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duGa-
moval" 7
Steady -State Flow of Gas
Through Pipes
Pipes provide an economic means of producing (through tubing or casing)

and transporting (via flowlines or pipelines) fluids in large volumes over
great distances. They are convenient to fabricate and install, and provide an
almost indefinite life span. Because flow is continuous, minimal storage fa-
cilities are required at either end (field supply end, and the consumer end).
Operating costs are very low, and flow is guaranteed under all conditions of
weather, with good control (an installed pipeline can usually handle a wide
range of flow rates). There are no spillage or other handling losses, unless
the line develops a leak, which can be easily located and fixed for surface
fines.
The flow of gases through piping systems involves flow in horizontal, in-
clined, and vertical orientations, and through constrictions such as chokes
for flow control. This chapter introduces some basic concepts for these flow
ty-pes.
Gas Flow Fundamentals
All fluid flow equations are derived from a basic energy balance which,
for a steady-state system (no time-dependence of flow parameters), can be
expressed as:
Change in internal energy + Change in kinetic energy

+ Change in potential energy + Work done on the fluid
+ Heat energy added to the f luid
- Shaft work done by fluid on the surroundings
=0
275
276 Gas Production Engineering
Thus. on a unit mass basis. the energy balance for a f luid under steady-state
floww conditions can be written as:
dU+2 +- dz+d(pV)+dQ-dws=0
a,
where U = internal energy . ft-lbf/lbm

v = fluid velocitv. ft/sec
z = elevation aboye a given datum plane, ft
p = pressure, lbf/ft2
V = volume of a unit mass of the fluid, ft3/lbm
Q = heat added to the f luid, ft-lbfllbm
uw5 = shaft work done by, the fluid on the surroundings , ft-lbf/lbm
g = gravitational acceleration , ft/sec2
g, = conversion factor relating mass and weight*.
This basic relationship can be manipulated in several different ways. Com-

monly, it is converted into a mechanical energy balance using the well
known thermodynamic relations for enthalpy (h) :
dU + d(pV) = dh = Tds + Vdp

where
upon the 1-
where h = specific fluid enthalpy, ft-lbf/lbm
T = temperature, °R
Types of
s = specific f luid entropy, ft-lbf/lbm
Four
Equation 7-1 nos- becomes:
and turb
flow pher r
Tds + Vdp + V2- + (g/gj dz + dQ - dw, = 0 function q t
o, beI, N R,: y
For an ideal process , ds = - dQ/T. Since no process is ideal (or reversible),

NRe = 1i^
ds > - dQ/T, or: l)
where d )
Tds= -dQ+d1,,.
v,
where L. is the lost work due to irreversibilities such as friction.
P
` F = mg/g,. In metric (or SI) units, 1 N = (1 kg)(9.8 m/sec2)/g,, implving that g, = 9.8 kg ml
(N sec2) = 1 NIN. In British units, 1 lbf = (1 lbm)(32.17 ftlsec2)/g,, implying that For cross-s^ -
g, = 32.17 lbm ftl (lbf sec2). four times
Steady State Flow of Gas Through Pipes 277
. ady-state On this further substitution, Equation 7-1 becomes:
z
Vd p + dv +( g/ g. )dz+d1 w -dw, =0 (7 - 2 )
(7-1
Neglecting the shaft work w5, and multiplying throughout by the fluid den-
sity, p :
2
dp + pdv + (g/g,)pdz + pd1w = 0
2gg
<-U1 the tercos in Equation 7-3 have units of pressure. Equation 7-3 can also
be written as:
lbf/lbm
2
Ap + P áv + (g/ gj p .z + p ol,,, = 0
2g,
or,
Com-
lie well p LXv2
Ap + c + (g/g,)páz + ápf = 0
2g,
where ápf representa the pressure drop due to friction, and is dependent
upon the prevailing flow conditions.
Types of Single-Phase Flow Regimes and Reynolds Number
Four types of single-phase flow are possible: laminar, critical, transition,

and turbulent (see Figure 7-1). Reynolds applied dimensional anal sis to
flow phenomena, and concluded that the flow regime that will prevail is a
function of the following dimensionless group lmowri as the Reynolds num-
ber, NRe:
rsible),
NRe = inertia forces /viscous forces = dvp/p (7-5)
where d = (inside) diameter of the conduit through which the fluid is

flowing
v = velocity of the f luid
p = density of the fluid
µ = viscosity of the fluid
-,.S kg m/
:ng that For cross-sections other than circular, an equivalent diameter, de, defined as
four times the hydraulie radius , Rh, is used instead of d:
de =
d
m
N
ul
} QI
WIo
CI)
o
In
O CO N
X00
0o
o 0
0
o
C 000. o 0
o
(D
0
o
0
l
I .' I I Thus,l.
l I
I
For f lo*
equal tc
I.
1
Cross- f
^ , ! I Is Wette
Ilwl ! ! II
o. o
f
Z '!
Ñ ó
EÊ
- o Thus,
Z^ C
mti T ^ Z E
3
To verif.„
~m I i
Ic I 'I I f f a circule
i~' W
1I . { 1 1 f ^^^y I ,lb
I
I W! I
f
I I I I I
O Cross-'5-
G O
O 1 yt?
e
I
Thus,ll.
Îi I ,I ^ I i I
i I! !I ! Il 3
i^^ I The unid
IÍ I^ ^ . I I I^ f I II
that a
I í^+ I
I
I
I have d iz3
JT r Huid ;
U W I 1 I ti
^p I I ^ I l i 1 1 r l I lbm/ (ft Se«(
QN I ^
'( I I I IrI ^
sec). Th
<Wi ! l iiiil I
^TRe = I^/
c) N
o C o
o ó
For gasee
dard culi
ditions c^j
finto mas,)
a
a
Steady State Flow of Gas Through Pípes 279
de = 4Rh = 4[area of flow/wetted perimeter] (7-6)
For example, for a flow conduit with a square cross-section (a x a):
Cross-sectional area of flow = al
Wetted perimeter = 4a
Thus, de = 4(a2/4a) = a
For flow through a casing-tubing annulus, with casing inside diameter

equal to d; and tubing outside diameter equal to d,,:
Cross-sectional area of flow = (7r/4) (d^, - d;'°)
Wetted perimeter = ir(d , + d.°)
Thus, de = 4(?/4) ( d °) = d^; - d t°

(del d t0)
To verify the applicability of this approach, consider the case of a pipe with
a circular cross section of diameter d:
Cross-sectional area of flow = 7rd'14
Wetted perimeter = ird
Thus, de = 4(rd214-cd) = d
The units for parameters in the Reynolds number should be consistent, so

that a dimensionless number is obtained. One such consistent set would
have d in ft, v in ft/sec, p in lbm/ft3, and a in lbm/ (ft sec). The dvnamic
fluid viscosity µ, frequently given in centipoises (cp), can be converted into
Ibm/(ft sec) using the conversion factor of 1 cp = 6.7197 x 10-4 lbm/ (ft
L
sec) . Thus:
LL
d(ft) v(ftlsec ) p(lbm/ft3 ) = 1,488 d(ft) v ft/sec)p(lbm/ft3) (7-7)
N R, = g(cp
) x 6.7197 x 10- 4 µ(cp)
For gases, the flow rate is commonly expressed in Mscfd (thousands of stan-
dard cubic feet per day). This volumetric rate, q,, (Mscfd), at standard con-
ditions of pressure (pes, psia) and temperature (Tx, °R), can be converted
into mass flow rate, m in lbm/sec, as follows:
CJ
4*
E
m = Avp = (1,000gsc)Mpsc _ (3.1243 x 10-2)(gsc)ygpsc

3
As shIV
(24) (3, 600) Z,RTsc Tsc related 2
where A = cross-sectional area of flow, ft2 Flow tv

M = molecular weight of the gas
g constant (= 10.732 psia-ft3/lbmole-°R)
R = as Lamina)
psc = pressure at standard conditions, psia Critical 3
Tsc = temperature at standard conditions, °R Transitics
Zsc = gas compressibility at standard conditions (= 1) Turbule
yg = gas gravity (air = 1)
Pipe Rol;.
Thus, for a circular pipe of diameter d (ft), vp is given by,:
Frictidlí
vp = (4) (3.1243 x 10- 2) gs°ygpse/ (T, -d2) ever, pip
= (3.9780 x 10-2 )q_,ygpse/ (TS°d2) roughn4
formly, sil
Substituting for vp in Equation 7-9 for NRe: as the gi\
fluids. Ira.
T d(3.9780 x 10 - 2)gxygpsc = 59.1991q ygp e flovving i_„)-
^Re corrosion4p
- TS`d2(k x 6.7197 x 10-4) TS °d µ
estimatir.,,)
determin
Generally, d is used in inches for most gas flow equations. For d in inches,
NRe becomes: Moodv's
E=0.00
low (Che i.
710.39 [psc (psia ) /Tsc(°R) ]gs°(Mscfd)yg
NRe =
d(in.) p,(cp)
Typeof
The factor 710.39psc/Tsc for some common standard conditions is as follows: Dra,a-n tu
Aluminu^
pse, psia Plastic-lint^c.
Tse. °R TiC.3G
Commere),-,,
14.4 520 (60°F) 19.672 Asphalteci"-#.
14.65 520 (60 ° F) 20.014 Galvaniz€
14.73 520 ( 60°F) 20.123 Cast ¡ron
15.025 520 (60 ° F) 20.526 Cement-li ,)
Riveted st
Thus, for most practica] applications, the Reynolds number for a gas is
given by:
Commonl
NRe _ 20gseyg / (p.d) (7-9) New pipe"
12-months,
where qsc is in Mscfd , µ is in cp , and d is in inches. 24-months
Steady Sta te Flow oí Gas Through Pipes 281
As shown in the Moody friction factor chart (Figure 7- 1), flow regime is
related to Reynolds number as follows:
NRe, smooth pipes
Laminar ( or viscous) < 2,000

Critical 2,000-3,000
Transition (or intermediate) 3,000-4,000 (or 10,000)
Turbulent >4,000 (or 10,000)
P i pe R ough ness
Friction to flow through a pipe is affected by pipe-wall roughness. How-

ever, pipe roughness is not easily or directly mensurable , and absolute pipe
roughness E is, therefore , defined as the mean height of protusions in uni-
formly sized, tightly packed sand grains that give the same pressure gradient
as the given pipe . This roughness mav change w-ith pipe use and exposure to
fluids. Initially, the pipe contains mili scale that mav be removed bv fluids
flowing inside the pipe . The fluids may also increase roughness by erosion or
corrosion , or by precipitating materials that stick to the pipe wall. Thus,
estimating pipe roughness is quite difficult . Usually, absolute roughness is
determined bv comparing the observed friction factor to that given in
rn inches,
Moody' s chart (Figure 7-1). If no roughness data are available, a value of
E = 0.0006 in. can be used . Some typical values for roughness are sho-,vn be-
low (Chemical Engineers ' Handbook , 1984) :
(7-8)
Type of pipe E, in.
.illows: Drawn tubing (brass , lead, glass) 0.00006

Aluminum pipe 0.0002
Plastic- lined or sand blasted 0.0002-0.0003
-psi/T5 C ommerc i a l s t ee l or wroug ht i ron 0 . 0018
N72 Asphalted cast iron 0.0048
ul4 Galvanized iron 0.006
123 Cast iron 0.0102
,26 Cement-lined 0.012-0.12
Riveted steel 0.036-0.36
_gasis
Commonly used well tubing and line pipe:
New pipe 0.0005-0.0007
12-months old 0.00150
24-months old 0.00175
From dimensional analvsis, it has been deduced that relative roughness, the
ratio of the absolute roughness and inside pipe diameter. Eld, rather than
absolute roughness, affects flow through pipes.
Friction Factor
For pi:
For conveniente, friction factor f', defined as the ratio of the shear stress number I
at the fluid-solid interface and the kinetic energv of the fluid per unit vol- factor isir
ume, is used in computing the magnitude of the pressure drop due to fric- 7-1). $
tion. For steadv-state flow in a uniform circular conduit such as a pipe, this GenerIS]
results in the well known Fanning equation: lent f lomjjc
been rep #-
opf = 2f'Lpv2/( gd) (7-10) and pipej-
here. 1
where d is the inside pipe diameter. For srrc.
Any consistent set of units can be used in the previous equations. In cus-
tomary units, ápf is in psi, L is in ft, p is in lbm/ft;, v is in ft/set, d is in ft, f=0.
and g, is therefore equal to 32.17 lbm-ftllbf-seco.
Friction factor f' is called the Fanning friction factor. Usually, the Moodv
(also called Blasius, or Darcv-Weisbach) friction factor, equal to 4f', is used.
In tercos of the Moody friction factor, f, the Fanning equation becomes:
,áPf = fLpv2/(2gd) (7-11)
The friction factor includes, besides roughness, the flow characteristics of

the flow regime. It is therefore a function of Revnolds number and relative
roughness:
f = f(NRe, c/d) For rough

factor cha
Laminar Single -Phase Flow
f-o.5=A
The pressure drop for laminar flow is given by the analvtic Hagen-
3
Poiseuille relationship as.follows: For very r*>
Opf = 32^¿vL1(gd2) (7-12) f -o. 5 =
Equating Equations 7-11 and 7-12: where as fo*5

/^
tion (Equ c
fLpv2/ (2gd) = 32,uvL/ (gd')
.Swamee r
factors as tt,i
or.
f = 64 µ/dvp = 64/NRe (7-13)
Steady State Floto of Gas Through Pipes 283
?hness, the Thus, the friction factor is independent of pipe roughness in the laminar
nther than flow regime.
partíally-Turbulent and Fully-Turbulent Single-Phase Flow
For partially-turbulent flow, friction factor is a funetion of both Reynolds

,Mear stress number and pipe roughness. For fully turbulent flow, however, the friction
unit vol- factor is only very slightly dependent upon Reynolds number (see Figure
- se to frie- 7-1).
pipe, this Generally, intermediate or partially turbulent flow is included in turbu-
lent flow for purposes of developing correlations. Several correlations have
been reported for the dependerse of friction factors on Reynolds nurnber
(7-10) § and pipe wall roughness; only some of the most accurate ones are presented
here.
For smooth pipes, the following relationships are applicable:
ns. In cus-
, d is in ft, 3192 for intermediate flow (7-14)
f = 0.5676 \T Re 1'
e Moody f = 16 log (NRef°' /0.7063) for partially turbulent flow (7-15)

, is used.
tomes: f -05 = 2 log (NRef°.5/0 . 628) for fully turbulent flow (Prandtl's
formula) ( 7-16)
(7-11)
f = 0.3164 NRe °' for NRe up to 10' (Blasius formula) (7-17)
^-'ristics of
-1 relative f = 0.0056 + 0 .5NRe °. 32 for 3 ,000 < NRe < 3 x 106 (Drew, Koo,
and 'v1cAdams) (7-18)
For rough pipes , Colebrook's equation is the basis for most modern friction
factor charts:
f-0.5 _ - 2 log [E/(3.7d) + 0.628 /(NRf°.5)] (7-19)

Hagen-
For very rough pipes, Colebrook's equation (Equation 7-19) reduces to:
(7-12) f - °.5 = - 2 log (E/3.7 d) (7-20)
whereas for smooth pipes, Colebrook's equation reduces to Prandtl's equa-

tion (Equation 7-16).
Swamee and jain (1976) have presented an explicit correlation for friction
factors as follows:
(7-13) I f-0 = 1.14 - 2 log (E/d + 21 . 25/NRO.s ) (7-21)

Equation 7-21 is applicable for 10 - 1 < Eld < 10-2, and 5,000 <
NRe < 10s, with errors within 1 % when compared with Colebrook 's equa-
tion.
In practice , solutions to the equations presented for friction factors are
cumbersome , so a composite friction factor chart is used as shown in Figure
7-1.
where 7g
Allowable Working Pressures for Pipes The gas
obtained a
It is desirable to operate a pipe at a high pressure in order to achieve 3
higher throughputs. This is, however, limited by the maximum stress the
pipe can handle. The maximum alowable interna! working pressure can be (ge)sc =.
determined usinthe
g followwing ANSI (1976) specification:
L
Pm 2(t - c)SE
(7-22)
d, - 2(t - c)Y
where pm^ = maximum allowable internal pressure, psig where (

t = pipe thickness, in.
c = sum of mechanical allowances (thread and groove depth),
corrosion, erosion, etc., in.
S = allowable stress (minimum vield strength) for the pipe mate-
rial, psi
E = longitudinal weld joint factor (i.e., the anomaly due to weld 1
seam), equal to 1.0 for seamless pipes, 0.8 for fusion-welded Substitutinyf
and spiral-welded, and 0.6 for butt-welded pipes of d in incl,°
d° = outside diameter of the pipe, in.
Y = temperature derating factor. equal to 0.4 up to 900°F, 0.5 (ge)sc = 141
for 950°F, and 0.7 for 1,000°F and greater a
Allowable Flow Velocity in Pipes where (qe)s 5
a
High flow velocities in pipes can cause pipe erosion problems, especiallyy
for gases that may have a flow velocity exceeding70 ftlsec. The velocity at
which erosion begins to occur is dependent upon the presence of solid parti-
cles, their shape, etc., and is, therefore, difficult to determine precisely. The
following equation can be used as a simple approach to this problem (Beggs,
1984):
dp + (p 12,
ve = C/p0.5 (7-23 3
Assuming h$:
where ve = erosional velocity, ft/sec negligible idy
p = fluid density, lbmlft3
C = a constant ranging between 75 and 150 dP
P dl,j=
p )
In most cases , C is taken to be 100 (Beggs, 1984). Substituting for C and

the gas density (p = pM/ZRT), Equation 7-23 can be written as:
100 100 (ZRT)°.5

Ve =
(PM/ZRT)o.5 (28.97p-ys)o.5
where Yg ís the gas gravity ( air = 1 basis).

The gas flow rate at standard conditions for erosion to occur , (q.),,, can be
obtained as follows:
PT5C rrd2
(ge)sc = Ve
ZTpsc 4
100(pR)°-5
(28.97yígZT)°-3
where ( ge)sc = gas flow rate for onset of erosion, scflsec

d = diarneter of the pipe, ft
p = f lowing pressure, psia
T = f lowing temperature, 'R
R = gas constant (= 10.732 psia-ft3llbmole-°R)
Z = gas compressibility factor at pressure p and temperature T
Substituting for psc = 14.73 psia, Ts, = 520 °R, and converting to field units
of d in inches and (ge) sc in Mscfd, sve get:
0. 5
.435 d2 P (7-24)
(ge)sc = 1,012
f3ZT
where (qe)., is in Mscfd, d is in inches, p is in psia , and T is in °R.
Horizontal Flow
Many pipeline equations have been developed from the basic mechanical
energy balance (Equation 7-3) :
dp + (p/2&) dw + (g/gjp dz + pola, = 0
Assuming horizontal, steady -state , adiabatic , isothermal flow of gas, with

negligible kinetic-energy change, Equation 7-3 becomes:
dp+polw=O
1
Frictional losses for a length dL of pipe are given by (Equation 7-11) : cally expe^
ture along,-
pol,,. = (fpv-2/2gd) dL plexity. S1
profiles in,
Substituting for frictional losses: independe
itv factor.
dp + (fpv2/2gd) dL = 0 and pr
stream en
Substituting for gas density p:
- .-
p = pM/ (ZRT)
and gas velocity- v: or.
ZTp-,' 4
v = q,
pT^^ ird2 4 :
we obtain: Any consi`sh

mrith qs, in
psia ft3/lb 15,
f pM 16gl.Z2Vp2
-dp = dL
d ZRT 2T5 ^r 2d4 2
[103/(3.f
or, 0
Thus, 1
8fMTp seq^
22f
Z dp RT2d'g, ^ J dL
qu = 5.b.
Note that T is constant (or, independent of length) since isothermal f low is
assumed. Otherwise, an average temperature, Ta,,, is commonl^- used in- vhere `W ,
stead of T in the previous relationship. The two types of averages used are
the arithmetic average.
T1+T2
Ta, _ (7-26)
2
and the log-mean temperature,
T1-T2
T a, . = (7-27)
In (T1/T2)
In practice, both these averages are quite Glose lince temperatures T1 and T2
are used as absolute temperatures . Using an average temperature is practi-
E
cally expedient, because an analytic description of the variation of tempera-

ture along the pipeline length is rather difficult and introduces some com-
ple.dty. See last section in this chapter for expressions for temperature
profiles in flowing gas systems. The gas compressibility factor, Z, is made
independent of temperature and pressure by using an average compressibil-
ity factor, Zav, for simplicity. Integrating over the pipe length from 0 to L
and pressure p! (at L = 0, at the upstream) to P2 (at L = L, at the down-
stream end), Equation 7-25 becomes:
(8)(28.97)PSc gscygZavTfL'
- (p - pi) •1 =
R7r''9°T2° d5 d
or,
Rg°T", (pT - pñ)d5

ql° (7-28)
46.9641p c ygZavTfL
Any consistent set of units can be used in Equation 7-28. In common units,
with q,, in vlscfd, p in psia, T in °R, d in in., L in ft, and with R = 10.732
psia ft3/lb mole-'R and g, = 32.17 lbm ft/lbf-ser', Equation 7 -28 becomes:
[103/(3.600 x )4)]2Qs _ ((10.732 x 144)(32.17)(1/12)5 T (pT - p )d5

46.9644 Psi ygZavTfL
Thus,
= 5.6353821 (i( ( _-_p)d5\0.5 (7-29)

P sc y gZavTIL
where q, = gas flow rate measured at standard conditions, Mscfd

ps° = pressure at standard conditions. psia
TSC = temperature at standard conditions, 'R
pl = upstream pressure, psia
p2 = downstream pressure, psia
d = diameter of the pipe, ft
¡g = ?as gravity (air = 1 basis)
T = flowing temperature, O R
Zav = average gas compressibility factor
f = Nloody friction factor
L = length of the pipe, ft
Equation 7-29, attributed to Weymouth, is the general equation for steady-

state isothermal flow of gas through a horizontal pipe. Implications of the
various assumptions made in the development of Equation 7-29 are as fol-

lows:
1. No mechanical work: It is assumed that no work is done on the gas
between the points at which the pressures are measured. This condi-
tion can be satisfied easily by putting pressure measurement stations
such that no mechanical energy is added (by compressors or pumps)
between these two points.
2. Steady-state flow: Rarely, if ever, encountered in practice, this as-
sumption is the major cause of discrepancies in pipeline calculations.
Reasons for unstead-,- behavior include: pressure/floww rate pulsations
or surges, liquids in the pipeline, variations in operating conditions,
variations in writhdrawal or supply rates, etc.
3. Isothermal flow: This assumption is usually met because buried pipe-
lines are used which are not affected much by atmospheric tempera-
ture variations. Heat of compression is also dissipated rapidly, usually
within a few• miles dowwnstream of the compressor station. For small u,
temperature changes, the average temperature given by Equation 7-26
or 7-27 is generally satisfactory.
4. Negligible kinetic energy change: This assumption is justified because
kinetic energy changes are negligible, compared to changes in pres-
sure. for verv long pipelines, such as commercial transmission lines.
5. Constant (average) gas compressibility factor: This is a reasonable ap-
proximation, especially if Za, is computed at the average pressure
given by Equation 7-32.
6. Horizontal pipeline: In practice, flow is never truly horizontal. Equa-
tions developed to account for elevation changes w-i11 be discussed in
the section on inclined flow. Equating
ference in,„^
Average Pressure in a Gas Pipeline
Pi - Px ©
x
For an incompressible fluid, the average pressure is simply the arithmetic
average of the inlet (pl) and outlet (p2) pressures: Solving fo->
Pav = (P] + P2)/2 Px ='!p
For a gas, a comprensible fluid, this is not true. Consider a pipeline AB This sugge>:
shows in Figure 7-2. Using Equation 7-29 for gas flow, one can derive a given by: 30
simple formula to determine the pressure at any point C along the pipeline
at a fractional distante x from the inlet end. For a flow rate qc in the pipe.
g
the followintwo relationships are true (from Equation 7-29):
0.0775543 P )
q5c =
rr ( \I _
(p -
2 d5 0.5
(7-30)
Psi YgZa,,TfLx
Steady State Flow oí Gas Through Pipes 289
are as fol-
Lx LO x)
nn the gas B
c
i cris condí- .L
, at stations
Ur purnps) Figure 7-2. Schematic of a gas pipeline for determining the average pressure.
this as-
ulations.
ulsations
nditions, w
•-ied pipe-
w
tempera-
[ ', usually
rór small
iation 7-26
because Figure 7-3 . A plot of pressure versus distance in a pipeline carrying gas. (After
Szilas, 1975.)
_ in pres-
n fines. 1
able ap- and,
pressure
0.5
Tsc (Px - pl) d°
%, ' = 0.0775543 (7-31)
—l. Equa- I,Psc ^fgZavTfL(1 - x)1
nussed in
Equating these Equations 7-30 and 7-31 (with the assumption that the dif-
ference in Za,, for the two pipe sections is negligible):
P - px _ px - pl
-lthmetic x (1-x)
Solving for pt:
Pe = [Pi - x(p - pn)]o.s
lene AB TT,;r „^^ r.l , -

r— — - . iiv vv 11 111 1 ' lu
llUl C i ne mean pressure is
lerivP a 1 L_
^1YG11 uy;
-
-)ipeline
'he pípe, 1 1 1
Pav = o pxdg =
S S
o [p i - x(pi - p?') ]o.s dx
(7-30) = p1 +
3 pl + P2
0
4
290 Gas Production Engineering 0
Rearranging and multiplying both numerator and denominator by, PanhandlE

(Pi - P2)
This eq%
1
PÍ+PIP2+P! P1-P2 follows: $
P1+P2 /`P1-P2
f = 0.01
2 Pll - P9,
(7-32) Substitutir
3 pi - P3;
5. í
where Pa,. = average pressure, psia qS e _
pl = upstream pressure, psia
p2 = downstream pressure, psia 3
or, 3
Therefore. Za,. must be computed using Equation 7 -32 for average pressure. 3
(50.92695
Non-Iterative Equations for Horizontal Gas F'low
Several equations for gas f lovw- have been derived from Equation 7-29 as- Thus:
suming a friction factor relationship to avoid a trial and error computation.
These equations differ only in the friction factor relationship assumed. As
we have seen earlier. friction factors vare over a wide rancie with Reynolds
number and pipe roughness. Thus, none of these equations is universally ap-
plicable. In gas field operations, engineers use the equation that best suits The Panhá
their conditions, or use their own modified versions. high flow4,.
Weymouth Equation Modified 1

1
Wevmouth proposed the following relationship for friction factor as a One of )
function of pipe diameter d in inches: Panhandlel:
follows:
f = 0.0321d13 (7-33)
f=0.00
Substituting for f from Equation 7-33 into Equation 7-29:
The pipeli
T^ („i - p)d16J3 0. 5
qsc = 31.5027 (7-34)
P,r -YgZa^.Ta, L qc=10t
This is known as the Weymouth equation for horizontal flow. It is used most
often for designing gas transmission systems because it generally matimizes
pipe diameter requirements for a given flow rate and pressure drop.
This equation assumes that f is a function of Reynolds number only as

follows:
f = 0.0768/NR0.1461 (7-35)
1 7-32) Substituting for f from Equation 7-35 into Equation 7-29:
0.5 0.07305
5.6353821 I TSC p, - p, 20qscYg d 2.5
µgd 1g.5
(0.0768)°-5 \psc ZavTavL
or,
ressure.
0.5 0.42695 d2.42695
q$c0.92695 = 25.309468-^ P - P u 0.07305
P' ZavTavL g
29 as- Thus:
ation. i
,1. 1.07881 0.53940 1 1 \0.46060 d2.61321
,d. As PT - pñ
qs, = 32.6491 -Yg)
0 . 07881
(7-36)
nolds Pse `ZavTavL H
'!y ap-
>-* suits The Panhandle A equation is most applicable to large diameter pipelines, at
high flow rates.
Modified Panhandle (Panhandle B) Equation
,casa One of the most widely used equations for long transmission lines, the
Panhandle B equation assumes that f is a function of Reynolds number as
follows:
,7-33)
f = 0.00359/NR 03922 (7-37)
The pipeline flow equation is thus given as follows:

7-34) .1, 1.020 , - i' 0.510 0.490 d2.530
i" 1
cix = 109.364 P \Záp u3 020 (7-38)
most
mizes The Panhandle B equation is most applicable to large diameter pipelines, at
high values of Reynolds number.
n
CJ
r-^
292 Gas Production Engineering p

la
A More Precise Equation for Horizontal Gas Flow: The Clinedinst Equation
The Clinedinst equation rigorously accounts for the deviation of natural M

gas from ideal behavior (an average gas compressibility factor. Z2,., is not u
used in this method), and the dependence of friction factor, f, on Revnolds
number and pipe roughness. leading to a trial and error solution scheme.
a
n
The integral j (pí Z) dp must be evaluated. In order to generalize this evalua-
tion. it is converted into the following:
s
(P /Z) dp = Í [(PPp,/Z) p dpr] = pee 1 (Pr/Z) dpr
where p = pseudocritical pressure of the flowing gas mixture, psia

p, = reduced pressure (pr = plppc)
Values for the integral function ! (pr/Z) dpr are given in Table 7-1. For this
case, Equation 7-25 becomes:
f Pri ( Pr2 8fMTp q L

P2
lo (Pr/Z)dpr - J o (Pr /Z)dpr =
Rir2d5gTie
Rearranging this equation, and using common units, with q,, in Mscfd, p in
psia, T in °R, d in in., L in ft. and substituting for R (= 10.732 psia-ft3/lb
mole-°R) and g,, ( = 32.17 lbm-ft/lbf-sec2):
d° 0.5 N 0.5
T Pr2
q,, = 7.969634 Pp s° T Lf o (Pr/Z)dPr - o (Pr/Z)dpr (7-39)
se
J
Í g a^
This is known as the Clinedinst equation for horizontal flow.
Pipeline Efficienc-
The pipeline equations developed here assume 100 % efficient conditions.

In practice, even for single-phase gas flow, some water or condensate may
be present, which collects in low spots in the line over long periods of time.
Some solids, such as pipe-scale and drilling muds, may also be present. To
account for the reduction in pipeline capacity that will result from the pres-
ente of these materials, an efficiency factor E is generally used as a multiply-
ing factor for the flow rate predicted by the flow equations. Only very
rarely does a pipeline exhibit an E equal to 1.0. a pipeline with E greater
than 0.9 is usually considered "clean." Typically, the following efficiency
factors mas' be encountered (Ikoku, 1984) :
(text continued on page 303)
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Transmis:`j
C c C C c ó
c c C O G C c o
< O r^- C r C- " O 4
C OC O C O C C C
Equati*, j
c c c c e o c c c c o c c c
N C O r CC C M 1f; CM Oc O N
n C+ 1- N n N cc .. cc P: W C^ -C
^c>c ccccpp CCC.C

._. C c C 0 C O C O C C c O c C
qsc = ^
N CV CV N C C<< 11; tC C ti CC C. O
C < C7 Ir C U 1- n OA e' C-.

C C^ C C C C C C. C C
O O C O O
O O O O O c O--
C
The facto
II) ^ C L r r oc cc C
C C C C C C C•
c o p e coco c
C C e O O
have been c
O O C CC CM cC C'J ICE < M C N N -.^ -
C al N CM N CM
l1 I> ^^ CM
N r N CM N n N CM N
CM OO e' C C O O -- N
C. C C C C C pp C O C c C C
factor) , b3
rately. Tr3
^ C O n C r N ..
e HICO<c C> C<
O O 1- n n e' rb C C> C
C• cc 1- C ^
0c C 0c e' other wa3
CcOC>C> CC CC> cccc o
• o
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0..^
unnecessa^
<- C C ^: N O Uc ! N O cc O-
^ O r C< C< cc W cC N M1 CM
C 1- r- CM cc cc C C C C - N N
C cccc c^ Coc oocc
, c c c c 0 0 0-- -----
Examp>)
... - O It; N C O C C CM T- e' Ie:
r
C
C- 7 C C> < C v e' C CC N CM
N^ 0c cb C C) C O O N N C
C C C C O C O O O O C C
sine pipe
0 0 0 0 0 C O--- -----
e' ^ C O N cc Y O C c' C O- Q^
maximun
^ C Ir C. < O .. W N h - C- C
ti
r e' e' 0c C
C C C C C
C. OQ pp N N C
C% O O O C O O c O C
O O O O O O - - - - - - - - -
mouth e
IO! - O N n
c = 0.05,
CM N M CC
ug = 0.01
- C C N CC - Ity C < oc N h- O O It^
11') O< C C ccC N O r It) O < C M cc N
p e C O O O O c O O O O O O C
O
SoIution
G N I>) O N O C N O O f'^ O O C+C CM
< C M CM N C O O O M 0C N 1- - O
p O-- N N r CM M Q' v rli Il! O C
O- O C O 0 0 0 0 0
MOCD oo ^: m -_m C N T r C
Pipe thic
Ifj r O O< O N CM K7 C < Cc N r
r7 n n e' ce
- O O C O O O O O O Ó O O O O C
Using Eq
O Iq OIr>O Iri Oh OU) 0.1, OI.:O
Me?!^w W Onnn tA cC CC
(text continued from page 293)
Tvpe of gas Liquid content E

in the flowline gal /MMscf (fraction)
Dry gas 0.1 0.92 -
Casing-head gas 7.2 0.77
Gas dnd condensate 800 0.60
For high liquid contents , such as the previous case shown aboye for gas with
condensate , two-phase flow conditions exist. Pipeline efficiency can no
longer represent the complex flow behavior, and different equations that ac-
count for two-phase flow must be used (see Chapter 8).
Transmission Factor
Equation 7-29 can be written as:
0.5
9x = 5.6 33821
Tsc (P _-_p ) d5 \ 05 ( i
I\I
psc fgZavTavL f
The factor ( l/f)0-5 is known as the transmission factor . Several correlations

have been developed for the transmission factor ( derived from the friction
factor), but it remains one of the most difficult parameters to evaluate accu-
rately. Transmission factor, frequently used in pipeline literature , is just an-
other way to represent friction factor and further discussion is, therefore,
unnecessarv.
Example 7-1 . What is the maximum pressure at which a 10-in. nominal

size pipe (O.D. = 10.75, I.D. = 10.02 in.) can be operated ? Calculate the
maximum throughput for a 40-mile pipeline of this type, using (a) Wey-
mouth equation , and (b ) Clinedinst equation . Assume E/d = 0.002,
c = 0.05 , E = 1.0 (seamless pipe ), Y = 0.40, S = 35,000 psi, Ta„ = 100°F,
µg = 0.01 cp, ^/g = 0.70. Assume 0.0 psia mínimum pressure.
Solution
Pipe thickness , t = 10.75 - 10. 02 = 0.713 in.
Using Equation 7-22,
= 2(0.73 - 0.05)(35,000)(1.0) = 4,663.

92 psia
pmaa 10.75 - 2(0.73 - 0.05) (0.4)
3
3
To provide additional safety, the maximum pressure specification is chosen

as 4,000 psia.
Thus, to calculate the maximum throughput, the upstream pressure,

pl = 4,000 psia, and the downstream pressure, p2 = 0.0 psia
Assume Tsc = 520°R, psc = 14.73 psia
From Figure 3-1, pp, = 663 psia, Tp, = 387°R 13

By interp9in-
Using Equation 7-32, pa,. _ (213)[(4.0003 - 0)!(4,0002 - 0)] = 2,666.67

psia.
la
ppr = 2.666.6 7 /663 = 4.022, TPr = (100 + 460)/38 7 = 1.447 n
Thus. )
From Figure 3-2, Za,. = 0.74.
3
(6;
(a) Weymouth equation (Equation 7-34):- O _
2
(4.0002 - 0) (10.02)1 6'3 1 0.
5 2
q,, = (31 . 5027)(520 / 14.73) A second
(0.7)(0.74) (560) (40 x 5,280) shows an
This ex
= 265.206 . 15 Mscfd = 265 . 21 MMscfd from usen
the frictio ;
(b) Clinedinst equation (Equation 7-39) : we can calc.c^
anf=0.00
Pri = 4,000/ 663 = 6 .033, pr2 = 0.0, TPr = 1.447 3
0.5
(10.02) "
qsC = (7.969634) (663) (52011 4. 73) 1
(0.7)(560)(40 x 5,280)f
0.5
Neglecti
6.033 0 (or shaft) w4
(pr1Z)dpr - 1 (Pr1Z)dPr
J pressed by
0. 5
6,515.2606 6.033 pgl
f0.5 l o (pr1Z)dpr dp+
Consider El
First trial: Assume qs, = 265 MMscfd the vertica-`)
difference ')
Using Equation 7-9, NRe = (20)(265,000)(0.7)/[(0.01)(10.02)] = 3.7 x 107 lated as foll_
3
3
mn is chosen From Figure 7-1, f = 0.024. From Table 7-1:
6.00
n pressure, 0 (pr/Z)dpr = 22.88
6.03
(pr /Z)dpr = 23.23
0
By interpolation:
= 2,666.67
6.033(pr/Z)dpr = 22.88 + (23.23 - 22.88)(6.033 - 6.0)1(6.05 - 6.0)
0 = 23.11
Thus.
CLe = (6,515.2606)(23.11)°.5= 202,174.39 Mscfd = 202.17 MMscfd

(0.024)°.5
A second trial is not required because the friction factor plot in Figure 7-1
shows an almost constant f in the turbulent region applicable here.
This example shows the differences in results that may sometimes occur
from using different flow relationships. Most of the difference results from
the friction factor values used in the t--,Yo equations. From Equation 7 -33,
ave can calculate that the Weymouth equation used an f = 0.01484, whereas
an f = 0.024 was used in the Clinedinst equation.
Vertical and Inclined Single-Phase Flow of Gas
Neglecting changes in kinetic energy, and assuming that no mechanical

(or shaft) work is done on or by the gas, the mechanical energy balance ex-
pressed by Equation 7-3 becomes:
2
dp + 2dz+fp 2dL=0 (7-40)
11. g
Consider the flow scheme shown in Figure 7-4. 0 is the angle of drift from
the vertical, L is the total length of the pipe, and z is the vertical elevation
difference between the inlet (point 1) and outlet (point 2). L and z are re-
x 10' lated as follows:
•
s
3
3
GROUND SURFACE
^213
Figure 7-4 . Gas flow in an w-here

z Equ:)i
inclined section.
left int:
andT,
variou.
the base
curacv.,l
Some„í
case Eqs
L = z/cos 6, implying that dL = dz/cos 8
•
Substituting for cos 6 = z/L,
dL = (L/z) dz
In the 191
6.7393 10
Using this relationship between L and z. Equation 7-40 can be written as:
Asia. in*
ers use
- dp = p g f L
v2 dz become3
g,+ 2gd z
os
Static P^,'+
Substituting for gas density and velocity (as described earlier for horizontal
f low) : 3
For
static) hil
- 28.97pyg g 16aJ,Z2T2p
dz mav be
dp = ZRT g,+ p2Ts r2d'
niques
pressure
or, For al
7-42 sinri
2 (ZT/p) dp 2.97 3
1 (g/gj + (0.81057f1,g5CZ2T' )/(zp`T' d-) R p"3
Almost alwavs, yg is assumed constant in evaluating the right integral in 3

Equation 1-41. Substituting for p,, (= 14.73 psia), T,, (= 520°R), and ge Equatio3
(= 32.17 lbm ft/lbf-sec2), and converting to conventional units, Equation the surf,
7-41 can be written as: the pipe*
3
3
3
(ZT/p) dp
2 ° = 0 .01875''gz (7-42)
2 1 + (6.7393 x 10 4 fLq^ Z2
T^)/ (zp2d")
)w in an where the units are: p = psia; q, = Mscfd; d = in.; T = °R; and L, z = ft.
Equation 7-42 is the general equation for vertical flor calculations. The
left integral cannot be evaluated easily because Z is a complex function of p
and T, and the temperature variation with depth z is not easily defined. The
various simplifying assumptions made in the evaluation of this integral form
the basis for the different methods that give results of vary-ing degrees of ac-
ole a `'^.
Some methods for vertical flow assume an average temperature, in which

case Equation 7-42 becomes:
(Z/p) dp _ 0.01875 ygz

1 ,2 1 + (6.7393 x 10 - 4fLq Z2T2) / (zp2ds) Tav (7-43)
In the left integral of Equations 7-42 and 7-43, the value of the constant is
6.7393 x 10-4. Some authors use a standard pressure, pse, equal to 14.65
icten as:
psia, in which case this constant becomes equal to 6.6663 x 10-4. Still oth-
ers use p,, = 14.65 psia and diameter d in ft. In this latter case, the constant
becomes equal to 2.679 x 10 - 9.
Static Bottom-Hole Pressure (SBHP)

zontal
For production and reservoir engineering calculations, the shut-in (or
static) bottom-hole pressure, p, is frequently required. In mane cases, it
may be difficult or expensive to obtain p,,,s by gauge measurements. Tech-
niques have, therefore, been developed to calculate SBHP from wellhead
pressure measurements.
For a shut-in well, the flow rate (q or qx) is equal to zero, and Equation
7-42 simplifies to:
(7-41)
PL (ZT/p) dp = 0.01875 (gz (7-44)
Pwb
•^ra1 in
and a, Equation 7-44 describes the relationship between the pressure measured at
"uation the surface (or wellhead), pwh, and the pressure pw.S at a depth z. Note that
the pipe length L has no effect on the static pressures.
w
la

3
Average Temperature and Z-Factor Method
c P^ 1
This is the simplest method. An average temperature and Z-factor is used 3
to simplify the left-hand side integral in Equation 7 -4-4:
where
Za,Ta, f P~3 (dp/p) = 0.01875ygZ

N-h
In Equ c
3
and que. t:
As stat
Upon integration:
implies y
(as in E, u
= 0.01875ygz
pp
In "'` For 1
p., wh Za,.Ta,.
7-49 ber
3
or.
[o.o1875ygZ (7-45)
Pws = Pw-h exp 3
Za,.Tav.
Sukk3
numeriQ.l
Generally, this is written as:
pressur
and 1.7 s
Pws=Pwhes, (7-46)
(1974)
plicab
wwhere s = (0.0375ygz)/( Za,.Ta,.) (7-47)
Equati
show-n
To determine the average temperature, the bottom-hole temperature
(BHT) and the surface temperature should be known. In cases where the
ble to S
For cr.
BHT is not known, it can be estimated from the fact that the temperature
posed ti)
gradient is usually of the order of 0.015 °F/ft. For a static column of gas, an
arithmetic average temperature is satisfactory to use. For calculating Z8,,, 0
the average pressure is required (in addition to average temperature). Thus a
trial and error tupe of solution is necessary. A good initial estimate of pws can J Pp;
0.2
be made using Equation 7-48: 13
where 13
p,,.h Z (1974) *f
p".s = PWh + 0.25 (7-48)
100 100 For 03
1
E = (tl -1
Sukkar-Cornell Method
This method also uses an average temperature, but accounts for the varia-
tion of Z with pressure. Sukkar and Cornell (1955) converted the basic equa-
tion (Equation 7-43) into the pseudoreduced form:
Pr^ (Z/ppr)dppr = 0.01875-ygz

(7-49)
Pprz 1 + BZ2/ppr Ta,,
is used
6.6663 x 10 - 4) fLq Ta,,

where B = ( (7-50)
zd5pp
In Equation 7-50, pp, is the pseudocritical pressure of the gas (gas mixture),
and q, is the rate at 14.65 psia and 520°R (instead of 14.73 psia and 520°F).
As stated earlier, a conversion constant of 6.6663 x 10-4 in Equation 71-50
implies a p,, of 14.65 psia, whereas a conversion constant of 6.7393 x 10-4
(as in Equations 7-42 and 7-43) implies a p, of 14.73 psia.
For the case of SBHP, the flow rate q, is zero (or, B = 0), and Equation
7-49 becomes:
0.018 7 5ygz
(Z/ppr)dppr = (7-51)
Tav
(7-45)
Sukkar and Cornell (1955) evaluated the left integral in Equation 7-49 by
numerical integration. They reported results in tabular form for reduced
pressure ppr in the range of 1.0 to 12, reduced temperature Tpr of 1.5, 1.6,
(7-46) and 1.7, and B in the range of 0 (for static) to 20 (flowing). Messer et al.
(1974) presented an extension of the Sukkar-Cornell method, show-ing its ap-
(7-4r) plicability to deep, sour gas wells, and presented the values of the integral in
Equation 7-49 for Tpr up to 3, ppr up to 30, and B up to M. These values are
-ature shown in Tables 7-2(a-m). The case B = 0, shown in Table 7-2a is applica-
're the ble to SBHP determination.
°rature For computer programming purposes, Messer et al. (1974) have also pro-
—as, an posed the following equation to fit the tabular data:
n a Zav,
fhus a Ppr (Z/ppr)dppr = E + F ppr + G
In ppr (7-52)
ywscan 0.2 1 + BZ2/p2pr
where E. F, and G are regression constants, determined by Messer et al.

(1974) as follows:
(7-48)
For 0<_B-<25, 10 - ppr<
_30, 1.1 <Tpr<_3.
E = (0. 18011 - 0.00262B) TP - (1.21216 - 0.01517B) Tpr

- (0.28026 - 0.00552B)
aria- F = (0.02246 - 0.00043B) TPr - (0.12792 - 0.00226B) Tpr

—qua- + (0.21463 - 0.00274B)
(text continued on page 336)
3
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T N o r- -- x ln N o v') N x- O 'O N x T^ 'J - [- N r- M OC M ^C ^ x

v') V-1 -r T M M N N - - C\
T r- M IZ, 1 Ñ V1 r- ^ M -C N V) 00 7 h M .; C1 N v1 x- T h r^ IZZ-
h r- x OC x x o' C\ 1 . 0. 0.
0 .0 ...
- - N. N
. .N. t'1
. .M.M
. .M .T. T
. ln
. .v)
. 'O lO
. . .
O O O O O O - - - - - - ^- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ..... -
a r- v1 M O 7- C;1 In Q - x
'O ^ N v JC -
T <14
C C\ r- 1/1 N C
O 1 1 - OC x x x x [- h h h I Iz -^. V1 v1 v'1 v> T
T h O M V') 00 - T r- C M 'o T N V1 OC - T r- M 'O r'4 V1 7C -
r-hoCxx.^ C` C\ O O O O - - N N N N M M M -S T tn v1 v ; v1 Ô IO lO
oÓCCCC
CD
v,) C Inn o v1 C n Cv) C VI 1
. . In. .-1
. . . . V-
, V)0 vlC
. . C V
. . . . . C
. n. Cv1 . C
. iO- . CIn
-7 T v'i v1 Ô O r- [ '- x x CT C\ O - -- N N M M T T v1 vz ^ ^ h h x x .. CT O
-- -- -- -- -+ -- ^+ --Ñ N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N M
O
O
O
(text continued from page 309) PPr = 425
O
From F..5
G = (0.17584 - 0.00262B ) TPr + (1. 08235 - 0.01474B) Ter
- (0.81075 - 0.00771B) (7-53) Using E
15
5100, 10:5 ppr:5 30, 1.1<TPr<
For 20:5 B: Using E4
E = (0.297336 - 0.001594B) TPr + (0.009678B - 1.664290) TPr A secon-

- (0.001963B - 0.429648)
(b) Sukk ,
F = (0.019112 - 0.000171B) TPr + (0.000941B - 0.107041) TPr
- (0.001259B - 0.188162)
Prwh
G = (0.001435B - 0.212139) TPr + (0.000941B - 0.107041) TPr
+ (0.006320 - 1.003890) (7-54)
0.603
This method is simple and quite accurate: Equations 7-53 and 7-54 give
errors of less than 2% in the parameter ranges associated with them. No J 0.2
trial and error is involved, which simplifies the calculation procedure con-
siderablv. For these reasons, the Sukkar-Cornell method is w-idely used. Using E*
0
Example 7-2. Determine the SBHP in a gas well, given the following: ¡ P.2s
Depth, z = 5,000 ft; gas gravity, -yg = 0.70; wellhead temperature, 0.2 lw
T,,,h = 80°F; bottom-hole temperature, Tw, = 160°F; wellhead pressure,
p,,,h = 400 psia.
Use (a) average temperature and Z-factor method, and (b) Sukkar-Cor- Thus,
nell method.
TrWs
Solution
From Tau,
Ta,. = (80 + 160)/2 = 120°F = 580°R
From Figure 3-1, ppc = 663 psia, TP^ = 387°R
(a) Average temperature and Z-factor method:
3
First trial: By intE,)
Using Equation 7-48, pws = 400 + 0.25(400/100)(5,000/100) = 450 psia
Thus, pa,. = (400 + 450)12 = 425 psia

Ppr = 425/ 663 = 0 . 641, TPr = (580)/387 = 1.499
From Figure 3-2, Za„ = 0.967
(7-53) Using Equation 7-47, s = (0. 03'd5)(0 . -i)(5,000 )/[(0.967)(580)1 = 0.23402
Using Ec uation 7-46, p, = 400 e°. 0212 = 449 . 65 psia
A second trial is not needed.
(b) Sukkar- Cornell method:

,r
Prwh = 4001663 = 0.603 , Trwh = (80 + 460)1387 = 1.395
(7-54) From Table 7-2a, by interpolation
7-54 give 0.603

0 (Z/pr)dpr = 1.0392
*hem. No
<nure con-
y used. Using Equation 7-51,
wing: Prw5 (Zlpr)dpr - r 0.603 (Zlpr)dPr = (0.01875)(0.7)(5,000)

arature, 0.2 J o.2 5Fs0
.)ressure,
:ar-Cor- Thus, PMS(Z/pr)dpr = 1. 0392 + 0 .11315 = 1.15235

0.2
T,,,s = (160 + 460)/387 = 1.602
From Table 7-2a:
0.6
0.2(Z/pr)dpr = 1.049
0. (Z/pr)dpr = 1.210
0.2
By interpolation,
psia Prws = 0.6 + (1.15235 - 1. 049) (0 .7 - 0.6)/(1.210 - 1 .049) = 0.6642
Thus, NS = (0.6642 )(663) = -440.36 ,)sia

3
Cullender-Smith Method Pr
Po
Cullender and Smith (1956) used a more rigorous approach, accounting
for the dependence of Z-factor on both temperature and pressure. Taláng
into account the units used by Cullender and Smith, Equation 7-42 is rear-
ranged as follows: where Ir.N
tained u,.
`Pµ7 (p/TZ)2(TZ/p) dp lations. a
J P,.h (p/TZ)21(1,000) + (6.7393 x 10-4)(4)(f/4)q LI(1.000zd5) sure at th
y
= (1,000)(0.01875)ygz
or.
N{ (p/TZ)dp
= 18.75 (7-55)
Pwwr, 2.6957 x 10-6(f/4)q L/(zds) + (p/TZ)2/1,000 y
Equation 7-55 is generally expressed as:

Equation •
Pwr (p/TZ)dp string. Fo
= 18.75 ygz (7-56)
P.,y, F2 + (p/TZ)2/1,000 (pms
where and, for t>

a
F2 =2.6957 x 10 -6(f/4)g5L (PWs I3
zd5
As demons .
The expression in the left integral in Equation 7-56 is represented by 1: a four-step
tion schem
I = p/(TZ) tion) to obtt
(7-58)
F2 + (pJTZ)21L000
PWS - p"
For the case of SBHP determination, 1 reduces to: 3
1 = 1,000 '+(TZ/p) (7-59)

a
The follow
The left integral in Equation 7-56 can be evaluated by numerical íntegra- 1. Calco
tion techniques. This is tedious, and acceptable accuracy can generally be atthe
obtained using trapezoidal or Simpson's rule*. For the static case, the inte- 2. Calc,1
gral in Equation 7-56 can be written as: 3. Usin6
meti'
' For y = f(x), y; = f(x;): 4. Recé `,
Trapezoidal rule: J. f (x) dx = (h/2)(yo + 2y) + 2y2 + ... + 2y„-) + y.)
5. If thp
Simpson ' s rule ( more accurate than the trapezoidal rule): Jj f (x) dx = (h /3)(yo + 4y1
+2y2+4y,+ ... -2y„-2+4y„- 1 +yn), forevenn.
sure fi, t
this c
1-1
Pn1,000TZZdP=2[(Pi-Po)(Ii+Io)+(P2-P1)(I2+Ii)+...
P
,)unting
Taking ...+ (Pn-Pn- 1)(I,. +I,^ -1)1
is rear-
where In = 1,000(TZ/p),,. Greater accuracy in SBHP calculation can be ob-
fl tained using more steps, requiring the use of a computer. For manual culcu-
lations, a two-step procedure is generally used, where only the value of pres-
sure at the midpoint, pms is considered:
P• s 1
,000 TZ dp -- ( Pms - Pwh ) ( Ims + Iwh) + (Pws - Pms) (Iws + Ims ) (7-60)
Pwh p 2 2
Substituting for the integral from Equation 7-60 into Equation 7-56:
(7-55)
(Pms - Pwh) (Ims + Iwh) + (Pws - Pms) (Iws + Ims) = 37.5 ygZ (7-61)
Equation 7-61 can be separated into two parts, one for each half of the flow
string. For the upper half :
(7-56)
(Pms - Pwh) (Ims + Iwh) = 37.5 ygz/2 (7-62)
and, for the lower half:
(Pws - Pms) (Iws + Ims) = 37.5 ygz/ 2 (7-63)

(7-57)
As demonstrated by Cullender and Smith (1956), an accuracy equivalent to
.y 1: a four-step solution scheme can be obtained by using this two-step calcula-
tion scheme and then using Simpson's rule (also called parabolic interpola-
tion) to obtain a more accurate value of bottom-hole pressure as follows:
(7-58)
Pws Pwh [Iwh + 4lms + I w5 ] = 37.5 ygz (7-64)

3
(7-59) The following solution procedure may be used:
ategra- 1. Calculate Iwh (using the general relationship given by Equation 7-59)
ally be at the lrnown wellhead conditions of pressure and temperature.
.e inte- 2. Calculate pms from Equation 7-62, assuming Ims = Iwh.
3. Using the value of pm,, and temperatura Tms (obtained as the arith-
metic average of Twh and Tws), calculate Ims using Equation 7-59.
4. Recalculate pms from Equation 7-62.
5. If this recalculated value is not within 1 psi (or any other small pres-
4y1 sure tolerance) of the pms calculated earlier. reneat stens 3 anal 4 un ti]
this condition is met.
340 Gas Production Engineering la
le
6. Calculate p,,,s from Equation 7-63, asuming I,,,s = Ims• pw, = 42
7. Usíng the value of p, and the bottom-hole temperature T,,,s, calcu-
late I,,., using Equation 7-59.
8. Recalculate p,,., from Equation 7-63.
9. If this recalculated value is not w-ithin 1 psi (or any other small pres-
sure tolerance) of the p, calculated earlier, repeat steps 7 and 8 until
this condition is met. Thus, pws
10. Use Equation 7-64 (SLnpson's role) to obtain a more accurate value
of the bottom-hole pressure p,,.,. Using Sin>^
1
Example 7-3. Repeat Example 7-2 using the Cullender-Smith method. ¡,,
lY ws - 40,,
Solution
For the upper hala: A>

Flowing 1,13
pwh = 400 psia, T,,.h = 80'F = 540'R Equati

at the surw
f
prwh = 400/663 = 0.603. Trwh = 5401387 = 1.395 flowing
From Figure 3-2, Za,. = 0.93
Using Equation 7-59, I,,.h = (1,000)(540)(0.93)/(400) = 1,255.5 (12 1+.
Using Equation 7-62, For flowir)

et al. (195^
(prns - 400)(1,255.5 + 1,255.5) = (37.5)(0.7)(5,000)12 cases, how,
gives satisf;
Thus, pms = 426.14 psia
3
prrns = 426.14/663 = 0.643, Trmc = 580/387 = 1.499, and Zms = 0.96 Average Teax
3
Using Equation 7-59, Ims = (1,000)(580)(0.96)/(426.14) = 1,306.61 An aver. €
to simplif3*
Using Equation 7-62, 3
Pms = 400 + (37.5)(0.7)(2,500)/(1,306.61 + 1,255.5) = 425.61 psia ZavTav
Thus, pms = 425.61 psia, and Ims = 1,306.61
For the lower half:
Assuming I,,,s = Ims = 1,306.61, and using Equation 7-63,

pNS = 425.61 + (37.5)(0.7)(2,500)/(1,306.61 + 1,306.61) = 450.72 psia

calcu-
prWS = 450.72/663 = 0.68, TrWS = 620/387 = 1.602, and ZWS = 0.95
._ll pres- Using Equation 7-59, IWS = (1,000)(620)(0.95)/(450.72) = 1,306.798

8 until
Thus, pws = 450.72 psia
value
Using Simpson's rule (Equation 7-64):
hod. [(p, - 400)/3][1,255.5 + 4(1,306.61) + 1,306.798] = (37.5)(0.7)(5,000)
or, pw.S = 450.55 psia
Flowing Bottom-Hole Pressure (FBHP)
Equation 7-42 describes the relationship bet,veen the pressure measured

at the surface (or wellhead), Pwh, and the pressure pwf at a depth z for a
flowing well:
1 (ZT/p)dp 2 = 0.01875-ygz
2 1 + (6.7393 x 10 - 4fL.,q^Z2T) / (z-ds)
For flowing wells, the temperature-depth relationship presented by Lesem

et al. (1957) or by Ramey (1962) may be useful for greater accuracv. In most
cases, however, the log-mean (or even the arithmetic average) temperature
ves satisfactory results.
l o, Average Temperature and Z-Factor Method
An average Z-factor (and temperature) is used, similar to the static case,

to simplify the left integral in Equation 7-42:
pl" dp/p = 0.01875 ^yrgz

D Z
a"Ta" J p_, 1 + 6.7393 x 10-U(CIJa,,Ta„)2/(zpd)
or,
PWS p dp - o.o1875'1gz (7-65)

Pb p2 + 6.7393 x 10 - 4M(gcZavTav)2/ (zd') ZavTav
k!
3
The integral of a function Solutio*
o
P dP _1 In (C2 + p2) Using B*i
C- + p= 2 3
Eld = 0*G
Therefore. Equation 7-65 becomes: 2
From F .
ln
c- pes ' _ \i.^^J i 5l
C2 + p •h Za,.Ta,. From Fm.

i
or. The log-!,

=3
C2 + p 2f = (C2 + p^.h) es 3
TP, = (50
1
where s = (0.0375ygz)/(Za,.Ta,:). as given by Equation 7-47, First tri,
Solving for p,-f:
p2wf=C(e`-1)+esp2wn
Substituting for C :
1
6.7393 x 10-4fL.(g^Za,,Ta,,)2(es - 1) From Fi-
p2,
w= esp2-
wh +
Zd'
Using Eq,a
or,
Using Eq?a
9 2.5272 x 10-'•ygZavTavfL(e' - 1)qw
pf= h (7-66)
sd5 Paf = (hí.
This method, applicable for wells up to 8,000 ft deep, should not be used if + (2.52
the change in lánetic energv is significant (Young, 1967).
1
Pwf = 2,11.
Example 7-4. A 3,500-ft deep well is producing a 0.6 gravite gas at 7
MMscfd through a 3-in. I.D. tubing. The flowing wellhead temperature Second tr.l.
and pressure are 95°F and 2,000 psia, respectively. BHT = 150°F, tubing
roughness, E = 0.0006 in., and µg = 0.017 cp (assume constant). The well is Assuming
deviated, with tubing length equal to 5,000 ft. Estimate the flowing bot-
tom-hole pressure.
•
Solution
Using Equation 7-9, NRe = (20 )(7,000)(0.6)/[(0.017)(3)] = 1.647 x 106
Eld = 0.0006/3 = 0.0002
From Figure 7-1, f 0.014
From Figure 3-1, pp, = 672 psia , Tp, = 358°R
The log-mean temperature , Ta„ = (150 - 95 ) l1n (150/ 95) = 120.41°F

= 580.41 ° R, using Equation 7-27.
Tpr = (580.41)/358 = 1.621
First trial:
Assuming pf = 2,400 psia , and using Equation 7-32,
pa„ = (213 )[(2,4003 - 2 , 0003)/(2 , 4002 - 2 , 0002)] = 2 , 206.06 psia
Ppr = 2,206 . 06/672 = 3.283
Using Equation 7-47, s = (0 . 0375)(0.6)(3,500)1[(0.828 )(580.41 )] = 0.16386
Using Equation 7-66:
(7-66)
p .f = (2.000) 2eo.1 6
Lised if
+ (2.5272 x 10~3)(0.6)(0 . 828)(580 . 41)(0.014 )( 5,000)(e0. issss _ 1 ) (7, 000)2
(0.16386)(3)5
pwf = 2,196.4 psia
- at 7
-atore Second trial:
`îbing
•ve11 is Assuming pf = 2,196 psia , pa,, = (2/3)[(2,1963 - 2,0003)/
q bot- (2,1962 - 2,0002) ]
= 2,099 . 51 psia.
1

•
ppr = 2,099.51/672 = 3.124
Using Equation 7-47, s = (0.0375)(0.6)(3,500)/[(0.830)(580.41)] = 0.16347 Prwb = 2, r
Trwh = 9
p2 f = (2.000)2 eo.1634 Interpola:

3
+ (2.5272 x 10 - 5) (0.6) (0.830) (580.41) (0.014) (5, 000) (e° . 16347 - 1) (7, 000) 2 Using Eq-1!
(0.16347) (3)5
r P.w^
p,f = 2,196.0 psia, which is quite close to the earlier result of 2,196.4 psia. o.^ I -
Thus, pf = 2,196.0 psia.
Sukkar-Cornell Method 3
Interpolat:3-
This method uses an average temperature, but accounts for the pressure- I
dependence of the Z-factor. Equation 7-49 stated earlier in the section on Pwf = (3.2*
SBHP is used: lo
Cullender-,'>
PPr1 (Z/ppr)dppr = 0.01875-ygz 13
PP 1 + BZ° /p,r Tac. The Cul)-

lier in the S-
For a given rate (corrected to 14. 65 psia and 520°F), B is calculated using
Equation 7-50:
B = 6.6663 x 10-4 fLgSTá%.

zd5pPC
Tables 7-2b through 7-2m, or Equations 7-53 and 7-54, are used in evaluat-
I=
ing the value of the integral. The Sukkar-Cornell method is preferred be- F2+ T
cause in addition to being simple, consistent, and accurate, it does not re-
quire any trial and error. Asforthest
value of pr!
Example 7-5. Repeat Example 7-4 using the Sukkar-Cornell method. O
Solution 37.5 ygz 3
e
Using Equation 7-50: 0
•
(6.6663 x 10-4)(0.014 )(5,000 )(7,000 )2(582.5)2

B=
(3,500)(672)2(3)5 2.02 = 2.0
prwh =
2 ,000/672 = 2.976 = 3.0
9.16347
Trwh = (95 + 460 ) 1358 = 1.55, Tr = ( 150 + 460) 1358 = 1.70
3.0
Interpolating from Tables 7 - 2a and 7 - 2b, the integral I = 1.6886
0.2

000)2
- 4 psia. PSI - ^ 3 I = (0.01875)(0.6)(3,500 )/ 582.5

0.2 0.2
PSI = 1.7562
0.2
Interpolation using Tables 7-2a and 7 - 2b yields Prwf = 3.208

ressure-
p,,,f = (3.208 ) (672) = 2,155.8 psia.
—tion on
Cullender-Smith Method
The Cullender and Smith ( 1956) method uses Equation 7-56 as stated ear-
lier in the section on static bottom - hole pressure:
ed using
Pwf (p/TZ)dp
= 18.75 Ygz
p, F2 + (p/TZ)2/1,000
with the expression in the left integral represented by 1:
_valuat- _ p/ (TZ)
red be- I F2 + (p /TZ)2/ 1,000
not re-
As for the static case, a two-step procedure is generally used , where only the
value of pressure at the midpoint , pmf is considered:
`,od.
P-f
37.5 csz = I dp = (pmf - PWh) (Imf + I-h)
P-b
+ (p'- f - Pf) ( IWf + Imf ) (7-67)

Ii
346 Gas Production Engineering 7

lo
Equation 7-67 can be separated into two parts, one for each half of the flora, 2. Altb
string:
cannj
dal in,
(Pmf - Pwh) (Imf + I w.h) = 37.5 ygz/2 for the upper half (7-68) 3. Cha.,11
4,0G
(Pwf - pmf)(Iwf + Imf) = 37.5 ygz/ 2 for the lower half (7-69) acctI
hoy. V;
And finall\; Simpson's rule is used to obtain a more accurate value of bot- sure
tom-hole pressure p,,.f:
4. For '›e
tion j-
.•
Pwwf Pwh
wh[I 4I
mf+ wf
T 1-
- 3r1 .5 yg z (7-70) pen`, y
)
3 Also
Calculation of F involves the use of the Moody friction factor f, which can Gas Flow
be found using the friction factor chart (Figure 7-1). The calculation can.
however, be simplified using Nikuradse's friction factor equation for fully Althougii
turbulent flow, based upon an absolute roughness of 600 µin. * , to give may be pr lic
(ERCB, 19705):
the tubing )i
proper fk 1
F = Frg5e = 1.0797
d2.612 x 10 - 4gsc for d < 4.277 in. (7-71) EquationE
equations
From E*i.
and
Apf = fl
F = Fq, = 1.033 7x 510-4
. 58 0 - 4qs^ for d > 4.277 in. (7- 72)
The velocitL7
term in theê
Frequently, the kinetic energy term, neglected in the equations developed
earlier, is also included. The Cullender-Smith equation (Equation 7-56) be-
comes:
P..f (1/0 .01875yg) (p/TZ) + 1.111 x 10 - 4aj / (d4p)

1 Pw.h F" + (p/TZ )2/1,000 dp = 1,000 z (7-73) For the casa
and the inslwe
follows: 3
where 1.111 x 10 - 4gsC/ ( d4p) is the kinetic energy term.
The follovving must be borne in mind when using the Cullender-Smith K1 c
method (Young, 1967) : v=
d^; -
1. Smaller integration intervals obviously result in greater accuracy in
the trapezoidal integration of Equation 7-56 (or Equation 7-73). An
integration interval of 1,000 ft (or less ) is recommended.
* 1 gin. (micro-inch) = 10~6 in.

the flow 2. Although Simpson's rule can be used to get a better approximation, it
cannot correct for inaccuracies introduced upon using large trapezoi-
dal integration intervals.
(7-68) 3. Change in kinetic energy can be ignored if the well is greater than
4,000 ft deep, or the wellhead flowing pressure is aboye 100 psia. For
(7-69) accuracy in determining the pressure traverse, the kinetic energy terco,
however, should be included, especially if the £lowing wellhead pres-
Je of bot- sure is below 500 psia.
4. For the case of gas injection, a discontinuity can develop when Equa-
tion 7-56 (or Equation 7-73) is numerically integrated. When this hap-
(7-70) pens, the pressure change for that interval should be set equal to zero.
Also, Simpson's rule cannot be used when a discontinuity occurs.
.iich can Gas Flow Through an Annulus

ion can,
'or fully Although gas wells are generally produced through tubing, some wells
to give may be produced through the casing-tubing annulus. For this latter case,
the tubing flow equations developed earlier must be modified to reflect the
proper flow conduit diameter. The equivalent diameter relationship of
(7-71) Equation 7-6 cannot be used because the diameter exponent is 5 in the flow
equations derived.
From Equation 7-11, the pressure loss due to friction is given by:
Apf = fLpv2/( 2gd)

(7-72)
The velocity v = K1q,/d2, where K1 is a constant. Thus, the friction loss
terco in the energy balance can be written as:
veloped
'-56) be- K'fLp qsc
opf 2gcd4d
(7-73) For the case of annular flow, where the outside diameter of the tubing is dco
and the inside diameter of the casing is d;, velocity is related to diameter as
follows:
^r-Smith K19^
V
&2 - dcó
racy in
73). An Thus, the friction terco becomes:
KTfLpgs K2q
Apf = _
2gc(djj - d o)' (dci - d) (d,2j - d ó)2(dR - d,0)
0
Thus, for the case of annular f lo'; d5 in the vertical f low• equations must be lo:
replaced by:
(di¡ - dt)2(&; - dt0) dto)3(& + dto)2 (7-74) oz aq>
Limitations in Vertical Flow Calculations
The methods described for calculating bottom-hole pressure are fairly ac-
curate for most engineering calculation purposes. Some serious uncertainties
in bottom-hole pressure calculations, however, inevitably exist because of: Static Cori z<
3
1. Departure of the actual temperature-depth relationship from that as- To accoál-
sumed in the method of calculation. . z, the sin*
2. Variations in gas gravity with depth, assumed constant in the calcula- exerted by$:
tion methods. For condensate systems, the change in composition writh the section3
depth is even more significant. for evaluat
3. Inaccuracies in determination of the Z-factor from the available corre- correction ?,y
lations. For pseudoreduced pressures greater than 15, no correlation Z-factor m
charts are even available. Equation-of-state methods can be used; lab- p, the outleS-,
oratorv measurements are strongly recommended for greater reliabil- lows (Equac
itv and accuracv.
4. Imprecise friction factor. = es/22 ""{{
Po
5. Presence of unknovsln amounts of liquids in the wellbore. Two-phase
flow relationships are necessary if liquid amount is significant. where s is g
6. Inaccuracies in flow rate, specific gravity, and pressure measurements. 3
s = 031-1
2
Note that),
and negativi.
positive for Y
The f low,
an upstreaa
Transmission lines often deviate consi lerably from the horizontal, de- This corred ;
pending upon the terrain over which thev are laid. In some cases, gas wells give the flo3
may also exhibit sections of different slope, such as the directionally, drilled tion for this3-
wells from offshore platforms. This section on flow over hilly terrain essen-
tially deals with the situation where gas is flowing through pipes that are
non-uniform in their slope, such as a hypothetical situation showwn in Figure
7-5. Any flow terrain can be reduced to the form shows in Figure 7-5 by
approximating the actual flow profile with small pipe sections of uniform
slope. The three approaches applicable to such a flow are described in the
following sections.
INLET
OUTLET
Figure 7-5. Gas flow over a hiily terrain.
To account for the difference in elevation between the inlet and outlet,
.áz, the simplest approach is to modify the outlet pressure for the pressure
exerted by a static gas column of height equal to -1z. As described earlier in
the section on static bottom-hole pressure, different techniques are available
for evaluating the pressure exerted by a static gas column. Since the static
-1.ble corre- correation method is itself an approximation, the average temperature and
ôrrelation Z-f actor method is quite satisfactory to use. Let p; be the inlet pressure, and
used; lab- p,, the outlet pressure. Then, the outlet pressure p, must be corrected as fol-
-er reliabil- lows (Equation 7-46):
pó = e-? Po
where s is given by Equation 7-47:
s = (0.0375-yg.z) / (ZavTav)
Note that _áz is positive if the outlet is higher than the inlet (uphill flow),
and negative if the inlet is higher than the outlet (downhill flow). Thus, s is
positive for uphill flow, negative for downhill flow.
The flowline shown in Figure 7-5 is equivalent to a horizontal line with
an upstream pressure equal to pi, and a downstream pressure equal to eme, po.
untal, de- This correction can be incorporated into any horizontal flow correlation to
gas wells give the flow through such a flowline. For example, the Weymouth equa-
~£V drilled tion for this situation can be written as:
.in essen-
that are disr3 o.s
n Figure q,, = 31.5027 T, (P? - epo) (7-75)
psc YgZavTavL
-e 7-5 by
` uniform Similar expressions can be written for the Panhandle A and B equations, and
,d in the the Clinedinst equation. This approach, though imprecise, frequently gives
an adequate approximation.
o
Flow Correction
A more rigorous correction for the flow profile accounts for inclined flow
e-
in the different sections of the pipe. Equation 7-66 gives the relationship for T
inclined flor. assuming an average temperature and Z-factor:

where si repr
2.5272 x 10 - 5'ygZavTa,.fL(es - 1)q,', Note that if si
PIA.f = eSP .h +
Sa5 zontal, z = 0/11
actual lengtE
Rearranging this equation, and replacing the pressures with the inlet and Similar ex›
Clinedinst, a*
outlet pressures pi and p,,:
proach is notj
2 2
n _ (pi - espo)sd
and the pipe
that are not }
qse 2.5272 X 10 - 57YgZavTafL(e` - 1)
Thus, General Met1:.

0.5
_ (T , /520) (p - espó)sd5 If more pi)
4` \¡,^ 1°J 14.73 ) í -yg Z ,, T , , , fL(e' - 1)
( 2.5272 x 10-5 )t'sc use a horizor3
7-39) for theb
or, relationship °'j
non-horizonte
s 0.5
qs^. = 5 . 634814 T^ (P+ -pó)d ships that rec.
P se y gZavT av f Le j into the moc-
puter progra
The constant 5.634814 is slightly different from the constant 5.6353821 in package buile
Equation 7-29 due to round-off errors. Thus: system. w
Ezample 7')
TSC (Pi - O
e Po)dJ tions, A, B. ate.
qse = 5.63538 I- ^r (7-76)
Pse ygZ av T aN, Le is 5 miles lo->.
4,000 ft, 7,0(S
where Le is given by: 3,000 Asia, a3
tained at 2, 2
-1) L the gas f low
Le =(es (7-77)
s
Solution
Equation 7-77 gives the expression for the effective length for a single section
of a flowline . For the general case of non-uniform slope where the profile is
divided into a number of sections n of nearly uniform slope (as shows in
Figure 7-5), the effective length is calculated as follows:
el1(es ` _ 1) es1+s2(e3- 1)
Le= L1+ Lo + L.3+...
51 sC> S3
nied flow
,Llship for
e E'n-1(es n - 1)
+ Ln, s; -# 0 (7-78)
S„
where si represents the section i of the pipe.

Note that if si = 0 for any pipe section (this wi1l happen if the section is hori-
zontal , z = 0), the equivalent length term for that section is replaced by the
actual length of the section.
.ilet and Similar expressions can be written for the Panhandle A, Panhandle B,
Clinedinst, and other equations. This average temperature and Z- factor ap-
proach is not exact , and is generally used where flow is almost isothermal
and the pipe is essentially horizontal , with relatively small and few sections
that are not horizontal.
General Method
If more precise calculations are necessary , the most rigorous method is to

use a horizontal flow relationship such as the Clinedinst equation (Equation
7 -39) for the horizontal section of the pipe , coupled with an inclined flow
relationship such as the Cullender-Smith equation (Equation 7-56) for the
non-horizontal portion of the flow. This results in quite complex relation-
ships that require a computer for solution. Chapter 11 provides some insight
into the modeling of gas flow in pipelines and networks . Usually, the com-
puter program that is written for this purpose also has an economic analysis
3821 in package built into it , to enable design optimization for a complete gas flow
system.
Example 7-6. A section of a gas transmission system consists of three sta-

tions , A, B, and C. The 7-in. pipeline from A to B is 2 miles , and from B to C
(7-76)
is 5 miles long . Stations A, B, and C are at elevations abone sea-level of
4,000 ft , 7,000 ft , and 2,000 ft , respectively. The inlet pressure at station A is
3,000 psia , and the outlet pressure from the pipeline at station C is main-
tained at 2,200 psia . Assuming -y, = 0.6, Tac. = 85'F, and f = 0.025, find
the gas flow rate through the system , and the pressure at station B.
(7-77)
solution
te section
urofile is From Figure 3-1, pp, = 672 psia , T,, = 358°R
).lown in
Tav = 85 °F = 545°R, T;r = (545)/358 = 1.522
First trial:
Assume PB = 2,500 psia
For section AB:

Using Equation 7-32, pa, = (213)[(3,000' - 2,5003)/(3,0002 - 2,5002)]
= 2,757.58 psia
ppr = 2,757.58/672 = 4.104

9
From Figure 3-2. Za,. = 0.787 111.919.3
r
Using Equation 7-47, si = (0.0375)(0.6)(7,000 - 4,000)/[(0.787)(545)]
= 0.15737 •
•
or,
For section BC: 1
Pa,. = (2/3 )[(2,5003 - 2 , 2003)/(2.5002 - 2,2002)] = 2,353. 19 psia (3,0002
ppr = 2,353.19/672 = 3.502, and, Z,, = 0.780 PB = 2,550.
s2 = (0.0375)(0.6)(2.000 - 7,000)I[(0.780)(545)] 0.26464 Second trial
For the complete line ABC: Assume PB
pa,. = (213) [ (3.0003 - 2,2003) / (3.0002 - 2,20(P)] = 2.620.51 psia For section
pa, _ (213)[0
ppr = 2,620.51/672 = 3.90, and, Za,. = 0.782
ppr = 2, 781.3
s = (0.0375)(0.6)(2,000 - 4,000)I[(0.782)(545)] = - 0.10559
Si = (0.0375)11.
Using Equation 7-78: 1
For section B(»
L (eo.1573; - 1) (2 x 5.280) + eo.15737 (e -0-26464 - 1) (5 x 5,280)
Par _', (213) [ (2,
Le 0.15737 -0,26464
Pp, = 2.379.63
= 38,585.154 ft
S2 = (0.0375) (0t
Using Equation 7-76: o
Using Equatioj
1 (3,0002 - e - °.1°5592.2002) (75) 0.5
qx = (5. 63538) (520 / 14. 73)
(0.6) (0.782) (545) (0.025) (38,585.154 ( e° .15520
Le
= 111,919.16 Mscfd = 111.92 MMscfd = 38,504,
For section AB :
(e°-1"3' - 1) (2 x 5,280)
Le = 11,436.365 ft
0.15737 =
111,919.16 = (5.63538)(520/14.73)
1 (0.6) (0.787) (545) (0.025) (11, 436.365

0. 5
or,
(3,0002 - e0. 15737p )0.3 = 1,177.093
pB = 2,550.6 psia
Second trial:
Assume PB = 2,550.6 psia
For section AB:

N, = (213)[(3,0003 - 2,550.63)/(3,0002 - 2,550.62)] = 2,781.36 psia
ppr = 2,781.36/672 = 4.139, and, Zav = 0.798
s1 = (0.0375)(0.6)(7,000 - 4,000)/[(0.798)(545)] = 0.15520
For section BC:
pav = (2/3)[(2,550.63 - 2,2003)/(2,550.62 - 2,2002)] = 2,379.62 psia
ppr = 2,379.621672 = 3.541, and, 4,, = 0.778
s.^ = (0.0375)(0.6)(2,000 - 7,000)/[(0.778)(545)] 0.26532
(e0.15520 - 1)(2 x 5,280) + eo. 1557.0 (e- 0 . 26532 - 1 ) (5 x 5,280)

0.15520 - 0.26532
= 38,504.546 ft
w
Using Equation 7-76: (or botto

pressure,
CIX = (5.63538)(520/14.73) (3.0002 - e - °.'°5592.2002) (75) 0.5 lines and el
(0.6) (0.782) (545) (0.025)(38.504.546) The vele
choke) is
= 112,036.24 Mscfd = 112.04 MMscfd
y=
For section AB:
Using Equation 7-77: where
Le = (e°.i552 - 1) (2 x 5.280) =
11,423.443 ft
0.15520
0.5
1 (3,000='- eo.i55)(75)
112, 036.24 = ( 5 .63538) (520 / 14.73)
(0.6) (0.798 ) (545) (0.025) (11,423.443)
or.
V =Cd
[3,0002 - eo.i552°pg]0.5 = 1,185.8601
pB = 2,549.9 psia = 2,550 psia is
Thus, the gas f low rate, qs,. = 112.04 MMscfd, and the pressure at station B,
Cd = [^
pB = 2,550 psia.
Applicatiorl.
the well kn3
and that tl$
Gas Flow Through Restrictions 1958) : 19
3
In several instances in a gas production system, the gas must pass through
V2 = Cd [
relatively short restrictions. Chokes, consisting of a metal plate with a small
hole to allow flow, are the most common restriction devices used to effect a
pressure drop or reduce the rate of flow. They are capable of causing very where
large pressure drops: a gas can enter a choke at 5,000 psia and exit at 2,000 subs^s-.
psia or less. Chokes have, therefore, found several applications as control 3
devices in the oil and gas industry. Some of the purposes for which surface
(and subsurface) chokes may be used are to maintain a precise wellhead Substituting,>
flow rate, provide sand control by maintaining sufficient back pressure on
the producing formation, protect surface equipment and/or prevent water
V2 = Cd
coning by controlling the flow rate, and reservoir management. Subsurface
1 1-1
(or bottom-hole) chokes are frequently used to reduce the wellhead flowing
pressure , and prevent freeze-offs (hydrate formation) in the surface flow
lines and controis.
The velocity of a fluid flowing through a restriction (orifice, nozzle, or
choke) is expressed as follows:
V = K (P1 - P?)/p]1.5 (7-79)

[ 1 - (d1/d2 ) ']o.s [2g
where K = a constant representing the entrance / exit loss due to the

change in flow diameter
d1 = diameter at the throat of the restriction device, ft
d. = pípe diameter, ft
g = gravitational acceleration , ft/sec2
P1i P2 = pressures at the upstream and downstream ends, respec-
tively, of the flow restriction , lbf/ft2
0.5
p = fluid density, lbm/ft3
Equation 7-79 is generally written as:
V = Cd [2g(P1 - P2)/p]0.5 (7-80)
where the coefficient of discharge, Cd, is given by:
K
-ation B, Cd [1 - (d1/d2)4]o.5 (7-81)
Application of Equation 7-80 to the case of singie-phase gas flow results in

the well known de Saint Venant equation, assuming that the gas is perfect
and that the flow is frictionless and adiabatic (see for example, Binder,
1958):
(k - 1)Ik 0.5
`hrough 2P1g k
V', = Cd 1 - P2 (7-82)
a small p1 k - 1 P1
effect a
ing very where k = ratio of the specific heats for the gas, cp/c,,,
4t 2,00ó subscripts 1,2 = upstream and downstream side of the choke, re-
control spectively
Jurface
Alhead Substituting for gas density, p1 = (28.97p1-yg)/(RT1),
ure on
(k~ I)Ik 10.5
water RT1g, k _ P2 (7-83)
ûrface V9 = Cd 114.485^fg k - 1 1 P1
3
The gas velocity, vV2 ¡s related to the volumetric gas flow rate at standard con- Equation
ditions, q, as before: units, it cal
I T r ^í7^
qsc = x' 21 ^
e P2 I qsc = 9.
Psc22
ZT
•
where Ah is the cross-sectional area of f lom, through the choke. Substituting where qsc
for Ah = (w/4)d1, and assuming perfect gas (Z2 = 1): dch/)
P1
qsc = v2(^ h /4)

1I( T , (7-84)
T 1,1
For an adiabatic expansion/compression process for a perfect gas, pVk Th e f low
= constant. Therefore, tupes: sube
P1vk = p2vk Subcritical!

1
implving that Flow is 2
tion is belol
T. = T1 (p 2/P1)(k - 1)/k E qua ti on W
(7 - 85) a
upstream a
Substituting for T2 from Equation 7-85 , and for y, from Equation 7-83 , into 1 d esigned tc.
Equation 7-84: 2 l
rca Fl
Citil
2 (k-1)/k 0.5 s
RTigc k _
p
qsc = Ca Flow is ca 1 ) !J
.
14485 7g k - 1 (res/4)
1 ^
P1 T/
psc , 1 (P. P- ) (k
P1
is equal to
maximum -
or, through a g
pIT1 k P2 (k- 1)/k o. 5 speed of so L21
;^(Rg^)o.sT sc
qsc = Cah 1- not increas€):.
[ (4)(14.485)0 . 5p,, ' YgTl(P2/P1)(2k-2)/k k - 1 F1 cannot ex c
stream pres,
or, ever much t
-1)/k o. 5 ^tical flov *
_ irF
(Rg)°5T ^
ry P1 )
(P / 1 - disrbance
1¿ 2!k
C
I __ _(14 485
.- ) o. s Psc Y g T i k 1 Pl bance at tl1
and/or flow
or, flow.
The chokA
(k+ 1)/k 0.5 -- '
= m-(Rg^)o.5T sc 1 k P2 2Jk P2 ony i.
dl9F
(7-86)
^` (4)(14.485)0.5p5 CdP1d -ygT1 k - 1 P1 Pi flow -,3.
0
3
:ird con- Equation 7-86 is the general equation for flow through chokes. In common
units, it can be written as:
2/k
le = 974.61Cdp1d h 1 k E2' P2I
(7-87)
YgT1 k - 1 P1) P1,
ituting where q,, = gas flow rate, Mscfd (measured at 14.73 psia and 520°R)
d,h = choke diameter, in.
pl = pressure at the upstream side of the choke, psia
p2 = pressure at the downstream side of the choke, psia
(7-84) T1 = inlet (or upstream) temperature, °R
The flow through chokes (and flow restrictions in general) may be of tuvo
as, pVk
types: subcritical and critical.
Subcritical Flow
Flow is called subcritical when the velocity of the gas through the restric-
tion is below the speed of sound in the gas. In the subcritical flow regime,
Equations 7-86 and 7-87 apply, and the flow rate depends upon both the
(7-85)
upstream as well as the downstream pressure. Subsurface chokes are usually
designed to allow subcritical flow.
3, into
Critical Flow
(1C- 1
Flow is called critical when the velocity of the gas through the restriction
is equal to the speed of sound (about 1,100 ft/sec for air) in the gas. The
maximum speed at which a pressure effect or disturbance can propagate
through a gas cannot exceed the velocity of sound in the gas. Thus, once the
speed of sound is attained, further increase in the pressure differential will
not increase the pressure at the throat of the choke. Therefore, the flow rate
cannot exceed the critical flow rate achieved when the ratio of the down-
stream pressure p2 to the upstream pressure pl reaches a critical value, how-
ever much this ratio is decreased. Unlike subcritical flow, the flow rate in
critical flow depends only upon the upstream pressure, because the pressure
disturbances traveling at the speed of sound imply that a pressure distur-
bance at the downstream end will have no effect on the upstream pressure
and/or flow rate. Surface chokes are usually designed to provide critical
flow.
The choke flow relationships represented by Equations 7-86 and 7-87 are
valid only in the subcritical flow regime, up to critical flow when the maxi-
(7-86) mum flow velocity (equal to the speed of sound) is attained. If the pressure
ratio at which critical flow occurs is represented by (p2Jp1),, then from ele- Solution
mentary calculus (differentiate Equation 7-87 with respect to p2, and set the
resultant expression equal to zero) it can be sho-vvn that:
(P2/PI), = [2 /(k + 1)]w(-1) (7-88)
Flow is subcritical for (p21p1) > (p2/pi), and critical for (p.,/pi) < (P2/P1)c•
(a) P2/Pl
If the operating pressure ratio is less than the critical pressure ratio, the pres-
sure ratio in Equation 7-86 or Equation 7-87 must be replaced by the critical
Using Equy
pressure ratio, because the maximum flow rate through the choke is that
which corresponds to critical flow. The critical pressure ratio (p2/pl), is 0.49
q,, _ (97421
for monoatomic gases, 0.53 for diatomic gases, and slightly higher for more
complex gases.
Note that the analysis here assumes a perfect gas, with an adiabatic gas
exponent k. No corrections have been made for deviation of gas from ideal
behavior. It has been found that these relationships give very good results in = 2,4
field application, and a more complex analysis is generally quite unneces-
sary. (b) P2/P1 = "1'
The value of k is also, fortunately, relatively insensitive to temperature
variations as well as to the gas molecular weight for gaseous hydrocarbons. Therefore,
Therefore, k is usually assumed to be constant. k _ 1.293 for a 0.63 gravite
gas. Generally, the value of k used is in the range of 1.25 to 1.31, implying Using EquaJ>
from the relationship represented by Equation 7-88, that the flow is critical 1
when the pressure ratio is in the range 0.5549 (for k = 1.25) to 0.5439 (for
q, _ (9741
k = 1.31). As a rule of thumb, flow is assumed critical when the pressure
ratio is less than or equal to 0.55, which implies a k equal to 1.275 approxi-
mately. Substituting (p2/pl), = 0.55, and k = 1.275 in Equation 7-87, wwe
can get the well known choke design equation for critical flow:
= 2,9
456.71 Cdpld°,
qL _ (7-89)
/ yg L 1)0.5 The same rey
where q^, = flow rate through the choke, Mscfd (456::

d,h = choke size , in. - t.
pl = upstream pressure, psia 3
T1 = upstream temperature, °R = 2,95k
yg = gas gravity (air = 1)
Cd = coefficient of discharge, generally assumed to be 0.86
3
Example 7-7. Find the flow rate, referred to standard conditions of 14.73
psia and 520°R, of a 0.65 gravity gas through a 28/si-in.-diameter choke for
a downstream pressure P2 equal to: (a) 600 psia, and (b) 300 psia. The up-
stream pressure pl = 750 psia, temperature T1 = 100°F, and k = 1.275.
Ew- Steady State Flow of Gas Through Pipes 359
Solution
27 5
(22 /P 1)c = (212.275)1.27510. = 0.55
(a) P2/p1 = 600/750 = 0.80, which is greater than (P2/p1),
qx = (974.61)(0.86)(750)(28/64)2
0. 5
1 1.2 5 (0.8211.275 - 0.82.27511.275)
(0.65) (560) 0.275/ 1
= 2,47 1. 03 Mscf d
(b) p2/p1 = 300/750 = 0.40. which is less than (p2/p1),
Therefore, P2/p1 = (P2/PI), = 0.55 must be used.

0
q,, = (974.61)(0.86)(750)(28/64)2
0,5
1 1.27 5- 55 2.27511.x5)
( 0. 52/1 2,5 - 0.
(0.65)(560) ) o.275
= 2,955.32 Viscfd
The same result can alternatively be obtained using Equation 7-89:
(456.71) (0.86) (750) (28164)2

^` [(0.65)(560) J1-5
= 2,955.j3 Mscfd
Temperature Profile in Flowing Gas Systems
It is quite clear from the flow relationships presentad so fax that flow cal-
culations require the value of the flowing temperatura in order to determine
the effective gas properties and pressure drop. To avoid complexity, most
flow computations assume that the f lowing temperature profile is linear.
This assumption is not too far from reality, and generally gives quite good
results . In some cases , however, more precise temperatura and flora, calcula-
tions may be required, such as in cases where phase changes occur during
flow of the gas through the pipe.
Pressure and temperature are mutually dependent variables in flow-
pressure loss depends to some extent on temperature (or heat loss), and the
temperature (or heat loss) depends upon pressure that governs the changes in
fluid enthalpies , overall heat transfer coefficient , and other parameters.
Thus, generating a very precise temperature profile requires an enormous
amount of complex, trial-and-error tyPe of calculations for which even the
amount of data available in most cases is insufficient . Thus, an approxirnate
temperature profile, independent of pressure , is satisfactorv for most engi-
neering applications.
Flowing Temperature in (Horizontal ) Pipelines
For a given inflow temperature, T1, and surrounding soil temperature,

T5, the temperature of gas flowing in a pipeline depends upon heat exchange
with the surroundings, given by the overall heat transfer coefficient; the `0 1
(pressure dependent) joule-Thomson effect* due to pressure changes caused
T5 9
by friction, and velocity and elevation changes; phase changes (condensa-
tion, vaporization) in the gas due to pressure and temperature changes; and Subscripta
energy loss (due to friction) during flow that is converted into heat. (except in f
Considering these factors, Papay (1970) has derived the following equa- sent liquid
tion, assuming steady-state flow of gas, for the temperature TL, at a dis- In deriva
tance Lx from the pipeline inlet: rate , and F3:
end of the
[T, + C4 /C2 - (CICS) /(C2(C2 + C3))]C1 2JC3 segments. 19
TLa (C1 + C2LX)c2Jc3 flow), Equ$
C4 + C5L,, + C S(C] + C3 )
L
(7-90)
C2 C2(C2 + C3)
where
Cl = ZVICpL + (1 - ZV1)Cpv
C2 = klm
C3 = (ZV2 - ZV1)(CpL cpv)/L
The irreversible adiabatic simultaneous pressure and temperature reduction process that ac-
companies the expansion oí a flowing gas by pressure reduction is called Joule-Thomson or
throttling effect.
u
C4 = Pi L P2 [ZV1CPLµdL + (1 - zv1)Cpvudv] + ZV2 L zvt Q
+y 2LVlv1 +gh/L-k dO T1
(ZV2 - zvi)(P1 - P2) v2 - vi,

C, = L2 (CpL ¿dL - CpV9dv) + L (7-91)
where zv = mole fraction of vapor (gas) in the gas-liquid flowstream

p = pressure, lbf/ft2
L = pipeline length, ft
v = fluid velocity, ft/sec
cp = fluid specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/lbni-°F
/Id = Joule-Thomson coefficient, ft2-°Fllbf
m = mass flow rate, lbm/sec
Q = phase-transition heat, Btu/lbm
k = thermal conductivity, Btu/ft-sec-°F
g = gravitational acceleration, equal to 32.17 ft/sec2
h = elevation difference between the inlet and outlet, ft
d° = outside pipe diameter, ft
TS = temperature of the soil or surroundings, 'F
Subscripts 1 and 2 indicate the inlet and outlet ends of the pipe, respectively
(except in the numbering of the constants C), and subscripts L and V repre-
sent liquid and vapor (gas), respectively.
In derivzng Equation 7-90, Papay (1970) assumed that pressure, flow
rate, and phase-transitions are linear functions of distance from the inlet
end of the pipeline. This equation, therefore, is very accurate for short line
segments. For the case where phase changes can be neglected (single-phase
flow), Equation 7-90 can be simplified to:
TL., = T, + (Ti - T,)eÌ-x - Í£dv(P1 - P2) (1 - e- KLx) - gh (1 - e- KL`)

KL KLcpv
-vn-v1 (1-e-K)±(v,-v1)L, (7-92)

v
KLcr^-^ 1 KL L
where K = k (7-93)
In Equation 7-92, the first two terms represent the hect exchange with the
surroundings, the third term represents the Joule-Thomson effect, the fourth
term accounts for the elevation changes, and the fifth term accounts for the
3
change in velocit}, head. The last two terms are small and mav be neglected 3. A4
for most practical purposes. If the pressure drop is small, then the tempera- enab
ture drop due to expansion is also small. and the third term mav also be ne- face
glected. Neglecting these terms, Equation 7-92 simplifies to the followring tem
familiar form:
a.
i:Lx b.v
T1 = T, + (Ti - TS) e- (7-94)
e. Rs
ínj7
Flow•ing Temperatures in Wells
4. List ,
The case of subsurface vertical floww is a special case of the general equa- for
tion ( Equation 7-90) where the temperature of the surroundings v aries with 5. A ga3
distance along the floww length due to the geothermal gradient , GT (°F/ft),
Subs$
of the earth.
A simplified equation presented by Ramev (1962). similar to Equation
7 -94. is v idely used: 3
Surf a*
TLx = T1 - GT[LX - K-1(1 - e-KLX )] (7-95)
Surf a„
where La = distance from the bottom-hole or point of fluid entre, ft
The t
TLa = temperature at location L, °F
T1 = temperature at point of fluid entre- (at L = 0). °F yg _
sectioí41
GT = geothermal gradient, °F/ft
3
K = k/mcpv. as given by Equation 9-93
(a) G3
(b) Pr$
Equation 7-95 assumes that the temperature of the fluid and surround-
ings is equal at the point of entre, and that the heat loss is independent of 1
time. The parameter K is quite difficult to estimate. An analvsis based upon
measured temperature profiles in actual gas wells is recommended, similar
to an empirical equation developed by. Shiu and Beggs (1980) for flow-ing oil
wells. 1
ANSI, 1976
B31.3, Agh
Questions and Problems NTY.
Beggs, H. D
Gas Cons^
1. A 12-in. ID, 80-mile gas pipeline is to deliver 100 MMscfd of gas at 250 Binder, R. G..
psia. The average flowing temperature of the 0.75 gravitv gas is 90°F. Neww )erse
and c/d = 0.0005 for the pipe. To what pressure must the gas be com- Chemical El,
pressed at the inlet end to achieve this? Use at least two equations and Creen, Mi
compare the results. Cullender, K3
2. M7hat is the maximum throughput through the pipeline in Problem 1? Equation+
Assume c = 0.05, E = 1.0, Y = 0.40, and S = 35,000 psi. Trans., AI$
4
.^glected 3. A 4,000-ft gas well requires a wellhead pressure of at least 100 psia to
impera- enable flow of the 0 . 85 gravity gas from the wellhead through the sur-
be ne- face facilities . The bottom- hole temperature is 200°F and the surface
-llowing temperature is 82°F. The casing is 4.5 in. 11D.
a. What is the minimum bottom- hole pressure to enable gas flow?
b. What is the bottom-hole oressure for a gas flow rate of 10 MMscfd?
(7-94)
c. Repeat part (b) assumirig-that the gas flows through the casing-tub-
ing annulus , the tubing being 2.1 in. OD.
4. List some limitations of the flow equations described in this chapter
.d equa- for (a) horizontal flow and (b) vertical flow.
.,es with 5. A gas production system consists of three sections:
(°Flft),
Subsurface section I: inclined, length = 5,500 ft, true vertical
depth = 4000 ft
4uation
inlet temperature = 150°F, outlet tempera-
ture = 85°F
Surface section II: horizontal , length = 1 . 5 miles
(7-95)
Surface section III: 2 miles long, inclined 30° from the horizontal.
Y, ft
The temperature in the surface sections can be assumed to be 85°F,
lo = 0.65 , and f = 0.002. For a pressure of 4000 psia at the inlet of
section I, find:
( a) Gas flow rate through the system.

(b) Pressure at the outlet of section III.
round-
3ent of
d upon
similar
References
,ving oil
ANSI, 1976 . Code for Pressure Piping , Petroleum Refinery Piping, ANSI
B31.3, Am. Soc . of Mech. Engrs ., United Engineering Center, New York,
NY.
Beggs , H. D., 1984 . Gas Production Operations. OGCI Publications, Oil &
Gas Consultants International , Inc., Tulsa, Oklahoma , 287 pp.
at 250 Binder, R. C., 1958 . Advanced Fluid Mechanics , Vol. 1. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
90°F, New jersey, 296 pp.
-e com- Chemical Engineers ' Handbook , 1984. Edited by R. H . Perry and D. W.
—ns and Creen, McGraw - Hill Book Company, New York, 6th ed.
Cullender, M. H. and Smith , R. V., 1956. `Practical Solution of Gas-Flow
úem 1? Equations for Wells and Pipelines with Large Temperature Gradients,"
Trans ., AIME, 207, 281-287.
ERCB, 1975. Theory and Practice of the Testing of Gas Wells, 3rd ed. En-
ergy Resources Conservation Board, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Ikoku, C. U., 1984. Natural Gas Production Engíneering. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 517 pp.
Katz, D. L.. Cornell, D., Kobavashi, R.. Poettmann. F. H., Vare: J. A.,
Elenbaas, J. R., and Weinaug, C. F., 1959. Handbook .of Natural Gas
Engíneering. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 802 pp.
Lesem, L. B., Greytock, F., Marotta, F., and McKetta, J. J., Jr., 1957. "A
Method of Calculating the Distribution of Temperature in Flowing Gas
Wells," Trans., AIME, 210, 169-176. 11
Messer, P. H., Raghavan, R., and Ramey, H. J., Jr., 1974. "Calculation of e
Bottom-Hole Pressures for Deep, Hot, Sour Gas Wells," J. Pet. Tech.. .
26(1, jan.), 85-92.
Moody, L. F., 1944. "Friction Factors for Pipe Flow," Trans. Am. Soc.
Mech. Eng., 66(Nov.), 671-684.
Nisle. R. G. and Poettmann. F. H.. 1955. "Calculation of the Flor and Stor-
age of Natural Gas in Pipe," Petrol. Engr., 27(1):D14; 27(2):C36: As stated
27(3):D37. and water)
Papay, J., 1970. "Steadv Temperature Distributions in Producing Wells and production,
Pipelines," Koolaj es Foldgaz, 11. Cited reference in: Production and for gas prese
Transport of Oil and Gas, by A. P. Szilas, 1975. Developments in Petro- close estimat
leum Science, 3. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, p. 563. however, trut3
Ramey. H. J., Jr., 1962. "Wellbore Heat Transmission." J. Pet. Tech., 14(4. are no longe$
Apr.), 427-435. Although 3
Shiu, K. C. and Beggs, H. D., 1980. "Predicting Temperatures in Flowing flow of free
Oil Wells," Trans.. ASME: J. Energy Resour. Tech., 102(1, March), 2-11. behavior has
Sukkar, Y. K. and Cornell. D.. 1955. "Direct Calculation of Bottom-Hole a homogene3
Pressures in Natural Gas Wells," Trans., AIME, 204, 43-48. patterns suc
Swamee, P. K. and Jain, A. K., 1976. "Explicit Equations for Pipe-Flor - multiphase I
Problems. ' J. Hydraulics Div. ASCE, 102(HY5, Mav), 657-664. f,
in some
Szilas, A. P., 1975. Production and Transport of Oil and Gas (Developments Earlv atte .
in Petroleum Science, 3). Elsevier Scientific Publ. Co., Amsterdam, 630 multiphase fl
pp• An overdesig-»
Young, K. L., 1967. "Effect of Assumptions Used to Calculate Bottom-Hole tions, it mav 2
Pressure in Gas Wells. J. Pet. Tech., 19(4, Apr.). 547-550. fluctuations. )
flowlines at t)$
Multiphase fl3
liquid produces
wells that ares
.for handling js
failed treatm
`mee, notable-

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Pipes provide an economic means of producing (through tubing or casing)

Gas Flow Fundamentals

Change in internal energy + Change in kinetic energy

where U = internal energy . ft-lbf/lbm

This basic relationship can be manipulated in several different ways. Com-

dU + d(pV) = dh = Tds + Vdp

For an ideal process , ds = - dQ/T. Since no process is ideal (or reversible),

. ady-state On this further substitution, Equation 7-1 becomes:

Types of Single-Phase Flow Regimes and Reynolds Number

Four types of single-phase flow are possible: laminar, critical, transition,

where d = (inside) diameter of the conduit through which the fluid is

de = 4Rh = 4[area of flow/wetted perimeter] (7-6)

For example, for a flow conduit with a square cross-section (a x a):

Cross-sectional area of flow = al

For flow through a casing-tubing annulus, with casing inside diameter

Cross-sectional area of flow = (7r/4) (d^, - d;'°)

Wetted perimeter = ir(d , + d.°)

Thus, de = 4(?/4) ( d °) = d^; - d t°

Cross-sectional area of flow = 7rd'14

Wetted perimeter = ird

The units for parameters in the Reynolds number should be consistent, so

m = Avp = (1,000gsc)Mpsc _ (3.1243 x 10-2)(gsc)ygpsc

where A = cross-sectional area of flow, ft2 Flow tv

NRe, smooth pipes

Laminar ( or viscous) < 2,000

Friction to flow through a pipe is affected by pipe-wall roughness. How-

.illows: Drawn tubing (brass , lead, glass) 0.00006

,áPf = fLpv2/(2gd) (7-11)

The friction factor includes, besides roughness, the flow characteristics of

f = f(NRe, c/d) For rough

Opf = 32^¿vL1(gd2) (7-12) f -o. 5 =

Equating Equations 7-11 and 7-12: where as fo*5

partíally-Turbulent and Fully-Turbulent Single-Phase Flow

For partially-turbulent flow, friction factor is a funetion of both Reynolds

e Moody f = 16 log (NRef°' /0.7063) for partially turbulent flow (7-15)

f-0.5 _ - 2 log [E/(3.7d) + 0.628 /(NRf°.5)] (7-19)

(7-12) f - °.5 = - 2 log (E/3.7 d) (7-20)

whereas for smooth pipes, Colebrook's equation reduces to Prandtl's equa-

(7-13) I f-0 = 1.14 - 2 log (E/d + 21 . 25/NRO.s ) (7-21)

where pm^ = maximum allowable internal pressure, psig where (

In most cases , C is taken to be 100 (Beggs, 1984). Substituting for C and

100 100 (ZRT)°.5

where Yg ís the gas gravity ( air = 1 basis).

where ( ge)sc = gas flow rate for onset of erosion, scflsec

where (qe)., is in Mscfd, d is in inches, p is in psia , and T is in °R.

dp + (p/2&) dw + (g/gjp dz + pola, = 0

Assuming horizontal, steady -state , adiabatic , isothermal flow of gas, with

286 Gas Production Engineering

and gas velocity- v: or.

we obtain: Any consi`sh

and the log-mean temperature,

cally expedient, because an analytic description of the variation of tempera-

Rg°T", (pT - pñ)d5

[103/(3.600 x )4)]2Qs _ ((10.732 x 144)(32.17)(1/12)5 T (pT - p )d5

= 5.6353821 (i( ( _-_p)d5\0.5 (7-29)

where q, = gas flow rate measured at standard conditions, Mscfd

Equation 7-29, attributed to Weymouth, is the general equation for steady-

various assumptions made in the development of Equation 7-29 are as fol-

Pav = (P] + P2)/2 Px ='!p

Solving for pt:

Pe = [Pi - x(p - pn)]o.s

lene AB TT,;r „^^ r.l , -