Laplace Transforms

2.1 Introduction
Laplace transform techniques provide powerful tools in numerous fields of
technology such as Control Theory where knowledge of the system transfer function
is essential and where the Laplace transform comes into its own.

Definition
The Laplace transform of an expression f (t ) is denoted by L f (t ) and is defined as


the semi-infinite integral: L f (t )   f (t )e  st dt .

t 0

The parameter s is assumed to be positive and large enough to ensure that the integral
converge. In more advanced applications s may be complex and in such cases the real
part of s must be positive and large enough to ensure convergence.

In determining the transform of an expression, you will appreciate that the limits of
the integral are substituted for t, so that the result will be an expression in s.


Therefore: L f (t )   f (t )e  st dt  F ( s )
t 0

2.2 Simple Transforms

Example: Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  1
 
e  st
 e  s e  s 0 0 1 1
Solution: L1  1e  st dt    s   ( s  s )   ( s  s )  s
0  0

Example: Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  a , where a is a constant.

 
 e  st
  e  s e  s 0 0 1 a
Solution: L a   ae st dt a  s   a( s 
s
)  a(  ) 
s s s
0  0

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t )  t


Solution: L  t   te dt 0
 st

Use integration by parts with

 

 u  dv u  v
0
0
  v  du
0

u  t  du  dt
 e  st
dv  e  st dt  v 
s
    
1  1  1 1
L t    te st dt   t  e st     e st dt  t  e st
s 0
 e st dt
0 
0
s 0 s s 0
  st
1  1  st  e 1 1
 (0  0)   e   2  2 (1  0)  2
s  s 0 s s s
1
 L t 
s2

Process Control /Lec. 2 5 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t )  t 2
Solution: L t    t e dt

2 2  st
0

use integration by parts with

 

 u  dv u  v 0   v  du
0 0

u  t  du  2tdt
2

e  st
dv  e  st dt  v 
s

t 2 e  st   st
  st
  0

L t 2   t 2 e  st dt 
s
  
 2te

s
dt   
 2te

s
dt
0  0  0

 

 u  dv u  v
0
0
  v  du
0

u  2t  du  2dt
e  st  e  st
dv  dt  v 
s ss
 
2
2te  st  2te  st  
 0  1  23
 st  st
 2e  st
  
L t2 

dt 
s2
  
 2e
2
dt   2
 e
0 s 2 dt 
s3
 3
0 s 0  0 s  0
s s

 Lt 2  
2
s3

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t )  e at , where a is a constant.

Solution:
   
 e t ( s  a ) 
Le    e
at at
e  st
dt   e at  st
dt   e t ( s  a )
dt  
 ( s  a )
 
( s
1
 a )
e t ( s  a )   
0 
1
(s  a)
 0  1
0 0 0  0
 Le at 
1

( s  a)
Similarity

L e  at   1
( s  a)

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t )  sin( at )

Solution:
  
e iat  e  iat  st 1
L sin(at )   sin(at )e  st 
( ia  s ) t
0 2i e dt  2i e
( ia  s ) t
 e dt
0 0

 1 
 1  ( ia  s ) t


 e ( ia  s ) t  e   1  0 1  0 1   1  1  1 
 ia  s ia  s  2i  ia  s ia  s 
 2i 
 s  ia s  ia 

 0 0 
1  ( s  ia )  ( s  ia )  1  2ia  a
     2 2
 2
2i  ( s  ia )( s  ia )  2i  s  a  s  a 2
a
L sin( at ) 
s  a2
2

Also
s
L cos(at ) 
s  a2
2

Process Control /Lec. 2 6 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t )  sinh(at )
e at  e  at
Solution: sinh( at ) 
2
 e at  e  at  1 1  1  ( s  a )  ( s  a) 
L sinh( at )  L
2

 L e e
2
at

 at 1 1
 
2 s  a

s 
  
a  2  ( s  a )( s  a ) 
  
1 2a  a
  2 2 
 2
2  ( s  as  as  a )  s  a 2
a
L sinh( at ) 
s  a2
2

Also
s
L cosh(at ) 
s  a2
2

In practice we do not usually need to integrate to find Laplace transforms, instead we use a table,
which allow us to read off most of the transforms we need.
Function Transform Valid for …
f (t ) F (s )
1
1 s0
s
a
a s0
s
1
t s0
s2
tn
n! n = positive
s n1 integer
a
sin at
s  a2
2

s
cos at
s  a2
2

a
sinh at
s  a2
2

s
cosh at
s  a2
2

1
e  at
sa
1
te  at
( s  a) 2
n!
t n e  at
( s  a) n 1
w
e  at sin wt
(s  a) 2  w 2
sa
e  at cos wt
(s  a) 2  w 2

2.3 Rules of Laplace transform

Process Control /Lec. 2 7 Written by Assis. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
The Laplace transform is a linear transform by which is meant that:
1. The transform of a sum (or difference) of expressions is the sum (or difference) of
the individual transforms. That is
L f (t )  g (t )  L f (t )  L g (t ) .

2. The transform of an expression that is multiplied by a constant is the constant

multiplied by the transform of the expression. That is
L kf (t )  kL f (t ) .

Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 2e t  t .

1 2s 2   s  1 2 s 2  s  1
Solution: L2e  t  t  2 Le t   L t 
2
 2  2 
s 1 s s  s  1  s3  s 2 
Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 3t 3  sin t .

Solution: L3t 3  sin t  3Lt 3   L sin t  3 

3! 1 18 1
31
 2 2  4 2
s s 1 s s 1
18( s 2  1)  1( s 4 ) 18( s 2  1)  s 4 18s 2  18  s 4
  
s4 s2 1  
s4 s2 1  
s 4  s 2  1

2.4 Theorems of Laplace transform

There are three important and useful theorems that enable us to deal with rather more
complicated expressions.

Theorem 1: The first shift theorem

The first shift theorem states that if L f (t )  F ( s) then Le  at f (t )  F ( s  a)
 

L e at f (t )   e f (t )e dt 
 at  st
 f (t )e ( s  a ) t dt  F ( s  a)
t 0 t 0

We know that Le  at f (t )  F ( s  a) and we know that L f (t )  F ( s) therefore the

transform Le  at f (t ) is thus the same as L f (t ) with s everywhere in the result
replaced by ( s  a) .

Example: find Le 3t sin 2t .

Le  at  
1 2
Solution: We know that and L sin 2t  2 We have a  3 , therefore
sa s 4

L e 3t sin 2t 
2
  2
2
 2
2
( s  3)  4 s  3s  3s  9  4 s  6s  13
2

Example: Determine the Laplace transform of e 3t (t 2  4) .

Solution: We know that Lt  4   also that Le 3t  

2 2 4 1
3
s s 3
Therefore
s
2  4 s  3 2  4 s  3 s  3
2

L e3t (t 2  4) 
2
 
4
 
 s  3  s  3
3
 s  3 3
 s  3 3
.

 

2  4 s 2  6 s  9 2  4 s 2  24 s  36 4s 2  24 s  38

 s  3 3  s  3 3  s  3 3
Process Control /Lec. 2 8 Written by Assis. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Theorem 2: Multiplying by t and tn
If L f (t )  F ( s) then L tf (t )   F ( s)
  
 de  st  d
L tf (t )   tf (t )e dt 
 st
 f (t )  dt    f (t )e  st dt   F ( s ).
t 0 t 0  ds  ds t 0

In general if L f (t )  F ( s ) , then  
L t n f (t )  ( 1) n
dn
ds n
 F ( s)

Example: find L t sin 2t.

d  2 
Solution: From L tf (t )   F ( s) therefore L t sin 2t    .
ds  s 2  4 
d  2 
NB: To find   use quotient rule for differentiation:
ds  s 2  4 
 2  a da db
z  2 , z  , a  2 , b  s  4 ,
2
0,  2s
 s 4 b ds ds
da db
dz
b a
 ds 2 ds 

s 2  4  0    2  2 s 

 4s
ds b s 4
2 2
 s 4
2 2
  
d  2  4s
L t sin 2t    2  2
ds  s  4  s  4 2  
Example: Determine the Laplace transform of t 2 sin t ,
1
Solution: We know that L sin t  2 , therefore we can work out from
s 1

 dn
L t n f (t )  ( 1) n 
 F ( s) that
ds n
Lt 2 f (t )  (1) 2 2  F ( s )  2  F ( s )  2  2
d2 d2 d2  1 

ds ds ds  s  1 
Find the first derivative:
1 a da db
z , z  , a  1, b  s 2  1,  0,  2s
s 1 2
b ds ds
da db
dz
b a
 ds 2 ds 

s 2  1  0   1 2 s 

 2s 
ds b s2 1
2
s2 1
2
  
Differentiate again.
 2s
z
a

2

, a  2s, b  s 2  1  s 2  1 s 2  1  s 4  2 s 2  2,    
b s 1
2 2
 
da db
 2 ,  4 s 3  4 s,
ds ds
da db
dz
 ds
ba
ds 
 s 2  1   2    2s   4s 3  4s   2  s 2  1  8s 4  8s 2 
2


2
 
ds b2  s 2  1 2
2
 
 s 2  1 2  s 2  1 2
 2 s  2s  2  8s  8s
4 2 4 2
    2s 4
 4 s 2  4    8s 4  8s 2   6s 4
 4 s 2  4
 
s 2
 1  s 2  1
2 2
s 2
 1  s 2  1
2 2
s 2
 1  s 2  1
2 2

Process Control /Lec. 2 9 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Therefore

L t 2 sin t   d2  1 
  
6s 4  4s 2  4 
.

ds 2  s 2  1  s 2  1 2 s 2  1 2  
Theorem 3: Convolution Theorem:
If L{ f (t) } = F(s) and L{ g(t) } = G(s) then the convolution of f (t) and g(t) is
denoted by (f * g)(t), is defined by
t
 f  g  t   f    g  t    d
0

And the Laplace transform of the convolution of two functions is the product of the
separate Laplace transforms:
L   f  g   t   F  s G  s

An equivalent identity is
L 1  F  s  G  s    L 1  F  s    L 1  G  s  

Example: Find t 2  2t
Solution:
t
t
 3 t
4  2t 4 t 4 t 4
t  2t    2(t   )d    2t  2 d   2t
2 2
2 2 3
   
0 0  3 4 0 3 2 6

Example: Find e t  t
Solution:
t t
et  t   e
t 
 
( )d  et  e  d  et  e   e    t

0
0 0

 
 et   te t  e t    0  1  et e t  t  1  et  t  1  et  et  t  1

Example: find Laplace transform of et cos(t ) by convolution theorem

f (t )  e t
g (t )  cos(t )
L{ f * g}  L{ f (t )}L{g (t )}  L{et }L{cos(t )}
�1 � � s � s
� � � 2 2 �
�s  1 �
�s  1 � ( s  1)( s  1)
2

2.5 Special Laplace Transform Functions

1- Step function

0 t  0 A
f (t)  
A t  0 .
0 Time

A
f (s) 
s
Process Control /Lec. 2 10 Written by Assis. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
If A=1 the change is called unit step change

0 t  0
f (t )  
1 t  0
1
f ( s) 
s

Step function with Time Delay

0 t  a
f (t)   A
A t  a
A as 0 a Time
f ( s)  e
s
2. Pulse function
0 t  0

f (t )   A 0  t  a A
0 t  a

A A 0 a Time
f (s)   e as
s s
A
 (1  e as )
s
a  a
At  st A  sa A
L f (t )   Ae st   0e  st   e  (e  e  s 0 )  (1  e  sa )
0 a
s 0 s s
if A=1unit Pulse (Impulse)

3. Impulse function
A Area=1

Unit Impulse Time

Process Control /Lec. 2 11 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 0 t  0

f (t )   A 0  t  t
0 t  t

f (s)  area  A  t

This function is represented by δ(t). The unit impulse function is a special case of the
pulse function with zero width (tw →0) and unit pulse area (so a = 1/tw). Taking the
limit:
1 1
L (t )  lim [1  e  st w ]  lim [ e  st w ]  1
t w 0 t s t w 0 s
w

4. Ramp function

0 t  0 Slope=A
f (t)   f(t)
 At t  0
Time
A
f (s)  2
s
   
At  st A  st At  st A  1  st
L At   Ate  st   e  e dt   e  e
0
s 0 s s 0 s s 0

A A A
 (e    0e  0 )  2 (e    e  0 )  2
s s s
Ramp function with time delay

0 t  a Slope=A
f (t )  
 At t  a f(t)

A a Time
f (s)  2 eas
s

5. Sine function A _______T_______

Process Control /Lec. 2 12 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
-A
 0 ta
f (t )  
 A sin wt t  a
A
f ( s)  2 2
s 
  2f
1
T
f

Example: Find the Laplace transform for

Solution:
1. At t=0 the function looks like the very basic unit step function. But unit function
knows only about 0 and 1, here we have f(t)=2. That means we have to use 2u(t).
2. Then in time t=2 its value changes from 2 to −1 (i.e. 3 down at t=2) which means
we have to add −3u(t−2).
3. Finally the value at t=3 jumps 1 higher, which brings member u(t−3).

f(t)=2u(t)−3u(t−2)+u(t−3)

So far we collected unit step functions to express function from the graph.
2 3 1
L f (t )  L 2u(t) - 3u(t - 2)  u(t - 3)  L 2u(t) - 3L u(t - 2) + L u(t - 3) = - e- 2s + e-3s
s s s

Example: Determine the Laplace transform of the function

0 t 1
1 1 t  3


f (t )  3 3t 5
2 5t 6


0 t6

Solution:
f (t )  0u (t  0)  1u (t  1)  2u (t  3)  1u (t  5)  2u (t  6)
1 2 1 2 1
F ( s)  e  s  e  3s  e  5 s  e  6 s  (e  s  2e  3s  e  5 s  2e  6 s )
s s s s s

Process Control /Lec. 2 13 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example:

0.5

0 0.5 1.5 2 3 3.5

-.5
Solution:
f (t )  0.5  1u (t  0.5)  0.5u (t  1.5)  0.5u (t  2)  1u (t  3)  0.5u (t  3.5)
0.5 1  0.5 s 0.5 1.5 s 0.5  2 s 1  3 s 0.5  3.5 s
f ( s)    e  e  e  e  e
s s s s s s

Example: Find F(s) for

0 t 0
t 0  t 1

f (t )  
2  t 1 t  2
0 t2

Solution:
f (t )  tU (t )  t (t  1)U (t  1)  (t  1)U (t  1)  (t  2)U (t  2)
 tU (t )  2(t  1)U (t  1)  (t  2)U (t  2)
L f (t )  L tU (t )  2(t  1)U (t  1)  (t  2)U (t  2)
 L tU (t )  L 2(t  1)U (t  1)  L (t  2)U (t  2)
1 2 1
 2  2 e s  2 e 2 s
s s s

Example: Determine the Laplace transform of the function

Solution:

f (t )  5tu (t )  5(t  1)u (t  1)  5(t  3)u (t  3)  5(t  4)u (t  4)

5 5 5 5 5
F ( s)  2
 2 e  s  2 e  3 s  2 e  4 s  2 (1  e  s  e  3 s  e  4 s )
s s s s s

Process Control /Lec. 2 14 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: Find the Laplace transform of f(t) shown in Fig.
2t 0  t 1
2 1 t  4

 2t 4t 5 2
 Slope=2
f (t )  0 5t 6
 2t 6t 7
 0 1 4 5 6 7 8
2t 7t 8
0 -2
 t 8

Solution:
f (t )  2tu (t )  2(t  1)u (t  1)  2(t  4)u (t  4)  2(t  5)u (t  5)  2(t  6)u (t  6)
 2  2(t  7)u (t  7)  2(t  8)u (t  8)
2 2 2 2 2 4 2
f ( s )  2  2 e  s  2 e 4 s  2 e 5 s  2 e 6 s  2 e 7 s  2 e 8 s
s s s s s s s

Example:

1
0 1 3 4 5
T

Solution:
f (t )  tu (t )  (t  1)u (t  1)  2(t  3)u (t  3)  2(t  4)u (t  4)  (t  5)u (t  5)
1 1 2 2 1
f ( s)   e  s  2 e 3s  2 e  4 s  2 e 5s
s2 s2 s s s

2.6 Rational Functions Technique: Partial fraction

P( s)
Often it is necessary to break down a complicated rational function of the form Q(s)
(where P(s) and Q(s) are polynomials in s, and the degree of the top polynomial is
less than the degree of the bottom polynomial), into the sum of simpler fractions
called Partial Fractions.

The type of partial fraction that you use depends on the factors of the bottom
polynomial.

We will look at 3 cases:

Case 1: All the factors of the bottom Q(s) are linear and non-repeating.
Case 2: Q(s) has some repeated linear factors.
Case 3: Q(s) has some irreducible quadratic factors.
Process Control /Lec. 2 15 Written by Assis. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Examples of case 1:
s 3  2s
( s  2)( s  1) or s ( s  5)( s  3)
Examples of case 2:
2s  1 2 s 1 s2  1
( s  8) 2 or s ( s  3) 2 or  s  1 2 ( s  2) or  s  3 2 ( s  1)3
Examples of case 3:
2s  1 3 4 s 2  3s  1

s s2  4  or  
( s  3)  1 ( s  2)
2 or

( s  1) s 2  3   s  1
2 2
9  2

Case 1: All the factors of the bottom Q(s) are linear and non-repeating.
Case 1: All the bottom factors are linear (i.e. of the form x  some number) and
then is no repeated factor (i.e. there is no factor which is squared or cubed, etc.) and
there are no irreducible quadratic terms (don’t worry about this!). In this case
top polynomial
therefore, we are talking about rational functions of the form: ( x  a )( x  b)...( x  g )
In this case we can rewrite the rational function as follows:
top polynomial A B G
   .... 
( x  a)( x  b)...( x  g ) xa xb xg

Example
1  14 1
Show that   4
( s  7)(s  3) s  7 s  3
Solution
This is a case 1 partial fraction so we start with
1 A B
 
( s  7)( s  3) s  7 s  3
Step1: Remove Fractions
Multiply both sides of the equation by the denominator on the left hand side
1  ( s  7)( s  3) A( s  7)( s  3) B ( s  7)( s  3)
 
( s  7)(s  3) s7 s3
 1  A( s  3)  B( s  7)

Step2: Choose s values to find A and B

The equation above is true for all values of s. We can choose s values to make things
simple:
Choose s = -3 so that (s+3) = 0 and we have
1
1  A(0)  B(4)  1  4 B  B 
4
Choose s = -7 so that (s+7) = 0 and we have
1
1  A( 4)  B(0)  1  4 A  A  
4
Step3: Substitute A and B into the original expression
1  14 1
  4
( s  7)(s  3) s  7 s  3

Process Control /Lec. 2 16 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 3s  1
Example: Write ( s  1)( s  2) in partial fraction form
Solution:
3s  1 A B
write  
( s  1)( s  2) s  1 s  2
Multiply both sides by (s+1)(s+2):
3s  1 A B
( s  1)( s  2) ( s  1)(s  2)  ( s  1)(s  2)
( s  1)( s  2) s 1 s2
 3s  1  A( s  2)  B ( s  1)
If choose s = -2
 3  2   1  A( 2  2)  B ( 2  1)  7  A.0 B ( 1)  7  B
B7
If choose s = -1  3  1  1  A( 1  2)  B ( 1  1)  4  A(1)  B (0)  4  A
 A  4
3s  1 4 7
Therefore  
( s  1)( s  2) s  1 s  2

Example
Find the fixed constants A, B, C so that the partial fraction decomposition can be
4s  3 A B C
completed:   
s ( s  1)( s  3) s s 1 s  3
Solution:
4s  3 A B C
  
s ( s  1)( s  3) s s 1 s  3
Multiplying both sides of this equation by the left hand side denominator we deduce
that,
4s  3 A B C
s ( s  1)( s  3) s ( s  1)( s  3)  s ( s  1)( s  3)  s ( s  1)( s  3)
s ( s  1)( s  3) s s 1 s3
 4 s  3 A( s  1)( s  3)  Bs ( s  3)  Cs ( s  1)
Now in turn, put , s= 0 , s=1, s = -3. You will find at each stage that 2 of the A, B, C
terms will vanish:
If choose s = 0
4(0)  3 A(0  1)(0  3)  B (0)  C (0)  3 3 A  A  1
If choose s = 1
7
4(1)  3 A(0)  B (1)(1  3)  C (0)  7  4 B  B 
4
If choose s = -3
9
4  3  3 A(0) B (0)  C ( 3)( 3  1)  9  12C B
12
Therefore :
4s  3

  1   74    43    1  7  3
s ( s  1)(s  3) s s 1 s  3 s 4 s  1 4 s  3

Case 2: Denominator Q(s) has some repeated linear factors.

Process Control /Lec. 2 17 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Sometimes a linear factor is repeated twice or three times or four times, etc. This
means that we will have an expression like  s  somenumber  or  s  somenumber 
2 3

or ... below the line. When this occurs, you have to be careful as we have to use a
partial fraction for each of the powers. If you want, you can use the following table:
Factor in given Corresponding partial fraction
rational function
top polynomial A
s  some number s  some number
top polynomial A B
( s  somenumber ) 2 s  some number + ( s  some number ) 2
top polynomial A B C
( s  some number ) 3 s  some number + ( s  some number ) 2 + ( s  some number )3

Examples of case 2:
4 s 2  3s  2 A B C
   , A, B, C  constants
( s  1) ( s  3) ( s  1)
2 2
s 1 s  3

3s 4  7 s 3  2 s 2  5 A B C D E F
 3 2   
s ( s  1) ( s  5)
3 2
s s s ( s  1) 2
( s  1) ( s  5)
A, B, C , D, E , F  constants

Example:
8s  1
Write in terms of partial fractions ( s  1) 2
Solution:
8s  1 A B
In this case  
( s  1) 2
s  1 ( s  1) 2
Step1 we multiply both sides by ( s  1) 2 to remove fractions
8s  1 A B
( s  1) 2  ( s  1) 2  ( s  1) 2  8s  1  A( s  1)  B
( s  1) 2
s 1 ( s  1) 2
Step2: we can choose s = 1 as before so that (s-1) = 0 and we get
8 1  B  B  7
We cannot choose another s value to directly find A however. There is more than one
approach to finding A but the easiest method is called “equating coefficients”. In this
case, we note that there must be the same “amount of s” on both sides of the equation.
On the left hand side we have 8s and on the right we have As, so that A must be 8.
Step3; write the answer down
8s  1 8 7
 
 s  1 s  1 ( s  1)2
2

Example
2s  1
Write  s  1 ( s  2) 2 in partial fraction form.
Solution:

Process Control /Lec. 2 18 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
As the linear factor (s+2) repeats (i.e. we have (s+2) and (s+2)2 in the denominator)
the required partial fraction is of the form,
2s  1 A B C
  
 s  1 ( s  2) s  1 s  2  s  2 2
2

where A, B and C are fixed constants which are to be found.

Step1: multiply both sides by the denominator (s – 1)(s+2)2
 s  1 ( s  2)2 2s  1 2   s  1 ( s  2)2 A   s  1 ( s  2)2 B   s  1 (s  2)2 C 2
 s  1 (s  2) s 1 s2  s  2
 2 s  1  ( s  2) A   s  1 ( s  2) B   s  1 C
2

The latter equation holds for all values of the variable s.

Step2: Choose good s values
Choose s = -2  2  2   1  (0) 2 A  (0) B    2  1 C  3  3C  C  1
1
Choose s = 1  21  1  (1  2) 2 A  (0) B  (0)C  3  9 A  A  3
We again have the problem of not being able to choose a good s value to find B. We
again “equate coefficients”. The best strategy is to equate the highest power of s on
both sides, which is s2 . On the left hand side of (1) we have 0 lots of s2. On the right
hand side of (1) the ( s  2) 2 A term will contribute As2 if you multiply it out and the
( s  1)( s  2) B term will contribute Bs2. So we have
1
0  A B  B  A  
3
This method can involve more calculation though. Either way
2s  1 1 1 1 B 1
 .  . 
 s  1 (s  2) 3 s  1 3 s  2  s  2 2
2

Case 3 Denominator Q(s) has some irreducible quadratic factors.

Irreducible means that the quadratic term in the denominator cannot be factorized
into two brackets.
Examples of case 3:
3s 2  2 s  5 A Bs  C
  2 , A, B, C  constants
s ( s  4)
2
s s 4
s3  s  2 A B Cs  D
   2 , A, B, C , D  constants
s ( s  1)( s  2) s
2
s 1 s 2

Example:
5s 2  7 s  8
Write  s  1 ( s 2  2s  5) in partial fractions.

Solution
The denominator contains an irreducible quadratic term (i.e, it cannot be easily
factored into two linear terms. If it did factor into linear factors then we would be
back to cases 1 or 2.) As it does not in this example we must write:
5s 2  7 s  8 A Bs  C
  2
 s  1 ( s  2s  5)  s  1 ( s  2s  5)
2

Process Control /Lec. 2 19 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Note: Linear term on bottom means constant A on top. Quadratic term on bottom
means linear term Bs + C on top.
As before to find these constants multiply both sides by the denominator
( s – 1) (s2-2s+5).
5s 2  7 s  8 A Bs  C
 s  1 ( s 2  2 s  5)  s  1 ( s 2  2 s  5)   s  1 ( s 2  2 s  5) 2
 s  1 ( s  2s  5)
2
 s  1 ( s  2 s  5)
Which gives: 5s 2  7 s  8( s 2  2s  5) A  s  1 Bs  C 
The latter equation holds for all values of the variable s. So we can choose any
values for s and set up three simultaneous equations for A, B and C.
By putting s = 1 we can get one value easily:
Choose s = 1
3
 51  71  8(12  21  5) A 0 B (1)  C   6 4 A 0  A
2

2
We cannot make any more brackets = 0 by a good choice of s. As for case 2 however,
we can equate coefficients. Start with the highest power s2 first
Equate s2  5  A  B  B  5  A  B  5  32  72
Equate s   7  2 A  B  C   7  2( 32 )  72  C   7   132  C
 C   12

2.7 Inverse Laplace Transforms

The Laplace transform is an expression in the variable s which denoted by F (s ) . It
is said that f (t ) and F ( s)  L f (t ) form a transform pair. This means that if F (s ) is
the Laplace transform of f (t ) then f (t ) is the inverse Laplace transform of F (s ) .
We write as: f (t )  L  F ( s ) or L  F ( s )  f (t )
1 1

1
The operator L is known as the operatorfor inverse Laplace transform. There is no
simple integral definition of the inverse transform so you have to find it by working
backwords.
Here we have the reverse process, i.e. given a Laplace transform, we have to find the
function of t to which it belongs. We use the following table:

Table of inverse transforms

F (s ) f (t )
a
a
s
1
e  at
sa
n!
tn
s n 1
1 t n 1
sn ( n  1)!
a
sin at
s  a2
2

s
cos at
s  a2
2

Process Control /Lec. 2 20 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 a
sinh at
s  a2
2

s
cosh at
s  a2
2

2.7.1 Two Properties of Laplace Transform Inverse

Both Laplace transform and its inverse are linear transforms, by which is meant that:
i. The transform of a sum (or difference) of expressions is the sum (or difference
of the individual transforms. That is:
L1  F ( s )  G (t )  L1  F ( s )  L1  G ( s )

ii. The transform of an expression that is multiplied by a constant is the constant

multiplied by the transform of the expression. That is:
L  kF ( s )  kL  F ( s ) where k is constant
1 1

 1 
Example: find L1  ?
s  2
 1  1  1 
Solution: L1  L  e
2t
.
s  2  s  (2) 

1  8 
Example: find L  2 ?
 s  64 
1  a 
Solution: We can write the inverse transform as we know that L    sin at .
s  a2 
2

1  8  1  8 
Here we have a  8 therefore: L  2 L  2   sin 8t.
 s  64   s  82 

12 1 
Example: find L  ? 2
s  9
1  12  1  3 
Solution: L  2   4 L  2   4 sinh 3t
s  9 s  9

2
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform for F ( s )   3s  4 .
Solution:
  

1 2  1  2  1  2 1  1  2 4t
L    L     L    e 3

 3s  4   3  s  4 3  3 s  4 
 3
3

1  3s  1 
Example: Determine L  .
s  s  6
2

Solution: This certainly did not appear in our list of standard transforms but if we
3s  1
write 2 as the sum of two simpler functions, i.e.
s s6
3s  1 1 2
  it makes all the difference.
s s6 s 2 s 3
2

Process Control /Lec. 2 21 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
This is simply the method of writing the more complex algebraic fraction in terms of
its partial fractions which we have previously seen.
We can now proceed to find
 3s  1  1  1 2  2t
L1  2 L     e  2e
3t

s  s  6  s  2 s  3

1  5s  1 
Example: Determine L  2 .
 s  s  12 
5s  1 5s  1
Solution: Factorise the denominator:  .
2
s  s  12 ( s  4)( s  3)
Remember from partial fractions we have the form:
5s  1 A B
   ( s  4)( s  3)
( s  4)( s  3) ( s  4) ( s  3)
5s  1  A( s  3)  B ( s  4)
 14
Choose s = -3 ; 5  3  1  0 A  ( 3  4) B  B  2
7
21
Choose s = 4 ; 5 4   1  (4  3) A  0 B  A  3
7
5s  1 3 2
This gives us  
( s  4)( s  3) ( s  4) ( s  3)
So we now have to find
 5s  1  1  3 2  1  1  1  1 
L1  L     3L    2L  
 ( s  4)( s  3)   ( s  4) ( s  3)   ( s  4)   ( s  3) 
 3e 4t  2e 3t

1  9s  8 
Example: Determine L  2 .
 s  2s 
 9s  8  1  9 s  8 
Solution: Simplify: L1  2 L  
 s  2s   s ( s  2) 
Remember from partial fractions we have the form:
9s  8 A B
   s ( s  2)
s ( s  2) s ( s  2)
9 s  8  A( s  2)  Bs
08
Let s=0 then A  4
02
9 2  8
Let s=2 then B  5
2
9s  8 4 5
This gives us s ( s  2)  s  ( s  2)
So we now have to find
 9s  8  1  4 5  1  4  1  1 
L1  L     L    5L    4  5e
2t

 s ( s  2 )   s ( s  2 )  s
   ( s  2 ) 

1  13s  11 
Example: Determine L  .
 ( s  1)( s  3) 
Solution: Remember from partial fractions we have the form:
Process Control /Lec. 2 22 Written by Assis. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 13s  11 A B
  Multiple both sides by ( s  1)( s  3)
( s  1)( s  3) ( s  1) ( s  3)
13s  11  ( s  3) A  ( s  1) B
13  11 24
Let s=1 then A  1  3  4  6
 3  13  11  28
Let s=-3 then B   3  1   4  7
So we now have to find
 13s  11  1  6 7  1  1  1  1 
L1  L     6L    7L    6e  7 e
t 3t

 ( s  1)( s  3)   ( s  1) ( s  3)   ( s  1)   ( s  3) 

s4
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of F ( s )  ( s  2)( s  1) 2
s4 A B C
Solution: Expand F(s) as F ( s )  ( s  2)( s  1) 2  s  2  ( s  1) 2  ( s  1)
( s  4)  ( s  1) 2 A  ( s  2) B  ( s  1)( s  2)C
1 4 3
Let s=-1 then B   1  2  1  3
24 2
Let s=-2 then A  (2  1) 2  1  2
1 7
equate s  1  2 A  B  3C  1  2  2  3  3C  C 
3
 2

Check by cross-multiplying:
s4 2 3 2
  
( s  2)( s  1) 2 ( s  2) ( s  1) 2 ( s  1)
s4 2 3 2
  
( s  1)(s  3) 2
s  2 ( s  1) (s  1)
2

s  4  2( s  2s  1)  3( s  2)  2( s 2  3s  2)
2

s2 : 0  2  2
s1 : 1  4  3  6
s0 : 4  2  6  4
 s4   2 3 2 
L1  2
 L1    
 ( s  2)( s  1)   ( s  2) ( s  1) ( s  1) 
2

 1  1  1   1 
 2 L1    3L  2
 2 L1   2t t
  2e  3te  2e
t

 ( s  2)   ( s  1)   ( s  1) 

s9
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of F ( s) 
s  6 s  13
2

Solution:
 s9   s9   s9 
f (t )  L1  F ( s )  L1  2   L1  2   L1  2
 s  6s  13   s  6s  3  3  13   ( s  3)  2 
2 2 2

 ( s  3)  6   s3   6   s3   2 
 L1  2
 L1  2
 L1  2
 L1  2
 L1 3  2
 ( s  3)  2   ( s  3)  2   ( s  3)  2   ( s  3)  2   ( s  3)  2 
2 2 2 2 2

 s3   2 
 L1  2
 3L1  2
 e 3t cos(2t )  3e 3t sin(2t )  e 3t  cos(2t )  3 sin(2t )
 ( s  3) 2
 2   ( s  3) 2
 2 
Process Control /Lec. 2 23 Written by Assis. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 1
Example: Find the Laplace inverse of s ( s  1)
using
a) partial fraction b)convolution
Solution:
a) Partial fraction
 1   A B
L1    L1    Multiple both sides by s ( s  1)
 s ( s  1)   s 1 s 
1  As  B ( s  1)
Let s=1 then A=1
Let s=0 then B=-1
 1   1 1  1  1
L1    L1     L1    L1    e t  1
 s ( s  1)   s 1 s   s  1 s
b) Convolution:
 1  1  1 1 
t t
1
L   L     1 * e   1e du   e t u du
t t u

 s ( s  1)   s s  1 0 0

     
t
t
e
u
e t
du  e t  e u  e t  e t  e 0  e t 1  e t  e t  1
0
0

1
Example: Find the Laplace inverse of s ( s  1) 2
2 using convolution theorem
Solution:
t
 1  1  1 1 
1
L  2 2
L  2 2
 t * te   u (t  u )e ( t u ) du
t

 s ( s  1)   s ( s  1)  0

 t u
 t u  
    2ue du  
t t t
t
 e  u (t  u )e du  e t  ue du   u e du   e t  ue du   u 2 e u
t u 2 u t t u
0
0  0 0   0  0  

 t    
    e du  t e 
t t t
t
 e t t  ueu du  t 2 e t  2 ueu du   e t (t  2)  ueu du  t 2et   e t (t  2)  ueu u 2 t
0
 0 0   0    0  
        
 e t (t  2)  ue u  e u   t 2 e t   e t (t  2) te t  e t  1  t 2 e t  e t t 2 e t  te t  t  2te t  2e t  2  t 2 e t
  0 0

t


t

t t
 t t

 e te  t  2e  2  t  te  2  2e t  te t  2e t  t  2

2.8 Laplace Transform of a Derivative

Before we apply Laplace transform to solve a differential equation, we need to know

the Laplace transform of a derivative. Given some expression f (t ) with Laplace
transform L f (t )  F ( s ) , the Laplace transform of the derivative f ' (t ) is:

L f ' (t )  e
 st
f ' (t ) dt
t 0

This can be integrated by parts as follows:

Process Control /Lec. 2 24 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 
L f ' (t )  e
 st
f ' (t ) dt where u  e  st dv  f ' (t )
t 0

du   se  st v  f ' (t )  f (t )


L f ' (t )  e  st f (t )  
t 0 s e
 st
f (t ) dt   0  f (0)   sF ( s )
t 0

Assuming e  st f (t )  0 as t  
That is: L f ' (t )  sF ( s)  f (0)

Thus, the Laplace transform of the derivative of f (t ) is given in terms of the Laplace
transform of f (t ) when t  0 . The next properties is very important for the above
formula.
In general, to solve differential equation af ' (t )  bf (t )  g (t ) given that f (0)  k where
a, b, and k are known constants and g (t ) is a known expression in t using Laplace
transform are as follows:
i. Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the differential equation.
ii. Find the expression of F ( s)  L f (t ) in the form of an algebraic fraction
iii. Separate F(s) into its partial fractions.
iv. Find the inverse Laplace transform L f ' (t ) to find the solution f(t) to the
differential equation.

Example: Solve f ' (t )  f (t )  2 where f (0)  0

Solution: Taking Laplace transforms of both sides of the equation gives:
2
sF ( s )  f (0)  F ( s ) 
s
2
F ( s ) s  1 
s
2
F ( s)  solve using partial fraction
s ( s  1)
2 A B
  solve for A and B where A  2 and B  2
s ( s  1) s s 1
2 2
F (s)   
s s 1
The inverse transformation gives the solution as
f (t )  2  2et  2 1  et  
Example:Solve f ' (t )  f (t )  e 2t where f (0)  1
Solution:
1
sF ( s )  f (0)  F ( s ) 
s2
1
F ( s )( s  1)  1 
s2
1 1 ( s  2)  1 ( s  1) 1
F (s)     
 s  2 s  1 s  1 ( s  2)( s  1) ( s  2)( s  1) s  2
The inverse transform then gives the solution as
f (t )  e 2 t

Example:Solve 3 f ' (t )  2 f (t )  4e t  2 where f (0)  0

Process Control /Lec. 2 25 Written by Assis. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Solution:
4 2
3 sF ( s )  f (0)  2 F ( s )  
s 1 s
6s  2
3sF ( s )  3 f (0)  2 F ( s ) 
s ( s  1)
6s  2
F ( s )(3s  2) 
s ( s  1)
6s  2 4 27
F (s)  solve using partial fractions for A  -1, B  - , and C 
s ( s  1)(3s  2) 5 5
 
1 4  1  27  1  1 4  1  81  1 
F (s)            
s 5  s  1  15  3s  2  s 5  s  1  15  s  2 
 
 3 
The inverse transform then gives the solution as :
2
4 t 81 3 t
f (t )  1  e  e
5 15

3.8.1 Laplace Transforms of Higher Derivatives

The Laplace transforms of derivatives higher than the first are readily derived. To
find higher derivative, understand the following formula

First order L f ' (t )  sF ( s )  F (0)

Second order L f ' ' (t )  s 2 F ( s )  sf (0)  f ' (0)
Third order L f ' ' ' (t )  s 3 F ( s)  s 2 f (0)  sf ' (0)  f ' ' (0)
Forth order L f iv (t )  s 4 F ( s )  s 3 f (0)  s 2 f ' (0)  sf ' ' (0)  f ' ' ' (0)

Example:
Find the solution of f ' ' (t )  3 f ' (t )  2 f (t )  4t where f (0)  f ' (0)  0.
Solution:
i. Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the equation
L f ' ' (t )  3L f ' (t )  2 L f (t )  4 L t 

 s F (s)  sF (0)  f ' (0)  3 sF (s)  F (0)  2F (s)  s4

2
2

ii. Find the expression F ( s )  L f (t ) in the form of algebraic function

Substituting the values for f (0) and f ' ' (0) and then rearranging the above
equation gives
4
( s 2  3s  2) F ( s) 
s2
4
F ( s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2)
2

iii. Separate F (s ) into its partial fractions

4 A B C D
  2  
s ( s  1)( s  2) s s
2
s 1 s  2
4  As ( s  1)( s  2)  B ( s  1)( s  2)  Cs 2 ( s  2)  Ds 2 ( s  1)

Process Control /Lec. 2 26 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Let
s0 B2
s  -1  C  4
s  -2  D  -1
equalize s 3  0  A  C  D  A  0  C  D  0  4  1  3
3 2 4 1
Thus, F ( s)    2  
s s s 1 s  2
iv. The inverse Laplace transform of the above equation is the solution that is
f (t )  3  2t  4e  t  e 2t
Example: Use Laplace transforms to solve the following D.E. with initial conditions.
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
2
4  3 y (t )  1 , y(0)  1 , y(0)  1
dt dt
Taking the Laplace
1
s 2Y ( s)  sy (0)  y '(0)  4  sY ( s)  y(0)   3Y ( s) 
s
1
s 2  4 s  3�
Y ( s) �
� � sy (0)  y '(0)  4 y (0)  s
1
 s 5
s
We want to solve for Y(s), so
1 1
s 5 s5
s s s 2  5s  1
Y ( s)  2  
s  4 s  3  s  3  s  1 s  s  3  s  1
Notice that we factored the denominator into individual terms. Once again, we use
partial fraction expansion to break this down into terms we can look up in the table:
s 2  5s  1 A B C
Y ( s)    
s  s  1  s  3 s s  1 s  3
Multiple both sides by s (s  1)(s  3)
s  5s  1  (s  1)(s  3)A  s (s  3)B  s (s  1)C
2

1 1
Let s=0  A  1  3  3
(1) 2  5  1  3 3
Let s=-1  B   1(1  3)   2  2
(3) 2  15  1  5
Let s=-3  C   3(3  1)

6
So now we have
1/ 3 3/ 2 5 / 6
Y ( s)   
s s 1 s  3
and going back to the time domain gives
1 3  t 5  3t
y (t )   e  e
3 2 6

Process Control /Lec. 2 27 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
Example: Solve 2
4  4 y (t )  e 3t u (t ) y (0)  1, y '(0)  0
dt dt
1
Taking the Laplace s 2Y ( s )  sy (0)  4  sY ( s)  y (0)   4Y ( s) 
s3
1
s 2  4s  4�
Which gives Y ( s ) �
� � s  4  s3
1
s4
Y (s)  s3
 
2
s  2
(s  4) 1
Y(s)  
(s  2) 2
(s  2) 2 (s  3)
This gives me two different terms, but they’re simpler.
Y ( s )  Y1 ( s)  Y2 ( s )
s4 1
Y1 ( s )  , Y2 ( s) 
 s  2  s  2   s  3
2 2

First term:
s4 s2 2
Y1 ( s )   
 s  2  s  2  s  2
2 2 2

1 2
 
 s  2  s  2 2
y1 (t )  e 2t  2te 2t
Now look at the second term:
1 C D E
Y2 ( s)    
 s  2   s  3
2
s  3  s  2 2
 s  2
1 1
C  1
 s  2
2
12
s 3

1
D 1
 s  3 s 2

d � 1 � � 1 � 1
E � � � 2�
  1
 s  3 �
ds �
s 2

�
� s  3  �
�s 2 1
Check:
1 1 1
Y2 ( s)    
s  3  s  2 2
 s  2
1( s 2  4 s  4)  ( s  3)  ( s 2  5s  6) 1
 
 s  3  s  2   s  3  s  2 
2 2

so
y 2 (t )  e 3t  te 2t  e 2t
And putting the two solutions together:
y (t )  y1 (t )  y 2 (t )  [2te 2t  e 2t ]  [e 3t  te 2t  e 2t ]  e 3t  3te 2t

Process Control /Lec. 2 28 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
2.9 Solving Systems of Linear Differential Equations
Example:
Solve y1 '   y1  y 2 , y2 '   y1  y2 , y1 (0)  1 and y 2 (0)  0 .
Solution:
Taken laplace of both equations
sy1 ( s )  y1 (0)   y1 ( s )  y2 ( s ) and sy 2 ( s )  y2 (0)   y1 ( s )  y2 ( s )
 ( s  1) y1 ( s)  y2 ( s )  1 and ( s  1) y2 ( s )  y1 ( s )  0
Solving for y1 ( s ) and y2 ( s ) algebraically we get
y1 ( s )
( s  1) y1 ( s )   1 and ( s  1) y 2 ( s )  y1 ( s )  0
s 1
 1 
 ( s  1) 2 y1 ( s )  y1 ( s )  ( s  1) and y2 ( s)  
  s 1 
 y1 ( s )
 
 1 
 [( s  1) 2  1] y1 ( s )  ( s  1) and y2 ( s)  
  s 1 
 y1 ( s )
 
s 1 1
 y1 ( s )  ( s  1) 2  1 and y2 ( s )   ( s  1) 2  1
1  s 1  t 1  1  t
Now, L  2  = e cos t and L  2  = e sin t
 ( s  1)  1  ( s  1)  1
t t
Therefore, y1 (t )  e cos t and y2 (t )   e sin t .

Example: Solve y1 '  5 y1  y 2 , y 2 '  y1  5 y 2 , y1 (0)   3 and y 2 (0)  7 .

Solution:
Taken Laplace of both equations
sy1 ( s )  y1 (0)  5 y1 ( s )  y2 ( s ) and sy 2 ( s )  y2 (0)  y1 ( s )  5 y 2 ( s )
 ( s  5) y1 ( s )  y 2 ( s )   3 and ( s  5) y2 ( s)  y1 ( s )  7
Solving for y1 ( s ) and y2 ( s ) algebraically we get
7  y1 ( s ) 7  y1 ( s )
 ( s  5) y1 ( s )    3 and y2 ( s ) 
( s  5) ( s  5)
7  y1 ( s)
 ( s  5) 2 y1 ( s )  7  y1 ( s )   3( s  5) and y2 ( s ) 
( s  5)

  
( s  5) 2  1 y1 ( s )  7  3 ( s  5) and y2 ( s ) 
7  y1 ( s)
( s  5)
7  s 5 
 y1 ( s )  2
( s  5)  1
3  2  and
 ( s  5)  1
7 7  3 
y2 ( s)    
2
s  5 ( s  5) ( s  5)  1  2

 ( s  5)  1
B  sC
7
 2
( s  5) ( s  5)  1

A

 2
s  5 ( s  5)  1
multiple both side ( s  5) ( s  5) 2  1  
 
7  A ( s  5) 2  1  ( B  sC )( s  5 )
Let s=5  A  7
 168  7
Let s=0  7  A(25  1)  5 B  B   35
5

Process Control /Lec. 2 29 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
s2  0  A  C  C   A  7
7 7 7 s  35  3 
y2 ( s )     
s  5 ( s  5) 2

( s  5)  1 2
 
 ( s  5)  1
 s 5   3 
y2 ( s )  7  2   2 .
 ( s  5)  1  ( s  5)  1
1  s 5  5t 1  1  5t
Now, L  2  =e cosh t and L  2  =e sinh t
 ( s  5)  1  ( s  5)  1
Therefore, y1 (t )  e 5 t (7 sinh t  3 cosh t ) and y2 (t )  e 5 t (7 cosh t  3 sinh t ) .

Example: Solve y1 ' '  y1  3 y2 , y 2 ' '  4 y1  4 e t , y ( 0 )  2 , y ' ( 0 )  3 , y ( 0)  1

1 1 2

and y 2 ' (0)  2

Solution:
The subsidiary equations become
s 2 y1 ( s )  s y1 (0)  y1 ' (0)  y1 ( s )  3 y2 ( s ) and
4
s 2 y 2 ( s )  s y 2 (0)  y2 ' (0)  4 y1 ( s ) 
s 1
4
 ( s 2  1) y1 ( s )  3 y2 ( s )  3  2s and s 2 y2 ( s )  4 y1 ( s )  2  s 
s 1
Solving for y1 ( s ) and y2 ( s ) algebraically we get
3  2 s  3 y2 ( s) 2 12  8s  12 y 2 ( s ) 4
y1 ( s )  2 and s y2 ( s )  2
2 s
( s  1) ( s  1) s 1
3  2 s  3 y2 ( s)
y1 ( s )  and
( s 2  1)
4( s 2  1)
s 2 ( s 2  1) y 2 ( s )  12  8s  12 y 2 ( s )  ( s 2  1)( 2  s ) 
s 1
3  2 s  3 y2 ( s)
y1 ( s )  2 and [ s 2 ( s 2  1)  12] y2 ( s )  12  8s  2 s 2  s 3  2  s  4( s  1)
( s  1)
3  2 s  3 y2 ( s)
y1 ( s )  2 and [ s 4  s 2  12] y2 ( s)  s 3  2s 2  3s  6
( s  1)
3  2 s  3 y2 ( s) s 3  2 s 2  3s  6 1
y1 ( s )  and y2 ( s )  
( s 2  1) 2
[ s  s  12]
4
( s  2)
1
3  2s  3
( s  2) (3  2s )(s  2)  3 3s  6  2s 2  4 s  3 2s 2  s  3
y1 ( s )    
( s 2  1) ( s  2)( s 2  1) ( s  2)( s 2  1) ( s  2)( s 2  1)
s 2  s 2  s  1  2 ( s 2  s  2)  ( s 2  1) ( s  1)( s  2)  ( s 2  1) ( s  1) 1
 2
 2
 2
 2 
( s  2)( s  1) ( s  2)( s  1) ( s  2)(s  1) ( s  1) ( s  2)
1 1
 
( s  1) ( s  2)
1 1 1
 y2 ( s )  s  2 and y1 ( s )  
s 1 s  2
Therefore, y1 (t )  et  e 2t and y2 (t )  e 2t .

2.10 Laplace Transform of a integers

Process Control /Lec. 2 30 Written by Assis. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
If f(t) is a function having Laplace transform F(s)= L{f(t)}, then the Laplace
transform of the integration of a function f(t), is given by:
t
F (s)
L  f (t ) dt 
0
s

Proof:

t
t 
  st   1  st t  1
t
1
L  f (t )dt     f (t ) e dt  
  e  f (t )   f (t )e  st dt  F ( s )
0 00   s 0 0 s 0 s

2.11 Initial value theorem:

It can be used to find the steady-state value of a system (providing that a steady-state
value exists).
if LF (t )  F ( s ) , then
F (0)  lim F (t )  lim sF ( s )
t 0 s 

2.12 Final value theorem

lim F (t )  lim sF ( s )
t  s 0

Example:
Find the final value of the function x(t) for which the laplace inverse is:-
1
x( s ) 
s( s  3s 2  3s  1 )
3

s 1
lim x( t )  lim sx( s )  lim
t  s 0 s 0 s( s  3s 2  3s  1 )
3

1
 lim 1
s 0 ( s 3  3s 2  3s  1 )

Example:
5s  2
Suppose Y ( s) 
s (5s  4)
Then steady state value of Y can be calculated by:
 (5s  2) 
Y ()  lim Y (t )  lim  s   0.5
t  s 0
 s (5s  4) 

Process Control /Lec. 2 31 Written by Assis. Prof.

Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor