Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

B. Tech – 8th – CSE- Mobile Computing

Answers of End Semester Question Paper

1.
a) Two advantages of TCP:
It maintains the TCP end-to-end semantics. The SH does not send any ACK itself but forwards the
ACKs from the MH. If the MH is disconnected, it avoids useless retransmissions, slow starts or
breaking connections by simply shrinking the sender‘s window to 0.Since it does not buffer data in
the SH as I-TCP does, it is not necessary to forward buffers to a new SH. Lost packets will be
automatically retransmitted to the new SH.

b) What is hidden terminal and exposed terminal?

The hidden terminal problem is due to the fact that a node (say A) transmitting to another node
(say B) cannot hear transmissions from another node C, which might also be transmitting to B, and
might interfere with the A-to-B transmissions. e.g. Say transmissions are limited to a distance d,
this arrangement causes the problem described:

To get around this, we use the RTS/CTS mechanism. A now broadcasts a Request to Send message
that asks "Can I send this message?" to all nodes within distance d. If B is free, it replies with a Clear
to Send (CTS) which makes other nodes at a distance d from B enter a back off period where they
do not transmit. However, this can also cause nodes that are within a distance d of B to enter back
off periods (e.g. B′ – even if they don't directly interfere with the transmissions between B and A.
This is called the exposed terminal problem.

c) List and four functions of BSC used in GSM.

The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel setup,
frequency hopping, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the mobile and the MSC.
The BSC also translates the 13 Kbps voice channel used over the radio link to the standard 64 Kbps
channel used by the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSDN) or ISDN. It assigns and releases
frequencies and time slots for the MS. The BSC also handles intercell handover. It controls the
power transmission of the BSS and MS in its area. The function of the BSC is to allocate the
necessary time slots between the BTS and the MSC. It is a switching device that handles the radio
resources. Additional functions include:

• Control of frequency hopping

• Performing traffic concentration to reduce the number of lines from the MSC
• Providing an interface to the Operations and Maintenance Center for the
BSS
• Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs
• Time and frequency synchronization
• Power management
• Time-delay measurements of received signals from the MS

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

d) Explain 2 advantages of cellular IP.

These mobile devices function by taking advantage of mobile IPs and administering them to the
laptop to use for accessing the Internet. The invention has allowed users to roam freely between
wireless connection zones. “Implementing Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) allows frequency
reuse. If one transmitter is far away from another i.e. outside the interference range, it can reuse
the same frequencies.

e) Answers of 1.a

f) What is localization?
Localization, in cellular communication, is the technique of pinpointing the exact region or
geographic position of a user. Localization is done by cellular servers by collecting the unit (or
cellular) data of a SIM through signal towers and then correcting the precise location by various
algorithms whereby error is removed by probability.

g) What is frequency hopping?

Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by shifting
carriers across numerous channels with pseudorandom sequence which is already known to the
sender and receiver. Frequency hopping spread spectrum is defined in the 2.4 GHz band and
operates in around 79 frequencies ranging from 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz. Every frequency is GFSK
modulated with channel width of 1MHz and rates defined as 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps respectively.

h) What is tunnelling and encapsulation?

Tunnelling is a protocol that allows for the secure movement of data from one network to another.
Tunnelling involves allowing private network communications to be sent across a public network,
such as the Internet, through a process called encapsulation.

i) What is handover?
As Figure below illustrates, transmitted signals can combine with reflected ones to corrupt the
signal detected by the receiver. This is known as multipath propagation. Delay spread is the amount
of delay experienced by the reflected signals compared to the primary signal. As delay spread
increases, the signal at the receiver becomes more distorted and possibly undetectable even when
the transmitter and receiver are within close range.

Multipath propagation decreases the quality of the signal at the receiver. Multipath propagation
can be a significant problem, especially with indoor applications. Office furniture, walls, and
machinery are obstacles that can redirect parts of the transmitted signal. Wireless LAN
manufacturers compensate for the effects of multipath propagation by using special processing
techniques. As examples, equalization and antenna diversity are methods for reducing the number
of problems arising from multipath propagation.

j) What is handover?
In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refer to the process of transferring
an ongoing call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to another
channel.

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2. What do you mean by multiplexing? Explain its types.

Multiplexing is the process of combining
multiple signals into one signal, over a shared
medium. If analog signals are multiplexed, it is
Analog Multiplexing and if digital signals are
multiplexed, that process is Digital Multiplexing.
The process of multiplexing divides a
communication channel into several number of
logical channels, allotting each one for a different message signal or a data stream to be transferred.
The device that does multiplexing can be simply called as a MUX while the one that reverses the process
which is demultiplexing, is called as DEMUX.

Types of Multiplexers

There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital. They are further divided into
FDM, WDM, and TDM.

Analog Multiplexing

The analog multiplexing techniques involve

signals which are analog in nature. The analog
signals are multiplexed according to their
frequency (FDM) or wavelength (WDM).

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

In analog multiplexing, the most used technique

is Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM. This
technique uses various frequencies to combine
streams of data, for sending them on a communication medium, as a single signal.

Example: A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number of channels through a single cable,
uses FDM.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength Division Multiplexing is an analog technique, in which many data streams of different
wavelengths are transmitted in the light spectrum. If the wavelength increases, the frequency of the
signal decreases.

Example: Optical fibre Communications use the WDM technique, to merge different wavelengths into
a single light for the communication.

Digital Multiplexing

The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence the available data is in the form of
frames or packets, which are discrete.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In TDM, the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is used to transmit a signal over a single
communication channel, with allotting one slot for each message. Of all the types of TDM, the main
ones are Synchronous and Asynchronous TDM.

Synchronous TDM

In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ number of connections, then
the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated for each input line. In this technique, the

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sampling rate is common to all signals and hence same clock input is given. The mux allocates the same
slot to each device at all times.

Asynchronous TDM

In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the signals and the clock signal is also
not in common. If the allotted device, for a time-slot, transmits nothing and sits idle, then that slot is
allotted to another device, unlike synchronous.

2.OR

What do you mean by modulation? Explain various types of modulation?

Digital-to-Analog signals is the next conversion we will discuss in this chapter. These techniques are also
called as Digital Modulation techniques. Digital Modulation provides more information capacity, high
data security, quicker system availability with great quality communication. Hence, digital modulation
techniques have a greater demand, for their capacity to convey larger amounts of data than analog
modulation techniques. There are many types of digital modulation techniques and also their
combinations, depending upon the need. Of them all, we will discuss the prominent ones.

ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying

The amplitude of the resultant output depends upon the input data whether it should be a zero level
or a variation of positive and negative, depending upon the carrier frequency. Amplitude Shift Keying

(ASK) is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the binary data in the form of variations in
the amplitude of a signal. Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when
ASK modulated, gives a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input. The
following figure represents A SK modulated waveform along with its input.

FSK – Frequency Shift Keying

The frequency of the output signal will be either high or low, depending upon the input data applied.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the carrier
signal varies according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency modulation.

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input and is low in frequency
for a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies. The following image
is the diagrammatic representation of FSK modulated waveform along with its input.

PSK – Phase Shift Keying

The phase of the output signal gets shifted depending upon the input. These are mainly of two types,
namely Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) and Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK), according to the
number of phase shifts. The other one is Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) which changes the phase
according to the previous value. Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in which
the phase of the carrier signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK
technique is widely used for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with RFID and
Bluetooth communications. PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted.
They are −

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine wave carrier takes
two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°. BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(DSBSC) modulation scheme, for message being the digital information.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes four phase reversals such
as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°. If this kind of techniques are further extended, PSK can be done by eight or
sixteen values also, depending upon the requirement.

BPSK Modulator

The block diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying consists of the balance modulator which has the carrier
sine wave as one input and the binary sequence as the other input. Following is the diagrammatic
representation.

3. Explain GPRS architecture.

GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional entities that
allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation GSM network
providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with the packet data transport
the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same air interface resources concurrently.

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:

GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but to effectively build
a packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements, interfaces, and protocols for
handling packet traffic are required. Therefore, GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network
elements as summarized below:

GSM Network Element Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

Mobile Station (MS) New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services. These new terminals
will be backward compatible with GSM for voice calls.
BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing Base Transceiver Station(BTS).
BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a software upgrade and the
installation of new hardware called the packet control unit (PCU). The PCU
directs the data traffic to the GPRS network and can be a separate hardware
element associated with the BSC.
GPRS Support Nodes
(GSNs) The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of new core network
elements called the serving GPRS support node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS
support node (GGSN).
Databases
(HLR, VLR, etc.) All the databases involved in the network will require software upgrades to
handle the new call models and functions introduced by GPRS.

GPRS Mobile Stations

New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM phones do not
handle the enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist, including a high-speed
version of current phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA device with an embedded
GSM phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations are backward compatible for
making voice calls using GSM.

GPRS Base Station Subsystem

Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a software upgrade.
The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) for packet
data traffic. The BTS can also require a software upgrade but typically does not require hardware
enhancements. When either voice or data traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile, it is transported
over the air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the BSC in the same way as a standard GSM call.
However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is separated; voice is sent to the Mobile Switching Center

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(MSC) per standard GSM, and data is sent to a new device called the SGSN via the PCU over a Frame
Relay interface.

GPRS Support Nodes

Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) and, Serving GPRS
Support Node (SGSN) are added:
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. It contains
routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the IP based internal
backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also collects charging information
connected to the use of the external data networks and can act as a packet filter for incoming traffic.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles, registration of
mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information on charging for the use of
the air interface.
The flow of GPRS protocol stack and end-to-end message from MS to the GGSN is displayed in the below
diagram. GTP is the protocol used between the SGSN and GGSN using the Gn interface. This is a Layer
3 tunnelling protocol.

The process that takes place in the application looks like a normal IP sub-network for the users both
inside and outside the network. The vital thing that needs attention is, the application communicates
via standard IP, that is carried through the GPRS network and out through the gateway GPRS. The
packets that are mobile between the GGSN and the SGSN use the GPRS tunnelling protocol, this way
the IP addresses located on the external side of the GPRS network do not have deal with the internal
backbone. UDP and IP are run by GTP.
Sub-Network Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) and Logical Link Control (LLC) combination
used in between the SGSN and the MS. The SNDCP flattens data to reduce the load on the radio channel.
A safe logical link by encrypting packets is provided by LLC and the same LLC link is used as long as a
mobile is under a single SGSN.
In case, the mobile moves to a new routing area that lies under a different SGSN; then, the old LLC link
is removed and a new link is established with the new Serving GSN X.25. Services are provided by
running X.25 on top of TCP/IP in the internal backbone.

3.OR
What is MANET? What are its various applications? Explain the destination sequence distance vector
routing mechanism.

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

MANET stands for Mobile adhoc Network also called as

wireless adhoc network or adhoc wireless network that usually
has a routable networking environment on top of a Link Layer
ad hoc network. They consist of set of mobile nodes connected
wirelessly in a self-configured, self-healing network without
having a fixed infrastructure. MANET nodes are free to move
randomly as the network topology changes frequently. Each
node behaves as a router as they forward traffic to other
specified node in the network.

Applications of MANETs:
There are many applications of MANETs. The domain of applications for MANETs is diverse, ranging
from small, static networks that are constrained by power sources to large-scale, mobile, highly
dynamic networks. Significant examples include establishing survivable, efficient, dynamic
communication for: network-centric military/battlefield environments, emergency/rescue operations,
disaster relief operations, intelligent transportation systems, conferences, fault-tolerant mobile sensor
grids, smart homes, patient monitoring, environment control, and other security sensitive applications.
Most of these applications demand a specific security guarantees and reliable communication Some
well-known applications are:

• Military Tactical Operations: For fast and possibly short-term establishment of military
communications and troop deployments in hostile and/or unknown environments.
• Search and Rescue Operations: For communication in areas with little or no wireless
infrastructure support.
• Disaster Relief Operations: For communication in environments where the existing
infrastructure is destroyed or left inoperable.
• Law Enforcement: For secure and fast communication during law enforcement operations.
• Commercial Use: For enabling communications in exhibitions, conferences and large
gatherings. For some business scenarios, the need for collaborative computing might be more
important outside office environments than inside a building. After all, it is often the case
where people do need to have outside meetings to cooperate and exchange information on a
given project.
DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (DSDV)

Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) is a

hop-by-hop vector routing protocol requiring each
node to periodically broadcast routing updates.
This is a table-driven algorithm based on
modifications made to the Bellman-Ford routing
mechanism. Each node in the network maintains a
routing table that has entries for each of the
destinations in the network and the number of
hops required to reach each of them. Each entry
has a sequence number associated with it that
helps in identifying stale entries. This mechanism allows the protocol to avoid the formation of routing
loops. Each node periodically sends updates tagged throughout the network with a monotonically
increasing even sequence number to advertise its location. New route broadcasts contain the address
of the destination, the number of hops to reach the destination, the sequence number of the
information received regarding the destination, as well as a new sequence number unique to the
broadcast. The route labelled with the most recent sequence number is always used. When the
neighbours of the transmitting node receive this update, they recognize that they are one hop away
from the source node and include this information in their distance vectors. Every node stores the “next

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routing hop” for every

reachable destination in their
routing table. The route used is
the one with the highest
sequence number i.e. the most
recent one. When a neighbour
B of A finds out that A is no
longer reachable, it advertises
the route to A with an infinite
metric and a sequence number
one greater than the latest
sequence number for the route
forcing any nodes with B on the
path to A, to reset their routing
tables. Consider the network in
Figure 1 shows the m ovement
of node N1. Table 1 is the
routing table at node N4 before
node N1 moves. Table 2 is the routing table updated for node N4 after node N1 moved. Routing table
updates in DSDV are distributed by two different types of update packets:

• Full dump: This type of update packet contains all the routing information available at a node.
As a consequence, it may require several Network Protocol Data Units (NPDUs) to be
transferred if the routing table is large. Full dump packets are transmitted infrequently if the
node only experiences occasional movement.
• Incremental: This type of update packet contains only the information that has changed since
the latest full dump was sent out by the node. Hence, incremental packets only consume a
fraction of the network resources compared to a full dump.
4. Explain: Indirect TCP and Mobile TCP

Indirect TCP segments a TCP

connection into a fixed part and
a wireless part. The following
figure shows an example with a
mobile host connected via a
wireless link and an access
point to the ‘wired’ internet
where the correspondent host
resides. Standard TCP is used
between the fixed computer
and the access point. No
computer in the internet recognizes any changes to TCP. Instead of the mobile host, the access point
now terminates the standard TCP connection, acting as a proxy. This means that the access point is now
seen as the mobile host for the fixed host and as the fixed host for the mobile host. Between the access
point and the mobile host, a special TCP, adapted to wireless links, is used. However, changing TCP for
the wireless link is not a requirement. A suitable place for segmenting the connection is at the foreign
agent as it not only controls the mobility of the mobile host anyway and can also hand over the
connection to the next foreign agent when the mobile host moves on. The foreign agent acts as a proxy
and relays all data in both directions. If CH (correspondent host) sends a packet to the MH, the FA
acknowledges it and forwards it to the MH. MH acknowledges on successful reception, but this is only
used by the FA. If a packet is lost on the wireless link, CH doesn’t observe it and FA tries to retransmit
it locally to maintain reliable data transport. If the MH sends a packet, the FA acknowledges it and

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

forwards it to CH. If the

packet is lost on the
wireless link, the mobile
hosts notice this much
faster due to the lower
round trip time and can
directly retransmit the
packet. Packet loss in the
wired network is now
handled by the foreign
agent.
During handover, the buffered
packets, as well as the system
state (packet sequence
number, acknowledgements,
ports, etc), must migrate to the
new agent. No new connection
may be established for the
mobile host, and the
correspondent host must not
see any changes in connection
state. Packet delivery in I-TCP
is shown below:

Advantages of I-TCP
• No changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for the hosts (TCP protocol) necessary, all
current optimizations to TCP still work Simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop between,
e.g., a foreign agent and mobile host 1. transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate into
the fixed network 2. therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short delay on the
mobile hop s known
• It is always dangerous to introduce new mechanisms in a huge network without knowing exactly how
they behave.
• New optimizations can be tested at the last hop, without jeopardizing the stability of the Internet.
It is easy to use different protocols for wired and wireless networks.

Disadvantages of I-TCP
• Loss of end-to-end semantics: - an acknowledgement to a sender no longer means that a receiver really
has received a packet, foreign agents might crash.
• Higher latency possible: - due to buffering of data within the foreign agent and forwarding to a new
foreign agent.
• Security issue: - The foreign agent must be a trusted entity
Mobile TCP
Both I-TCP and Snooping TCP does not help much, if a mobile host gets disconnected. The M-TCP
(mobile TCP) approach has the same goals as I-TCP and snooping TCP: to prevent the sender window
from shrinking if bit errors or disconnection but not congestion cause current problems. M-TCP wants
to improve overall throughput, to lower the delay, to maintain end-to-end semantics of TCP, and to
provide a more efficient handover. Additionally, M-TCP is especially adapted to the problems arising
from lengthy or frequent disconnections. M-TCP splits the TCP connection into two parts as I-TCP does.
An unmodified TCP is used on the standard host-supervisory host (SH) connection, while an optimized
TCP is used on the SH-MH connection. The SH monitors all packets sent to the MH and ACKs returned
from the MH. If the SH does not receive an ACK for some time, it assumes that the MH is disconnected.
It then chokes the sender by setting the sender’s window size to 0. Setting the window size to 0 forces

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

the sender to go into persistent mode, i.e., the state of the sender will not change no matter how long
the receiver is disconnected. This means that the sender will not try to retransmit data. As soon as the
SH (either the old SH or a new SH) detects connectivity again, it reopens the window of the sender to
the old value. The sender can continue sending at full speed. This mechanism does not require changes
to the sender’s TCP. The wireless side uses an adapted TCP that can recover from packet loss much
faster. This modified TCP does not use slow start; thus, M-TCP needs a bandwidth manager to
implement fair sharing over the wireless link.
Advantages of M-TCP:
• It maintains the TCP end-to-end semantics. The SH does not send any ACK itself but forwards the
ACKs from the MH.
• If the MH is disconnected, it avoids useless retransmissions, slow starts or breaking connections by
simply shrinking the sender’s window to 0.
• As no buffering is done as in I-TCP, there is no need to forward buffers to a new SH. Lost packets
will be automatically retransmitted to the SH.
Disadvantages of M-TCP:
• As the SH does not act as proxy as in I-TCP, packet loss on the wireless link due to bit errors is
propagated to the sender. M-TCP assumes low bit error rates, which is not always a valid
assumption.
• A modified TCP on the wireless link not only requires modifications to the MH protocol software
but also new network elements like the bandwidth manager.
4.OR
Explain: Handover, Authentication and Security in GSM.

A handover is a process in telecommunications and mobile communications in which a connected

cellular call or a data session is transferred from one cell site (base station) to another without
disconnecting the session. Cellular services are based on mobility and handover, allowing the user to
be moved from one cell site range to another or to be switched to the nearest cell site for better
performance.

Handovers are a core element in planning and deploying cellular networks. It allows users to create
data sessions or connect phone calls on the move. This process keeps the calls and data sessions
connected even if a user moves from one cell site to another.

GSM is the most secured cellular telecommunications system available today. GSM has its security
methods standardized. GSM maintains end-to-end security by retaining the confidentiality of calls and
anonymity of the GSM subscriber.

Temporary identification numbers are assigned to the subscriber’s number to maintain the privacy of
the user. The privacy of the communication is maintained by applying encryption algorithms and
frequency hopping that can be enabled using digital systems and signalling.

This chapter gives an outline of the security measures implemented for GSM subscribers.

Mobile Station Authentication

The GSM network authenticates the identity of the subscriber through the use of a challenge-response
mechanism. A 128-bit Random Number (RAND) is sent to the MS. The MS computes the 32-bit Signed
Response (SRES) based on the encryption of the RAND with the authentication algorithm (A3) using the
individual subscriber authentication key (Ki). Upon receiving the SRES from the subscriber, the GSM
network repeats the calculation to verify the identity of the subscriber. The individual subscriber
authentication key (Ki) is never transmitted over the radio channel, as it is present in the subscriber's
SIM, as well as the AUC, HLR, and VLR databases. If the received SRES agrees with the calculated value,

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

the MS has been successfully authenticated and may continue. If the values do not match, the
connection is terminated and an authentication failure is indicated to the MS. The calculation of the
signed response is processed within the SIM. It provides enhanced security, as confidential subscriber
information such as the IMSI or the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never released from
the SIM during the authentication process.

Signalling and Data Confidentiality

The SIM contains the ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) that is used to produce the 64-bit
ciphering key (Kc). This key is computed by applying the same random number (RAND) used in the
authentication process to ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) with the individual subscriber
authentication key (Ki). GSM provides an additional level of security by having a way to change the
ciphering key, making the system more resistant to eavesdropping. The ciphering key may be changed
at regular intervals as required. As in case of the authentication process, the computation of the
ciphering key (Kc) takes place internally within the SIM. Therefore, sensitive information such as the
individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never revealed by the SIM. Encrypted voice and data
communications between the MS and the network is accomplished by using the ciphering algorithm
A5. Encrypted communication is initiated by a ciphering mode request command from the GSM
network. Upon receipt of this command, the mobile station begins encryption and decryption of data
using the ciphering algorithm (A5) and the ciphering key (Kc).

Subscriber Identity Confidentiality

To ensure subscriber identity confidentiality, the Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) is used.
Once the authentication and encryption procedures are done, the TMSI is sent to the mobile station.
After the receipt, the mobile station responds. The TMSI is valid in the location area in which it was
issued. For communications outside the location area, the Location Area Identification (LAI) is necessary
in addition to the TMSI.

5. Explain the system architecture and protocol architecture of IEEE 802.11 system.

IEEE 802.11:

IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for
implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the 900 MHz and 2.4,
3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands. The IEEE developed an international standard for WLANs. The
802.11 standard focuses on the bottom two layers of the OSI model, the physical layer (PHY) and data
link layer (DLL). The objective of the IEEE 802.11 standard was to define a medium access control (MAC)
sublayer, MAC management protocols and services, and three PHYs for wireless connectivity of fixed,
portable, and moving devices within a local area. The three physical layers are an IR baseband PHY, an
FHSS radio in the 2.4 GHz band, and a DSSS radio in the 2.4 GHz.

802.11 Features:

• CSMA/CA based MAC protocol

• DCF (Distributed Coordination Function)
• Support for both time-critical
• PCF ( Point Coordination Function) and non-critical traffic (DCF)
• Support multiple priority levels
• Spread spectrum technology (no licensing) power management allows a node to doze off
• IEEE 802.11 Architecture:

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The architecture of the IEEE 802.11 WLAN is designed to support a network where most decision making
is distributed to mobile stations. Two network architectures are defined in the IEEE 802.11 standard:

• Infrastructure network: An
infrastructure network is the network
architecture for providing
communication between wireless
clients and wired network resources.
The transition of data from the
wireless to wired medium occurs via
an AP. An AP and its associated
wireless clients define the coverage
area. Together all the devices form a
basic service set (see Figure 21.5).

• Point-to-point (ad hoc) network: An

ad hoc network is the architecture
that is used to support mutual communication between wireless clients. Typically, an ad hoc
network is created spontaneously and does not support access to wired networks. An ad hoc
network does not require an AP.

802.11 Physical Layer (PHY):

• At the physical layer, IEEE 802.11 defines three physical characteristics for WLANs:
• Diffused infrared (baseband), DSSS, and FHSS. All three support a 1 to 2 Mbps data rate. Both
DSSS and FHSS use the 2.4 GHz ISM band (2.4–2.4835 GHz). The physical layer provides three
levels of functionality.
• These include: (1) frame exchange between the MAC and PHY under the control of the physical
layer convergence procedure (PLCP) sublayer; (2) use of signal carrier and spread spectrum
(SS) modulation to transmit data frames over the media under the control of the physical
medium dependent (PMD) sublayer; and (3) providing a carrier sense indication back to the
MAC to verify activity on the media (see Figure 2).

DSSS PHY:
• In the DSSS PHY, data
transmission over the
media is controlled by
the PMD sublayer as
directed by the PLCP
sublayer.
• The PMD sublayer
takes the binary
information bits from
the PLCP protocol data
unit (PPDU) and
converts them into RF
signals by using modulation and DSSS techniques (see Figure 2).
• In the PPDU frame, which consists of a PLCP preamble, PLCP header, and MAC protocol data
unit (MPDU). The PLCP preamble and PLCP header are always transmitted at 1 Mbps, and the
MPDU can be sent at 1 or 2 Mbps.
• The start of frame delimiter (SFD) contains information that marks the start of the PPDU frame.
The SFD specified is common for all IEEE 802.11 DSSS radios.

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

• The signal field indicates which modulation scheme should be used to receive the incoming
MPDU. The binary value in this field is equal to the data rate multiplied by 100 kbps.
• The service field is reserved for future use. The length field indicates the number of
microseconds necessary to transmit the MPDU. The MAC layer uses this field to determine the
end of a PPDU frame.
• The CRC field contains the results of a calculated frame check sequence from the sending
station.
FHSS PHY:
• In FHSS PHY, data transmission over media is controlled by the FHSS PMD sublayer as directed
by the FHSS PLCP sublayer. The FHSS PMD takes the binary information bits from the whitened
PSDU and converts them into RF signals by using carrier modulation and FHSS techniques.
• The format of the PPDU is shown in Figure 3. It is consisting of the PLCP preamble, PLCP header,
and PLCP service data unit (PSDU). The PLCP preamble is used to acquire the incoming signal
and synchronize the receiver’s demodulator.
• The PLCP header contains information about PSDU from the sending physical layer. The PLCP
preamble and header are transmitted at 1 Mbps.

• The sync field contains a string of alternating 0s and 1s pattern and is used by the receiver to
synchronize the receiver’s packet timing and correct for frequency offsets.
• The SFD field contains information marking the start of a PSDU frame.
• FHSS radios use a 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 bit pattern. The leftmost bit is transmitted first.
• The PLCP length word (PLW) field specifies the length of the PSDU in octets and is used by the
MAC layer to detect the end of a PPDU frame.
• The PLCP signaling field (PSF) identifies the data rate of the whitened PSDU ranging from 1 to
4.5 Mbps in increments of 0.5 Mbps.
• The header error check field contains the results of a calculated frame check sequence from
the sending station.
• Data whitening is used for the PSDU before transmission to minimize DC bias on the data if
long strings of 1s or 0s are contained in the PSDU. The PHY stuffs a special symbol every 4
octets of the PDSU in a PPDU frame.

5.OR. Explain the protocol architecture of GSM with signalling protocols and interferences.

GSM architecture is a layered model that

is designed to allow communications
between two different systems. The lower
layers assure the services of the upper-
layer protocols. Each layer passes suitable
notifications to ensure the transmitted
data has been formatted, transmitted,
and received accurately. The GMS
protocol stacks diagram is shown below:
MS Protocols

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

Based on the interface, the GSM signalling protocol is assembled into three general layers:

Layer 1: The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air interface.

Layer 2: The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a modified version of the
Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol used in ISDN, called Link access protocol on the
Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Across the A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used.

Layer 3: GSM signalling protocol’s third layer is divided into three sublayers:

• Radio Resource Management (RR),

• Mobility Management (MM), and
• Connection Management (CM).

MS to BTS Protocols
The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed, between the MS and the MSC.
For this formation, the main components involved are the MS, BSS, and MSC. The responsibility of the
RR layer is to manage the RR-session, the time when a mobile is in a dedicated mode, and the radio
channels including the allocation of dedicated channels. The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It
handles the functions that arise from the mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and
security aspects. Location management is concerned with the procedures that enable the system to
know the current location of a powered-on MS so that incoming call routing can be completed. The CM
layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is responsible for Call Control,
Supplementary Service Management, and Short Message Service Management. Each of these services
are treated as individual layer within the CM layer. Other functions of the CC sublayer include call
establishment, selection of the type of service (including alternating between services during a call),
and call release.

BSC Protocols
The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the BTS. The Abis interface is
used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the radio resources at the lower portion of Layer 3 are
changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station Management (BTSM). The BTS management layer
is a relay function at the BTS to the BSC. The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and
reallocation of traffic channels between the MS and the BTS. These services include controlling the
initial access to the system, paging for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites, power control,
and call termination. The BSC still has some radio resource management in place for the frequency
coordination, frequency allocation, and the management of the overall network layer for the Layer 2
interfaces. To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the direct application
part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so that the MTP 1-3 can be used as the prime
architecture.

MSC Protocols
At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped across the A interface to the MTP Layers
1 through 3. Here, Base Station System Management Application Part (BSS MAP) is said to be the
equivalent set of radio resources. The relay process is finished by the layers that are stacked on top of
Layer 3 protocols, they are BSS MAP/DTAP, MM, and CM. This completes the relay process. To find and
connect to the users across the network, MSCs interact using the control-signalling network. Location
registers are included in the MSC databases to assist in the role of determining how and whether
connections are to be made to roaming users. Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises
of the user’s location and subscribed services. VLR is a separate register that is used to track the location
of a user. When the users move out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the MS to find the
location of the user. The VLR in turn, with the help of the control network, signals the HLR of the MS’s

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

new location. With the help of location information contained in the user’s HLR, the MT calls can be
routed to the user.

6. What is JSP? Write a server-side program to handle client requests.

JavaServer Pages (JSP) is a

technology for developing
Webpages that supports dynamic
content. This helps developers
insert java code in HTML pages by
making use of special JSP tags,
most of which start with <% and
end with %>.
A JavaServer Pages component is a
type of Java servlet that is
designed to fulfill the role of a user
interface for a Java web application. Web developers write JSPs as text files that combine HTML or
XHTML code, XML elements, and embedded JSP actions and commands. Using JSP, you can collect input
from users through Webpage forms, present records from a database or another source, and create
Webpages dynamically. JSP tags can be used for a variety of purposes, such as retrieving information
from a database or registering user preferences, accessing JavaBeans components, passing control
between pages, and sharing information between requests, pages etc.

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

Explanation of the code:

• Code Line 17: Using request object, we are getting the session object of that particular
session, and we get the object value of that session
• Code Line 19: Using request object, we are getting locale of that particular session i.een_US
locale for that JSP.
• Code Line 21: Using request object, we are getting path info for that JSP. In this case, it is
null as there is no path for URL mentioned.
• Code Line 23: Using request object, we are getting context path, i.e., root path
• Code Line 25: Using request object, we are getting the server name.
• Code Line 27: Using request object, we are getting server port.
• Code Line 29-35: Using request object, we are getting header names which come out as
enumeration, and hence we get all header values in the header names.

6.OR. Explain pervasive web application architecture. What do you mean by device independent web
application, give Example?

The model-view-controller (MVC) pattern is a good choice when implementing Web applications.

• Standard mapping of the pattern to servlets, JSPs, and EJBs, where controller is implemented as a
servlet, the model implemented as a secure EJBs, and the views as JSPs.
• As devices are very different from each other, we can assume that one controller will fit all device
classes. In the MVC pattern the controller encapsulates the dialog flow of an application.
• This flow will be different for different classes of devices, such as WAP phone, voice-only phones,
PCs, or PDAs.
• Thus, we need different controller for different classes of devices.
• To support multiple controllers, we replace the servlet's role to that of a simple dispatcher that
invokes the appropriate controller depending on the type of device being used.

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Subject Teacher: Hitesh Mohapatra

Device Independent Web Applications:

Building web applications for mobile and other non-desktop devices using established methods
often requires a tremendous development effort. One of the major challenges is to find sound
software engineering approaches enabling the cost-efficient application development for multiple
devices of varying technical characteristics. A new approach is to single author web content in a
device independent mark-up language, which gets then adapted to meet the special
characteristics of the accessing device. This paper describes our approach to single authoring,
which was developed in the course a large European research project. The project has developed
device-independent language profile based on XHTML 2.0 and implemented a compliant
rendering engine.
Adaptability is an important issue when building software of any sort. Requirements change
between the time when the customers say what they want and the time when the software is
actually delivered. The software that is being built must be adaptable in respect to:

• Extensibility (i.e., the ability to change a system’s capabilities in amount, but not in kind)
• Flexibility (i.e., the ability to change a system’s capabilities in kind)
• Fixability (i.e., the ability to fix a system without “breaking” other parts)

Adaptability is not only important because requirements change. It states that adaptation is the
key to mobile information access. For web-based applications one more adaptability issue must
also be considered: device independence. One way to achieve device independence in a web
application is by completely separating the user interface (i.e., layout) from the application logic.
The layout (or user interface) of a web application is the formatting information with which the
content is formatted for presentation (e.g., fonts, graphics, buttons, tables, etc.). The business
logic (or application logic) is the functionality that is necessary for providing the dynamic
interaction with the users.

Marks of each questions:

1. 2 * 10 = 20
2. 10
3. 10
4. 10
5. 10
6. 10
Total = 70

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