HIGHWAY MATERIALS

CHAPTER 2

Associate Professor Dr. Mohamad Yusri Aman

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

Road Pavement
Pavement is a structure consisting of
superimposed layers of selected and
processed materials whose primary
function is to distribute the applied
vehicle load to the sub grade.
OR
It can also be defined as “structure
which separates the tires of
vehicles from the under lying
foundation.”

1
 Road Paving Materials
Consist mainly of aggregate, small
amount of binder and filler.
1. Aggregate – carry traffic load,
main interlocking structure
2. Binder – bind aggregates
producing strong, durable & stable
mixture
3. Filler – fill small voids, durable
mixture, increase viscosity of
binder, reduces binder run-off

Granular Materials
 In the road construction, one or more layers of material
paced immediately above the sub-grade or capping.
 Together with the capping, the unbound pavement
course comprises the road foundation, ensuring that
the courses above are adequately supported so that
their full potential is achieved.
 Unbound pavement courses are extraordinarily strong
when properly compacted and confined.
 The unbound pavement courses are listed as follows:
1. BASE COURSE
2. SUB-BASE COURSE
Wearing Course
Surface
Binder Course
Base (Tapak)
Sub-base (Sub Tapak)
Formation Level

Subgrade (Soil)

2
 What is Unbound Material ?

 Unbound material is call “granular

material” or aggregate.

 Aggregate for road base normally

from granite stone or crushing stone
and may from blastfurnace slag.

 In both flexible and rigid pavement,

poor performance of unbound
granular material contributes to
reduce life and costly maintenance.

 The gradation of particle size

distribution, density and moisture
content of the material are factors
that significantly influence the
response of a granular material.

3
BASE COURSE

 Base course in flexible pavements

must help to distribute the load.
 This ability of material in the base
course also affects the rate of load
distribution to a certain extent, but
depth is the main factor considered
in design.
 While distributing the load, the base
course itself must not be a cause of
failure.
 Therefore, it must be strong
enough to carry the load without
shear failure and resultant rutting.

BASE COURSE

 In order to ensure that its strength is

maintained, the base course must
allow water drainages to the sides of
the pavement structure.
 If the base becomes saturated, high
stresses may be created in the water
occupying the pore spaces, resulting
in less frictional strength between
particles.
 The materials must be durable, that
is, resistant to degradation or
breakdown to smaller sizes from
wear and weathering.
 The base course must also prevent
infiltration of sub-grade material.

4
 The base course lies immediately
above the sub-base.
 If a sub-base course is not used, the
base is placed immediately above the
sub-grade.
 This course usually consists of
granular materials such as crushed
stone, crushed or uncrushed slag,
crush or uncrushed gravel and sand.
 The specifications for base course
materials usually include stricter
requirements than those for sub-base
materials, particularly with respect to
their plasticity, gradation and strength.

 Materials that do not have the

required properties can be used as
base materials if they are properly
stabilized with Portland cement,
asphalt or lime.
 In some cases, high-quality base
course materials may also be treated
with asphalt or Portland cement to
improve the stiffness characteristics
of heavy-duty pavements.

 Road-base material shall be crushed rock or crushed gravel, or a

mixture of crushed and natural aggregates, which is hard, durable,
clean and essentially free from clay and other deleterious materials.

5
 Do I really need a Sub-base?
 If the pavement will be trafficked by
vehicles, then yes, but if it will be foot-
traffic only, then not necessarily.
 The type of paving or surfacing that will
be used is one of the key factors in
determining whether a sub-base will be
required.

 Some paving types, block paving for

example, nearly always need a sub-base,
while others, such as pattern imprinted
concrete, may not need one, but wouldn't
be any less effective if one was to be
included.

11

AGGREGATE TESTING
The materials used to construct this layer are consists of the mixing
of crushed aggregates with the size from 50 mm to dust. All road
base materials shall fulfill the testing listed below:

 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

 Plasticity Index (PI)

 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)

 Flakiness Index (FI)

 Soundness

 Sieve Analysis

6
 CRUSHED AGGREGATE ROAD BASE
TOPIC 3:

Materials
 Crushed rock, crushed gravel or a mixture of
crushed rock and gravel.

7
 Materials Requirements

 Shall hard, durable, clean and essentially free from clay and other
deleterious materials.
 Gradation (size) shall follow Table 2.2 (BS 1377).
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) shall be ≥ 80 % when compacted to
95 % of the Maximum Dry Density (MDD) according to Compaction Test
(4.5 kg rammer method) and soaked for 4 days under 4.5 kg
surcharge (BS 1377)
 Aggregate Crushing Value ≤ 25 % (MS 30)
 Flakiness Index ≤ 25 % (MS 30)
 The Sand Equivalent of aggregate fraction passing the No. 4 (4.75 mm)
≥ 45 % (ASTM D 2419).
 Average loss of weight in the magnesium sulfate (Soundness) for 5
cycles ≤ 18 % (AASHTO T 104)
 The Plasticity Index ≤ 6 (BS 1377).

Materials Requirements (Cont’)

Table 2.2: Gradation limit for Crushed Aggregate Road base

BS Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing by Weight

50.0 100
37.5 85 – 100
28.0 70 – 100
20.0 60 – 90
10.0 40 – 65
5.0 30 – 55
2.0 20 - 40
0.425 10 – 25
0.075 2 - 10
The particle size shall be determined by the washing and sieving method of BS
1377

8
 Laboratory of California bearing ratio
1. Purpose – determine bearing capacity of material against standard
crushed aggregate
2. Two major processes – compaction test (determine Maximum
Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content), and CBR test
(determine CBR at 95% compaction)
3. Compaction: mold 2.3L, hammer 4.5 kg, 62 blows/layer, 5 layers, 5
different mc, obtain bulk density >>> dry density >>> plot DD vs. Mc
4. CBR: 3 mold at OMC, vary no. Of blows to obtain 95% compaction,
5. calculate the Dry Density, soak, drain, CBR test, plot load vs.
Penetration graph, calculate CBR at 2.5 and 5.0mm

17

Construction Requirements

Sub-base must be ready accordingly.

 Lay the road base. Not exceeding 200 mm compacted thickness.
 If more than 1 layers, each layer must be approximately equal.
None shall be less than 100 mm compacted thickness.
 Compaction – density ≥ 95 % of Maximum Dry Density (MDD).
The density should be determined by Compaction Test (4.5 kg
rammer method) according to BS 1377: Test 13.
 Complete compaction – protect well the road base surface before
placing bituminous surface.
 Tolerance of the top surface is + 0 mm to – 20 mm.

9
 TOPIC 3:
WET-MIX ROAD BASE

Materials Requirements

 Shall hard, durable, clean and essentially free from clay and
other deleterious materials.
 Gradation (size) shall follow Table 2.3 (BS 1377).
 Aggregate Crushing Value ≤ 25 % (MS 30)
 Flakiness Index ≤ 25 % (MS 30)
 Average loss of weight in the magnesium sulfate
(Soundness) for 5 cycles ≤ 18 % (AASHTO T 104)
 The Sand Equivalent of aggregate fraction passing the No. 4
(4.75 mm) ≥ 45 % (ASTM D 2419).

10
 Materials Requirements (Cont)

Table 2.3: Gradation limit for Wet-Mix Road base

BS Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing by Weight

50.0 100
37.5 95 – 100
20.0 60 – 80
10.0 40 – 60
5.0 25 – 40
2.36 15 - 30
0.060 8 – 22
0.075 0-8
The particle size shall be determined by the washing and sieving method of BS
1377

Construction Requirements
Sub-base must be ready accordingly.
1.Lay the road base. Not exceeding 200 mm compacted thickness.
2.If more than 1 layers required, each layer must be approximately
equal thickness. None shall be less than 100 mm compacted thickness.
3.Compaction – density ≥ 95 % of Maximum Dry Density (MDD). The
density should be determined by Compaction Test (4.5 kg rammer
method) according to BS 1377: Test 13.
4.Minimum thickness measured at any pint shall be not less 20 mm of
the specified thickness.
5.Complete compaction – protect well the road base surface before
placing bituminous surface.
6.Tolerance of the top surface is + 0 mm to – 20 mm.

11
 TOPIC 2:
SUBBASE

SUB-BASE COURSE
 Sub-base for flexible pavement must drain readily.

 Strength is not as important, however, since the course is lower in the

pavement structure and therefore is subjected to the much smaller
loads.

 Located immediately above the sub-grade, the sub-base component

consists of material of a superior quality to which is generally used for
sub-grade construction.

 The requirements for sub-base materials are usually given in terms of

the gradation, plastic characteristics and strength.  

12
SUB-BASE COURSE
The functions of sub-base are:
 To sustain road base layer and distribute
load from the vehicle.
 Act as a drainage layer ( if the materials
used capable to drain the water)
 Can be used as a temporary road during
the construction
 To protect the sub-grade from the failure
due to the climatic effect.
 As a barrier layer to avoid the mixing of
sub-grade and road base materials.

Materials

 Sand, gravel, crushed aggregate and etc.

 Free from organic matter, clay lumps and deleterious materials.

13
 Materials Requirements

 Gradation (size) shall follow Table 2.1 (BS 1377).

 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) shall be ≥ 30 % or as shown on
the drawing when compacted to 95 % of the Maximum Dry Density
(MDD)
 MDD been determined based on Compaction Test (4.5 kg rammer
method) and soaked for 4 days under 4.5 kg surcharge (BS 1377)
 Therefore, a series of CBR test at various densities using the field
moisture content.
 If > 10 % of material has size more than 20 mm, the whole
material can be assumed without test to have CBR value of 30 %
or more.

Materials Requirements (Cont)

 Plasticity Index (PI) ≤ 12 (BS 1377).

 The 10 % Fines Value ≥ 30 kN (MS 30).
 The Sand Equivalent of aggregate fraction
passing the No. 4 (4.75 mm) ≥ 45 % (ASTM D 2419).

14
 Materials Requirements (Cont)

Table 2.1: Gradation limit for Sub-

base
BS Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing by Weight
75.0 100
37.5 85 – 100
20.0 65 – 100
10.0 45 – 100
5.0 25 – 85
0.600 8 – 45
0.075 0 - 10
The particle size shall be determined by the washing and sieving method of BS
1377

Construction Requirements
Sub-grade must be ready accordingly.
1.Lay the sub-base. Not exceeding 200 mm
compacted thickness.
2.If more than 1 layers, each layer must be
approximately equal. None shall be less
than 100 mm compacted thickness.
3.Compaction - ≥ 95 % of Maximum Dry
Density (MDD). The density should be
determined by Compaction Test (4.5 kg
rammer method) according to BS 1377.
4.Tolerance of the top surface is + 10 mm
to – 20 mm.

15
1. Sub-grade is the part of embankment or
natural soil under the sub-base or lower
sub-base of road and road shoulder.

2. This layer is the first part of the road

construction prior the other structure.

3. The surface of sub-grade is identified as a

formation level.

4. According to the definition, the formation

level is the soil surface after the earthwork,
consolidation, compaction and stabilization
works were completed.

1. Sub-grade is used as a layer

which sustain load from the top
surfaces.

2. Selection of suitable soils to be

used as the foundation for the
highway pavement surface is of
primary importance in the design
and construction of any highway.

16
Selection of suitable soils to be
used as the foundation for the highway
pavement surface is of primary importance
in the design and construction of any
highway.

The good sub-grade should have the

properties as follows:

1. Should be stable under the varieties

of vehicle load and climatic
condition.
2. The strength of the sub-grade
should remain along the design
period.
3. The ability to drain water.

 There are some soils which are identified

as unsuitable materials for the sub-
grade and road embankment.
 These materials are not capable to
sustain load from the above layer and
traffic. These soils are listed as follows:

 Soils which consists of organic clays or

silts.
 The value of Liquid Limits (LL) > 80 %
or Plasticity Index (PI) > 55 %
 The value of Loss On Ignition (LOI) >
2.5 %
 Soils consist of roots, grass or other
plants, toxic, peat or mud.

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 Material for the top 300 mm of sub-grade shall have a minimum California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) as required in the specification when compacted to
95% of the maximum dry density determined in the B.S 1377 Compaction
Test.

 Throughout the top 300 mm of sub-grade, the material shall be compacted

to not less than 95% (for cohesive material) or 100% (for cohesionless
material) of the maximum dry density.

 In cut area, the top 300 mm of the sub-grade shall be scarified and
recompacted to 95% (for cohesive material) or 100% (for cohesionless
material) of the maximum dry density.

 However, for the sub-grade in its natural state possesses a density

exceeding the requirements, then the surface of the sub-grade shall be
trimmed and rolled to obtain smooth finish.

 Where the material in cut area is found to be unsuitable for use in the top
300 mm of sub-grade, it shall be removed and replaced with suitable
material which shall be compacted as indicated above.

(2) What is a COMPACTION TEST?

COMPACTION TEST is carried out on subgrade soils and roadbase
aggregates to determine the optimum water content and maximum dry density
– for the purpose of adequate compaction at the site.
Dry density

Max. dry
density

Water
Optimum content
water content 36

18
Compaction will result in:
higher strength, reduced settlement and reduced permeability.

The effect of compaction energy is shown below:

Dry density

50 blows

20 blows

Water
content
37

(3) What is a CBR TEST?

CBR Test is carried out to determine the
resistance of the subgrade/crushed aggregates
to deformation under the load from vehicle
wheels.

The stronger the material (the higher the CBR

reading ) the less thick it is necessary to design
and construct the road pavement, this gives a
considerable cost saving.

Conversely if CBR testing indicates the material is

weak (a low CBR reading) we must construct a
suitable thicker road pavement to spread the wheel
load over a greater area of the weak material.

Alternatively, material improvements such as

chemical stabilization (use of lime, cement and fly
ash) may also be conducted.
38

19
CBR Sample preparation

39

California bearing ratio

40

20
 Load (kN)

2.5 mm 5.0 mm Penetration

(mm)

@ 2.5 mm  CBR = y  100%

13.2 Choose the higher value as
the CBR for the material.
@ 5.0 mm  CBR = z  100%
20.0
41

Dry density, d Dry density, d

d max x
x d max
d max x x x
x
x
x

Water content CBR CBR (%)

42

21
TESTING
The factors which influence to the strength of the sub-grade are listed as follows:

Types of soils – The most suitable soil are granular soil and the most unsuitable
material for the sub-grade is the peat soils.

Water content – the suitable moisture content of soil is determined through the
laboratory compaction test.

The method and compaction effort – the strength of soil also depends on these
factors and at site the type of plant used for the compaction and the number of
repetition of compaction also been considered.

Therefore, testing need to be conducted to the soil to determine the suitability of

soils as a sub-grade. The tests which are usually conducted to the soils for sub-
grade and road embankment are listed as follows:

• Loss On Ignition (LOI) – BS 1377: Part 3: 1990

• Liquid Limit (LL) and Plastic Limit (PL) – BS 1377: Part 2: 1990
• Compaction – BS 1377: Test 13: 1975 (Part 4: 1990)
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR) – BS 1377: Test 16: 1975 (Part 4: 1990)

TOPIC 4:
ROAD SURFACE

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 Bituminous pavement course is the
combination of aggregates and
binder.

 The surface layer consists of two

layers which known as the binder
course and the wearing course.

 The surface course usually consists

of a mixture of mineral aggregates
and asphaltic materials.

 It should be capable of withstanding

high tyre pressure, resisting the
abrasive force due to traffic,
providing a skid-resistance driving
surface and preventing the
penetration of surface water
depending on the expected traffic on
the pavement.

 Its quality depends on the mix

design of the asphalt concrete used.

 The materials used to construct this

layer are aggregates, bitumen and
filler.

23
Binder Course

This layer is used to distribute load to the road base and provide the flat surface
to construct the wearing course. The maximum size of aggregate used is 28
mm and mixed with percentage of bitumen ranging from 4 – 6 %.

Wearing Course

Basically, this is the top layer with the main function to the safety of the road
users. The other functions of wearing course are listed as follows:

• Provide skid resistance

• Protect the road surface
• Provide a safe and comfortable riding surface
• Sustain abrasion from traffic
• As a drainage system by providing a waterproof layer, and drain
surface run-off to the side drain.

The maximum size of aggregate is 20 mm and mixed with bitumen with the
percentage ranging from 4.5 – 7 %.

What is bitumen ?
 The term of bitumen refers to the binder material, which
produces from refinery of crude oil.
 The mixture of bitumen and aggregate is called asphaltic
concrete.
 The chemical compositions of bitumen are listed as shown in
Table.

Minerals Percentage Content (%)

Carbon 80 – 85
Hydrogen 10
Sulfur 1–5
Nitrogen 1
Oxygen <1

24
Bitumen can be obtained from two main sources which are:

Natural sources – bitumen which is located in geological stratum and can be

obtained in the hard and soft form.

Petroleum bitumen – bitumen in colloidal form obtained from refinery process of

crude oil and has been widely used in the road construction.

Bitumen can be classified into four types as listed as follows:

• Penetration bitumen
• Cutback bitumen
• Emulsified bitumen
• Blown bitumen

Continue…

Penetration Bitumen
The grade of penetration bitumen classified according to the penetration
test ranging from 40 – 300 while based on the viscosity test ranging from
5 – 40.
Cutback Bitumen
Cutback bitumen is produced based on the bitumen with the percentage
ranging from 50 – 80 % mixed with the petroleum-based solvents. When
it is mixed with aggregate, the petroleum will evaporate and it allows for
the bitumen to interlock with the aggregate.
According to the rate of evaporation, this kind of bitumen can be
classified into three groups:
Rapid Curing (RC)
Medium Curing (MC)
Slow Curing (SC)

25
 Rapid Curing (RC)
- It has been used for the tack coat and surface treatment.
- Produced by mixing the bitumen with petrol.

Medium Curing (MC)

- Produced by mixing the bitumen with kerosene.
- It has been used for the prime coat and cold mix for the
patching work.

Slow Curing
- Produced by mixing the bitumen with the diesel.
- It has been used especially for the prime coat, cold mix for
patching work and dust control.

Emulsified Bitumen
 Emulsified bitumen is produced by mixing the bitumen (55 – 65 %) with water
and emulsifier in the colloidal rotor.

 This situation will reduce the viscosity of bitumen and allow them to be used at
the low temperature.

 The type of bitumen depends to the emulsifying agent that is used. The two
types of are as follows:

Anionic
 Contains the negative bitumen globule.
 This bitumen is produced when positive emulsifying agent is used - alkali.
 It is suitable to be used with the aggregates which have positive charge like
limestone.

Cationic
 Contains the positive bitumen globule.
 This bitumen is produced when negative emulsifying agent is used – acid.
 It is suitable to be used with the aggregates which have negative charge like
sand, quartz and silica.

26
Emulsified bitumen can be classified
into three groups:

Rapid Setting (RS)

Used for surface treatment and tack coat.

Medium Setting (MS)

Used for Macadam penetration and open
graded cold mix.

Slow Setting (SS)

Used for tack coat, dense grade cold mix,
crack patching and slurry mixture.

Nowadays, the emulsified bitumen is most

widely used compared to cutback bitumen due
to the several factors as follows:

Environmental regulation – emulsified

bitumen contains water while cutback
bitumen contains materials which can
evaporate and pollute the air when it has
been used.

The wastage of petroleum – cutback bitumen

uses petroleum solvents.

Safety – emulsified bitumen is safer to be

used.

Low temperature of mixing – this situation can reduce the cost of fuel
consumption. Besides that, emulsified bitumen can be used on damp surfaces while
cutback bitumen needs dry condition.

27
Blown Bitumen

Produced by heating the

bitumen at high temperature
and air is allowed through the
bitumen and it makes the
bitumen become harder.

Basically, this type of bitumen is

used for building materials
especially for roofs.

Laboratory Testing

In order to ensure the bitumen that be used fulfill the

specification, series of testing can be conducted as follows:

 Penetration
 Softening Point
 Ductility
 Flash and Fire Point
 Viscosity
 Loss on Heating
 Thin Film Oven Test
 Specific Gravity
 Solubility

28
 TEST BITUMEN ACCORDING TO MS 124 SPECIFICATION
FOR PENETRATION GRADE 80-100

Properties Methods Requirements

Penetration at 25oC, 100g
MS 541 80-100
5 sec, 0.1 mm
Softening Point in oC MS 687 45-52
Flash Point in oC
ASTM D92 Min. 225°C
(cleveland open cup)
Solubility in trichloroethylene % wt ASTM D2042 Min. 99.0
Ductility at 25°C 5 cm per min, cm ASTMD113 Min. 100
Retained penetration after thin-film
ASTMD5 Min 47
oven test, %
Loss on heating, % wt ASTM D6 Max. 0.5

Drop in penetration after heating, % ASTMD5 Max. 20

Asphaltic concrete

29
 Asphaltic concrete

 Bituminous pavement course is the combination of

aggregates and binder.
 The surface layer consists of two layers which known as the
binder course and the wearing course.
 The surface course usually consists of a mixture of mineral
aggregates and asphaltic materials.
 It should be capable of withstanding high tyre pressure,
resisting the abrasive force due to traffic, providing a skid-
resistance driving surface and preventing the penetration of
surface water depending on the expected traffic on the
pavement.
 Its quality depends on the mix design of the asphalt concrete
used.
 The materials used to construct this layer are aggregates,
bitumen and filler.

In general, the asphaltic concrete materials are considered as follows:

Aggregates – provide interlocking structure, sustain load and distribute

to the layer beneath.

Bitumen – binder material which binds the aggregates to produce a

strong and stable mixture.

Filler – to fill the voids in the mixture and improve the elasticity of the
bitumen to produce a durable mixture and to reduce bleeding in
bituminous mixture.

30
Aggregates

 Most of the aggregates used in the road construction were the natural
aggregates. However, there was also widely used the artificial
aggregates such as the waste material from the process of tin ore.

 In road construction, the aggregates can be classified into three

groups according to the size as follows:

 Coarse aggregates – retained on the sieve 2.36 mm.

 Fine aggregates – passing sieve 2.36 mm and retained at 75 m sieve

size.

 Filler – the dust passing sieve size 75 m (eg. quarry dust and
Portland cement).

Coarse aggregates shall be screened crushed hard rock, angular in shape

and free from dust, clay, vegetative and other organic matter and other
deleterious substances.

In order to ensure the properties of Coarse aggregate fulfill the

requirement of bituminous mixture, they need to satisfy the following
physical and mechanical quality requirements:

 The Los Angeles abrasion value when tested in accordance with

ASTM C 131 is shall be not more than 25%.
 The weighted average loss of weight in the sodium sulphates
soundness test (5 cycles) shall be not more than 18%.
 The flakiness index shall be not more than 25
 The water absorption shall be not more than 2%.
 The polished stone value shall be not less than 40 (only
applicable to aggregates for wearing course)

31
 Fine aggregates shall be clean natural sands, screened quarry
fines or mining sand. Mining sand shall be thoroughly washed
before use.

 Other types of fine aggregate may be used depends on the

decision of the engineer. Fine aggregates shall be non-plastic
and free from clay, loam, aggregations of material, vegetative
and other organic matter and other deleterious substances.

 Notwithstanding compliance with the requirements, limestone

aggregates shall not be permitted for use in wearing course.

 They shall comform to the following physical and mechanical quality

requirement:

 The sand equivalent of aggregate fraction passing the size

4.75mm not less than 45%
 Fin aggregate angularity not less than 45%
 The weight average loss of weight in the magnesium sulphate
soundness test (5 cycle) not more than 20%
 The water absorption when tested accordance to MS30 shall be
not more than 2%

32
 Mix Design

• Proposed by contractor as required in the

Works.
• Follow design mix aggregate gradation
and appropriate range of bitumen content.
• Shall be subject to the Marshall test
Procedure and volumetric analysis.

Table 3: Gradation Limit for Asphalt Concrete

Mix Type Wearing Course Binder Course
Mix Designation AC 10 AC 14 AC 28
B.S. Sieve Size (mm) % Passing By Weight
28.0 - - 100
20.0 - 100 72– 90
14.0 100 90– 100 58 – 76
10.0 90 –100 76 – 86 48 – 64
5.0 58 – 72 50 – 62 30 – 46
3.35 48 – 64 40 – 54 24 – 40
1.18 22 – 40 18 – 34 14 – 28
425 µm 12 – 26 12 – 24 8 – 20
150 µm 6 – 14 6 – 14 4 – 10
75 µm 4–8 4–8 3–7

Conventional bitumen content ranges used for mix design

Binder Course AC 10 5 – 7%
AC 14 4 – 6%
AC 28 3.5 – 5.5%

** Mineral Filler : Hydrated lime or portland cement (PCC)

33
 Marshall Mix Design s1
Aggregate Selection
* Determine physical properties
* Perform blending calculations to achieve aggregate
gradation

Binder Selection
determine appropriate binder

Sample Preparation
5 blends with 4 samples each mixing and
compaction
Bitumen content at increment of 0.5%

Standard stability and flow test (ASTM D

1559)
75 blow /face compaction standard.

Bulk specific gravity ASTM D2726 , Stability

and flow value (ASTM1559)

Optimum Binder Content Selection

Based on analysis of specific gravity , stability,
flow, VIM & VFB.

(4) VTM, VMA and VFB?

Voids in Total Mix (Air Voids)

 The total volume of the small pockets of air between the coated
aggregate particles throughout a compacted paving mixture.
 Must be kept between 3% - 5%.
 Low air voids content will cause the mixture to be unstable.
 High air voids content will result in a water-permeable mixture.

Voids in Mineral Aggregate

 The volume of inter-granular void space between the aggregate particles

of a compacted paving mixture that includes the air voids and the effective
asphalt content.
 When VMA is too low, there is not enough room to add sufficient asphalt to
adequately coat the aggregates.
 Excessive VMA will reduce the stability of the mixture.
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 Voids in aggregate Filled with Bitumen
 The portion of the voids in the mineral
aggregate that contain asphalt binder.

 This represents the volume of the

effective asphalt content.

 It can also be described as the percent

of the volume of the VMA that is filled
with asphalt cement.

 VFB is inversely related to air voids: as

air voids decrease, the VFB increases.

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MARSHALL MIX DESIGN

 The most used method for the mixture design is the Marshall Method
(ASTM D 1559).
 The objective of the Marshall design is to determine the mixing ratio of
aggregates and optimum bitumen content to produce the durable, stable
and adequate of voids, workable, flexible, economy and quality.
 The most common method used to determine the optimum bitumen
content is the method proposed by the Asphalt Institute. The procedure of
this method is given as follows:
a. Determine
 Bitumen content for the maximum stability
 Bitumen content for the flow equal to 3mm
 Bitumen content for the maximum density/ bulk specific gravity
 Bitumen content at VFB equal to 75% for wearing course & 70%
for binder course.
 Bitumen content at VIM equal to 4.0% for wearing course & 5.0%
for binder course.

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b. Calculate the mean value from these 5 values
c. Based on this mean value, determine the values from the
Marshall properties curve as listed below (Figure 2-2).

Stability (S)
Flow (F)
Stiffness (S/F)
Void in Total Mix (VTM)
Void Filled with Bitumen (VFB)

Compare the values obtain from (c) with the specification values
(Table 2-6).

If it fulfills the specification, the bitumen can be considered as

the optimum bitumen content.

If it does not fulfill the requirement, the mixture needs to be

redesigned.

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 Table 2-6: Test and Analysis Parameters for Asphaltic Concrete

Parameter Wearing Course Binder Course

Stability, S >8000 N > 8000 N

Flow , F 2.0-4.0 mm 2.0 – 4.0 mm

Stiffness , S/F > 2000 N/mm > 2000 N/mm

Air voids in mix (VIM) 3.0 - 5.0 % 3.0 - 7.0%

Voids in aggregates filled 70 - 80 % 65 - 75%

with bitumen (VFB)

EXAMPLE
% AC Density Stability Flow Stiffness VIM VFB
4.0 2.259 1339.2 2.62 511.8 6.49 57.96
4.5 2.270 1469.3 2.79 526.0 5.33 65.50
5.0 2.289 1551.0 3.19 486.2 3.86 74.59
5.5 2.272 1321.3 3.25 407.0 3.89 76.06
6.0 2.260 1196.7 3.70 323.1 3.70 78.40

3.80 550.0
3.60 500.0
3.40
450.0
3.20
Stiffness

3.00 400.0
Flow

2.80 350.0
2.60
300.0
2.40
2.20 250.0

2.00 200.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC

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 2.295 1600.0
2.290
1500.0
2.285
1400.0
2.280

Stability
Density

2.275 1300.0
2.270
1200.0
2.265
1100.0
2.260
2.255 1000.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC

7.00 80.00
6.50
75.00
6.00
70.00
5.50

VFA
V TM

5.00 65.00
4.50
60.00
4.00
55.00
3.50
3.00 50.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC

Average = (4.85+ 4.85 + 4.55 +5.2+ 5.1) / 5 =4.91%

1600.0 550.0

1500.0 500.0

450.0
1400.0
Stiffness
Stability

400.0
1300.0
350.0
1200.0
300.0
1100.0 250.0

1000.0 200.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC

3.80 7.00
3.60 6.50
3.40 6.00
3.20
5.50
3.00
Flow

VTM

5.00
2.80
4.50
2.60
2.40 4.00

2.20 3.50
2.00 3.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC

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 80.00

75.00

70.00

VFA
65.00

60.00

55.00

50.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC

Parameter Results Specification Remarks

(Binder course, JKR 1988)
Stability 1530 kg >8000 N OK
Flow 3.20 mm 2.0-4.0 mm OK
Stiffness 4950 kg/mm > 2000 N/mm OK
VTM 4.25 % 3.0 - 5.0 % OK
VFB 74.5% 70 - 80 % OK

 Optimum Binder Content, OBC = 4.91%

Types of soil failures.

 Shear failure. Occurs when grains slide with respect to other grains.
 Settlement failures, where a layer of soil in compressed and becomes
thinner under loading.

Shear failure Settlement

CBR Test.
 Soil samples is compacted at its optimum moisture content.
 Applying surcharge to the sample to represent the estimated thickness of pavement
over the subgrades.
 Soaking the samples for four days.
Forcing a 19.4 cm2 (3 in2) plunger into the sample to a depth of 2.5 mm (0.1 in). The
force required to obtain this penetration is expressed as percent of the standard load
for crushed base material (13.3 kN or 3000lb) to give the CBR value.

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One of the most important keys to
Success
is having the discipline
to do what you know you should
do,
EVEN
when you don’t feel like doing it.

79

QUESTIONS??
Thank you …

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