Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
based on a lecture of
at
Aachen University
Preface
This script corresponds to the lecture “Electrical Machines I” in winter term 2002/2003 at
Aachen University.
The lecture describes the status quo of used technologies as well as tendencies in future
development of electrical machines.
Basic types of electrical machines, such as transformer, DC machine, induction machine,
synchronous machine and low-power motors operated at single phase AC systems are
likewise discussed as innovative machine concepts, e.g. switched reluctance machine (SRM),
transverse flux machine and linear drive.
Basic principles taking effect in all types of electrical machines to be explained, are combined
in the rotating field theory. Apart from theoretical reflections, examples for applications in the
field of electrical drives and power generation are presented in this script.
Continuative topics concerning dynamics, power converter supply and control will be dis-
cussed in the subsequent lecture “Electrical Machines II”.
Please note: this script represents a translation of the lecture notes composed in German. Most
subscriptions to appear in equations are not subject to translation for conformity purposes.
iii
Content
1 SURVEY ................................................................................................................................................. 8
2 BASICS ................................................................................................................................................. 10
2.1 FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS .............................................................................................................. 10
2.1.1 First Maxwell Equation (Ampere’s Law,) ................................................................................. 10
2.1.2 Second Maxwell-Equation (Faraday’s Law) ............................................................................. 11
2.1.3 Lorentz Force Law................................................................................................................... 12
2.2 REFERENCE-ARROW SYSTEMS .......................................................................................................... 14
2.3 AVERAGE VALUE, RMS VALUE, EFFICIENCY ....................................................................................... 16
2.4 APPLIED COMPLEX CALCULATION ON AC CURRENTS ......................................................................... 17
2.5 METHODS OF CONNECTION (THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS)......................................................................... 19
2.6 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS............................................................................................................ 20
3 TRANSFORMER ................................................................................................................................. 23
3.1 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ....................................................................................................... 24
3.2 DEFINITION OF THE TRANSFORMATION RATIO (Ü) .............................................................................. 27
3.2.1 ü=w1/w2, design data known..................................................................................................... 27
3.2.2 Complete phasor diagramm ..................................................................................................... 30
3.2.3 ü=U10/U20, measured value given............................................................................................. 31
3.3 OPERATIONAL BEHAVIOR ................................................................................................................. 34
3.3.1 No-load condition .................................................................................................................... 34
3.3.2 Short-circuit ............................................................................................................................ 35
3.3.3 Load with nominal stress.......................................................................................................... 36
3.3.4 Parallel connection.................................................................................................................. 38
3.4 MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION .......................................................................................................... 39
3.4.1 Design ..................................................................................................................................... 39
3.4.2 Calculation of the magnetizing inductance ............................................................................... 41
3.4.3 Proportioning of R1 and R‘2 ..................................................................................................... 41
3.4.4 Calculation of the leakage inductances..................................................................................... 43
3.5 EFFICIENCY ..................................................................................................................................... 44
3.6 GROWTH CONDITIONS ...................................................................................................................... 45
3.7 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER ........................................................................................................... 46
3.7.1 Design, Vector group ............................................................................................................... 46
3.7.2 Unbalanced load...................................................................................................................... 49
3.8 AUTOTRANSFORMER ........................................................................................................................ 52
4 FUNDAMENTALS OF ROTATING ELECTRICAL MACHINES ................................................... 53
4.1 OPERATING LIMITS ........................................................................................................................... 54
4.2 EQUATION OF MOTION ...................................................................................................................... 55
4.3 MECHANICAL POWER OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES............................................................................... 56
4.4 LOAD- AND MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS, STABILITY ............................................................................ 58
4.4.1 Motor and generator characteristics ........................................................................................ 58
4.4.2 Load characteristics................................................................................................................. 58
4.4.3 Stationary stability................................................................................................................... 59
5 DC MACHINE...................................................................................................................................... 61
5.1 DESIGN AND MODE OF ACTION .......................................................................................................... 61
5.2 BASIC EQUATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 65
5.3 OPERATIONAL BEHAVIOUR ............................................................................................................... 67
5.3.1 Main equations, ecd, interconnections...................................................................................... 67
5.3.2 Separately excitation, permanent-field, shunt machine.............................................................. 69
5.3.3 Series machine......................................................................................................................... 70
5.3.4 Compound machine ................................................................................................................. 72
5.3.5 Universal machine (AC-DC machine) ...................................................................................... 73
5.3.6 Generator mode....................................................................................................................... 77
5.3.7 DC machine supply with variable armature voltage for speed adjustment ................................. 80
5.4 PERMANENT MAGNETS ..................................................................................................................... 82
5
Survey
6
8.5.1 Load characteristics............................................................................................................... 170
8.5.2 Regulation characteristics...................................................................................................... 171
8.6 RIGID NETWORK OPERATION........................................................................................................... 172
8.6.1 Parallel connection to network............................................................................................... 172
8.6.2 Torque................................................................................................................................... 173
8.6.3 Operating ranges................................................................................................................... 175
8.6.4 Current diagram, operating limits.......................................................................................... 177
8.7 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE AS OSCILLATING SYSTEM, DAMPER WINDINGS ........................................... 178
8.7.1 without damper windings ....................................................................................................... 178
8.7.2 with damper winding.............................................................................................................. 180
8.8 PERMANENT-FIELD SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES................................................................................. 183
8.8.1 Permanent excited synchronous motor with starting cage ....................................................... 183
8.8.2 Permanent-field synchronous motor with pole position sensor ................................................ 184
8.9 CLAW POLE ALTERNATOR ............................................................................................................... 187
9 SPECIAL MACHINES....................................................................................................................... 189
9.1 STEPPING MOTOR ........................................................................................................................... 189
9.2 SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MACHINE .................................................................................................. 192
9.3 MODULAR PERMANENT-MAGNET MOTOR ........................................................................................ 193
9.4 TRANSVERSE FLUX MACHINE .......................................................................................................... 194
9.5 LINEAR MOTORS ............................................................................................................................ 195
9.5.1 Technology of linear motors................................................................................................... 195
9.5.2 Industrial application opportunities........................................................................................ 198
9.5.3 High speed applications......................................................................................................... 199
10 APPENDIX...................................................................................................................................... 201
10.1 NOTATIONS ................................................................................................................................... 201
10.2 FORMULAR SYMBOLS ..................................................................................................................... 202
10.3 UNITS ............................................................................................................................................ 204
10.4 LITERATURE REFERENCE LIST ......................................................................................................... 207
7
1 Survey
The electrical machine is the essential element in the field of power generation and electrical
drives. Duty of the electrical machine is a save, economical and ecological generation of
electrical energy as well as its low-loss transformation for distribution purposes and its
accordant utilization in electrical drive applications.
Household Appliances
Centralized Power Supply EDP
Trade
Agriculture
HGÜ Medicine
Industry
Conveyor Engineering
Tu L U AM
Machine Tools, Robots
Chemical Engineering
Buildings
VM
AM Automobiles, Ships, Aircrafts
WK
Diesel-Locomotives
Solitary Operations
Ba Emergency Generating Sets
Focus on research at the IEM is put on electrical machines. Besides calculation, design,
dimensioning and construction of electrical machines, the investigation of their static and
transient performance characteristics and their interaction with converters and controllers
pertain to the scope of our duties. The coverage of new application areas for electrical
machines in the field of power generation and drive systems is aimed.
The electrical machine is the particular part of a drive, converting electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The according operational status is called motor operation. Every kind of
electrical machine is also able to work in generator operation. In this case mechanical energy
is transferred into electrical energy.
8
Survey
Vs
2 10 2
B cm Ws
wm = = = 0.4 3 (1.1)
2 µ 0 1.256 ⋅10 −8 Vs cm
Acm
2
10kV
−13
0.886 ⋅10
ε ⋅E 2
cm = 4.4 ⋅10 −4 Ws
we = = (1.2)
2 2 cm 3
Electrical machines appear as different types of construction. Most common types are DC
machines as well as rotating field machines such as induction or synchronous machines.
Due to its name, the DC machine is fed by DC current. Rotating field machines are to be
supplied by a three-phase alternating current, called three-phase AC. In case of a single-phase
AC current availability, universal motors (AC-DC motors) and single phase induction
machines are applied.
Basically three kinds of electrical energy supply are to be distinguished: DC, single-phase AC
and three-phase AC. Sometimes the present form of energy does not match the requirement.
In order to turn the present energy into the appropriate form, power converters are utilized in
drive systems, being capable to change frequency and voltage level in a certain range. Also
motor-generator-sets (rotary converters) in railway applications as well as transformers in the
field of energy distribution are used for converting purposes.
Power Electronics and their control are means to establish so far surpassed and improved
operating characteristics. Innovative concepts such as an electronically commutating DC
machine (also known as brushless DC machine, BLDC), converter synchronous machine,
power converter supplied induction machine, switched reluctance machine (SRM) and
stepping motor are to be mentioned as typical examples.
9
2 Basics
First of all some fundamental aspects which are required for the understanding of the lectures
„Electrical Machines I&II“ and the respective scripts, need to be discussed.
For explicit information please see pertinent literature, please see references for this.
( rotHr = G )
r r r r r
∫
c
H ⋅ d s = ∫∫ ⋅ dF = θ
G
F
(2.1)
The line integral of the magnetic force along a closed loop is equal to the enveloped current
linkage.
All w turns per winding carry single currents I, being of the same value each. In electrical
machines, the magnetic circuit is subdivided into quasi-homogeneous parts (stator-yoke +
stator teeth, rotor-yoke + rotor teeth, air gap).
I
∑H
i
i ⋅ si = w ⋅ I (2.2)
ds
Direction convention:
Current linkage and direction of the line integral are
arranged to each other, as shown on the left.
Hint: right hand directions: thump = current(-linkage),
bent fingers = direction of the line integral (Fleming’s
Fig. 2: circulation sense Right-Hand-Rule).
A relation between magnetic force H and magnetic flux density B is given by the permeability
µ , a magnetic material attribute:
B = µ ⋅H µ = µ r ⋅ µ0 (2.3)
V⋅s
µ 0 = 4 ⋅ π ⋅ 10 −7 (2.4)
A⋅m
10
Basics
Relative permeability:
µr = 1 in vacuum (2.5)
B tion
Satura
magnetization characteristic
1
µ r
B = f (H) (2.7)
non-linear coherence
linear range
µ > 1000
r
µr = f ( H ) (2.8)
H
Fig. 3: B-H characteristic
The magnetic flux φ represents the effect of the total field. In case of a homogeneous field
v r
distribution and an orientation as per A || B , equation 2.10 simplifies to:
φ = A⋅ B (2.11)
r
The line integral of the electric force E along a closed loop (which matches voltage) is equal
to the variation of the magnetic flux linkage with time.
In electrical machines w turns per winding are passed through by the magnetic flux φ.
dφ
ψ = w ⋅φ = L ⋅ i , ui = − w ⋅ (2.13)
dt
11
Basics
φ Direction conventions:
w
• Magnetic flux and current are arranged to each other
according to Fleming’s Right-Hand-Rule (see also 2.1.1).
ui • An induced current flows in a direction to create a
i magnetic field which will counteract the change in
Fig. 4: flux linkage, voltage magnetic flux (Lenz’s Law).
The flux linkage of a coil is a function of x and i: ψ(x,i). Depending on the way the change of
the flux linkage being required for the induction process is caused, the according voltage is
called transformer voltage or rotational voltage (transformer e.m.f. or rotational e.m.f.).
d ∂ψ di ∂ψ dx di
ui = − ψ ( x, i ) = − ⋅ − ⋅ = −L ⋅ − B ⋅l ⋅ v (2.14)
dt {∂i dt ∂x dt
{ dt
L v
r r r r r
( )
ui = v × B ⋅ l = E ⋅ l (2.15)
v(u)
E = v x B(w)
assumed for the case with direction of the field-vector (v) being arranged orthographic
towards the direction of the speed-vector (u) of the conductor (uvw direction convention).
( )
r r
F = I ⋅ l ×B (2.16)
l(u)
F(w)
Fig. 6: directions of 2.16
In case of field-vector and direction of the conductor including a right angle (90°), due to the
uvw direction convention, equation 2.16 simplifies to:
F = I ⋅l ⋅ B (2.17)
12
Basics
Magnetic Force
A B2 (2.18)
δ F= A
B 2µ 0
For the determination of forces and torques exerted on machine parts, a calculation embracing
the variation of the magnetic energy is practical, linear systems assumed.
Ψ dW m = id Ψ
∂Wm
F= (2.19)
∂x i = const
dW' m = Ψ di with x = α ⋅ r
∂Wm
i M = F ⋅r = (2.20)
∂α
Fig. 8: magnetic energy in linear systems
The calculation of exerted force in non-linear systems requires the determination comprising
the variation of the magnetic co-energy.
Ψ dW m = id Ψ
∂W `m
dW' m = Ψ di F= (2.21)
∂x
13
Basics
A choice of two possible reference-arrow systems for voltage, current and power are
provided:
i i
P P
u V VZS u E EZS
VZS EZS
voltage drop voltage generation
i i
u R u R
u = i⋅R u = −i ⋅ R
i i
u L u L
di di
u = L⋅ u = −L ⋅
dt dt
i i
u C u C
1 1
C∫ C∫
u= i ⋅ dt u=− i ⋅ dt
Fig. 11a-13a: VZS directions at R, L, C Fig. 11b-13b: EZS directions at R, L, C
components components
14
Basics
I I
U E H S U E H S
Fig. 14a: power (-density) in VZS Fig. 14b: power (-density) in EZS
A definition of the positive directions of current and voltage according the energy flow is
proved practical.
This is illustrated by the example of a simple DC machine (see below).
I I
+ P P
U U
-
EZS VZS
Fig. 15: sample of energy flow (DC machine)
15
Basics
Magnetic und mechanic variables, such as e.g. magnetic field and force, are always
represented in capital letters. Peak values are usually used for magnetic variables, whereas
electric variables appear as rms value.
T
1
• average value: U = ⋅ ∫ u ( t ) ⋅ dt variable, averaged over a certain period
T 0
1 T
• rms value: U= ⋅ ∫ u 2 ( t ) ⋅ dt square-root of averaged square value
T 0
Pab
• efficiency: η= ratio of delivered and absorbed power
Pauf
16
Basics
u = 2 ⋅ U ⋅ cos( ω ⋅ t ) = Re { }
2 ⋅ U ⋅ e j⋅ω ⋅t = Re { }
2 ⋅ U ⋅ e j⋅ω⋅t ; U = U ⋅ e j⋅0 (2.23)
i = 2 ⋅ I ⋅ cos( ω ⋅ t − ϕ ) = Re { }
2 ⋅ I ⋅ e j⋅ω ⋅t ⋅ e − j⋅ϕ = Re { }
2 ⋅ I ⋅ e j⋅ω⋅t ; I = I ⋅ e − j⋅ϕ (2.24)
Complex power results from the multiplication of the complex voltage rms value and the
conjugate complex rms value of the accordant current:
apparent power: S = U ⋅ I * = P + j ⋅Q (I ∗
= I ⋅ e + j⋅ϕ ) (2.25)
X
Z = R + j ⋅ X = Z ⋅ e j⋅ϕ ; Z = R2 + X 2 ; tan ϕ = (2.28)
R
In contrast to the common mathematical definition, the real axis of a complex coordinate
system is upward orientated and the imaginary axis points to the right in power engineering
presentations. The voltage phasor is defined as to be in parallel to the real axis. Thus the
direction of the current phasor follows as shown in Fig. 15:
+ Re
U U − j⋅ϕ
I= = ⋅e (2.29)
Z Z
U
17
Basics
VZS EZS
+ Re + Re
U U ~
- Im - Im
~
Fig. 16a: components in VZS Fig. 16b: components in EZS
U U
I= I =−
R R
U U U U
I= = − j⋅ I =− = j⋅
j ⋅ω ⋅ L ω ⋅L j ⋅ω ⋅ L ω ⋅L
I = j ⋅ ω ⋅ C ⋅U I = − j ⋅ω ⋅ C ⋅U
~ ~
active power output active power output
18
Basics
star connection (y, Y) (Fig. 17a) delta connection (∆, d, D ) (Fig. 17b)
1 2 3 1 2 3
Iv Uv Iv Uv
Us
Us Is
Is
1 1
Us Us
Uv Uv
2π 2π
3 3
3 2 3 2
Since rating plate data is always given as linked quantities, usually the subsript „v“ does not
appear in the power equation!
Z∆
US Uv
Z∆ = = (2.31)
IS Iv
3
Fig. 18: star/delta connection
Eqt. 2.30 and 2.31 lead to (equal values of U and I assumed): Z ∆ = 3 ⋅ ZY (2.32)
19
Basics
2π 4π
a resp. a2 are supposed to express a time displacement of ωt =
resp. .
3 3
Fig. 19 shows an unbalanced three-phase system to be split up into three symmetrical
systems:
+Re
Iu
-Im
Iw
Iv
Fig. 19a-d: unbalanced system, split up, symmetrical systems
I I
mu gu
positive negative zero I I I
I I 0u 0v 0w
phase- m phase- g phase-
sequence sequence sequence I
0
system system system
I I
I I gv gw
mw mv
Fig. 19b: positive- (m) Fig. 19c: negative- (g) Fig. 19d: zero-sequence system (0)
I mu = I m I gu = I g I 0u = I 0v = I 0 w = I 0
2
I mv = a I m I gv = a I g
I mw = a I m 2
I gw = a I g
20
Basics
I u = I mu + I gu + I 0u (2.33)
I v = I mv + I gv + I 0 v (2.34)
I w = I mw + I gw + I 0 w (2.35)
Iu 1 1 1 I m
2
I v = a a 1 I g (2.36)
I a a2 1 I 0
w
Im 1 a a
2
Iu
1 2
Ig = 1 a a Iv (2.37)
I 3
1 1 1
0 Iw
Zm Zg Z0
~ ~ ~
Im Ig I
U Um U Ug U 0 U
Lm Lg L0 0
After calculation of the positive, negative and zero sequence voltage components, the wanted
phase voltages (u, v, w) can be determined by inverse transformation:
U u 1 1 1 U m
2
U v = a a 1 U g (2.44)
U a a
2
1 U 0
w
Equivalent to the case of an unbalanced load, the same process is to be applied in case of a
given unsymmetrical power supply with demanded phase voltages.
21
3 Transformer
23
Transformer
R1 M R2
u i1 L1 L2 i2 u2
1
1 2
VZS EZS
Fig. 23: transformer, general single phase equivalent circuit diagram
The ohmic resistances R1 and R2 as well as self-inductances L1 und L2 and the mutual
inductance M can be measured between the terminals of the transformer. Neither the spatial
distribution of the transformer arrangement, nor a definition of the number of turns is taken
into account initially. Side 1 is defined to be subject to the load reference-arrow system
(VZS), whereas side 2 is assigned to the generator reference-arrow system.
Thereby the voltage equations for both sides (1 and 2) appear as:
dψ 1
u1 = R1i1 + (3.1)
dt
dψ 2
u2 = − R2i2 − (3.2)
dt
Currents i1 und i2 magnetize in opposite direction, due to the real physical occurrence.
di1 di
u1 = L1 −M 2 (3.5)
dt dt
di2 di
u2 = − L2 +M 1 (3.6)
dt dt
24
Transformer
If the transformer is supplied from only one side, respective inductances for no-load and
short-circuit can be determined:
di1 di 2
u1 = L1 (3.7) u2 = − L2 (3.8)
dt dt
short circuit u2 = 0 u1 = 0
di1 M 2 di1 2
(3.10) u = − L di2 + M di2
u1 = L1 − 2 2
(3.12)
dt L2 dt dt L1 dt
di1 M2 d i2 M2
= L1 1 − = − L2 1 −
dt L1 L2 dt L1 L2
di1 di2
= σL1 = −σL2
dt dt
Result: The ratio of short circuit and no-load inductance is equal to σ, independent from the
choice of supply side. The variable σ is called Heyland factor.
M2 L I
σ = 1− = k = 0 (3.13)
L1L2 L0 I k u =const
It turned out to be convenient, to use a general equivalent circuit diagram (ecd), with
eliminated galvanic separation and only resistances and inductances to appear.
R1 M R2
u i1 L1 L2 i2 u2
1
1 2
VZS EZS
Fig. 24: ecd with galvanic separation
di1 di
u1 = R1i1 + L1 −M 2 (3.14)
dt dt
di 2 di
u2 = − R2i2 − L2 +M 1 (3.15)
dt dt
25
Transformer
di2
di1 ü − üM di1 + üM di1
u1 = R1i1 + L1 − üM (3.16)
dt dt dt dt
i2
u2* = üu2 , i2* = , R2* = ü 2 R2 , L*2 = ü 2 L2 (3.18)
ü
u 2*i2* = u 2 i2 (3.19)
R2*i2*2 = R2i2
2 (3.20)
1 * *2 1 2
L2i2 = L2i2 (3.21)
2 2
di1 di di *
u1 = R1i1 + (L1 − üM ) + üM 1 − 2 (3.22)
dt dt dt
di di *
u2* = − R2*i2* − (L*2 − üM )
di2*
+ üM 1 − 2 (3.23)
dt dt dt
These equations (3.22, 3.23) form the basis of the T-ecd as the general transformer ecd:
i1 i1-i*2 i*2
u1 u2*
üM
26
Transformer
w1
It is not possible to determine the ratio of by either rating plate data or by measuring. The
w2
w1
definition of ü = is quite important for construction and calculation of transformers. It
w2
permits a distinction between leakage flux and working flux. This facilitates to take saturation
w
of the used iron in the magnetic circuit into account. Using ü = 1 , a definition of variables
w2
arises as follows:
w1
L1 − M = L1σ leakage inductance on side 1
w2
w1
M = L1h magnetizing inductance
w2
2
w1 w
L2 − 1 M = L'2σ leakage inductance on side 2
w2 w2
w1
2
L2 = L'2
w2
2
w1 '
R2 = R2
w2
variables converted to side 1 (using ü)
w1
u2 = u2'
w2
i2
= i2'
w1
w2
di1 di
u1 = R1i1 + L1σ + L1h µ (3.24)
dt dt
di '
di
u2' = − R2' i2' − L'2σ 2 + L1h µ (3.25)
dt dt
27
Transformer
R1 L L' R'2
1σ 2σ
i1 i i'2
µ
u u'
1 L1h 2
iµ is called the magnetizing current, exciting the working flux φ h , which is linked to both
coils (on side 1 and 2):
If magnetic saturation is taken into account, L1h is not of constant value, but dependent on iµ :
Leakage flux fractions, linked to only one coil each are represented as leakage inductances
L1σ und L'2σ , as shown on the horizontal branches in Fig. 25.:
Leakage flux fractions always show linear dependencies on their exciting currents.
φ1σ L1σ
σ1 = = (3.31)
φ1h L1h
φ 2σ ` L`2σ
σ2 = = (3.32)
φ1h L1h
28
Transformer
Equations 3.27-3.32 potentiate a description of the total flux in the magnetization circuit by
distinguishing between working flux and leakage flux, excitet by currents through
magentizing and leakage inductances:
M2 ü2 M 2 L21h (3.37)
σ =1− =1− = 1−
L1 L2 L1ü 2 L2 L1 L'2
1 1
=1− =1−
L1 L '
(1 + σ 1 )(1 + σ 2 )
⋅ 2
L1h L1h
Complex rms value phasors are utilized for the description of steady state AC conditions.
Thus voltage equations 3.24-3.25 can be depicted as:
U 1 = R1 I 1 + jX 1σ I 1 + jX 1h I µ (3.38)
'
I µ = I1 − I 2 (3.40)
I1 Iµ I'
2
U U'
1 X 1h 2
29
Transformer
The ratio between both side 1 and side 2 no-load voltages is to be calculated as follows:
I `2 = 0 d.h. I `µ = I 10 (3.41)
U 10 = R1 I 10 + j ( X 1σ + X 1h )I 10 (3.42)
123
=0
'
U 20 = jX 1h I 10 (3.43)
U 10 U X + X 1h
= 10 = 1σ = 1+σ1 (3.44)
U `20 u&&U 20 X 1h
U10 w1
= (1 + σ 1 ) ≠ w1 ! (3.45)
U 20 w2 w2
U 10 w
is measureable due to VDE (see reference). Only if transformation ratio 1 is known,
U 20 w2
w
equation 3.45 can be separated into 1 and (1 + σ 1 ) .
w2
With knowledge of the voltage equations 3.38-3.39 and appearing ecd elements the complete
phasor diagram of the loaded transformer can be drawn.
With a given load of RB and XB, as well as voltage U2, current I2 results from:
U2
I2 = (3.46)
RB + jX B
R1 X X' σ R'2
1σ 2
I1 Iµ I' I'
2 2 R'B
U Uh U'
1 X 1h 2
X'B
30
Transformer
'
U 2 = üU 2 (3.47)
' I2
I2 = (3.48)
ü
U= jX 2 I' 2 Uh U
h Iµ = = −j h (3.50)
jX1h I µ jX 1h X 1h
U R' I' '
1 2 2
I1 is equal to the sum of I 2 and I µ :
'
I1 = I 2 + I µ (3.51)
U' The addition of voltage Uh and the voltage drops on R1 and X1σ
2
results in U1:
U h + R1 I 1 + jX 1σ I 1 = U 1 (3.52)
ϕ I
1
2 Voltage drops on resistances and leakage inductances are illustrated
I'
2 oversized for a better understanding. In real transformer
Iµ arrangements of power engineering application those voltage drops
only amount a low percentage of the terminal voltage.
Fig. 29: phasor diagram
U10 w L + L1σ L
ü= = (1 + σ 1 ) 1 = 1h = 1 (3.53)
U 20 w2 w M
L1h 2
w1
L1 − üM = 0 (3.54)
üM = L1 (3.55)
31
Transformer
L12 LL
L*2 − üM = L − L1 = L1 1 22 − 1
2 2
M M
(3.56)
1 σ
= L1 − 1 = L1
1−σ 1− σ
2
w1
R = (1 + σ 1 ) R2 = (1 + σ 1 )2 R2'
* 2
2 (3.57)
w2
w1
u2* = (1 + σ 1 ) u2 = (1 + σ 1 )u2' (3.58)
w2
i2 i2'
i2* = = (3.59)
(1 + σ 1 ) w1 1 + σ1
w2
σ
L1 1- σ 2
R1 R'2 (1+ σ )
1
i1 i i'2
0
(1+ σ )
1
u1 u' (1+ σ )
L1 2 1
i2'
i1 − i2* = i1 − =i (no-load current) (3.60)
(1 + σ 1 ) 0
U 10
With neglect of the magnetic saturation this ecd (Fig. 30) based on the definition ü =
U 20
w1
is equal to the ecd based on ü = (Fig. 27) concerning operational behaviour.
w2
Since L1σ is set to L1σ = 0 , the calculation is simplified. All elements of the ecd can be
determined by measures. Therefore the described representation is also often used for
rotating electrical machines.
The shunt arm current i0 complies with the real no-load current if R1 = 0 applies.
32
Transformer
w1 w
L1h 1
U 10 w2 w2
ü= = =
U 20 (1 + σ 2 ) (L1h + L'2σ )
w2 (3.61)
L1h
w1 M
= 2
=
w2 L2
(L1h + L'2σ )
w1
M2 M2
L1 − üM = L1 − = L1 1 − = σL1 (3.62)
L2 L1L2
M2 M2
üM = = L1 = L1 (1 − σ ) (3.63)
L2 L1 L2
2
w R2 R2'
R = 1
*
= (3.64)
w2 (1 + σ 2 ) (1 + σ 2 )2
2 2
w1 u2 u2'
u =
*
= (3.65)
w2 (1 + σ 2 ) 1 + σ 2
2
i2
i2* =
w1
(1 + σ 2 ) = i2' (1 + σ 2 ) (3.66)
w2
There are other opportunities left, expressing ü, which are not subject to further discussion.
33
Transformer
• no-load condition
• short-circuit condition
• load with nominal stress
• parallel connection
B
The amount of occurring hysteresis losses is
proportional to the enclosed area surrounded in a
cycle of the hysteresis loop:
VH ~ B 2 f (3.69)
H
Therefore magnetically soft material with narrow
hysteresis loop width is used for transformers.
The specific iron losses of electric sheet steel is specified in W/kg at 1,5 T and 50 Hz.
34
Transformer
Iron losses can be taken into account by using resistance RFe, arranged in parallel to the
magnetiziation reactance X1h. Joulean losses at no-load operation are regarded with R1.
jX 1σ I 10
R1 X
1σ
R1 I 10
U10
I 10 I I
µ v
jX 1h I µ
U 10
X1h RFe
I
10
I
v
Iµ
Fig. 34: ecd, regarding losses Fig. 35: phasor diagram regarding losses
The no-load current I10 is fed into the primary windings. It is composed of the magnetizing
current Iµ and the current fraction IV responsible for iron losses.
3.3.2 Short-circuit
The high-resistive shunt arm, including X1h and RFe can be neglected in short circuit operation
(X 1h , RFe >> R2' ) . With that assumption, the equivalent circuit diagram (ecd) appears as:
R1 X X´ R´2
1σ 2σ
I 1K I´ '
2K U2 = 0 (3.70)
U
1K '
I 2 K = I 1K (3.71)
All resistances and leakage reactances are combined to a short-circuit impedance, referred to
side 1:
X 1K = X 1σ + X 2' σ (3.73)
X 1K
Z1k = R12K + X 12K , tan ϕ K = (3.74)
R1K
35
Transformer
Short-circuit voltage U1k is called the voltage to appear at nominal current and nominal
frequency on the input side, if the output side is short-circuited (terminals connected without
resistance):
U 1K = Z 1K I 1N (3.75)
X
jX 1K I1N
R 1K 1k
U 1K
I
1N
U
1K
ϕ
K
R 1K I1N
I1N
For a reasonable comparison of transformers of different sizes and power ratings, a variable
called “relative short circuit voltages” is introduced. These are short circuit voltage values
normalized to the nominal voltage.
U 1 K Z1 K I 1 N
uK = = (in practice ≈ 0,05 – 0,1) (3.76)
U 1N U 1N
uX
uK = u R2 + u 2X (3.79); tan ϕ K = (3.80)
uR
U1 N
I 1K Z 1
= 1K = (real ≈ 10 – 20) (3.81)
I1 N I 1N uK
36
Transformer
R 1K X
1K
I1 I'
2
U
1 U' ϕ
2 2
X1K I 1
U1 X1KI 1 sin ϕ2
U 1N − U `2 I R1K I 1N X I
= 1 cosϕ 2 + 1K 1N sin ϕ 2 (3.83)
U 1N I1N U 1N U 1N
I1
uϕ = (u R cosϕ 2 + u X sin ϕ 2 ) (3.84)
I 1N
37
Transformer
Usage of the simplified equivalent circuit diagram, converted to output side values:
R 1K X Z 2K
1K
I1 I' I
2 2
U U 20
1 U' U
2 2
I Z 2KA
2A
∆U Z 2KB
I
2
U I 2B
20A
U Z
2
U 20B
∆U
I 2 A = − I 2B = (3.85)
Z 2 KA + Z 2 KB
38
Transformer
The no-load voltages of both transformers must be of the same value concerning amount and
phase angle, in order to avoid compensating currents. That requires:
• same transformation ratio (ü)
• same connection of primary and secondary side, same vector group (three-phase
transformers)
Condition ∆U = 0 is taken as granted. The partition of the load currents is directly opposed to
the short-circuit impedances. Load current ratio and short-circuit impedance ratio are
reciprocal. The voltage drop at both short-circuit impedances must be the same for ∆U = 0 .
I 2 A Z 2 KB Z 2 KB j (ϕ KB −ϕ KA )
= = e (3.86)
I 2 B Z 2 KA Z 2 KA
In case of different short circuit phase angles, both load currents are phase displaced against
each other.
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x w
x x
2 w w w w
1 2 2 1
2 2 2 2
w w w
2 1 1
39
Transformer
φ φ φ
US
n
OS
n
OS US US US OS
2 2
Fig. 48a: cylindrical winding Fig. 48b: double cylindrical Fig. 48c: disc winding/
winding sandwich winding
40
Transformer
φ
h Appliance of Ampere’s Law:
r r
θ = ∫ H ds (3.88)
x x x x
x x x x (magnetical quantity: peak values,
x x x x elektrical quantities: rms values)
x x x x
I
x x x x w1 I1 2 − w2 I 2 2 = w1 2 I1 − 2
w1 w2
= w1 2I µ
w1 w2 = H Fe lFe (3.89)
I1 I2
2 2 BFe
= lFe
Fig. 51: core, windings µ0 µ r
µ r high, so that I µ → 0 !
µ0µr
BFe = w1 2 I µ (3.90)
lFe
1 1
Wm =
2V∫ HB dV = Li 2
2
(3.91)
2
µ 0 µr
( )
2
1 BFe 1 1 2
Wm = V= w1 2 I µ l Fe AFe = L1h 2I µ (3.92)
2 µ0 µ r 2µ 0 µ r l Fe 2
µ0 µ r AFe
⇒ L1h = w12 (3.93)
lFe
For L1h → ∞ high permeable steel is assumed – e.g. cold-rolled, grain-orientated sheets.
w1qL1S1 = w2 qL 2 S2 (3.95)
41
Transformer
2 w1lm1 qL1 2 2
Vcu1 = R1I1 = ρ I1 = ρS1 Acu1lm1
qL1 qL1 (3.100)
2 2 '2 2
= ρS2 Acu 2lm 2 = R2 I 2 = R2' I 2 = R2' I1 = Vcu 2
2 µ µ µ0 µ r
w1 0 r AFe AFe
L1h lFe lFe A 1 Acu1
T1 = = = = µ0 µ r Fe (3.101)
R1 w l w l l Fe ρ lm1
ρ 1 m1 1 ρ m1
qL1 w1 Acu1
The time constant is independent from the number of turns. Effective influence is only given
by:
AFe
• core permeance: Λ m = µ0 µ r (3.102)
lFe
1 Acu1
• conductivity of the winding: Λ el = (3.103)
ρ lm1
T1 = Λ m Λ el (3.104)
42
Transformer
Iµ = 0 , d. h. I1 = I 2'
x I I
1 2
x
Ampere’s Law:
x x h
x r r B( x)
w1 w2 θ ( x ) = ∫ H ds = H ( x )h = h (3.105)
x µ0
a1 b a2
µ0
B( x ) = θ ( x) (3.106)
B h
Bmax
µ0 µ
Bmax = w1I1 2 = 0 w2 I 2 2 (3.107)
h h
0 x
a1 +b +a2 − x
B(x)= B max
a2
B(x)= B max A mean length of turns lm is introduced for
B(x)= Bmax
x simplification purposes of calculations.
a1
Fig. 52: leakage flux of core
a1 + b+ a2
1 hl
Wm = ∫ HB dV = m ∫ B (x )
2
2V 2 µ0 0
hlm 2 1 x a1 + b + a2 − x
a 2 a1 + b a1 + b+ a2 2
= Bmax ∫ dx + ∫ dx + ∫ dx (3.108)
2µ0 a a
0 1 a1 a1 + b 2
( )
2
hlm µ0 a a 1 2
= w1 I1 2 1 + b + 2 = LK 2 I1
2µ0 h 3 3 2
2 µ0lm a1 a
→ LK = L1σ + L'2σ = w1 +b+ 2 (3.109)
h 3 3
LK is just arbitrarily separable into L1σ and L'2σ . In order to keep leakage inductances low, the
distance b between windings needs to be reduced, without neglecting winding insulation. The
winding dimensions a1 and a2 are limited by specified current densities.
43
Transformer
3.5 Efficiency
P2 P2
efficiency: η= = (3.110)
P1 P2 + VCu + VFe
2
U
iron losses: VFe = VFe 0 (3.111)
UN
2
I
copper losses (ohmic losses): VCu = VCuN (3.112)
IN
I U
delivered power: P2 = PN (3.113)
IN U N
I
PN
IN
η= 2
(3.114)
I I
PN + VCuN + VFe 0
IN IN
dη
=0
I
d
IN
(3.115)
2
P I + V I
+ VFe0 PN − PN
I
PN + 2VCuN
I
CuN
N IN IN IN I N
=
N2
2 V,η
I
VFe 0 = VCuN (3.116) V
IN Cu
η
44
Transformer
ωN ω
U1 N = w1φh = N w1 BFe AFe (3.117)
2 2
S1 Acu1
I1 N = (3.118)
w1
ωN
S N = U 1N I 1N = S1 BFe Acu1 AFe (3.119)
2
With constant flux density and current density, the nominal apparent power is proportional to
the 4th power of linear dimensions:
S N ~ L4 (3.120)
Nominal apparent power, referred to unit volume, increases with incremental size:
SN
~L (3.121)
L3
Equations for Joulean heat and core losses show size dependencies as follows:
V Fe = v Fe l Fe AFe ~ L3 (3.123)
Cooling becomes more complicated with increasing size, because losses per surface unit
increase with size:
VCu + VFe
~L (3.124)
O
VCu + VFe 1
η = 1− ~ 1− (3.125)
SN L
45
Transformer
2 l m a1 a S A
ω N µ 0 w1 + b + 2 1 Cu
X 1K I 1 N h3 3 w1
uX = = ~L (3.127)
U 1N ωN
w1 BFe AFe
2
uw
46
Transformer
• three-leg transformer
The magnetic return paths of
φ φ φ the three cores can be dropped,
U V W
x x x x x x which results in the usual type
x x x x x x of three-phase transformers.
x x x x x x One primary and one secondary
x x x x x x winding of a phase is arranged
x x x x x x on any leg.
OS U V W US
Fig. 56: three-leg transformer
• five-leg transformer
Five-leg transformers are used
x x x x x x for high power applications
φ x x x x x x (low overall height).
x x x x x x
3 x x x x x x
x x x x x x
φ φ φ
U V W
φ
3 Fig. 57: five-leg transformer
A conversion from line-to-line quantities to phase quantities and the usage of single-phase ecd
and phasor diagram is reasonable for the calculation of the operational behaviour of balanced
loaded three-phase transformers.
The method of symmetrical components (see 2.6) is suited for calculations in case of
unbalanced load conditions.
In a parallel connection of two three-phase transformers the transformation ratio as well as the
phase angle multiplier of the according vector group need to be adapted.
47
Transformer
U u
U V W
w 3w1
5 Yd5 0
v 0 5·30° w2
0 u v w
W V
u
u
U
w
U V W
+
w2
2
2 w1
Yz5 0 v 0
5·30°
- w2 3w2
u v 2
0 u v w
W V
u
Fig. 58: table showing phasor diagrams and ecd according to vector group and multiplier
with:
The multiplier gives the number of multiples of 30°, defining the total phase shift, of which
the low voltage (secondary side) lags behind the higher voltage (same orientation of reference
arrow assumed).
Mnemonic: clock
o higher voltage: 12 o’clock
o lower voltage: number of multiplier (on the clock)
48
Transformer
U u
V v
transformer
ZB
W w
0 IB
Fig. 59 unbalanced load of three-phase transformer
1. segmentation of the currents into positive-, negative- and zero sequence system:
Im 1 a a
2
Iu IB
1 2
1
Ig = 1 a a Iv = IB (3.129)
I 3 3
1 1 1
0 Iw IB
IB
U m = U Lm − Z m I m = U L − Z K (3.130)
3
IB
U g = U Lg − Z g I g = − Z K (3.131)
3
IB
U 0 = U L0 − Z 0 I 0 = − Z 0 (3.132)
3
3. inverse transformation
IB
U u = U m +U g +U 0 = U L − (2 Z K + Z 0 ) (3.133)
3
2
2
U v = a U m + aU g + U 0 = a U L −
2
123
IB
a +a ZK +Z0
3
(
) (3.134)
= −1
I
U w = aU m + a U g + U 0 = aU L − B 1
2
a+
3 2
a3
2
Z K +(Z 0
) (3.135)
= −1
49
Transformer
With neglecting the voltage drop along ZK and assumption of a pure inductive load, the phase
voltages are determined by:
IB
U u = U L − jX 0 (3.136)
3
2 IB
U v = a U L − jX 0 (3.137)
3
IB
U w = aU L − jX 0 (3.138)
3
IB
-jX0 UL
3
Uu
IB
0
IB Uw Uv IB
-jX 0 -jX 0
3 3
Since the voltage drop along X0 is equal and in-phase, the three-phase phasor diagram
(Fig. 60) is distorted, caused by a star point displacement.
This voltage drop needs to be limited, otherwise phase voltage Uu collapses in a worst case
condition – leading to increased phase voltages Uv und Uw by factor 3 .
50
Transformer
It is to be discussed, which of the vector groups match the requirements and how the zero
sequence impedance can be determined.
I0
transformer 3U 0
Z0 = (3.139)
I0
U0
a) Yy...
Z K < Z0 < Zh
b) Dy...
The ? -connected higher voltage-winding (primary side)
is equal to a short circuit of the in-phase fluxes:
Z0 ≈ Z K I
0 I0
3 U0
→ load with zero sequence system possible
Fig. 62b
c) Yz...
Currents in a winding of any limb equalize each other,
without exciting working flux:
Z0 ≈ Z K
I
0
3
→ load with zero sequence system possible I0
U0
I
0
3 u v
Fig. 62c
Fig. 62 a-c: selection of vector group combinations matching requirements (due to 3.7.2)
51
Transformer
3.8 Autotransformer
A special type of power transformer, consisting of
I2 a single, continuous winding that is tapped on one
side to provide either a step-up or step-down
function (inductive voltage divider).
∆U ∆w
Advantage: significant material savings
Disadvantage: primary and secondary side feature
galvanic coupling
U2
w2
I1 voltage ratio: ( I µ > 0, L1σ > 0 )
U1 w1 w1
ü= = = (3.140)
U1 w1 U 2 w2 w1 + ∆w
PD = U 1I1 = U 2 I 2 (3.141)
Fig. 63: autotransformer
PT = ∆UI 2 = (U 2 − U1 )I 2
U
= U 2 I 2 1 − 1 (3.142)
U2
= PD (1 − ü )
Z 1K ∆Z K ∆Z K (w − w )2
Z1KST = = Z 1K = Z1 K 2 2 1
Z 1K + ∆Z K Z2K w2 (3.143)
= Z1K (1 − ü )
2
52
4 Fundamentals of rotating electrical machines
Rotating electrical machines are electromechanical energy converters:
motor – generator
The described energy conversion, expressed as forces on the mechanical side, whereas it
appears as induced voltages on the electrical side. Basically electrical machines can be
operated in both motor- and generator mode.
1. time independent constant torque (motor) and according constant power output
(generator) in steady state operation
2. quick adjustment of torque and speed (motor) and according voltage and current
(generator) in transient operation
Electrical machines are usually supplied by either DC or AC systems. The latter differ from
balanced three-phase rotating field systems or single-phase alternating systems. Time
independent and constant power is to be found in DC and three-phase systems. Transmitted
power of single-phase systems pulsates at doubled system frequency.
• DC machines: air gap field with steady orientation towards stator; rotating armature
53
Fundamentals of rotating electrical machines
Nominal quantities and maximum quantities need to be differentiated. Working points with
nominal quantities such as nominal torque MN and nominal power PN can be operated
enduring, whereas maximum quantities such as maximum torque Mmax and maximum power
Pmax can only be driven momentarily. Limiting parameters are temperature, mechanical
strength and life cycle. In the event of a load condition exceeding the specified range, the
machine becomes subject to a thermal overload, caused by excessive currents. Bearings
operated at excessive speed reach their thermal acceptance level, followed by a reduction of
the life cycle. Excessive speed may destroy the rotor by centrifuging, provoked by centrifugal
force (radial).
M
Mmax
overload Two general operating areas appear for
M~n-1 electrical machines. There is the base
MN
Pmax speed range at first. This range is
base characterized by the opportunity that at
speed
PN least the nominal torque can be performed
field field
at any speed, even at 0 rpm. At constant
weakening weakening torque MN the mechanical power increases
range range n linear with increasing speed, until nominal
nNN nmax power PN is optained. Nominal speed nN is
reached in this working point:
PN
nN = (4.1)
2π ⋅ M N
Nominal power PN must not be exceeded in enduring operation. In order to still run higher
speeds, driving torque must be decreased at increasing speed.
PN
M = (4.2)
2π ⋅ n
This area – being the second out of the two described - is called range of constant power
(according to equation 4.2). The described condition of decreased driving torque is achieved
by weakening of the magnetic field, therefore the operation range is also called field
weakening range.
54
Fundamentals of rotating electrical machines
Electrical drives are utilized for conversion of electrical energy in mechanical motion
processes and also the other way around. The torque balance of a drive system describes the
fundamental relation for the determination of a motion sequence. It necessarily needs to be
fulfilled at any time.
M A − MW − M B = 0 (4.3)
dΩ
MB = J ⋅ acceleration torque of all rotating masses (4.4)
dt
Ω
The conversion from rotary motion into translatory motion (and the other
r way around as well) is performed with regard to the conservation of
kinectic energy:
v 1 1
⋅ m ⋅ v2 = ⋅ J ⋅ Ω2 (4.7)
2 2
m
2 2
v Ω⋅r
Fig. 66: rot./trans. J = m⋅ = m⋅ = m⋅r
2
(4.8)
conversion Ω Ω
55
The following table shows rotary and translatory physical quantities:
translation rotation
name and symbol equations unit name and symbol equations Unit
s = r ⋅ϕ s
distance s m angle ϕ ϕ= rad
r
v = r ⋅ Ωm v
Ωm =
r
tangential
at = r ⋅ α m/s2
acceleration at
mass moment of
mass m kg J = ∫ r 2 dm kg m2
inertia J
force F dv N torque M dΩ m
F = m⋅ M =J⋅ Nm
dt dt
power P P = F ⋅v W power P P = M ⋅ Ωm W
energy W 1 J energy W 1 J
W = m ⋅ v2 W = ⋅ J ⋅ Ω 2m
2 2
Fig. 67: rotary and translatory quantities, according symbols, equations and units
P = Ω ⋅ M = 2 ⋅π ⋅ n ⋅ M (4.9)
56
Fundamentals of rotating electrical machines
Mechanical speed n and torque M are signed quantities (+/-) – per definition is:
That means positive algebraic sign (+) for mechanical power in motor operation.
generator motor
P<0 P>0
motor generator
P>0 P<0
An electrical drive can be driven in all of the four quadrants of the M/n diagram (see Fig. 65
and 68). An automotive vehicle is supposed to be taken as an example: if speed n and torque
M are signed identically, the according machine is in motor operation. We get forward driving
with positive signed speed (1st quadrant) and backward driving with negative signed speed
(3rd quadrant). In case of different algebraic signs for speed and torque, the machine works in
generator mode, battery and supply systems are fed with electrical energy. This takes effect in
braked forward driving (4th quadrant) as well as in braked backward driving (2nd quadrant).
57
Fundamentals of rotating electrical machines
M
N
n n n
N 0 IN I
.
Fig. 69a: shunt characteristic Fig. 69b: shunt characteristic
n ≈ const M , n0 U ≈ const I , U 0
M w = f (n ) U B = f (I )
M UG
W
~n2 ~I
UN const|
I
~n
M const| n
N
1
~ n
n n IN I
N
Fig. 70a: motor load characteristic Fig. 70b: generator load characteristic
M w = const : friction, gravitation
Mw ~ n : elektric brake U B = U N = const : stiff system
M w ~ n2 : fans, pumps U B = RI : load resistance
1
Mw ~ : winches
n
58
Fundamentals of rotating electrical machines
∂M w ∂M A ∂U B ∂U G
> (4.10) > (4.11)
∂n ∂n ∂I ∂I
MW U U
B
UG
U unstable stable
B
unstable
MW
stable
M
A
n I
Fig. 71a: motor stability characteristic Fig. 71b: generator stability characteristic
The load torque needs to increase stronger The voltage at the load needs to increase
with increasing speed than the motor stronger with increasing current than the
torque. generator voltage.
59
5 DC Machine
5.1 Design and mode of action
The stator of a DC machine usually consists of a massive steel yoke, fitted with poles. Those
stator poles carry DC exciter windings. The magnetic field excited by the excitation current
permeates the rotor (also called armature for DC machines), the magnetic circuit is closed via
the stator iron core. The armature core is composed of slotted iron laminations that are
stacked to form a cylindrical core. The armature winding is placed in the armature slots.
The method of DC machine armature current supply to create uniform torque in motor
operation is subject to the following consideration.
This consideration leads to the result, the armature current needs to be reversed until the
armature conductor reaches the field of opposite poles. This current reversal is performed by
the so called commutator of collector. The commutator is composed of a slip ring that is cut in
segments, with each segment insulated from the other as well as from the shaft. The
commutator revolves with the armature; the armature current is supplied or picked up by
stationary brushes. The current reversal, performed by the commutator, is done in the way to
create a spatiotemporal magnetomotive force (mmf), perpendicular orientated to the exciter
field.
The armature needs to be laminated, because armature bars carry currents of frequency
f = p ⋅ n . Since number of pole pairs and speed is not related for DC machines, frequencies
higher than 50 Hz may appear.
x
x
x x x x
+ -
x
x
by higher armature current frequency, commutation
more difficult.
p=3
Fig. 73: DC machine, poles
61
DC Machine
62
DC Machine
63
DC Machine
Lap windings are characterized by a connection of a coil end at the commutator directly with
the beginning of the next coil of the same pole pair. Only one coil is arranged between two
commutator bars. In cause of the existence of 2p brushes, all p pole pairs are connected in
parallel. The number of parallel pathes of armature windings amounts 2a = 2p.
Wave windings consist of coil ends at the commutator, connected with the beginning of the
accordant coil of the next pole pair, so that a complete circulation around the armature with p
coils leads to the next commutator bar. Using only 2 brushes, all p pole pairs are connected in
series. The number of parallel pathes of armature windings amounts 2a = 2 in this case.
Usual for the design of large DC machines is an arrangement of any coil being composed of
more than one turn (ws > 1) and a slot filling with more than one coil each (u > 1).
N S N S N
64
DC Machine
B( α )
main pole (solid)
B
L
exciter winding
X
F α ·π
x
x x yoke (solid) i
n
x
x
IA IA 0 π 2π p·α
F
X
armature winding
B
L
Fig. 81: DC machine, basic design Fig. 82: air gap field vs. circumference angle
Faraday’s Law (VZS) is utilized for the calculation of the induced voltage:
dψ dφ ∆φ
ui = = w⋅ = w⋅ (5.12)
dt dt ∆t
Equivalent to an armature turn of one pole pitch, the flux linkage of the armature winding
reverses from +φ to -φ.
∆φ = 2 ⋅ φ (5.13)
1 1
∆t = ⋅ (5.14)
n 2⋅ p
The number of armature conductors is z. With 2a pairs of parallel paths of armature windings,
the effective number of armature windings is determined by:
z 1
w= ⋅ (5.15)
2 2⋅a
e.g.: 2⋅a = 2
IA /2
IA IA
IA /2
Fig. 83: armature current
65
DC Machine
This leads to an equation for the induced voltage of DC machines - first basic equation:
∆φ z 1 p
Ui = w ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅φ ⋅ n ⋅ 2 ⋅ p = z ⋅ ⋅ n ⋅φ (5.16)
∆t 2 2⋅a a
p
Ui = k ⋅φ ⋅ n k = z⋅ (5.17)
a
The armature winding shows an ohmic resistance RA, to be regarded in a complete mesh loop
- second basic equation :
Torque can be derived from the magnetic energy with same assumptions (see equations. 5.12-
5.16 above) concerning parallel paths of armature windings, pole pitch etc. as for the induced
voltage – third basic equation:
dWm I ⋅ dΨ I ⋅ w ⋅ ∆φ z 1 2φ z ⋅ p 1
M = = = =I⋅ ⋅ = ⋅φ ⋅ I (5.19)
dα dα ∆α 2 2a π a 2π
p
k
M= ⋅φ ⋅ I (5.20)
2π
U ⋅ I A = U i ⋅ I A ± I A2 ⋅ R A (5.21)
123 123 123
Pauf Pmech VCu
Pmech = U i ⋅ I A = k ⋅ n ⋅ φ ⋅ I A = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ n ⋅ M (5.22)
k
M = ⋅φ ⋅ I A (5.23)
2 ⋅π
The armature resistance of a DC machine can be determined by using Joulean heat losses:
I
2
z ⋅ (l + τ p )
VCu = A ⋅ρ ⋅ = I A2 ⋅ R A (5.24)
2
a q L
z ⋅ ρ (l + τ p )
RA = ⋅ (5.25)
4 ⋅ a2 qL
66
DC Machine
Ui = k ⋅φ ⋅ n (5.26)
U = U i ± I A ⋅ RA (5.27)
k ⋅φ
M = ⋅ IA (5.28)
2 ⋅π
Neglect of saturation in the magnetic circuit of the DC machine assumed, a linear dependence
between air gap flux and exciter current is supposed:
k·φ unsaturated
saturated
Ui
k ⋅φ = (5.30)
IA = 0 n
n=const
If
Fig. 85: no-load characteristic
67
DC Machine
speed:
Ui U I ⋅R
n= = − A A (5.31)
k ⋅φ k ⋅ φ k ⋅φ
torque:
k ⋅φ
M = ⋅ IA (5.32)
2 ⋅π
I = IA A I IA A I = IA A
I
I K F
U U U
C D
IF UF R FV
B B B
I =I A I I IA A
A
I F
F
D C F E
U U
F E
B B
RP
series compound
68
DC Machine
There is:
torque:
M ~ IA (5.33)
no-load:
shunt characteristic
UN
I = 0 , M = 0 ⇒ n0 = (5.34)
k ⋅φN
speed:
UN I ⋅R I ⋅R
n= − A A = n0 − n0 ⋅ A A (5.35)
k ⋅φ N k ⋅ φ N UN
69
DC Machine
The sense of rotation can be reversed by changing the polarity of either the armature- or the
exciter voltage. Speed adjustment using variation of the armature voltage is non-dissipative,
whereas the speed adjustment utilizing a starting resistor is lossy. With regard to armature
reaction, the field weakening range needs to be limited to f < 3.
n, M
M
n
0
2)
1)
generator motor 3)
I
A
A continuous transition from motor- to generator mode permits utilization as variable speed
drive in conveyor motor and manipulator applications.
R = RA + RF (5.40)
I = IF = I A (5.41)
k ⋅φ = M ⋅ I A (M = magnetizing inductance)
torque proportionality ensues as:
M ~ I A2
speed is determined as (by insertion): series characteristic (5.42)
UN R
n= −
M ⋅ IA M
mind the no-load case with: I A = 0
n( I A =0 ) → ∞ !!!
70
DC Machine
UN
IK =
R
A polarity change of the armature voltage does not lead to a reversal of the rotation sense of a
DC series machine.
UN R A + RF
f
n= f⋅ −f⋅ (5.44)
M ⋅ IA M
n, M
• utilization of starting resistor (3):
M
R ∗ = RV + R A + RF (5.45)
UN R∗
n= − (5.46)
M ⋅ IA M
2)
1)
motor 3) I
Fig. 88: series machine characteristic
A continuous transition from motor- to generator mode is not possible for a series machine!
DC series machines are utilized for traction drives in light rail- and electric vehicle
applications as well as for starters in automotive applications. Major advantage is a high
torque value already at low speeds, sufficing traction efforts particularly at start-up.
71
DC Machine
Fig. 89 and 90 show comparisons of the different characteristics of all discussed DC machine
types for both motor- and generator mode.
motor operation
n GMF1:
separately excited DC machine
GNM, GNM:
GMF
DC shunt machine
GRM:
GDM DC series machine
GRM
GDM:
M DC compound machine
Fig. 89: DC machine types, motor operation
DC compound machines are used as motor in flywheel drives as well as generator in solitary
operation.
generator mode
U
GMF
GDM
GNM
I
Fig. 90: DC machine types, generator mode
___________________________________________________________________________
1) abbreviations, based on their German origin are not intuitive in English. They have not
been translated for conformity purposes.
72
DC Machine
u i (t ) = k ⋅ ϕ (t ) ⋅ n (5.49)
k ⋅φ ⋅ n
Ui = (5.50)
2
k k φ⋅I
M ( t) = ⋅ϕ ( t ) ⋅ i( t ) = ⋅ ⋅ ( cos ρ − cos(2 ⋅ ω ⋅ t − ρ )) (5.51)
2 ⋅π 2 ⋅π 2
k φ⋅I
M mittel = ⋅ ⋅ cos ρ (5.52)
2 ⋅π 2
The time variant torque pulsates with twice the nominal frequency f between zero and the
doubled average value (as shown in Fig. 92).
73
DC Machine
This condition is fulfilled for the series motor. Occuring pulsating torque is damped by the
inert mass of the rotor. The working torque is equal to the direct torque component.
As to be seen on equivalent circuit diagrams (Fig. 93a,b) and phasor diagrams (Fig. 94a,b),
a phase shift of almost π/2 between armature current and flux occurs for the shunt machine,
whereas they are in-phase for the series wound machine.
R R
i n i n
ϕ ϕ
u ui u ui
L L
Fig. 93a: shunt machine, ecd Fig. 93b: series machine, ecd
(ϕ , i ) ≈ π (ϕ , i ) ≈ 0
2
U UL
IL ~ ϕ
IR ~ i UR
I
I~i ~ϕ
Fig. 94a: shunt machine, phasor diagram Fig. 94b: series machine, phasor diagram
for n = 0 ⇒ U i = 0 for n = 0 ⇒ U i = 0
R = R A + RF , (5.53)
L = L A + LF (5.54)
U = U i + R ⋅ I + jX ⋅ I (5.55)
74
DC Machine
R A ,L A jXI
R·I
I Ui
R F ,L F
U Ui UN
ϕ I
Fig. 95a: universal machine, ecd
cosϕ N ≈ 0.9
=
~
M
Fig. 96: universal machine, speed characteristic (AC, DC)
75
DC Machine
Appliance
Single phase series wound motors are used as universal motors in household- and tool
applications at 50 Hz supply:
• power < 1 kW
• speed < 40.000 min-1
• speed variation by voltage variation
Types of construction
exciter windings
poles
Large machines are mainly used for traction drives in railway applications.
The line-frequency needs to be reduced down to 162/3 Hz in cause of the induced voltage
(U ind ~ f ) .
76
DC Machine
Process of self-excitation:
U
RA
IF IA n
Ui Ui
U
R FV RF
UR IF (R A+R F +R FV )
Using a series resistor the exciter windings are to be connected in parallel to the armature. The
machine is to be operated with constant speed at no-load. A remanent voltage U R is induced
by remanence, which is present in any magnetic circuit. This induced voltage evokes an
exciter current I F then. The engendered exciter current reinforces the residual magnetic
field – the induced voltage is increased perpetually. A stable operating point is reached if the
induced voltage is as high as the voltage drop to occur at the exciter circuit resistors.
(„dynamoelectric principle“):
In case of false polarity, the exciter current I F acts demagnetizing, a self-excitation process
does not occur.
Load characteristic:
U = U N − I A RA (5.58)
and with eqt. 5.58 the terminal voltage is even more load-dependent.
77
DC Machine
RA
I IA n
φ
IF
RB U Ui
RF
U i = I A R A + I F RF (5.59)
IA = I + IF (5.60)
U = I F RF (5.61)
then follows:
U i = I R A + I F (R A + R F ) (5.62)
and
1
I= (U i − I F (RA + RF )) (5.63)
RA
With cognition of the no-load characteristic and the resistance line, the load characteristic can
be created graphically.
U U
IF (R A +R F )
U0 Ui U0 separate excitation
~I stable
shunt
unstable
The generator current is limited to Imax. The terminal voltage collapses at higher loads with
the consequence of only short-circuit current flowing, to be evoked by the remanent voltage.
78
DC Machine
Are DC series machines operated in generator mode, the self-exciting process takes place
simultaneously to shunt machines. A distinction is to be made whether the series machine is
working on a system of constant voltage or on a load resistor.
RA U
I F(R A +R F +R B )
IA n UN
UN φ Ui
RB Ui
RF
∂U B ∂U i
A stable operation with load resistor RB is given, because of > .
∂I A ∂I A
Terminal voltage is not adjustable, but dependent on RB.
∂U N ∂U i
Stable operation at constant voltage system is not possible, because of < .
∂I A ∂I A
The series generator as such is unpopular, it is only used as dynamic brake in traction drive
applications.
79
DC Machine
5.3.7 DC machine supply with variable armature voltage for speed adjustment
A Ward-Leonard-Converter is a machine-set, consisting of an induction machine (motor) and
a DC machine (generator), which feeds another DC machine (to be controlled) with variable
armature voltage. A Ward-Leonard-Converter can be operated in any of the four quadrants.
M G M AM
3~
The long-term used and popular Ward-Leonard-Set is almost completely replaced by power
converter supplied DC drive systems. The following circuit arrangements are mainly used.
• back-to-back connection of two controlled three-phase bridges with thyristors for high-
voltage applications and four-quadrant-operation („reversible converter“). Voltage
adjustment is achieved by phase control.
M,G
80
DC Machine
• Simple DC choppers with transistors or thyristors are often used in battery supplied
systems. Voltage adjustment is also performed by timing devices. Without reversion, only
one-quadrant operation is possible.
Th
IM n
J
U IG
B M driving
φ
braking
81
DC Machine
• higher efficiency
=0
67 8
η = 1−
∑ V
= 1−
I ⋅ RA + I F ⋅ RF + VFe
2
A
2
(5.64)
Pauf UN ⋅ IN
xx x N
x
S
2
D
D 2
1
D
1
D
electric permanent
Fig. 108a: electric excitation Fig. 108b: permanent field
D1elektr. = D1perm.
D2elektr. > D2Perm.
LA TAElektr.
TA = = << TAElektr. (5.65)
R A 1 + hM
δ
• cheaper production
Permanent-magnets are mainly used in DC-, synchronous- and step motors for automotive
auxiliary applications, household and consumer goods, office and data systems technology as
well as for industrial servo drives.
Besides some exemptions, the power range of permanent-magnet equipped motors leads from
a few W to some 10 kW. Power limitations are either given by material parameters or by costs
of the permanent-magnets. A widespread implementation of permanent-magnets in electrical
machines as well as an expansion up to higher power ranges are to be expected for the future.
82
DC Machine
Permanent-magnet materials are desribed by their hysteresis loop in the II. quadrant.
hysteresis loop cutout, 2nd quadrant
II B I II B
BR
BR
HC H B M0
III IV
-H M HC H G H M0 ∆ HM ∆ HM
Fig. 109: hysteresis loop
Fig. 110: hysteresis loop, II. quadrant
demagnetization curve: BM = BR + µ 0 ⋅ µ R ⋅ H M
reversible permeability: µR ≈ 1
B max
B0
B min
S
N
bp
N
S
n τ
p
x
0
Fig. 111: DC machine, cross section Fig. 112: field strength distribution
83
DC Machine
The operating point of magnetic circuits can be determined with appliance of:
BL
⋅ 2δ + H M ⋅ 2hM = ±α i ⋅ A ⋅τ p (5.66)
µ0
BM = BR + µ 0 ⋅ µ R ⋅ H M (5.67)
BL ⋅ AL = BM ⋅ AM (5.68)
IA
z⋅
A = 2a (5.69)
π ⋅D
bp
αi = (5.70)
τp
µ 0 AL
BM = ⋅ ⋅ (− H M ⋅ 2hM ± α i ⋅ A ⋅τ p ) (5.71)
2δ AM
Static load or no-load respectively lead to the operating point of the magnet defined by HM0
and BM0. This is the intersection of the demagnetizing curve of the magnet and the load line of
the magnetic circuit.
84
DC Machine
The operating point gets moved about ∆H to the right (field strengthening) or to the left (field
weakening) caused by armature reaction. Demagnetizing is getting critical at the leaving edge
of the magnet. The magnetic circuit needs to be designed in the way, that the operating point
does not exceed HG even under maximum load condition in order to avoid irreversible partial
demagnetization. The higher a magnet is designed, the higher is the amount of air gap flux
density and the lower the demagnetizing field strength gets.
1,2
AlNiCo
flux density B
NdFeB
0,8
(B .H) 300
0,4
max
200
kJ/m 3
100
0
field strength -H SmCo Ferrit
• SmCo: expensive, high energy density, linear characteristic down to III. quadrant
• NdFeB: new, eventually more economic than SmCo, high energy density.
85
DC Machine
5.5 Commutation
5.5.1 Current path
Commutators permanently reverse the current direction in revolving armature windings using
brushes mounted in neutral zones. The direction therefore changes from + to – and the other
way around. Armature windings are riddled with AC current of f A = pn . A commutation of
the coil currents is necessary in order to achieve time-constant exciter field with perpendicular
orientation towards the armature magnetomotive force (mmf).
IA IA IA IA
i=? i =?
2a 2a 2a 2a
vK vK vK
IA IA IA
a a a
t ≤0 0 < t < TK t ≥ TK
Fig. 114a-c: commutation
IA
coil current: (5.75)
2a
brush width: bB
commutator circumferential speed: v K = πDK n (5.76)
bB
commutating period: TK = (5.77)
vK
armature frequency: f A = pn (5.78)
IA
z
2wA I A
current coverage: A = 2a = (5.79)
πD πD
An idealized illustration of the current in a single armature coil is given in Fig. 115:
commutation
iSp
IA
2a
IA
−
2a
TK
1
pn
86
DC Machine
IA
Before the commutation process, an armature coil carries a current + , whereas after the
2a
IA
process the current amount is − . The current form in the short-circuited armature coil is
2a
formed according to a function determined by contact resistance (brushes) and coil inductance
during the commutating period. With usage of electrographite the influence of the coil
resistance is negligible.
At first LSp = 0 is to be assumed (this restriction will be abolished later). With that
assumption and RB >> RSp , simplified illustrations of the arrangement and equations apply as:
iSp
i2 Λ B 2 x
= =
i1 Λ B1 bB − x
(5.80)
t
=
IA IA TK − t
2a 2a
i2 i1
IA
vK = i1 + i2 (5.81)
a
Λ Λ
B2 B1
IA IA
i1 = iSp + (5.82)
a 2a
x b B-x
bB
I
I t
a i1 = 1 − (5.83)
iSp i2 a TK
I
2a I t
i2 = (5.84)
i1 a TK
iSp
0
0 TK t
I 2t
iSp = 1 − (5.85)
I 2a TK
−
2a
Fig. 117: commutation, current flow
87
DC Machine
IA IA
diSp
us = − LSp = LSp a = LSp a πDK n ~ I An (5.86)
dt TK bB
Fig. 119 shows the reactance voltage trying to maintain the current direction in the
commutating coil and the compole voltage counteracting.
88
DC Machine
BW
θW − θ A (1 − αi ) = 2δ W (5.87)
µ0
µ0 wW
BW = I A − (1 − αi )τ P A ~ I A (5.88)
2δ W p
Commutating field strength and flux density are proportional to the armature current IA, as
long as the commutating pole circuit is unsaturated. The compole voltage calculates from:
uw = BW 2lwS v A ~ nI A (5.89)
Therewith the compensation of us by dint of the uw-condition (equation 5.89) is fulfilled for
any rotational speed and any current. In case of proper design, commutating poles act as if
LSp = 0 .
The installation of commutating poles raises the price of DC machines significantly, so that
an implementation makes sense only for large DC machines.
89
DC Machine
B (α )
θ θ F (α ) + θ A (α ) = 2δ (α ) (5.90)
A µ0
exciter mmf:
π
0 <α < (1 − α i ), π (1 + α i ) < α < π θ F (α ) = 0 (5.91)
2 2
π
(1 − α i ) < α < π (1 + α i ) θ F (α ) = wF ⋅ I F = θ F (5.92)
2 2
armature mmf::
2α
0 <α <π θ A = A ⋅ τ P ⋅ 1 − (5.93)
π
resulting field:
µ0
B(α ) = (θ F (α ) + θ A (α )) (5.94)
2δ (α )
90
DC Machine
The axis of the resulting field and therefore the neutral zone moves to oppose the sense of
rotation in motor operation with dependence on the armature current.
In order to assure the commutation process within the neutral zone under load, brushes can be
moved about an according angle ϑ:
Besides displacement of the neutral zone, occurring field distortion under load also results in
increased segment voltage.
θ
R θ
F
α
Bk
ϑ
θ
A
91
DC Machine
The segment voltage average value computes from the armature voltage, divided by the
number of segments per pole-pitch:
armature voltage
U L ,mittel =
segments per pole − pitch
U (5.97)
=
k
2p
Caused by field distortion under load, the segment voltage is not evenly spread over
k
corresponding commutator segments, but only α i ⋅ -coils participate at the accumulation of
2p
voltage underneath the poles. Therefore the real segment voltage ensues for the no-load case:
U L ,mittel
UL = (5.98)
αi
Coils voltage underneath the poles is UL, whereas coil voltage in the pole gap is 0.
Flux density at pole edges is B(α ) = BPk under load and therefore the segment voltage of
these coils:
U L,mittel BPk ∆B
U L ,max = = U L 1 + (5.99)
αi BL B L
Segment voltage turned out to find a maximum limit at 40V that may not be exceeded.
Otherwise spark overs between segments may occur, that may finally lead to a flash over
around the entire commutator.
92
DC Machine
The ratio UL,max/UL gets awkward in field weakening operation, because the main field gets
weaker as the armature reaction remains constant.
U L,max ∆B
= 1+
UL BL
B B B
BR
BL
BR
BL
BR
BL
α α α
f=1 f=2 f=4
Fig. 124a: ratio of: Fig. 124b: ratio of: Fig. 124c: ratio of
U L,max U L,max U L,max
= 1.5 =2 =3
UL UL UL
The resulting field may turn negative underneath the leaving edge in motor operation!
93
DC Machine
BL 2 w A I A πD
B, θ α i Aτ p
αi
πD 2 p
wK = =
IA IA (5.101)
θΚ θ αw
A = i A
p
π 2π α
The installation of compensating windings
has a significant influence on the price of
DC machines, so that an implementation
makes sense only for large DC machines.
High-quality DC machines feature both
Fig. 126: equalizing mmf fractions commutating and compensating windings.
94
6 Rotating field theory
u u n1
n1
z z
y y
n1 n < n1
v v
w w
x x
Both synchronous machine and induction machine use the same stator arrangement as a
matter of principle. This is composed of insulated iron laminations, provided with a three-
phase winding, to create a rotation field revolving with n1 = f1 p . Both machine types only
differ in their rotor design.
Synchronous machines consist of permanent field or electrical excited rotors to follow the
stator rotating field synchronous (therefore the name), whereas the rotor of induction
machines feature a short-circuit-winding, which is pulled asynchronous by the rotating stator
field, due to Lenz’s Law.
A combined discussion of voltage and torque generation for both types of three-phase
machines in a separate chapter about “rotating field theory” is found reasonable, until both
types are discussed in detail later.
95
Rotating field theory
wi
An unwinded rotor enclosed in an
arrangement of a stator equipped with 2
α opposing slots carrying w windings each is
shown in Fig. 129.
-w i
rotor
Fig. 129: unwinded rotor, winded stator
θ (α )
+w·i
0<α <π : θ (α ) = w ⋅ i (6.1)
-w·i
µ0 µ
0<α <π bw ( α , t ) = ⋅θ ( α ) = 0 ⋅ w ⋅ 2 ⋅ I ⋅ cos( ω1 ⋅ t ) (6.4)
2 ⋅δ 2 ⋅δ
µ0
π < α < 2 ⋅π bw ( α , t ) = − ⋅ w ⋅ 2 ⋅ I ⋅ cos( ω1 ⋅ t ) (6.5)
2 ⋅δ
96
Rotating field theory
With more than one pole-pair, the process repeats p-times per circumference, the number of
windings is distributed on p pole-pairs.
w
w + 2I
u1 i p
p
α τp
π
w π π
p − i 0 3π 2π
p α
x2 x1 2 2
0 π 2π 3π 4π
β= p α
w
− 2I
p
u2
Fig. 133: mmf for two pole-pair stator
4 µ0 w ∞
sin [(2 g '−1) ⋅ αp ]
bW ( α , t ) = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅ I ⋅ cos( ω1 ⋅ t ) ⋅ ∑ (6.6)
π 2 ⋅δ p g '=1 2 g ' −1
ω t=0
97
Rotating field theory
Main focus is put on the fundamental wave, which is exclusively significant for voltage
generation and torque exertion:
4 µ0 w
b1w ( α , t ) = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅ I ⋅ sin(α ⋅ p ) ⋅ cos( ω1 ⋅ t ) = B1w ⋅ sin(α ⋅ p) ⋅ cos( ω1 ⋅ t ) (6.7)
π 2 ⋅δ p
with:
4 µ0 w
B1w = ⋅ ⋅ 2⋅ ⋅I (6.8)
π 2 ⋅δ p
b1w ω
1
ω
1
Fig. 135: sinusoidal wave (as standing wave)
With:
α ⋅ p − ω1 ⋅ t = const (6.10)
for any fix point of a curve, the mechanical angle speed of a progressive wave can be
calculated:
dα ω1
= = Ω1 (6.11)
dt p
98
Rotating field theory
dα ω
= − 1 = −Ω1 (6.13)
dt p
A sinusoidal alternating field can be split up into two sinusoidal rotating fields. Their peak
value is of half the value as of the according alternating field, their angular speeds are
oppositely signed:
Bw
b1w ( α , t ) = B1w ⋅ sin (α ⋅ p ) ⋅ cos( ω 1 ⋅ t ) = 1 ⋅ sin ( α ⋅ p − ω 1 ⋅ t ) + sin ( α ⋅ p + ω 1 ⋅ t ) (6.14)
2 1442443 1442443
positive sequence negative sequence
ω1
ω
1
−ω1 ω − ω ω
1 1 1
ω t =0 ω t = π / 3
1 1
Fig. 137a: alternating field shape Fig. 137b: split alternating field
dα ω1
= = Ω 2 g ' −1 clockwise rotation (positive sequence) (6.16)
dt p ⋅ (2 g '−1)
dα − ω1
= = −Ω 2 g ' −1 counter-clockwise rotation (negative sequence) (6.17)
dt p ⋅ (2 g '−1)
B1W
B2Wg ' −1 = (6.18)
2 g ' −1
99
Rotating field theory
α: mechanical angle
β = p ⋅ α : electrical angle
π ⋅D
The pole pitch is given as τ p =
2⋅ p
The number of slots per pole and phase is
R S T N !
q= = integer
Fig. 139: three-phase winding, star point 2⋅ p⋅m
+ Re
There are three phases connected due to U-
X, V-Y, W-Z, which are supplied by three
Iu AC currents, also displaced by a phase shift
2 ⋅π
angle :
3
2 ⋅π
iV = 2 ⋅ I ⋅ cos ω1 ⋅ t − (6.20)
3
Iw Iv
Fig. 140: phase currents, phasor diagram 4 ⋅π
iW = 2 ⋅ I ⋅ cos ω1 ⋅ t − (6.21)
3
100
Rotating field theory
An alternating field is created by any of the phases, to be segmented in both positive- and
negative sequence rotating field. Only fundamental waves are taken into account.
bU = B ⋅ sin ( α ⋅ p ) ⋅ cos( ω 1 ⋅ t )
w
1
2 ⋅ π 2 ⋅ π w 4 µ w
bV = B1w ⋅ sin α ⋅ p − ⋅ cos ω1 ⋅ t − B1 = ⋅ 0 ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅ I (6.22)
3 3 π 2⋅δ p
4 ⋅π 4 ⋅ π
bW = B1w ⋅ sin α ⋅ p − ⋅ cos ω 1 ⋅ t −
3 3
B1w
bU = ⋅ [sin ( α ⋅ p − ω1 ⋅ t ) + sin ( α ⋅ p + ω1 ⋅ t )]
2
Bw 4 ⋅π
bV = 1 ⋅ sin ( α ⋅ p − ω1 ⋅ t ) + sin α ⋅ p + ω 1 ⋅ t − (6.23)
2 3
B1w 8 ⋅π
bW = ⋅ sin ( α ⋅ p − ω1 ⋅ t ) + sin α ⋅ p + ω1 ⋅ t −
2 3
∑= 0
The total field results from a superposition of the 3 phases at any time. Negative sequence
rotating fields eliminate each other, whereas positive sequence fields add up to a sinusoidal
rotating field. Its amplitudes are 3/2 times higher than those of single alternating field
amplitudes.
3 w
b1D ( α , t ) =
⋅ B1 ⋅ sin ( α ⋅ p − ω1 ⋅ t ) = B1D ⋅ sin ( α ⋅ p − ω 1 ⋅ t )
2
(6.24)
3 4 µ w
B1D ≡ B = ⋅ ⋅ 0 ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅ I
2 π 2 ⋅δ p
The rotational speed (= synchronous rotational speed) can be determined by taking a look at
the zero crossing condition (α ⋅ p − ω1 ⋅ t = 0 ) :
dα ω1 2 ⋅ π ⋅ f1 f
α ⋅ p = ω1 ⋅ t ⇒ = = = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ n1 ⇒ n1 = 1 (6.25)
dt p p p
The air gap field of multipole rotating field machines revolves with synchronous rotational
f
speed n1 = 1 , so that the following speeds occur at 50 Hz:
p
p 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 20 30
n1 1 min 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500 300 150 100
Fig. 141: speeds due to number of pole pairs (example: 50 Hz)
101
Rotating field theory
Visualization:
1
t1 ω 2 ⋅I 2 ⋅I
t2 ω u 1 2 u
2 ⋅I
y 2 y 2 ⋅I
Iu 1 1
2 ⋅I z − 2 ⋅I z
2 2
1
− 2⋅I 1
Iw Iv w 2 w 2 ⋅I
2
1
v − 2 ⋅I v
− 2 ⋅I
2 x x
− 2 ⋅I 1
− 2⋅I
2
ω t1 = 0 ω t2 = π /3
b 1D
1
bw 1/2 bu 1
bw b 1D
1/2 bv
bv
1/2 π /3
bu 1/2
Fig. 142: field shares of phases U, V, W while rotation from ω1 ⋅ t = 0 through ω1 ⋅ t = p/3
If slot mmf harmonics of the three phases are regarded, the total field ensues to:
∞
sin [(6 g + 1) ⋅ αp − ω1 ⋅ t ]
b D ( α , t ) = B1D ⋅ ∑ (6.26)
g '= −∞ 6g +1
Again, equation 6.26 defines an infinite sum of positive- and negative-sequence single
rotating fields with ordinal number 6g+1. Field components with ordinary numbers divisible
by three disappear for the case of superposition:
ω1
Ω 6 g +1 = (6.27)
p ⋅ (6 g + 1)
B1D
B6Dg +1 = (6.28)
6g + 1
Rotational speed as well as the amplitudes of the harmonics decrease with increasing ordinal
number.
102
Rotating field theory
6.5 Example
u w
with θ N = 2 I (6.29)
p
y z
α we get
θ u = θ N cos(ωt ) (6.30)
2π
θ v = θ N cos ωt − (6.31)
w v 3
4π
θ w = θ N cos ωt − (6.32)
x 3
• total mmf is shaped like a staircase step function, being constant between the slots. At slot
edges, with slots assumed as being narrow, the total mmf changes about twice the amount
of the slot mmf.
µ0
B(α , t ) = ⋅ θ (α , t ) (6.33)
2δ
ω
The fundamental wave runs to the right at speed , harmonics run to both right and left, at
p
ω
speed . Amplitudes of fundamental waves and harmonics remain constant. The
p (6 g + 1)
π π
shape of the air gap field changes periodically at times ωt = 0, , ,K between both
6 3
extrema. The change of shape is based on the different rotational speeds of fundamental wave
and harmonics and hence different results of their addition.
103
Rotating field theory
θ
N
π ωt = 0
2π α
θu = θ N
−θ θN
N
θv = −
2θ u z v x w y u 2
ω
N
θ
θ
p θw = − N
N 2
−ω
5p
2π
π α
−θ
N
−2θ
N
3 θN
2 π
π ωt =
6
2π α
3
3 θN
θu = θN
− 2
2 u z v x w y u
3 θN ω
θv = 0
p 3
3θ −ω θw = − θN
N 5p 2π
2 2
α
π
− 3θ π/6
2 N
− 3θ
N
−π/30
θ
N
π
π
ωt =
3
2π α θ
−θ θu = N
N 2
2θ u z v x w y u θ
N
ω
θv = N
2
θ p
N −ω 5 θ w = −θ N
p
π
2π α
−θ
N
π/3
−2θ
N
−π/15
Fig. 144: mmf, sequence
104
Rotating field theory
N
q= ≥1 (6.34)
2⋅ p⋅m
chording
5 s 6
< < (6.35)
6 τ 7
wres ≤ w (6.36)
ξ ≤ 1: wres = w ⋅ ξ (6.37)
u
US OS
y
x v
Fig. 145: three-phase winding, chording
This means is utilized for a supression of harmonics, which cause parasitic torques and losses,
influencing proper function of a machine..
Actually there is no machine with q = 1 . Only zoning and chording enable disregarding
harmonics.
105
Rotating field theory
β
N
w
pq
β
N
The resulting number of windings wres per
w
phase is computed by geometric addition
of all q partial windings w/pq. The vertices
pq
.
of all q phasors per phase, being displaced w res
by βN (electrically), form a circle. The total
angle per phase adds up to q βN. w
pq
. qβ
N
β
N
1 w
⋅
2 p⋅q
r= (6.40)
β
sin N
2
chord line:
q⋅ βN
wres = 2 ⋅ r ⋅ sin (6.41)
2
106
Rotating field theory
q ⋅ βN
sin
w 2
wres = (6.42)
p β
q ⋅ sin N
2
The ratio
q ⋅ βN
sin
wres 2
= (6.43)
w β
q ⋅ sin N
p 2
π
βN = (6.44)
3⋅ q
which leads to
π
sin
ξZ = 6 , (6.45)
π
q ⋅ sin
6⋅q
Regarding harmonics, the electrical angle βN needs to be multiplied (6g+1)-times the basic
value, with (6g+1) being the harmonic ordinal number. Then follows for the harmonic
distribution factor:
π ⋅ (6 g + 1)
sin
ξ Z ,( 6 g +1) = 6
. (6.46)
π
q ⋅ sin ⋅ (6 g + 1)
6⋅ q
107
Rotating field theory
Example for q = 3
Figure series 148a-c illustrates how different distribution factors (abbrev.: df) accomplish for
different g:
g=0 g =1 g = −1
6g + 1 = 1 6g + 1 = 7 6 g + 1 = −5
π ^ β N 7 = 140° β N −5 = −100°
βN1 = = 20°
3⋅ 3
Fig. 148a: df for g=0 Fig. 148b: df for g=1 Fig. 148c:df for g=-1
π π π
sin sin 7 sin (− 5)
ξZ1 = 6 = 0.960 ξZ 7 = 6 = −0.177 ξ Z −5 = 6 = 0.218
π π π
3 sin 3 sin 7 3 sin (− 5)
18 18 18
See table below for a list of the distribution factor for the fundamental wave:
q 1 2 3 4 ... ∞
ξZ1 1 0.966 0.960 0.958 0.955
108
Rotating field theory
This leads to an electrical displacement of βS = pαS. Both fractional winding systems add up
to the resulting number of windings.
w
2p
p αs π s
w res αS = 1 − (6.47)
p τ p
w π − p ⋅α S w π s
wres = ⋅ sin = ⋅ sin ⋅
. p 2 p 2 τp
π− p α (6.48)
s
2 The ratio
w π s
wres
2p ξS = = sin ⋅ (6.49)
w 2 τp
p
109
Rotating field theory
Considering harmonic waves, the electric angle βS needs to be multiplied by times the ordinal
number, which leads to the harmonic’s pitch factor:
π s
ξ S ,(6 g +1) = sin (6 g + 1) ⋅ (6.50)
2 τ p
s
The effect of using chorded windings is based on a clever choice of the ratio , leading to a
τp
mutual elimination of the 5th and 7th harmonics of primary and secondary side, so that they
disappear for an outside view.
e.g.:
s 4
= ξS5 = 0
τp 5
s 6
= ξS 7 = 0
τp 7
It is proven useful to choose a median value (e.g. 5/6) in order to damp 5th and 7th harmonics
at the same time.
Then follows:
o ξ S 1 = 0.966
o ξ S 5 = 0.259
o ξ S 7 = 0.259
110
Rotating field theory
• fundamental wave:
π
sin
ξ = ξ Z ⋅ξ S = 6 ⋅ sin s ⋅ π
(6.51)
π τ 2
q ⋅ sin
6⋅ q
• harmonic waves:
π ⋅ (6 g + 1)
sin
6 π s
ξ ( 6 g +1) = ξ Z ,( 6 g +1) ⋅ ξ S ,( 6 g +1) = ⋅ sin (6 g + 1) ⋅ (6.52)
π 2 τ p
q ⋅ sin ⋅ (6 g + 1)
6⋅ q
With regard to the winding factor, a mathematic formulation for a rotating field generally
appears as:
with
3 4 µ0 w
B1D = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ξ ⋅ 2 ⋅ I (6.55)
2 π 2 ⋅δ p
111
Rotating field theory
3 4 µ 0 w1
B1D = ξ1 2 I1 (6.57)
2 π 2δ p
ψ 2 (α , t ) = w2φ 2 (α , t ) = w2 ∫ b1D (α , t ) ⋅ l ⋅ dx
τp
0
(6.58)
D
dx = ⋅ dα (6.59)
2
Fig. 151: three-phase winding
α +π D D α +π
ψ 2 (α , t ) = w2 ∫ p
b1D (α , t ) ⋅ l ⋅ ⋅ dα = w2 ⋅ l ⋅ ∫ p B1D sin (αp − ω1t )dα
α 2 2 α
(6.60)
l⋅D D
= w2 ⋅ B1 ⋅ cos(αp − ω1t )
p
l⋅D D
φ1 = ⋅ B1 (6.61)
p
112
Rotating field theory
dψ 2 (α , t ) ∂ψ (α , t ) dα ∂ψ 2 (α , t )
ui 2 (α , t ) = − =− 2 − (6.63)
dt ∂α dt ∂t
dα
u i 2 = w2φ1 sin (αp − ω1t ) ⋅ p − ω1 (6.64)
dt
dα
= Ω = 2πn (6.65)
dt
ω1
Ω1 = = 2πn1 (6.66)
p
Ω1 − Ω n1 − n
s= = (6.67)
Ω1 n1
Slip is the referenced differential speed between stator rotating field and rotor. Rotational
speed of the stator rotating field is taken as reference value.
The rotational speed of the stator field fundamental wave is called synchronous speed.
ω1 2πf1
Ω1 p p f1
n1 = = = = (6.68)
2π 2π 2π p
As per 6.67, slip s=0 applies at synchronous speed, whereas s=1 applies for standstill.
Therefore follows for the induced voltage of the rotor winding:
pΩ − ω1
u i 2 (α , t ) = w2φ1 sin (αp − ω1t ) ⋅ ω1
ω1 (6.69)
= − s ⋅ ω1 ⋅ w2φ1 sin (αp − ω1t )
113
0 Spatial position of the rotor coil can also
be depicted as:
stator α
α (t ) = α R + Ωt (6.70)
• the amplitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the line frequency of the stator
and to the according slip.
• at rotor standstill (s=1), frequency of the induced voltage is equal to line frequency.
• phase displacement of voltages to be induced into the rotor is only dependent from the
spatial position of the coil, represented by the (elec.) angle α R p .
Is a rotor also equipped with a three-phase winding, instead of a single coil - similar to the
2π
stator arrangement – with phases being displaced by a mechanical angle α R = (k − 1)
3p
(k=1,2,3), a number of slots per pole and phase greater than 1 (q>1) and the resulting number
of windings w2ξ2, then follows for the induced voltage of single rotor phases:
2π
ui 2 k (t ) = s ⋅ ω1 ⋅ w2ξ 2φ1 sin s ⋅ ω1t − (k − 1) (6.72)
3
For s=1, equation 6.72 applies for induced voltages in stator windings using w1ξ1 :
2π
ui1K (t ) = ω1w1ξ1φ1 sin ω1t − (k − 1) (6.73)
3
114
Rotating field theory
The rms values of induced voltages in stator and rotor windings ensue to:
φ1
U i1 = ω1 ⋅ w1ξ1 ⋅ (6.74)
2
φ1
U i 2 = sω1 ⋅ w2ξ 2 ⋅ (6.75)
2
U i1 w1ξ1 1
= ⋅ (6.76)
U i 2 w2ξ 2 s
3 4 w2ξ 2
θ 2D = 2I 2 (6.80)
2 π p2
Fig. 153: space vector representation for θ
time vector representation for U,I.
Initially no assumptions are made for the number of pole pairs, angular frequency and phase
angle of rotating magneto-motive forces of stator- and rotor.
With appliance of Ampere’s law, the resulting air gap field calculates from superimposing of
both rotating magneto-motive forces of stator and rotor:
µ0 D
b D (α , t ) = (θ1 (α , t ) + θ 2D (α , t ))
2δ 444
1 2444 3
(6.81)
θ (α ,t )
0
115
Rotating field theory
B 2 (α , t )
Wm = ∫ dV (6.82)
V
2µ0
D
dV = lδdx = lδ dα (6.83)
2
Torque computes from the derivation of the magnetic energy with the relative mechanical
displacement ε of both rotating fields against each other:
B 2 (α , t ) D
2π
∂Wm ∂
M =
∂ε
=
∂ε ∫0 2µ 0 lδ 2 dα (6.84)
∂B(α , t ) ∂θ D (α , t )
2
∂ 2 µ
B (α , t ) = 2 B (α , t ) = 2 0 (θ1D (α , t ) + θ 2D (α , t )) 2 (6.85)
∂ε ∂ε 2δ ∂ε
Replacing variables:
2 2π
∫ [θ ]
lδD µ0
M = 2 1
D
sin (αp1 − ω1t ) + θ 2D sin (αp2 − ω 2t − εp2 )
4 µ0 2δ 0
(6.86)
θ 2D [− p2 cos(αp2 − ω 2t − εp2 )] dα
2π
∫ sin x cos x dx = 0
0
(6.87)
2π
− p2lDµ0 D D
M = θ1 θ 2 ∫ sin (αp1 − ω1t ) cos(αp2 − ω 2t − εp2 )dα (6.88)
4 ⋅ 2δ 0
116
Rotating field theory
with:
1
sin x cos y = (sin (x + y ) + sin (x − y )) (6.89)
2
follows:
2π
− p2lDµ0 θ1Dθ 2D
M =
4 ⋅ 2δ 2 ∫ (sin [( p
0
1 + p2 )α − (ω1 + ω 2 )t − εp2 ] + sin [( p1 − p2 )α − (ω1 − ω 2 )t + εp2 ])dα
(6.90)
x1 x2
in general:
2π
0 für n ≠ 0
∫ sin (nx + ϕ )dx = 2π sin ϕ für
0
n=0
(6.91)
Since p1 and p2 are integer numbers, x1 is always equal to zero and x2 is only unequal to zero,
if p1= p2=p.
Therefore the number of pole pair of stator and rotor must agree, in order to create torque at
all.
M =
− plDµ 0 θ 1 Dθ 2 D
4 ⋅ 2δ 2
[
2π sin − (ω1 − ω 2 ) t + εp ] (6.92)
A time-variant sinusoidal torque with average value equal to zero appears which is called
oscillation torque. Only if angular frequencies of the exciting currents agree, which means
ω1=ω2=ω and therefore speed of rotation of stator and rotor rotating field agree (at equal
number of pole pairs), a time-constant torque derives for ε ≠ 0 :
plDµ0
M = πθ1Dθ 2D sin (− εp ) (6.93)
4 ⋅ 2δ
Magneto-motive force θ 0D reflects the geometrical sum of stator and rotor mmf, which
complies with the resulting air gap field.
r r r 2δ D
θ 0D = θ1D + θ 2D = B1 (6.94)
µ0
117
Rotating field theory
θ 2D θ 0D
= (6.95)
π sin (π − ε )
sin − ϕ1
2
then follows:
2δ
− θ 2D sin ε = θ 0D cosϕ 1 = B1 cosϕ 1 (6.96)
µ0
118
Rotating field theory
If n may be rotor speed, then follows for the relative speed between stator rotating field and
rotor speed n2 = n1 − n .
If rotor slots are also fitted with symmetrical three-phase windings (number of pole pairs p,
currents with slip frequency f 2 = p ⋅ n2 are induced into the rotor. Those currents likewise
create a rotating field, revolving relatively to the rotor speed at speed n2 = f 2 p .
The rotating field, caused by rotor currents features a rotational speed n2 + n = n1 , according
to the stator field. This necessity is called frequency condition.
slip:
n1 − n n2 f
s= = = 2 (6.98)
n1 n1 f1
slip frequency:
f 2 = s ⋅ f1 (6.99)
rotor speed:
n = n1 ⋅ ( 1 − s ) (6.100)
119
Rotating field theory
If rotating field machines are directly supplied by three-phase lines, the accepted active
power, less occurring copper losses in windings is equal to the air gap power:
P1
VCu1
PD
Pel
Pmech
PD = P1 − V Cu1 (6.101)
PD = 3 ⋅ U i1 ⋅ I 1 ⋅ cosϕ 1 = M ⋅ 2π ⋅ n1 (6.102)
Pmech = M ⋅ 2π ⋅ n = M ⋅ 2π ⋅ (1 − s ) ⋅ n1 = (1 − s ) ⋅ PD (6.103)
The difference of air gap power less mechanical power on the shaft is converted to heat losses
inside the rotor windings:
120
Rotating field theory
Ui
X 1h = (6.105)
I1
with
φ1
U i = ω1w1ξ1 (6.106)
2
lD
φ1 = B1 (6.107)
p
µ 0 3 4 w1ξ1
B1 = 2 I1 (6.108)
2δ 2 π p
follows
2
3 w ξ 2 lD
X 1h = ω µ0 1 1 (6.109)
2 p π δ
The leakage reactance of three-phase windings results from a superposition of three effects,
being independently calculable:
•
•
•
end winding leakage
slot leakage
harmonic leakage
} Σ = X1σ
Same conditions apply for the rotor leakage reactance. Detailed discussion is to be found in
literature as given.
X 1 = X 1h + X 1σ (6.110)
U1
X1 = (6.111)
I0
121
Rotating field theory
lE
τp z , q ,a
N L
lm ≈ 2(lE + τ p ) (6.112)
N zN
w= a (6.113)
2m
wl m
R=ρ [1 + α (T − 20K )] (6.114)
aql
0.004
α= (6.115)
K
The maximum overtemperature in nominal operation depends on the insulation class (VDE):
122
7 Induction machine
7.1 Design, method of operation
Induction machines state the most import type
stator with of three-phase machines, to be mainly used as
u windings
motor. Stator and rotor are composed of slotted
iron laminations that are stacked to form a core.
z
A symmetric three-phase winding is placed in
y
the stator slots, which is connected to a three-
rotor
phase system in either star- or delta-connection.
Rotor slots also contain a symmetric three-phase
winding or a squirrel-cage-winding, to be short-
v circuited.
w
If induction machines are supplied by three-phase networks of frequency f1, balanced currents
occur, to create a rotating field inside the air gap, revolving with synchronous rotational speed
n1. This rotating field induces currents of frequency f2 inside the conductors of the rotor
windings. This again creates another rotating field, revolving with differential speed n2
relatively towards the rotor speed n and relatively towards the stator field with n1 = n + n2 ,
which fulfils the frequency condition. Due to Lenz’s Law, rotor currents counteract their
origin, which is based on relative motion between stator and rotor. As a consequence rotor
currents and stator rotating field, which revolves with synchronous speed, create torques
driving the rotor in direction of the stator rotating field and trying to adapt their speed to that
of the stator rotating field. Since the induction effect would disappear in case of not having
any relative motion between rotor and stator field, the rotor is actually not able to reach stator
field rotational speed. Rotors show a certain amount of slip s against the stator rotating field –
their method of running is called asynchronous. Therefore this kind of machine is called
induction machine (asynchronous machine). The higher the torque, demanded by the rotor,
the greater the amount of slip.
f1
Synchronous speed: n1 = (7.1)
p
rotor speed: n (7.2)
n − n f2
slip: s= 1 = (7.3)
n1 f1
123
Induction machine
cage rotor
124
Induction machine
Fig. 162a: induction motor, power: 30 kW Fig. 162b: same machine, rotor only
Fig. 163a-d: high-voltage induction motor, power: 300 kW (Siemens) - case with shaft (upper
left), stator (upper right), slip-ring rotor (lower left), squirrel-cage rotor (lower right)
125
Induction machine
slip-rings
+ brushes
U V
starting resistor
• induction machines with slip-ring rotor consist of three-phase windings with a number of
phases m2 = 3 , similar to their stator. End windings are outside the cylindrical cage
connected to slip rings. Rotor windings are short-circuited either directly or via brushes
using a starting resistor or can be supplied by external voltage, which are means to adjust
rotational speed.
• Squirrel-cage rotors are composed of separate rotor bars to form a cylindrical cage. Their
end windings are short-circuited using short-circuit-rings at their end faces. The number of
phases is m2 = N 2 . This type of construction does not admit any access to the rotor
windings while operating, which results in a missing opportunity to directly influence the
operational behaviour. Large machines feature copper rotor bars and short-circuit-rings
whereas die-cast aluminium cages are used for small power machines.
The following considerations apply for both slip-ring rotor machines as well as squirrel-cage
rotor machines.
Each of the windings of stator and rotor feature a resistance, R1 for the stator and R2 for the
rotor, as well as a self inductance L1 (stator) and L2 (rotor).
Stator- and rotor winding are magnetically coupled by their common mutual inductance M.
126
Induction machine
Since currents in stator windings are of frequency f1, whereas currents in rotor windings are of
frequency f2, certain conditions apply for operation at rotational speed n:
ω M
R1 2
R2
I1 I2
U1 ωL ωL U2
1 1
f1 2 2
f2
ω M
1
U 1 = R1 ⋅ I 1 + j ⋅ ω 1 ⋅ L1 ⋅ I 1 + j ⋅ ω 1 ⋅ M ⋅ I 2 (7.4)
U 2 = R2 ⋅ I 2 + j ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ L2 ⋅ I 2 + j ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ M ⋅ I 1 (7.5)
Rotor quantities are now transferred into stator quantities, i.e. voltage U 2* and current I 2* of
frequency f1 are to be used for steady oriented stator windings, evoking the same effect as
voltage U2 and current I2 in revolving rotor windings. Power invariant transformation,
introducing a transformation ratio ü is utilized to aim the described transfer.
* * I2
U 2 = ü ⋅U 2 , I2 = (7.6)
ü
I
U 1 = R1 ⋅ I 1 + j ⋅ ω1 ⋅ ( L1 − ü ⋅ M ) ⋅ I 1 + j ⋅ ω1 ⋅ ü ⋅ M ⋅ 2 + I 1 (7.7)
ü
+ j ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ ( L2 ⋅ ü 2 − ü ⋅ M )⋅ 2 + j ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ ü ⋅ M ⋅ I 1 + 2
I2 I I
ü ⋅U 2 = ü 2 ⋅ R2 ⋅ (7.8)
ü ü ü
L1 w1 ⋅ ξ1
ü= = ⋅ (1 + σ 1 ) (7.9)
M w2 ⋅ ξ 2
127
Induction machine
With that, disappearance of the leakage inductance on the primary side is achieved, the trans-
formation ratio ü can be measured as the ratio of no-load voltages in standstill operation.
2
w ⋅ξ
R = ü ⋅ R2 = (1 + σ 1 ) ⋅ 1 1 ⋅ R2 = (1 + σ 1 ) ⋅ R2'
* 2 2 2
2 (7.10)
w2 ⋅ ξ 2
2
w ⋅ξ w ⋅ξ
L = ü ⋅ L2 − ü ⋅ M = (1 + σ 1 ) ⋅ 1 1 ⋅ (1 + σ 2 ) ⋅ L2 h − (1 + σ 1 ) ⋅ 1 1 ⋅ M =
* 2 2
2
w2 ⋅ ξ 2 w2 ⋅ ξ 2 (7.11)
(1 + σ 1 ) ⋅ (1 + σ 2 ) ⋅ L1 − L1 = 1 − 1 ⋅ L1 = σ ⋅ L1
1− σ 1−σ
1
σ = 1− (7.12)
(1 + σ 1 ) ⋅ (1 + σ 2 )
Then follows for the voltage equations:
U 1 = R1 ⋅ I 1 + j ⋅ ω 1 ⋅ L1 ⋅ I 0 (7.13)
* * *
U 2 = R *2 ⋅ I 2 + j ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ L*2 ⋅ I 2 + j ⋅ ω 2 ⋅ L1 ⋅ I 0 (7.14)
*
I 0 = I1 + I 2 (7.15)
The appearance of different frequencies in stator and rotor is displeasing. This issue can be
ω 1
formally eliminated, if the rotor voltage is multiplied by 1 = . Reactances are to be
ω2 s
transferred onto the stator side:
X 1 = ω 1 ⋅ L1 , X 2* = ω1 ⋅ L*2 (7.16)
U 1 = R1 ⋅ I 1 + j ⋅ X 1 ⋅ I 0 (7.17)
*
U2 R*2 * *
= ⋅ I 2 + j ⋅ X *2 ⋅ I 2 + j ⋅ X 1 ⋅ I 0 (7.18)
s s
*
I 0 = I1 + I 2
128
Induction machine
R 2*
R1 X 2*
s
I1 I2 *
I0
U1 U *2
X1
s
All occurring variables of the ecd shown in Fig. 166 are considered at frequency f1.
Operational behaviour of induction machines can be completely described using the ecd
shown in Fig. 166. It is purposively used for operation with constant stator flux linkage,
which means system supply with constant voltage and frequency.
The chosen transformation ratio ü can be measured on the primary side at no-load an standstill
on secondary side – neglecting stator winding copper losses. Then follows with:
I 2 = 0,
s = 1,
R1 = 0
w1 ⋅ ξ1
∗
U 1 = U 20 = ü ⋅U 20 = ⋅ (1 + σ 1 ) ⋅U 20 (7.19)
w2 ⋅ ξ 2
U1 w ⋅ξ
u&& = = 1 1 ⋅ (1 + σ 1 ) (7.20)
U 20 w2 ⋅ ξ 2
Operating with constant rotor flux linkage, which means field-oriented control, an ecd is to be
utilized with tranformation ratio of:
w1 ⋅ ξ1 1
ü= ⋅ (7.21)
w2 ⋅ ξ 2 (1 + σ 2 )
U 1 = R1 ⋅ I 1 + j ⋅σ ⋅ X 1 ⋅ I 1 + j ⋅ (1 − σ ) X 1 ⋅ I 0 (7.22)
+
U2 R 2+
⋅ I 2 + j ⋅ (1 − σ ) ⋅ X 1 ⋅ I 0
+
= (7.23)
s s
+
I 0 = I1 + I 2
129
Induction machine
R1 σX1 R+2
I0
I1 I+2
U1 (1- σ )X 1 U+2
s
Fig. 167: induction machine, ecd for constant rotor flux linkage
w1 ⋅ ξ1
ü= (7.24)
w2 ⋅ ξ 2
which complies with the effective number of windings, a T-form ecd derives for induction
machines. This type of ecd is similar to those of transformers (as discussed in chapter 3), but
of minor importance when considering operational behaviour (also without derivation):
U 1 = R1 ⋅ I 1 + j ⋅ X 1σ ⋅ I 1 + j ⋅ X 1h ⋅ I 0 (7.25)
'
U2 R 2' ' '
= ⋅ I 2 + j ⋅ X 2' σ ⋅ I 2 + j ⋅ X 1h ⋅ I 0 (7.26)
s s
'
I 0 = I1 + I 2
R' 2
R1 X 1σ X' 2σ
s
I0
I1 I'2
U1 U'2
X 1h
s
Please note:
• all types of ecd are physically identical and lead to same results
• a suitable choice of the transformation ratio is a question of expedience
Stator winding resistance R1 is usually neglected for machines at line frequency f1 = 50 Hz:
R1 = 0 (7.27)
130
Induction machine
Rotor windings of slip-ring rotors are usually short-circuited by slip-rings and brushes, same
as squirrel-cage rotors. As long as current displacement (skin effect, proximity effect) can be
neglected for squirrel-cage rotors, the operational behaviour of both types are alike:
U 2* = 0 (7.28)
With equation 7.28, voltage equations for induction machines ensue to:
U1 = j ⋅ X1 ⋅ I 0 (7.29)
R *2 * *
U1 = − ⋅ I 2 − j ⋅ X *2 ⋅ I 2 (7.30)
s
*
I 0 = I1 + I 2
which leads to a simple ecd, to consist of only 3 elements, shown in Fig. 169. This ecd is
taken as a basis for the investigation of the operational behaviour of induction machines in the
following.
R 2*
X2*
s
I1 I0 I2 *
U1
f1 X1 f1
The according phasor diagram can be drawn by using the voltage equations above.
+Re
R* 2 U 1 = j X 1 I0
I* 2
s
=
I1
ϕ =
I* 2
1
.
j X* 2 I* 2
I0 -Im
Fig. 170: induction machine, phasor diagram
131
Induction machine
Since no losses occur in stator windings ( R1 = 0 assumed), the entire absorbed active power is
transmitted over the air gap to appear as air-gap power for the rotor:
R2* *2
PD = P1 = 3 ⋅ ⋅I2 . (7.32)
s
In described equivalent circuit diagrams, the air gap power is represented by the active power
*
to be converted in the R2 -resistor. No copper losses occur for the rotor resistance R2 itself:
s
R*2 *2
= s ⋅ 3 ⋅ ⋅ I 2 = s ⋅ PD .
2 *2
Pel = 3 ⋅ R2 ⋅ I = 3 ⋅ R2 ⋅ I
2
*
2 (7.33)
s
With that fact, the mechanical power of induction machines to be exerted on the shaft ensues
to the difference of air gap power and rotor copper losses:
Pmech = PD − Pel = ( 1 − s ) ⋅ PD . (7.34)
7.3.2 Torque
Based on the simplified ecd follows for the current in a short circuited rotor:
* −U 1 U12
I =
2 , I *2
2 = , (7.35)
R2* R2*
2
+ j ⋅ X 2* + X 2*2
s
s
M =
Pmech
=
( 1 − s ) ⋅ PD = PD = 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ R2* ⋅ U12
2 ⋅ π ⋅ n 2 ⋅ π ⋅ n1 ( 1 − s ) 2 ⋅ π ⋅ n1 2 ⋅ π ⋅ f1 s R* 2
p 2 + X 2*2
s
2
U1
3⋅ p X 2*
= ⋅ (7.36)
ω1 R2* s ⋅ X 2*
+
s ⋅ X 2* R2*
132
Induction machine
Torque reaches its peak value in case of the denominator is minimum. The denominator is to
be differentiated after s and to be set = 0:
1 R2* X 2* R2*
− ⋅ + =0 ⇒ s=± . (7.37)
s 2 X 2* R2* X 2*
R2*
skipp = * ≈ 0,1L 0,2 (7.38)
X2
with the according breakdown torque, being the maximum torque value:
3 ⋅ p U 12
M kipp = ⋅ (7.39)
ω1 2 ⋅ X 2*
The Kloss Equation (7.40) derives from a reference of the actual torque on to the maximum
*
value and a replacement of R2 * by skipp (note: index kipp means breakdown):
X2
M 2
= (7.40)
M kipp s s
kipp
+
s skipp
M
M Kipp
2
1
MN
M Kipp
2 1 s Kipp s N 0 -s Kipp -1 s
-n 1 0 nN n1 2n 1 n
-1
breakdown
standstill
nominal
no-load
-2
133
Induction machine
M 2 s
s << skipp : = = 2⋅ straight line, (7.41)
M kipp skipp skipp
s
M 2 s
s >> skipp : = = 2 ⋅ kipp hyperbola, (7.42)
M kipp s s
skipp
M
s = skipp : =1 point. (7.43)
M kipp
7.3.3 Efficiency
The efficiency of induction machines at nominal operation, with neglection of stator copper
losses (R1 = 0), computes to:
Pab Pmech N ( 1 − s n ) ⋅ PD N
ηN = = = = 1 − sN (7.47)
Pauf PD N PD N
The nominal slip sn is supposed to be kept as small as possible, in order to achieve proper
nominal efficiency. Usual amounts for nominal slips are:
s N ≈ 0,05L0,01 (7.48)
η N = 0.95...0.99 (7.49)
When taking stator copper losses and hysteresis losses into account, real applications actually
show lower efficiency amounts between approx. 0,8 and 0,95.
134
Induction machine
7.3.4 Stability
An important condition is to be requested for both motor and generator operation: in which
range does the machine show stable operational behaviour? That leads to:
dM Motor dM Last
< = 0, (7.50)
dn dn
meaning load torque must be of greater value than motor torque at increasing speed.
Assuming
dM Last
M Last = const i.e. =0 (7.51)
dn
n = ( 1 − s ) ⋅ n0 (7.52)
follows:
dn = − n0 ⋅ ds , (7.53)
dM Motor dM Motor
>0 bzw. < 0, (7.54)
ds dn
These considerations leads to the assignment breakdown torque, because if the load exceeds
the breakdown torque, the rotor falls into standstill (motion breaks down), whereas it runs
away at oversized driving torque (running away may lead to destruction ⇒ break-down).
Therefore a certain overload factor is required for induction machines:
M kipp
> 1,5 (7.56)
MN
135
Induction machine
Preconditions:
• U1 wird in reelle Achse gelegt,
• der Läufer ist kurzgeschlossen,
• R1 = 0 .
R 2*
X2*
s
I1 I0 I2 *
U1
X1
U1
I0 = = const , (7.57)
j ⋅ X1
* U1
I2 = *
. (7.58)
R2
+ j ⋅ X 2*
s
* U1
I1 = I 0 + I 2 = I 0 + *
. (7.59)
R2
+ j ⋅ X 2*
s
U1
I1 = I 0 = (located on –j-axis) (7.60)
j ⋅ X1
R2*
= 0,
s
136
Induction machine
the ideal short-circuit reactance derives from a parallel connection of X1 and X2*:
σ
X1 ⋅ X1 ⋅
X 1 ⋅ X 2* 1−σ = σ ⋅ X .
XK = = (7.61)
X1 + X 2 X + X ⋅ σ
* 1
1 1
1−σ
U1
I1 = = I ∞ >> I 0 (located on –j-axis) (7.62)
j ⋅σ ⋅ X 1
The locus diagram of I1 forms a circle (not subject to derivation), whose center-point is also
located on the –j-axis, diameter ensues to ( I ∞ − I 0 )
+Re
s=0 s slip-line
U -Im
1
+Re
I ϕ
1
2
*
I *
2
ϕ
1
I
0
M I∞ -Im
7.4.2 Parametrization
The tangent function is to be applied for the rotor current angle for parameter assignment:
tan ϕ *
=
{ }= X
Im I 2
* *
2
⋅s =
s
~ s, (7.63)
Re{I } R
2
* *
2 2 skipp
which is a linear function of s and can therefore be utilized for construction purpose of the
slip-line.
A tangent to the circle is to be drawn at I0, intersected by a line in parallel the –j-axis.
This line is called slip-line, which terminates at the intersection with the extension of the
current phasor I2. This line is divided linearly because of is proportional to the slip.
Besides the no-load point, a second point on the circle graph must be known, in order to
define a parametrization.
137
Induction machine
If the ohmic stator winding resistance needs to be taken into account, to apply for low power
machines and power converter supply at low frequencies, an active partition is added to the
circle of the locus diagram, which differs for location of center point and parameter
assignment – not supposed to be discussed further.
If R1 is equal to zero (R1 = 0) , the entire absorbed active power is equal to the air gap power
PD, to be transferred across the air gap.
+Re
M I∞ -Im
generator s < 0
Geometric interdependences for air gap power and torque derive from Fig. 174:
PD
M = = cM ⋅ AB , (7.65)
2 ⋅ π ⋅ n1
AB 1
= ⇒ AC = s ⋅ AB , BC = ( 1 − s ) ⋅ AB . (7.66)
AC s
138
Induction machine
Pel = s ⋅ PD = c P ⋅ AC , (7.67)
Pmech = ( 1 − s ) ⋅ PD = cP ⋅ BC . (7.68)
The straight-line to run through points s = 0 and s = 1 on the circle is called straight-line of
mechanical power (see Fig. 174).
• no-load: s = 0, n = n1 (7.69)
No-load current
U1
I0 = (7.70)
X1
is placed on the –Im-axis and is supposed to be kept small with regard to the absorbed
reactive power of induction machines. Since the total reactance X1 is inverse
proportional to the air gap width, this width is also supposed to be kept small.
Mechanical limits may be reached when considering shaft deflection and bearing
clearance:
D
δ ≥ 0.2mm + . (7.71)
1000
I0
= 0.25...0.5 . (7.72)
I1N
139
Induction machine
R2*
• breakdown: s kipp = . (7.73)
X 2*
At this point, maximum torque is exerted on the shaft of induction machines. This point
describes the peak value of the circle, real- and imaginary part of I2 * are equal, so that
tan ϕ 2* = 1 .
When starting, short-circuit currents I1k occurs, which is multiple the nominal current
I1N and therefore needs to be limited, due to approximately:
• ideal short-circuit: s = ∞, n = ∞
U1 I
I∞ = = 0. (7.76)
σ ⋅ X1 σ
σ = 0.03...0.1
I∞ .
= 5...8
I1N
The nominnal point is to be chosen in the way, to maximize cosϕ 1 . This case is given,
if the nominal currents ensues to a tangent to the circle. A better value of cosϕ 1 can
not be achieved. The optimum point is not always kept precisely in practical
applications.
I∅ 1
⋅ (I ∞ − I 0 )
1 2 2 1−σ
cosϕ 1opt = = = ,
I∅ 1 1+σ
1
+ I0 ⋅ ( I ∞ + I 0 )
2 2
1
(7.77)
0
with practical values:
140
Induction machine
U1
I0 = . (7.79)
X1
U1 I
I∞ = = 0 . (7.80)
σ ⋅ X1 σ
X 2*
tanϕ 2* = ⋅s . (7.81)
R2*
141
Induction machine
X 2* U1
I0 = = const |R* (7.83)
j ⋅ X1
2
I1 I0 I2 *
U1 I
X1 R 2 * +R V * I ∞ = 0 = const |R* (7.84)
s σ 2
3 ⋅ p U12
M kipp = ⋅ = const |R* (7.85)
ω 2⋅ X2 * 2
The circle of the locus diagram remains the same in case of an increased rotor resistor,
realized by adding RV to R2 – only the slip-parametrization differs.
X 2*
o without R : *
v tan ϕ = *
2 ⋅ s1 (7.86)
R2*
X 2*
o with Rv* : tan ϕ 2* = ⋅ s2 (7.87)
R +R *
2
*
v
In order to achieve the same point on the circle diagram, both tanϕ 2* values need to be the
same:
and therefore:
R
s 2 = s1 ⋅ 1 + V* (7.89)
R2
The same circle point and therefore the same amount of torque is achieved for a slip value s2
when adding RV* to the rotor circuit as for slip value s1. This enables starting with breakdown
torque (=maximum torque).
142
Induction machine
U1 U1
M Kipp
M A = M Kipp
MA
I0 without R *V I∞ -Im I0 with R *V I∞ -Im
Fig. 177 a/b: induction machine, circle diagram without/with starting resistor
M Kipp Example:
s1 = skipp , s2 = 1 (7.90)
R2* R2* + Rv* 1
= → Rv* = R2* ⋅ − 1
skipp 1 s
kipp
1 s Kipp 0 s (7.91)
Fig. 178:
Disadvantage of this method: additional losses caused by the additional resistor RV, the
efficiency η = 1 − s decreases.
No-load speed remains the same as of operation without starting resistor.
143
Induction machine
f line = 50Hz
L U = 0 .... U max
f = 0 .... f max
~ C = M
= ~ 3~
Fig. 179: power system set, power supply, AC/DC – DC/AC converters, three-phase machine
Power converters are required fort his method of speed adjustment. Power is taken from the
supplying system, then rectified and transferred to the inverter block via its DC-link. The
inverter takes over speed control of the induction machine, supplying with varable frequency
and voltage.
U1 U
I0 = ~ 1 (7.92)
X 1 f1
I 0 U1
I∞ = ~ . (7.93)
σ f 1
If the supplying voltage is variated proportionally to the line frequency, the according circle
size remains the same and therefore also its breakdown torque
2
3⋅ p U12 U
M kipp = ⋅ ~ 1 , (7.94)
ω1 2 ⋅ X 2* f1
144
Induction machine
X 2*
tan ϕ 2* = ⋅ s ~ s ⋅ f1 = f 2 . (7.95)
*
R 2
Any rotor frequency is assigned to a circle point. The short-circuit operational points
approaches the no-load point with decreasing frequency.
+Re
f 2 = 10Hz
U1
f2 = 25Hz
0 s = 1(10Hz) s = 1(25Hz) s = 1(50Hz)
f 2 = 50Hz
I0 I∞ -Im
U1
Fig. 180:circle diagram for = const , R1 = 0
f1
M Kipp
M A (10Hz)
M A (25Hz)
M A (50Hz)
0 n0 / 5 n0 / 2 n n0
1 s = 0(10Hz) s = 0(25Hz) s s = 0(50Hz)
U1
Fig. 181: torque-speed-characteristic for = const , R1 = 0
f1
U1
The mode of operation keeping = const is called operation with constant stator flux
f1
linkage. For instance constant no-load stator flux linkage ensues to:
U1 U
Ψ10 = L1 ⋅ I10 = L1 ⋅ ~ 1 = const (7.96)
ω1 ⋅ L10 f1
145
Induction machine
PD f1 s·PD f1
M
3~
f 2 =s · f 1
s·PD
Fig. 182: ecd for additional voltage in rotor circuit
Slip power s ⋅ PD is taken from (or fed to) the slip-rings of the machine and supplied to (or
taken from) the line using an inverter. Therefore slip is increased or decreased, an almost
lossless speed adjustment is possible - „under-synchronous or over-synchronous inverter
cascades“.
The power inverter necessarily only needs to be designed for slip power.
146
Induction machine
+Re
U1
I0
I∞ -Im
L1 C
I1
generator
G solitary operation
A
3~
s<0
Fig. 183: induction generator, operational range, ecd
The stator current reactive component direction remains the same at changeover from motor
to generator mode. Thus induction machines are not able to autonomously excite required
magnetizing current, but need to be supplied by external sources. Since synchronous
generators are able to provide lagging reactive power, mains operation appears trouble-free. If
induction machines are supposed to operate in solitary operation without mains connection
(e.g. auxiliary power supplies, alternator in automotive applications, etc.), capacitor banks
need to be connected in parallel for coverage of required reactive power.
A stable operating point ensues for U C = U 0 at the intersection of no-load characteristic and
capacitor characteristic. The amount of no-load voltage can be adjusted by the choice of the
utilized capacitor value.
The no-load characteristic U 0 = f (I µ ) applies for constant speed without load ⇒ I wirk = 0 ,
I
whereas the capacitor characteristic U C = µ complies with the reactive voltage drop along
ωC
the capacitor, to be connected in parallel.
147
Induction machine
Iµ U1
Uc=
ωc
U0 U 0 = f (I µ ) U cos ϕ = 1
0
stability limit
∆I I1 I Iµ I1
1B 0
Fig. 184: induction generator, intersection of no-load and capacitor characteristics
If the machine is loaded with active current I1, the required reactive current amount increased
about ∆I1B . Since the capacitor is not able to provide more reactive current in real, voltage
drops until U1. Therefore the machine load can be increased until the stability limit is reached,
which means, an additional reactive current demand can not be covered.
The according load characteristics U1 = f ( I1 ) take after those of entirely excited DC shunt
generators.
148
Induction machine
In its simplest form squirrel cage rotors consist of bars, placed in slots, to count the same
number as the number N2 of rotor slots. At the rotor front end, cage bars are interconnected
with short-circuit rings. The arrangement is generally called cage rotor and because their
alikeness usually known as squirrel cage rotor.
Either blank copper bars are sandwiched into uninsulated slots of the rotor laminations stack,
to be short-circuited by conducting rings at the front ends as described or alternatively die-
cast aluminium cages are implemented, usually for low-power machines.
Cage windings can be understood as polyphase winding of N2 phases, with any of the bars to
consist of single bars. This assumption appears perspiciuous as soon as single bars are added
up to short-circuited ring-windings, whose one side reaches trough the armature (Fig. 185a).
This leads to a symmetrical polyphase winding with N2 short-circuited phase windings. The
total sum of induced currents by sinusoidal rotating fields is supposed to be equal to zero at
any moment of time. Thus return conductors through the interior of the armature can be
spared if all bars at both ends of the rotor are connected in one electrical node each (Fig.
185b). The only item of squirrel-cage rotors to differ from the described winding principle is a
substitution of node points by ring conductors, which can be displayed by a resistor to be
connected as N2-angle (Fig. 185c).
The number of turns w2 of cage windings with m2 phases = N2 bars ensues to:
N 2 zN 1
w2 = = (z N = 1, a = 1) (7.97)
2m2a 2
149
Induction machine
ξ2 = 1 . (7.98)
Squirrel-cage rotors do not feature certain number of poles, but as an effect of the induction
evoked by the stator, it takes over the number of stator poles.
1
⋅1
m2 4 w2ξ 2 N2 4 2 2 N2
θ 2D = 2I2 = 2 I Stab = I Stab , (7.99)
2 π p 2 π p π p
First Kirchhoff’s Law applies for the dependence of bar- and ring currents:
I 01 = I1 + I12 (7.101)
I12 = I 2 + I 23 (7.102)
I 23 = I 3 + I 34 (7.103)
I 34 = I 4 + I 45 (7.104)
I
1
β
I I
01 2
I
β 12
2 β I β
23 I
β
3
I
34
Fig. 186: phasor diagram of bar and ring currents
150
Induction machine
Phase displacement of bar currents is equal to phase displacement of ring currents, so that
generally follows:
I Stab
I Ring = 2 = I Stab (7.105)
β πp
sin 2 sin
2 N2
This leads to the evaluation I Ring >> I Stab - short-circuit rings need to be necessarily design to
stand high ring currents with damage. Squirrel-cage machines with low number of poles in
particular require large ring cross section compared to bar diameters.
Note: On the one hand, squirrel cage rotors adapt to various number of stator poles, but they
can not be utilized for different a number of poles on the other hand – founded by reasons of
dimensioning (see above).
The basic effect of current displacement and the opportunity to utilize it for an improvement
of the start-up behaviour of squirrel-cage motors is subject of discussion in the following.
For a better understanding only a single slot of typical squirrel-cage motors, shown in Fig.
187, is part of investigation. Assumptions as the conductor to completely fill out the slot and
current density to be constant over cross-section area in case of DC current supply and no
current displacement, are made for simplification reasons. Appliance of Ampere’s Law on the
conductor shows linear rise of flux density inside the slot, neglect of the magnetic voltage
drop in iron parts assumed.
r r
θ = ∫ Hds , µ Fe → ∞
B (x )
θ ( x ) = S N bN x = H ( x ) ⋅ bN = bN (7.106)
µ0
S N bN hN I x x
B( x ) = µ0 x = µ0 = = Bmax (7.107)
bN hN bN hN hN
x x
hL hL
h L= h N x
SN S Bmax B
b N =b L
Fig. 187: conductor bar run of current density and flux density
151
Induction machine
I= x µ0 I =
DC current: S (x ) = SN = ; B( x ) = Bmax ; Bmax =
hL bL hN bN
In case of AC current supply, flowing bar current is displaced towards the air gap the more its
frequency rises. The effect is called current displacement, it is caused by the slot leakage
field. Model: if a solid conductor bar is assumed as stacked partial conductors, placed one
upon another, lower layers are linked with higher leakage flux than upper layers, which means
lower partial coils feature higher leakage inductance than upper partial coils. In case of
flowing AC current, back-e.m.f. into separate zones is induced by the slot leakage field.
di
( Lσ ⋅ ). The amount of back-e.m.f. increases from top to bottom of the conductor (-layers),
dt
which counteract their creating origin (Lenz`s Law). As a consequence of this, eddy currents
of uneven distribution develop, whose integration over the conductor cross section area is
equal to zero, but create single-sided current displacement towards the slot opening.
small L σ
hN
hN
Lσ ~
bN
large L σ
x x
hL hL
h L= h N x
SN S Bmax B
b N =b L
Fig. 189a-c: conductor in slot, dimensions (a), current density (b), flux density (c)
µ0 I 2 ^
AC current: bN ∫ S ( x )dx = I ; Bmax = ; 2I = I =
bN
2ρ 1
δ = = . (7.108)
ωµ 0 πfκµ 0
1 Ωmm 2
Symbol δ is used for penetration depths, e.g. results for copper with ρ = and line
57 m
frequency 50 Hz: δ = 1cm.
In order to illustrate the effect of current displacement, the following pictures show field
distribution of an induction machine at different frequencies, calculated with Finite Element
Method (FEM).
152
Induction machine
Fig. 190: induction machine, field distribution at fs = 0.1 Hz, 0.5 Hz, 5 Hz, 10 Hz, 20 Hz, 50
Hz (top left through bottom right)
153
Induction machine
PV = ρ ∫ S 2 ( x )dV = I 2 R2 (s ) (7.109)
V
R2 (s ) = K R (s )R2 (7.110)
Current displacement reduces flux density in rotor conductors, solely the slot opening shows
same maximum values as in the DC case. This effect leads to a reduction of the leakage
inductances:
1 1
Wm = ∫ B 2 ( x )dV = I 2 L2σN (s ) (7.112)
2µ0 V 2
Usually current displacement is an unwanted effect for electrical machines in general, because
of the described additional losses in rotor bars – with increased heating and deteriorated
efficiency as a consequence. In order to avoid this, conductor cross sections of large machines
are partitioned and additionally transposed.
Current displacement is merely used for induction machines for improvement of start-up
behaviour. Different forms of rotor bars appear for optimizing purposes.
• deep-bar rotor,
subdivided into:
154
Induction machine
Frequency of rotor currents is equal to line frequency at the moment of actuation. Current
displacement appears in rotor bars. That enlarges R′2 and lessens X 2′σ . The amplification of
R′2 moves the short-circuit operational point towards the breakdown point, a reduction of
X 2′σ enlarges the circle diameter.
+ Re
P
K
P
K KA
KB P K
A
P KB
0
I I I I - Im
0B = 0A B A
Fig. 193: variance of the circle form at parameter change
The influence of current displacement decreases with increasing speed of the motor, until it
disappears near the nominal point. The course of the locus diagram K can be developed from
start-up diagram KA and operation diagram KB. Strictly speaking, any operational point
requires an own according circuit diagram.
• twin-slot-cage rotor
Double-slot rotors as well as double-cage rotors form the category of twin-slot-cage rotors:
KA
stray web
KB
155
Induction machine
The following diagram shows locus diagrams of starting cage and operation cage:
+Re
KB K s=1
sN
KA
I0 Iφ B -Im
Iφ A
Fig. 196: locus diagrams of different cage types
A comparison of current and torque course over rotational speed for different rotor types is
illustrated in Fig. 197:
breakdown torque
240
%
220
300
100 nominal torque
80
200 (tapered) deep bar
60
40
100 round bar nominal current
20 phase armature
torque
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 %
rotational speed
Fig. 197: torque/speed characteristics for different rotor types
156
Induction machine
The first field, to rotate in direction of the rotor shows a slip due to:
n1 − n
s= , (7.115)
n1
whereas the slip of the counter rotor motion rotating field ensues to:
− n1 − n
s= =2−s (7.116)
− n1
• Concurrent stator field and the concurrent rotor field as well as the counterrotating
stator field and the counterrotating rotor field form constant torque each.
• Concurrent stator field and the counterrotating rotor field as well as the
counterrotating stator field and the concurrent rotor field create pulsating torque with
average value equal to zero.
The effect of both rotating fields with opposing motion directions on the rotor can be
understood as a machine set to consist of two equal three-phase machines exerting opposite
rotational speed directions on one shaft.
M
Both torque partitions equalize
each other in standstill. Single-
M in
phase induction machines fail to
n=0 M res. exert torque on the shaft, so that
n = -n 0 they are unable to start on their
own!
157
Induction machine
This leads to elliptical rotating field. If single-phase induction machines are pushed to speed
with external means (hand-start), the resulting torque value is unequal to zero, the rotor
accelerates independently and can be loaded.
Iu = - Iv = I; Iw = 0
(1 − a )
I
Im 1 a a2 I u 3 2
Ig =
1
1 a
2
a I v =
(
1− a )
I. (7.117)
I 3 3
0 1 1 1 Iw 0
The relation between U and I is regarded for induction machines including the slip-dependent
motor impedance Z(s).
U m = Z m I m = Z (s )
(1− a ) I , (7.118)
3
U g = Z g I g = Z (2 − s )
(1 − a ) I .
2
(7.119)
3
Inverse transformation:
U u = U m +U g +U 0 (7.120)
2
U v = a U m + aU g + U 0 (7.121)
( )
3U = U u − U v = U m 1 − a + U g (1 − a )
2
= Z (s )
(1 − a)
I (1 − a ) + Z (2 − s )
2 (
1− a )
2
I (1 − a ) (7.122)
3 3
= [Z (s ) + Z (2 − s )]I = U I + U II
158
Induction machine
Figure 200 illustrates the ecd for single-phase operation. The ohmic resistance of the stator
winding needs to be taken into account for machines of low power. Reactances of the three-
phase windings remain the same for single-phase operation.
R 2*
R1 X 2* s
I
U I X1 positive-sequence
mains U
single-phase
U X1 negative-sequence
II
R1 R 2* X 2*
2-s
Fig. 200: induction machine in single-phase operation, ecd
3U
I= (7.123)
Z (s ) + Z (2 − s )
Impedance values of positive- and negative sequence system can be taken from the circuit
diagram in balanced operation for arbitrary operational points s.
+ Re 0 s 1 2-s 2
I(s)
I(2-s)
- Im
Fig. 201: balanced operation, circuit diagram
U
Z (s ) = (7.124)
I (s )
U
Z (2 − s ) = (7.125)
I (2 − s )
159
Induction machine
Phase current in single-phase operation can be approximated in the proximity of low slip
values by:
3U 3U
I1Ph = ≈ = 3I 3 Ph , (7.126)
Z (s ) + Z (2 − s ) Z (s )
that means: if one phase is disconnected in normal operation at three-phase system, the motor
continues running, the current absorbtion increases between no-load an nominal operation
about factord 3 . This may lead to thermal overload.
3U 3
I1Ph = = I 3Ph (7.127)
2 Z (1) 2
If single-phase induction motors are supposed to exert start-up torques, the appliance of an at
least elliptical rotating field is mandatory.
This requires an auxiliary phase winding (h), which is displaced from the main winding (H)
by a spatial angle ε and fed by currents being displaced by electrical phase angle ϕ.
wHξ H ε h
i α
p H I IH Ih
wξ U
h h ih H Z
~
160
Induction machine
π π
ε= and ϕ = as well as wh ⋅ ξ h = wH ⋅ ξ H ,
2p 2
that means spatial displacement of the coils and temporal displacement of the currents of 90°
and also the same number of windings for main and auxiliary phase. A circular rotating field
accrues based on these conditions. Due to cost reasons, in practical auxiliary phases are
designed for lower efforts and with a smaller temporal displacement of the currents. This
effects in an elliptical rotating field.
Current displacement of main phase current IH and auxiliary phase current Ih is achieve by
utilization of an impedance in the auxiliary phase circuit.
2. inductance
3. resistance
Technical realization:
main phase
Appliance: low-power drive systems for industry, trade, agriculture and household
applications.
161
Induction machine
yoke
squirrel-cage rotor
main winding
Isthmus
Fig. 205: split-pole motor, design Fig. 206: ditto, asym. partial cross-section
In practical there is both symmetrical and asymmetrical cross section, to be displayed in Fig.
205 and 206.
Split-pole machines feature unreasonable efficiencies, because of their losses to occur in the
copper short-circuit ring and their counterrotating rotating fields as well as low initial torque.
Despite low production costs and simple design, split-pole motors are only utilized for low
power applications (below 100W) for discussed reasons.
162
8 Synchronous machine
Same as induction machines, synchronous machines belong to the category of rotating field
machines, solely their rotor windings are fed with DC current. Voltage equation and
equivalent circuit diagram can be derived from those of induction machines.
Synchronous machines are solely able to create time-constant torque (unequal zero) if the
frequency condition applies:
f 2 = s ⋅ f1 (8.1)
f1
s=0 and n = n1 = . (8.2)
p
For stationary operation, the rotor exclusively revolves at synchronous speed n1, where the
assignment as „synchronous machine” derives from. Pulsating torques emerge at any other
speeds n ≠ n1 , with mean values equal zero.
163
Synchronous machine
164
Synchronous machine
Fig. 211: sync. generator with stationary field exciter machine, revolving rectifiers, 30 kVA
165
Synchronous machine
Rotor windings are supplied by DC current. Since f2 is equal zero (f2 = 0), the rotor can be
implemented as solid unit. Due to different rotor types, two machine types are distinguished:
damper-
winding
-1 -1
p=1 n = 3000 min p=3 n = 1000 min
at f 1 = 50 Hz at f 1= 50 Hz
Fig. 212: rotor designs of both machine types: round rotor (left), salient-pole rotor (right)
166
Synchronous machine
R 2*
X2*
s
I1 I0 I2 *
U1 U 2*
X1
s
EZS VZS
U 1 (
+ j⋅ X1 ⋅ I1 + I2 = 0
*
) (8.3)
* R2
( )
* *
U2 *
= I 2 ⋅ + j ⋅ X 2* + j ⋅ X 1 I 1 + I 2 (8.4)
s s
Since a division by s = 0 must not be performed, the rotor voltage equation needs to be
multiplied by s and reformed:
*
U 1 + j ⋅ X1 ⋅ I 1 = − j ⋅ X1 ⋅ I 2 (8.5)
* * *
( *
U 2 = I 2 ⋅ R2* + s ⋅ j ⋅ X 2* ⋅ I 2 + s ⋅ j ⋅ X 1 I 1 + I 2 ) (8.6)
*
U p = − j ⋅ X1 ⋅ I 2 (8.7)
U 1 + j ⋅ X1 ⋅ I1 = U p (8.8)
* *
U 2 = I 2 ⋅ R2* (8.9)
167
Synchronous machine
I 2* complies with the exciter current IF, being converted to a stator side measure. An arbitrary
current I2 of line frequency flowing in stator windings would cause exactly the same air gap
field as a DC current IF in revolving rotor windings. The rotor voltage equation is trivial and
therefore not subject of further discussions, so that the stator voltage equation needs to be
regarded. Feedback of the revolving rotor (also known as magnet wheel) on the stator is
contained in the synchronous generated internal voltage Up.
Synchronous generated internal voltage UP can be directly measured as induced voltage at the
machine terminals with excitation IF in no-load with I1 = 0 at synchronous speed n = n1. The
typical no-load characteristic UP = f(IF) shows non-linear behavior, caused by saturation
effects, which are not taken into account at this point.
Since only one voltage equation is used in the following, formerly used indices may be
dropped. Copper losses in stator windings can be neglected for synchronous machines, which
leads to R1 = 0. The general equivalent circuit diagram for synchronous machines as shown in
Fig. 214 enables the description of its operational behavior completely.
X
jXI
I
~ UP
EZS
U
UP U
ϑ
ϕ
I
U P = U + jX I
Fig. 214: synchronous machine, simplified ecd, phasor diagram
In order to represent particular operation conditions or ranges, the according phasor diagram
can be determined based on the voltage equation. Figure 214 illustrates such a phasor diagram
for generator operation with active power and inductive reactive power output, using a
notation defining:
168
Synchronous machine
U NStr
I = IK0 = for I F = I F 0 and n = n1 (8.11)
X
I K 0 U NStr 1
KC = = = (8.12)
IN XI N x
KC is defined as the reciprocal of the reactance X, being refered onto the nominal impedance.
The value of KC can either be measured at sustained short-circuit with no-load excitation or at
nominal voltage supply UN and no-load speed n1, unexcited rotor assumed. Sustained short-
circuit current IK0 occurs for both cases.
Sustained short-circuit current IK0 in synchronous machines corresponds with the no-load
current I0 in induction machines.
169
Synchronous machine
Whereas induction machines fetch required reactive power for according magnetization from
the mains, the air-gap of synchronous machines can be chosen wider, since magnetization is
achieved by DC excitation of the rotor. This leads to reduced armature reaction of the
reactance X and the overload capability – the ratio of breakdown torque and nominal torque –
increases.
I0 1
= = 0,2K 0,5 for induction machines (8.16)
IN x
170
Synchronous machine
+ 2U NStr XI sin ϕ + ( XI )
2
U P2 = U NStr
2
(8.22)
so that follows:
+ 2U NStr XI sin ϕ + ( XI )
2 2
UP IF U NStr
= =
U NStr I F 0 U NStr
2
(8.23)
I I
= 1 + 2 sin ϕ +
KC I N KC I N
1
cos ϕ = 0, kap. U = U NStr and n = n1
This dependency of exciter current on load current and load angle also applies for constant
voltage network supply, since U = U NStr .
171
Synchronous machine
R
S ∆U
T
UN
V UR
UU
UW
V V V ∆U
V
UT
U M/G
US
n0 UV
A
IF
UF
Fig. 221: SYM, rigid network operation Fig. 222: synchronization conditions
2. Exciter current IF of the synchronous machine needs to be set in the way that generator
voltage is equal to the mains voltage: U M = U N .
3. Phase sequence of terminal voltages of generator and network need to match: RST - UVW
4. Phase angle of both voltage systems generator and network need to be identical, which
means a disappearance of voltage difference at terminals being connected: ∆U = 0 .
172
Synchronous machine
8.6.2 Torque
Effective torque exerted on the shaft derives from transmitted air-gap power divided by
synchronous speed. Neglecting stator copper losses, the absorbed active power is equal to the
air-gap power.
X I cos ϕ
PD 3 ⋅ U ⋅ I ⋅ cosϕ
ϕ M= = (8.25)
Ω1 ω1
p
3 ⋅ p U ⋅U p
M = ⋅ sin ϑ = M kipp ⋅ sin ϑ (8.28)
ω X
MN
stable
-π -π/2
ϑ N π/2 π
stable ϑ
-M Kipp
The torque equation (8.28) solely applies for stationary operation with IF = const and n = n1.
If the load increases slowly, torque and angular displacement increases also, until breakdown
π
torque is reached at ϑ = ± and the machine falls out of step – means standstill in motor
2
operation and running away in generator mode. High pulsating torques and current peaks
occur as a consequence of this. In this case machines need to be disconnected from the mains
immediately.
173
Synchronous machine
Overload capability, the ratio of breakdown torque and nominal torque, only depends on no-
load-short-circuit-ratio KC and power factor.
Die Überlastfähigkeit, das Verhältnis Kippmoment zu Nennmoment, hängt nur vom Leerlauf-
Kurzschlußverhältnis und dem Leistungsfaktor ab. Nominal operation features:
3 p U NStrU P
M kipp ω1 X U P KC
= = , (8.29)
MN 3p U NStr cosϕ N
U NStr I N cosϕ N
ω1
UP 2 sin ϕ N 1
= 1+ + 2 (8.30)
U NStr KC KC
The higher KC or the lower X, the higher ensues the overload capability.
M Kipp
A ratio of at least > 1,6 is reasonable for stabile operation. A measure for stability in
MN
stationary operation is the synchronizing torque:
dM
M syn = = M Kipp cosϑ ≥ 0 (8.32)
dϑ
M Syn
π π π π ϑ
2 2
174
Synchronous machine
X I cos ϕ
ϕ Phasor diagram (Fig. 226) offers a stator diagram,
X I sin ϕ to be split into components:
jXI Up
• active current: I ⋅ cosϕ = ⋅ sin ϑ (8.33)
UP U X
ϑ
ϕ U p ⋅ cosϑ − U
• reactive current: I ⋅ sin ϕ = (8.34)
I X
+
ϑ, ϕ
Fig. 226: SYM, phasor diagram
Four ranges ensue for EZS description, whose characteristical phasor diagrams are shown
below:
175
Synchronous machine
EZS
jXI
jXI U UP U
~ ϑ
ϕ
I ϑ
ϕ I
UP
jXI
UP
jXI
U U ϑ
ϑ
ϕ ϕ
UP
I
I
• Active power proportion is defined by either the driving torque of e.g. turbines in
generator mode or by resistance torque of load in motor operation.
• Reactive power is independent from load but solely depending on excitation; as a
consequence reactive power output derives from over excitation whereas reactive
power input arises from under excitation.
• border case: synchronous compensator mode
Synchronous machines are sometimes utilized for mere reactive power generators in
synchronous compensator mode for close-by satisfaction of inductive reactive power demands
of transformers and induction machines in order to relieve this from supplying networks.
jXI
jXI
UP U UP U U
U
P
I I
176
Synchronous machine
U P = U + jX I (8.35)
U P e jϑ − U NStr U U
I= = j NStr − je jϑ P (8.36)
jX X X
I U U U
= j NStr − je jϑ P NStr (8.37)
IN IN X U NStr I N X
U NStr UP I
and with K C = as well as = F follows:
XI N U NStr I F 0
I I
= jK C − je jϑ K C F (8.38)
IN IF0
With knowledge of equation 8.38 the current diagram of synchronous machines can be
established. No-load-short-circuit-ratio KC is contained as the only effective parameter.
Operating limits within the accordant machine can be driven are also marked.
+Re U NStr
active power limit
MN
I cos ϕ ≤
3p U
− jejϑ K I F ω NStr
stability- C
limit I F0 1
limit of rotor
ϑ <π
I warm-up
ϕ I IF ≤ I FN
2 N
N
ϑ
jKC -Im
limit of stator
warm up
I ≤ IN
177
Synchronous machine
M A − MW = M B (8.39)
3 p U NStrU P
M Kipp = (8.41)
ω1 X
dΩ
MB = J (8.43)
dt
with J representing masss moment of inertia of all rotating masses, and the machine to be
driven at nominal speed.
dϑ
p
Ω = 2πn1 + (8.44)
dt
dΩ J d 2ϑ
M Kipp sin ϑN − M Kipp sin ϑ = J = (8.45)
dt p dt 2
The electrical angle ϑ may slightly vary in the proximity of the operating point:
ϑ = ϑN + ∆ϑ (8.46)
Then follows:
dϑ d∆ ϑ d 2ϑ d 2 ∆ϑ
= and 2 = . (8.47)
dt dt dt dt 2
178
Synchronous machine
The differential equation is linearized by Taylor development with abort after the first step:
f ' ( x)
f ( x + h) = f ( x ) + h +K (8.48)
1!
J d 2 ∆ϑ
M Kipp sin ϑN − M Kipp (sin ϑN + ∆ϑ cosϑN ) = (8.50)
p dt 2
J d 2 ∆ϑ
+ M Kipp cosϑN ∆ϑ = 0 (8.51)
p dt 2
so that:
d 2 ∆ϑ M syncN
+ ∆ϑ = 0 (8.53)
dt 2 J
p
∆ϑ = sin Ω eN t (8.54)
M SyncN ^ c
Ω eN = 2πf eN = = (8.55)
J m
p
Synchronizing torque complies with spring stiffness, the reduced mass moment of inertia of
the rotating mass. The frequency of the mechanical oscillation approximately amounts in the
range of feN = 1 ... 2 Hz.
Pulsating oscillations may occur, caused by electric or mechanic load changes, to come along
with current fluctuations. Two or more generators may activate each other in network
interconnection. Machines with irregular torque in particular, such as diesel engines or
reciprocating compressors may initiate oscillations with pulsations up to severe values, if
activation is close to natural frequency.
179
Synchronous machine
MD −2
= (8.56)
M kippAsyn s s
+ kipp
skipp s
3 p U 12
M kippAsyn = (8.57)
ω1 2 X 2*
R2*
skipp = (8.58)
X 2*
180
Synchronous machine
dϑ
p
Ω1 − Ω1 +
dt
Ω1 − Ω = − 1 dϑ
s= = (8.61)
Ω1 Ω1 pΩ1 dt
− 1 d∆ ϑ
=
pΩ N dt
J d 2 ∆ϑ d∆ϑ
2
+D + M synN ∆ϑ = 0 (8.63)
p dt dt
−t
∆ϑ = e TD
sin Ω e t (8.64)
1
Ω e = Ω 2eN − (8.65)
TD2
of damping:
3 p U12
2
2 M kippAsyn ω1 2 X 2* 3 p U12
D= = = 2 * (8.66)
skipp pΩ1 R2* ω1 R2
*
ω1
X2
2J
TD = ~ R2* (8.67)
pD
In order to show significant effect of damper windings and to rapidly reduce activated
oscillations by load changes, TD needs to be chosen as short as possible, whereas D needs to
be as high as possible. Thus follows R2* needs to be low, resulting in increased copper
expense for the damper windings.
181
Synchronous machine
Besides oscillation damping caused by load impulses, damper windings show two additional
important functions:
1. Negative-sequence rotating fields with a slip value of (2 - s) arise from unbalanced load.
Computation requires the method of symmetrical components (see chapter 2.6). Occuring
harmonics in stator voltage and current cause additional iron- and ohmic losses. With
presence of suitable damper windings, the inverse-field is compensated by counteracting
magnetomotive force of damper currents.
182
Synchronous machine
N N
N S
N S S N S S
N S
S N
S N
S N S S
S N
N N
183
Synchronous machine
Fig. 235 a, b: perm.-field synchronous motor with pole position sensor, “servo motor”
method of operation:
Three-phase winding of the stator is supplied by a sinusoidal or block format three-phase
system depending on pole position. This results in a rotating magnetomotive force which
exactly rotates at rotor speed and creates a time-constant torque together with the permanent
magnet excited rotor. Switching of stator three-phase field depends on rotor position in a way
that there is a constant electric angle of 90° between stator rotating magnetomotive force and
rotor field.
Θ1 jXI
V
Z q
RI
S
n motor VZS U
X U UP
N ϕ
ϑ
φ I
W F
Y
IF '
Ψ=ϑ+ϕ d
Fig. 237 a, b: servo motor, stator-rotor scheme (a), phasor diagram (b)
184
Synchronous machine
Thus results an operating method which does not correspond with usual synchronous
machines but exactly with DC machines. Another feature of this machine is armature ampere-
turns being shifted about an electric angle of 90° in relation to exciter field. DC machines are
adjusted mechanical by commutator. Permanent-field synchronous machines are controlled by
power electronics together with a pole position sensor. This machine can not pull out of step
any longer and works like a DC machine. From that results the name “electrical commutated
DC machine”.
If the ohmic resistance of stator windings is taken into consideration, the according voltage
equitation of the synchronous machine in load reference arrow system (VZS) ensues to:
U =U p + R⋅I + j⋅ X ⋅I (8.68)
Torque is:
PD 3 ⋅ U p ⋅ I
M = = (8.69)
Ω ω
p
'
• direct axis d: rotor axis =ˆ I F
• quadrature axis q: axis of stator mmf =ˆ I
Iq = I Uq = U p + R ⋅ I (8.70)
Id = 0 Ud = X ⋅ I (8.71)
185
Synchronous machine
n
3⋅ ⋅U p0 ⋅ I
n0 3⋅ p
M = = ⋅U p 0 ⋅ I (8.72)
n ω0 ω
⋅ 0
n0 p
n
Uq = ⋅U p0 + R ⋅ I (8.73)
n0
n Uq − R ⋅ I
= (8.74)
n0 U p0
Uq
n = 0 for I = (8.75)
R
⇒ shunt characteristic:
n
Ud = ⋅ X0 ⋅ I (8.77)
n0
n M Operational bevior similar to separately
excited DC machine:
n0 U MK
q =U
U N U q =ˆ U A , I =ˆ I A ,
q <U
N
U p 0 =ˆ k ⋅ φ n ⋅ n0 (8.78)
186
Synchronous machine
R _
Fig. 241: claw-pole alternator, ecd
Three-phase current that is generated within stator windings is rectified by a diode bridge.
Output voltage is kept constant within the whole speed range of 1:10 by controlling of
excitation current.
Nominal voltage is 14 V for car applications; 28V is normally used for trucks. Drive is made
by V-belt with a mechanical advantage of 1:2 to 1:3. Alternators reach maximum rotational
speed up to 18000 min-1. It is mounted directly at the engine and is exposed to high
temperatures, to high vibration acceleration and to corrosive mediums.
Within kW range claw-pole alternators are most efficient for cars because of their low
excitation copper needs and their economic production process.
Three-phase claw-pole alternators are installed within nearly all cars today. The claw pole
alternator principle has totally edged out formerly used DC alternators because it enables
much more power at lower weight. It was established when powerful and cheap silicon diodes
for rectification could be produced.
Within the last years, power consumption in cars has grown enormously as a result of
additional loads for improving comfort and safety and for reducing emissions. Steps to
improve power output without needing more space and weight have to be taken.
187
9 Special machines
In addition to classic electrical machine types, such as DC machine, induction or synchronous
machine, new types of electric machines were created in the last few years. Those try to serve
the contradictory demands of low weight and high efficiency or are suitable for special drives.
Power electronics and the controlling system enable the machine to have completely new and
improved operating characteristics. Because of new geometric arrangements of the torque
building components specific loading and flux density combined with specific methods of
control higher electric force densities can be achieved.
To this category belong the stepping motor, the switched reluctance motor, the modular
permanent –magnet machine and tranverse flux conception.
If now transistor T3 is switched off and shortly after T4 is switched on, the magnetic field in
stator 2 reverses. Thus the rotor turns about an angle of 90º in clockwise direction. If then T1
is switched off and T2 on rotor turns round about another 90º. A continuous rotation is
achieved by continuation of transistor switching.
189
Special machines
With described control each transistor switching leads to a rotor rotation of 90º. So the rotor
turns round stepwise. That is why this design is called stepping motor. It is usually used if
rotors are supposed to turn about a certain angle of rotation, instead of continuous rotational
motion. The angle to be covered at each step is called step angle.
Stepping motors as described above, consist of two stator parts which are shifted against each
other about 90º each with one winding and therefore two winding phases. Their rotors have
two magnetic poles – equal to one pole pair. Therefore a number of phases m=2 and number
of pole pairs p=1 results.
But it is also possible to equip motor with three, four or five phases. The higher the number of
phases is chosen the smaller the stepping angle ensues.
Another opportunity to change the number of pole pairs is designing rotors with four, six,
eight or more poles. A reduction of the step angle is achieved, proportional to the increase of
the number of phases - therefore an increase of number of pole pairs.
In general full-step mode stepping motors with m phases and p pole pairs show step angles of:
360°
α= (9.1)
2⋅ p⋅m
Stepping motors are produced in different versions. The design being described above is
called permanent-field multi-stator motor as claw-pole version.
Another type of stepping motor is the permanent-field motor in homopolar design. It is also
called hybrid motor. A possible design of such a motor is shown in the Fig. 244. Rotors of
this motor type feature permanent-magnets (N/S) with axial magnetization. Toothed (1 and 2)
crowns made of magnetically soft material are attached to both sides of the magnet. Teeth of
both parts are shifted against each other about half of a pitch and only north poles are
established on one side and only south poles on the other side. Stator poles (3) are also
toothed, with concentrated windings (4) each. The number of stator poles can be chosen in
different ways. E.g. the motor shown in the Fig. 244 consists of six stator poles. The number
of phases is usually chosen between two and five.
190
Special machines
3
3 4 4
4 4
N S
2
1 2
N S
3 4 4
3
In full-step mode, that means current in the phase windings is switched one after another, with
z rotor teeth and m stator phase windings step angle is:
360°
α= (9.2)
2 ⋅π ⋅ z
Generally it is important to choose control electronics and stepping motor as well adjusted to
each other (see Fig. 245). In order to achieve rotational motion of the stepping motor M
control electronics St is supplied from outside with voltage peaks pulses (1, 2, 3). Each pulse
leads to a rotor rotation about the step angle as described above. If the rotor of the motor is
supposed to rotate about a certain given angle an appropriate number of control pulses is
necessary.
123
St M
If stepping motors are operated with a higher step frequency, the frequency needs to be
increased from small values to avoid stepping errors at starting operation. Suitable
frequency/time acceleration ramps are used. To reach short accelerating time high currents
can be fed for a short period of time. Braking is corresponding to that.
191
Special machines
The simple, robust, cheap and economic concerning manufacturing rotor without exciter
windings is to be mentioned as one major advantage, as well as simple, uni-directional
inverter design to be used. In cause of the flux vacillation principle of SR machines, power-
for-size ratios compared to induction machines can only be reached at high air gap flux
density values. This requires small air gap widths and apart from that leads to
disadvantageous noise generation.
192
Special machines
Utilization factor of the permanent-magnet motor is comparable with other types of machines
as seen after simple consideration. To reach higher electric force densities current density and
specific loading were multiplied compared to conventional machines. This was achieved by
very complex intensive cooling processes, like e.g. direct oil cooling of the stator winding and
Frigen cooling of the converter.
193
Special machines
194
Special machines
Since linear motors do not have any gear unit it is more simple converting motion in electrical
drives. Combined with magnet floating technology an absolutely contact-less and so a wear-
resistant passenger traffic or non-abrasive transport of goods is possible. Using this
technology usually should enable high speed. So Transrapid uses a combination of
synchronous linear drive and electromagnetic floating. Linear direct drives combined with
magnet floating technology are also useful for non-abrasive and exact transport of persons and
goods in fields as transportation technology, construction technology and machine tool
design. Suitable combinations of driving, carrying and leading open new perspectives for
drive technology.
195
Special machines
Linear motor then corresponds to an unrolled induction motor with short circuit rotor or to
permanent-magnet synchronous motor. DC machines with brushes or switched reluctance
machines are used more rarely.
In contrast to rotating machines in single-comb versions the normal force between stator and
rotor must be compensated by suitable leading systems or double-comb versions must be used
instead. This normal force usually is one order of magnitude above feed force.
v1 = τ p ⋅ 2 ⋅ f 1 (9.3)
196
Special machines
Since many movements in production and transportation systems are translatory, linear drives
are useful in these fields. In such motors linear movements are generated directly, so that gear
units such as spindle/bolt, gear rack/pinion, belt/chain systems are unnecessary. As a result
from that rubbing, elasticity and play are dropped, which is positive for servo drives with high
positioning precision and dynamic. In opposition to that there are disadvantages such as lower
feed forces, no self-catch and higher costs.
197
Special machines
• machine tools: machining center, skimming, grinding, milling, cutting, blanking and high
speed machines.
198
Special machines
Fig. 256: high speed vehicle Transrapid 08, testing site Emsland, Germany (source: Thyssen)
199
Special machines
200
10 Appendix
10.1 Notations
Physical dependencies appear as quantity equation. A physical quantity results from
multiplication of numerical value and unit..
F=
B2
A=
(1T ) 1m2
2
= 4 ⋅ 106 N (10.1)
−7
2µ0 2 ⋅ 0,4π 10 H m
Units are to be included into calculations. Fitted quantity equations result from reasonable
expansions with suitable units and partial calculation:
2
F B A
= 10 2
(10.2)
N 0,5T cm
Physical quantities are presented by lower case letters. Basically a distinction of upper and
lower case letters means an increasing number of possible symbols to be used, whereas
important differences between upper and lower case quantity is to be found for current and
voltage.
• u, i → instantaneous values
• U, I → steady values (stationary)
1. DC calculations: DC values
2. AC calculations: rms values
Capital letters are usually used for magnetic quantities. Apart from that crest values are also
assigned with capital letters in AC considerations. Phasor are assigned to underlined Latin
letters (complex calculations).
Examples: U, I.
Vectors are indicated by an arrow being placed above Capital Latin letters.
r r
Examples: E, B
Greek letters:
Αα Ββ Γγ ∆δ Εε Ζζ Ηη θϑ Ιι Κκ Λλ Μµ Νν Ξξ Οο Ρρ Σσ Ττ Υυ φϕ Χχ Ψψ Ωω
201
Appendix
202
Appendix
Z impedance
z general number of conductors
203
Appendix
10.3 Units
The following table contains most important physical variables and their symbols and units to
be used. An overview of possible unit conversions is given in the right column additionally.
length L Meter m
1 h (hour) = 3600 s
celsiustemperature ϑ Degree °C ϑ = T – T0
Centigrade
area A - m2
1 N = 1 kg·m/s2
pressure P Pascal Pa 1 Pa = 1 N / m2
1 kp / m2 = 1 mm WS
GD2 = 4 J / kgm2
204
Appendix
energy W Joule J 1 J = 1 Nm = 1 Ws
1 Ws = 0,102 kpm
capacity C Farad F 1 F = 1 As / V
εr = relative diel.-constant
inductance L Henry H 1 H = 1 Vs / A = 1 Ωs
1 M (Maxwell) =
10-8 Vs = 1 Gcm
1 T = 104 G (Gauß)
1 G = 10-8 Vs / m2
205
Appendix
1 A / m = 10-2 A / cm
magn.-motive force θ - A
magn. potential V - A
µ0 = 1 G / Oe
permeability µ - - µ = µ0µr
µr = relative permeability
α = lcurve / r
206
Appendix
B. Adkins
The general Theory of electrical Machines, Chapman and Hall, London
Ch.V. Jones
The unified Theory of electrical Machines, Butterworth, London
Electro-Craft Corporation
DC Motors, Speed Controls, Servo Systems, Pergamon Press
Ch. Concordia
Synchronous Machines, John Wiley, New York
Bahram Amin
Induction Motors – Analysis and Torque Control
Peter Vas
Vector Control of AC Machines, Oxford Science Publications
T.J.E. Miller
Switched Reluctance Motors and their control, Magna PysicsPublishing
207