perfectly.
You can walk straight out of an air-conditioned restaurant and go directly into a Persian
Rug store right opposite, one so crowded that the fans are almost useless. From there you
can encounter a fruit seller selling from a cart, cooling his merchandise from the natural
mountainous winds of the valley-city. It allows you to see such a spectrum enclosed in one
space, tying everyone together in perfect harmony.
Syeda Maah-Noor Ali
 4

Portals
My friend Heba and I often wear our shalwar kameez to formal hall. She walks into my
room dripping in beads and colour. We brush highlighter across our cheekbones and
rouge to our lips before making the short journey to the stone arches of our college. We
laugh and eat with our friends in a hall with walls covered in white men. The men sit
still in their portraits, layered in suits and jumpers and gowns coloured grey and white.
Their mouths form the same tight line. They do not speak our language. Their pupils are
aged, and their gilded frames have grown dull under dust. They stare at our backs, but
we do not see them, for we are much too busy. Our dresses glitter as we move in the
sea of black gowns and I revel in the juxtaposition.
During an essay crisis, I welcome Malhar's knock on my door. He boils us chai as we
perch at our kitchen island. The chai tastes identical to the chai once made at my grand-
parent’s house, where I spent my childhood. Malhar has given me the recipe for when I
go home. I would make the chai for my Nanna, but I fear that it would make him long
for my Nanni too much. But I do make the chai for my mother. She too misses my
grandmother dearly. But my mother is steadfast and strong and drinks my chai to the
bottom of her cup. I think about this as I watch the liquid in Malhar's pan stir into a red-
dish brown and foam to the rim.
Cowley Road is dotted with halal butchers. I walk from Summertown, past Tesco's and
Sainsbury's, and into a small shop. The air smells just like every other Asian mini-
market. The likes of chilli powder, garam masala, and haldi mix together in the air and I
recognise the scent instantly. Cans and packets with labels I cannot read sit along the
aisles. The customers look a bit more like me. And Tesco's doesn't have halal marshmal-
low twists.
Bella Italia has a dish called Gamberoni. Aside from the pasta and prawns, it tastes a lot
like a tomato dish my mum makes. Sasi’s Thai has owners that shout their orders up the
stairs to the kitchen. They need not be refined for their food is much too good for any-
thing else to matter. I think of my father returning home every night, his white shirt
stained with oil and spice. Being a waiter is difficult when one does not suffer fools glad-
ly and my father lost many jobs because of this. Say what you will about financial stabil-
ity, but I prefer the self-worth I inherited from him. With it, he gifted me a tongue that
does not take well to being held, a furrowed brow, and heels that know when to dig
into the ground. I now sit in restaurants with air that smells the same as my kitchen at
home. And I pay careful attention to when my acquaintances speak to serving staff. Me-
ticulously, I comb their words for sharpness. I think intolerance to fools runs in my
blood.
Ruqayah Juyel
 5
Future of Pakistan’s Economy – Trade, Not Aid
In what has almost become a financial pilgrimage, it is expected that Pakistan will return
to the IMF to seek the 13th bailout in the nation’s 70-year history. Pakistan must priori-
tise trade over aid through long-term initiatives and now the pressure is on Imran Khan’s
government to deliver.
Pakistan has long been hampered by a combination of corrupt institutions and an overre-
liance on aid. The sixth most populous nation in the world but only the 23rd largest
economy, 117th on the Corruption Perceptions Index and the Lowest Human Develop-
ment Index in South Asia. There are 20 million children who do not have access to basic
education and 21 million of the populace lack access to clean drinking water.
In order to access international capital markets and for continued growth, it must first
overcome the perpetual debt cycle. The current balance of payments is an unfortunate
legacy of the previous governments’ attempts to increase GDP growth. While successful
in increasing growth rates to over 5% in a 10-year high, the investments were largely
unsustainable. In 2017, Pakistan spent $5 billion dollars servicing external debt and in
2018, this number swelled to $9 billion. Combined with the strengthening dollar and
rising interest rates, a bailout has become an inevitability. To overcome this perpetual
cycle, Pakistan must wholeheartedly opt for trade in the place of aid.
There are a few initial solutions to the issue at hand. Firstly, it entails a clamp down on
rampant tax avoidance which is disrupting the balance of payments. Secondly, incentivis-
ing the educated domestic population to contribute to Pakistan’s economy by offering a
realistic set of opportunities. Moreover, Pakistan must reconnect with its diasporic pop-
ulation who need to rediscover their culture and recognise the outsized impact their
contribution
could have in
Pakistan. This
could be
a ch i e ve d
through com-
bined short-
term intern-
ships and cul-
tural insight

Photograph by
Ayesha Qaisrani
Rakaposhi at
sundown
 6
programmes working to encourage contributions from Pakistanis abroad, which in
turn, will increase productivity and business activity.
Pakistan also needs to renegotiate and restructure their debt repayment plans. The na-
tion must ensure that debt repayments are optimal; they are paid back efficiently with
realistic targets. While CPEC remains a risky project and only time will reveal the cost
-benefit results, in the meantime the government must re-prioritise investment. Take
for example, the fact that exports have grown at only a fifth of the rate of India and
Bangladesh since 1980 and have not increased significantly over the past five years. The
government must increase investment in basic education to further bolster productivi-
ty. Pakistan also needs to focus its investments in those endeavours which are guaran-
teed to cut long-term costs, such as by-passing 75% of
energy import by investing in renewable energy solu-
tions like the Sindh Solar Project.
Recent trends have demonstrated an aid-dependency in
Pakistan which has historically incentivised political my-
opia. Imran Khan’s government is only the second
peaceful transfer of power in Pakistan’s history and the
country finally has a civilian government with military
backing which can make long-term pledges to secure the
future of Pakistan. The anti-corruption platform the
Prime Minister ran on is one which spoke to those disil-
lusioned with the dynastic feuds which have come to
represent Pakistan’s politics. As a result, the pressure is
truly on them to depart from their legacy, credibility is
on the line and Pakistan’s future is in flux. It is impera-
tive that Pakistan replace aid with trade and it must act
now.
Rabii Malik
Photographs by Ayesha Qaisrani
The burden of double displacement.
These pictures were taken in 2014, in a slum settlement
in Islamabad. The settlers were IDPs from Waziristan.
The men worked at a construction site nearby, whereas
the women stayed home and took care of the children.
The settlers had no water and electricity connection and
the children did not go to school. In 2015, the Capital
Development Authority (Islamabad) many slum settle-
ments across city, including this one.
 7
Will Afghanistan ever be stable?
Let’s assume that Washington and Kabul reach a settlement to end America’s longest
war with the Taliban. Will this ensure peace? Will it make Afghanistan safe for travel?
How will it impact the economy? And most importantly, will it stop the bloodshed that
has continued for the past four decades? These are some of the most fundamental ques-
tions that we should ask ourselves, as it is unlikely that peace talks are going to bring
effective reconciliation and right the wrongs of forty years. Peace may return to Af-
ghanistan in a political sense which would manifest itself into the ending of the ideolog-
ical war, but stability is very unlikely to return. The reason being that families in rural
Afghanistan will make sure to seek their revenge from the Taliban, as soon as they put
down their arms.
Many Afghans have lost hope for the prospects of peace in their country. The reason
for this is that the Americans or the National Unity Government will be unable to con-
trol the violence that will continue despite a peace settlement. This is because the Af-
ghan families who have identified the members of the Taliban that have wronged them,
will make sure to settle their personal enmity score. No matter how hard the govern-
ment tries to discourage people from pursuing their personal enmity, Afghans will take
revenge when the opportunity arises to restore the honour and dignity of their family.
This want for revenge is widespread as it is difficult to find an Afghan village which has
been safe from Taliban atrocities. To add to this, Afghanistan remains a very rural soci-
ety and family honour is by far the most important phenomena to a family and has to be
protected at any cost even if it means spending a lifetime in prison. What scares Af-
ghans the most is a vicious cycle where more and more people will keep dying until the
Jirga (Council of Elders) steps in to bring peace between the two families.
When it comes to small towns and cities, stability will return sooner. This is because
the countless families who
have lost their loved ones in
a suicide attack for example,
will be unable to identify
their enemy and there isn’t
much they can do to settle
their score. This will mean
that cities will be safe for
travel and business and mil-

Photograph by Rohin Patel

Mumbai, India: India's financial capital and largest city, Mumbai is situated on the western-
most coast in the state of Maharashtra. One of India's most diverse and cosmopolitan cities,
Mumbai (Bombay) has historically prospered from its geography and rich heritage.
 8
lions of Afghans will not have to imagine that their farewell before they leave their
homes may be their last, due to common terror attacks in this never-ending war.
A final threat to Afghan peace and stability is the sheer presence of other terrorist
groups that operate in Afghanistan including a version of the so-called Islamic State
which aims to restore Khorasan (an empire which covered Afghanistan during the
middle ages). To reach a settlement with twenty or so terrorist groups that are not
aligned in their allegiances or ideology with the Taliban, would prove to be a diffi-
cult process. Allowing them to roam freely around Afghanistan will not decrease the
terror threat or bring back peace and stability to Afghanistan. Therefore, the pro-
spects of peace for Afghanistan isn’t looking very bright and as an Afghan who wit-
nessed over a decade of the ongoing conflict, I hope my speculation is wrong.
Mohammed Alam

Photograph by Sam Dalrymple

Altit, Hunza Valley. This is one of the three most important villages in Hunza. The fort here,
built in the 11th century is the oldest surviving building in Gilgist Baltistan and was home to the
Mirs of Hunza for many generations. Across the river lies Rakaposhi, the 27 th largest mountain
and the tallest slope in the world. Hunza lies between an extraordinary list of places, bordered
by Kashmir, Tibet, Zinjiang and Afghanistan. Indeed it lies on one of the most important
routes of the great silk road for centuries, and it was extremely important during the great
game. It has since become one of the most popular tourist sites in Pakistan.
 9
History Matters: Inclusionary vs. Exclusionary “Extremists” in Colonial
India
When we think of the Indian independence movement, the major figures who come to
mind are usually Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, alongside a few others.
While these were the ones who ultimately succeeded in procuring independence,
many activists and revolutionaries before them contributed to laying the groundwork
for India’s freedom. Earlier leaders affiliated with the Indian National Congress are
often categorized as “Moderates” or “Extremists”, with the latter group arising as a re-
action to the former.
The Moderates can perhaps be viewed as the “old guard” of the Congress. Their prima-
ry tactic was negotiating legislative concessions from the British by accepting and par-
ticipating in the empire’s constitutional politics. Unlike them, the Extremists em-
ployed more radical, non-cooperative methods for achieving self-determination. These
included appealing to the masses through bonds of religion, language, and history, boy-
cotting foreign goods, and strengthening native literacy and education [1]. The Ex-
tremists were the first to use mass protests and boycotts in order to achieve swaraj (self
-rule) and swadeshi (self-sufficiency). Applying the modern idea of nationalism to the
anticolonial struggle, they wrote about India’s past glories and sought to revive native
languages and religious traditions. Many of them appealed to the sentiments of the
Hindu populace by frequently referring to the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna, the Mara-
tha ruler Shivaji, and symbols specific to the Hindu community.
One of the major reasons for this was the growing exposure of Indian elites to modern
Western philoso-
Photograph by Sam
Dalrymple
This is a dilapidated
haveli in Purana
Dilli (Old Delhi).
This unnamed
haveli lies down
the streets of
Baalimarran in Old
Delhi. There is
nothing on the
outside that sug-
gests this is what
lies inside. It prob-
ably belongs to the
late Mughal period.
 10

phy and history. The Extremists were

mainly educated in British schools, im-
pressed by the West’s achievements, and
naturally influenced by its political ideas.
For example, the prominent nationalist
Lala Lajpat Rai was inspired by and wrote
biographies of the Italian nationalists
Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi
[2]. At the same time, however, the Mod-
erates also received Western education, so
this alone does not account for their differ-
ent beliefs. Rather, the younger Extremists
believed that British rule was doing more
harm than the Moderates thought and that
it was time to employ new tactics since the
latter had failed.
Within the Extremists, though, there was
still diversity of thought worth examining.
In general, they can be classified into two
Photograph by Sam Dalrymple
categories: those whose beliefs were com-
patible with inclusive Indian nationalism, Emulating the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan,
and those who were exclusionary and did the Qutub Minar was built in 1150 and for
not support amity with non-Hindus. This many years held the title of “Tallest Tower in
the World.” It’s construction marks the brutal
may be reductive, as people do not fit neatly beginnings of Muslim rule in Delhi. The site is
into retrospective categorizations, but is still surrounded by Mosques and Shrine, many of
useful for understanding the two prevailing which replaced Hindu Temples. The architec-
tendencies at the time. One can distinguish ture in the background of this photo has dis-
between those who appealed to Hindu tradi- tinctly Hindu characteristics. Later the tower
tions and history to mobilize against the became a symbol of religious unity and it was
British but not against non-Hindu Indians, built to make the nearby shrine of Qutub-ud-
Din visible from far away and today the shrine
from those who considered both the British is still worshipped by Hindus and Muslims
and non-Hindus as enemy foreigners. Broad- alike. Every year a procession known as phool
ly speaking, individuals like Bal Gangadhar walon ki sair, or the flower-vendors’ march, is
Tilak, Surendranath Banerjea, and Sarla De- marched from the nearby jogyama temple to
vi Chaudhurani would fall in the category of the shrine. It is attended by people of all faiths
pluralistic Hindu nationalists, whereas oth- as a celebration of the beautiful mesh of cul-
ers like Bankim Chandra Chatterji, Sri Auro- tures that Delhi continues to be.
bindo Ghose, and Lala Lajpat Rai would fit more in the other category of exclusion-
ary Hindu nationalists.
 11
Whereas people like Tilak used religious rhetoric to foster solidarity against the Brit-
ish colonizers, writers like Chatterji sought to group Indian Muslims into the same
category as the British. The latter believed that Muslims could not live in an inde-
pendent India unless they changed their faith and practices. For example, the scholar
Jyotirmaya Sharma notes that Sri Aurobindo did not believe unity was possible with
Muslims because Islam was inherently intolerant of other religions [3]. As early as
1924, Lala Lajpat Rai articulated his belief that Hindus and Muslims could not live
together and that Muslim parts of India should be separated from the rest [4]. Exclu-
sionary Hindu nationalists also blamed Muslims for subjugating and depriving India;
Chatterji portrayed Muslims as even worse than the British in his famous Bengali nov-
el Anandamath [5]. The works of these early exclusionary Hindu nationalists would
inspire later Hindutva ideologues such as V.D. Savarkar and M.S. Golwalkar. Ac-
cording to Sharma, Aurobindo and Savarkar were “equally radical, extreme and mili-
tant” in forging a vision of an exclusively Hindu India [6]. Thus, some of the Extrem-
ists espoused a culturally nationalistic ideology that was detrimental to communal
unity in British India.

Photograph by Sam
Dalrymple
One of the most
surreal sights I
have ever wit-
nessed. I’ve want-
ed to see Lahore’s
famous Chauburji
for ages but arriv-
ing there I learnt
that the govern-
ment has recently
built a metro pass-
ing less than 10m
away from the
place.
Around 30 homeless men were passed out inside the building and had needles hanging out
of their open wounds. Some were covered in flies, and perhaps, dead.
The Chauburji is one of the symbols of Lahore. It’s distinguishing features are the minarets
which greatly widen at the top, a unique feature which did not last long architecturally in
the sub continent. The Shah Jahan period monument previously acted as a gateway to a
large garden, built by the Mughal poet Zeb un Nissa and was built in 1646 CE. The Garden
does not remain anymore.
 12
In contrast, more pluralist Hindu nationalists like Tilak appealed to Hinduism as a
way of organizing anticolonial resistance, rather than to cleanse Indian society of non-
Hindus. According to B.G. Bhosale, “Tilak focused on Hinduism but he was never
the [sic] supporter of Hindutva”[7]. Tilak was instrumental in facilitating unity and
cooperation between the Congress and Muslim League in 1916 [8]. Extremists like
Tilak sought to facilitate all-India protests and non-cooperation against the British. In
this sense, they pioneered the methods later adopted by Gandhi. Unlike exclusionary
Extremists, the inclusionary ones did not vilify Muslims. Surendranath Banerjea was
actually concerned that the partition of Bengal would harm the “close union between
Hindus and Mohamedans upon which the prospects of the Indian advancement so
largely depended” [9]. Therefore, he participated in boycotts against the partition of
Bengal to try to salvage Hindu-Muslim unity. One may compare pluralist Hindu na-
tionalists with Muslim figures like Allama Iqbal. Islam was certainly Iqbal’s primary
source of inspiration, and he sought to revive the Muslim community by referring to
the glories of their past. Yet, he did not see his Muslim identity as being in opposition
to the Hindu community. For many Indian leaders in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, they could draw nationalist inspiration from their faith without
vilifying followers of other religions.
As evident, the category of “Extremists” does not describe a group of individuals with
identical views. While they were all different from the “Moderates” in their populist
tactics, they did not all view non-Hindus negatively. Whereas some of the more ex-
clusionary Hindu nationalists like Chatterji and Rai believed Muslims did not belong
in India, pluralist Hindu nationalists like Tilak mobilized people based on religion but
still sought harmony with non-Hindus. Does this difference matter, when both
groups mixed religion and politics? Given the historical context, it is difficult to imag-
ine a popular movement spanning all of India that would give no role to religion.
Consequently, the difference between exclusionary and inclusionary cultural nation-
alism is one that should be given more attention, and may even have importance in
present-day politics.
Hamza Shad
[1] McDermott et al. 2014, p. 251
[2] ibid. p. 290
[3] 2011, p. 70
[4] McDermott et al. 2014, p. 291
[5] Chakraborty 2006
[6] 2011, p. 11
[7]2009, p. 425
[8] McDermott et al. 2014, p. 263
[9] ibid. p. 269
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