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Article in Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology Canada: JOGC = Journal d'obstetrique et gynecologie du Canada: JOGC · May 2004
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Abstract Recommendations:
Objective: To provide guidelines for health-care providers on Chapter 1: Introduction
the use of contraceptive methods to prevent pregnancy and 1. Family planning services should be provided with dignity and
sexually transmitted diseases. respect, based on individual differences and needs. (Grade A)
Outcomes: Overall efficacy of cited contraceptive methods, 2. In order to enhance the quality of decision-making in family
assessing reduction in pregnancy rate, risk of infection, safety, planning, health-care providers should be proactive in coun-
ease of use, and side effects; the effect of cited contraceptive selling and should provide accurate information.They should be
methods on sexual health and general well-being; and the cost approachable partners in a professional relationship. (Grade B)
and availability of cited contraceptive methods in Canada. 3. Family planning counselling should include counselling on the
Evidence: Medline and the Cochrane Database were searched decline in fertility that is associated with increasing female
for articles in English on subjects related to contraception, age. (Grade A)
4. Health-care providers should promote the use of latex con-
sexuality, and sexual health from January 1988 to March 2003,
doms in combination with another method of contraception
in order to update the Report of the Consensus Committee
(dual protection). (Grade B)
on Contraception published in May-July 1998. Relevant
Chapter 2: Contraceptive Care and Access
Canadian Government publications and position papers from
1. Comprehensive family planning services, including abortion
appropriate health and family planning organizations were also services, should be freely available to all Canadians regardless
reviewed. of geographic location. These services should be confidential
Values: The quality of the evidence is rated using the criteria and respect an individual’s privacy. (Grade A)
described in the Report of the Canadian Task Force on the 2. Questions about sexuality should be incorporated into a gen-
Periodic Health Examination. Recommendations for practice eral assessment. (Grade C)
are ranked according to the method described in this Report. 3. Canadian women and men, with their health-care providers,
should address both the prevention of unintended pregnancy
and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). (Grade C)
Key Words 4. Testing for STI and prevention counselling should not be
Contraception, statistics, Canada, sexuality, sexual health, hormonal restricted to young or high-risk individuals. (Grade B)
contraception, emergency contraception, barrier methods of 5. Women and men should receive practical information about
contraception, contraceptive sponge, female condoms, contraceptive a wide range of contraceptive methods so that they can
diaphragm, cervical cap, spermicide, fertility awareness, abstinence, select the method most appropriate to their needs and
tubal ligation, vasectomy, sterilization, intrauterine devices circumstances. (Grade C)
These guidelines reflect emerging clinical and scientific advances as of the date issued and are subject to change.The information should not be construed as
dictating an exclusive course of treatment or procedure to be followed. Local institutions can dictate amendments to these opinions. They should be well
documented if modified at the local level. None of the contents may be reproduced in any form without prior written permission of SOGC.
327,882
350,000
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000 105,427
100,000 45,393
10,611 17,350 20,426
50,000
0
Births total Abortions total Births, ages Abortions, ages Births, ages Abortions, ages
35-39 35-39 15-19 15-19
Male condoms 14 3
Coitus interruptus‡ 19 4
Diaphragm with spermicide 20 6
Only somewhat 1-9
effective as Fertility awareness-based methods 20
Female condoms 21 5
commonly used;
effective when used Spermicides 26 6
correctly and Cervical Cap
consistently Nulliparous women 9
20
-----------------------
Parous women 40 26
No Method 85 85
*Adapted from: World Health Organization. Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2000; Hatcher
RA, Rinehart W, Blackburn R, Geller JS, Shelton JD. The essentials of contraceptive technology. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University School of
Public Health, Population Information Program; 1997.
†Outside breastfeeding, progestin-only contraceptives are somewhat less effective than combined OCs. See Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Stewart F,
Cates Jr W, Stewart GK, Buest F, et al. Contraceptive technology. 17th ed. New York; Ardent Media Inc.; 1998.
‡Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Stewart F, Cates Jr W, Stewart GK, Buest F, et al. Contraceptive technology. 17th ed. New York: Ardent Media Inc.; 1998.
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
1. World Health Organization. Improving access to quality care in family
planning. Geneva:World Health Organization; 2000. p. 2.
2. Platform for Action and the Beijing Declaration. Fourth World Confer- Emergency contraception (EC) is any method of contraception
ence on Women; 4–15 September 1995. Beijing, China. New York: which is used after intercourse and before the potential time of
United Nations Department of Public Information; 1996. p. 124. implantation. As these methods work prior to implantation,
3. Delbanco TL, Daley J.Through the patient's eyes: strategies toward more
successful contraception. Obstet Gynecol 1996;88(Suppl):41S–47S.
they are not abortifacients. Emergency contraception is a back-
4. Fisher WA, Fisher JD. Understanding and promoting sexual and repro- up method for occasional use, and should not be used as a
ductive health behavior: theory and method.Annu Rev Sex Res regular method of birth control.
1998;9:39–76.
5. Byrne D, Kelley K, Fisher WA. Unwanted teenage pregnancies:
incidence, interpretation, intervention. Appl Prev Psych 1993;2:101–13. OPTIONS
6. Fisher JD, Fisher WA.Theoretical approaches to individual level change
in HIV risk behavior. In: Peteson J, DiClemente R, editors. Handbook of There are 2 methods of emergency contraception: hormonal
HIV prevention. New York: Plenum; 2000. pp. 3–55.
7. Fisher WA, Boroditsky R, Bridges M. Canadian contraception study methods, which involve the use of emergency contraceptive pills
1998. Can J Hum Sex 1999;8:161–220. (ECPs), and the post-coital insertion of a copper intrauterine
8. Fisher WA, Fisher JD.The information-motivation-behavioral skills device (IUD). Two hormonal preparations are used as ECPs in
model: a general social psychological approach to understanding and
promoting health behavior. In: Suls J,Wallston KA, editors. Social
Canada: one contains only the progestin levonorgestrel, while
psychological foundations of health and illness. Malden, Massachusetts: the other is a combined preparation containing both ethinyl
Blackwell; 2003. pp. 82–106. estradiol and levonorgestrel.
9. Rosenberg M,Waugh MS. Causes and consequences of oral contracep-
The levonorgestrel-only method, marketed as Plan B, was
tive noncompliance.Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;180(2 Pt 2):276–9.
10. Rosenberg MJ,Waugh MS, Burnhill MS. Compliance, counseling and sat- introduced into Canada in 2000 and is the only product
isfaction with oral contraceptives: a prospective evaluation. Fam Plann approved by Health Canada for EC. The regimen consists of
Perspect 1998;30:89–92. 2 doses of 750 µg levonorgestrel taken orally 12 hours apart.
11. Byrne D, Fisher WA, editors.Adolescents, sex, and contraception. Hills-
dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1983. In use since the 1970s, the Yuzpe method consists of the
12. Fisher WA, Byrne D, Kelley K,White LA. Erotophobia-erotophilia as a oral administration of 2 doses of 100 µg ethinyl estradiol (EE)
dimension of personality. J Sex Res 1988;25:123–51. and 500 µg levonorgestrel 12 hours apart. Ovral tablets (each
13. Fisher WA, Fisher JD, Rye BJ. Understanding and promoting AIDS pre-
ventive behavior: insights from the theory of reasoned action. Health
containing 50 µg ethinyl estradiol and 250 µg levonorgestrel)
Psychol 1995;14:255–64. are most commonly used to provide these doses. Other prod-
14. Macdonald NE,Wells GA, Fisher WA,Warren WK, King MA, Doherty ucts can be substituted if they are more readily available
JA, et al. High-risk STD/HIV behavior among college students. J Am Med (Table 1). Although they may not deliver an exactly equiva-
Assoc 1990;263:3155–9.
15. Laboratory Centre for Disease Control (LCDC) Expert Working lent dose, they are considered to offer equivalent efficacy.1
Group on Canadian Guidelines for Sexually Transmitted Disease. Cana-
dian STD guidelines 1998 edition. Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and EFFECTIVENESS
Government Services Canada; 1998.
16. Fisher WA, Boroditsky R. Sexual activity, contraceptive choice, and sex-
ual and reproductive health indicators among single Canadian women The Yuzpe and levonorgestrel-only methods have been shown in
aged 15–29: additional findings from the Canadian Contraception Study. randomized trials to reduce the risk of pregnancy by approximately
Can J Hum Sex 2000;9:79–93. 75 and 85% respectively.2-5 This does not mean that 25% of
17. Kirby D. Emerging answers: research findings on programs to reduce
teenage pregnancy.Washington DC:The National Campaign to Prevent women using the Yuzpe method will become pregnant; it means
Teenage Pregnancy; 2001. that, if 100 women had unprotected intercourse once during the
Alesse 5 100 500 The common side effects of hormonal emergency contracep-
tion are gastrointestinal. The levonorgestrel method has a sig-
Triphasil 4 yellow 120 500 nificantly lower incidence of nausea (23.1% versus 50.5%),
vomiting (5.6% versus 18.8%), dizziness, and fatigue than the
Triquilar 4 yellow 120 500
Yuzpe method.2 The antiemetic meclizine (available without
Min- prescription) has been shown to reduce the risk of nausea when
4 120 600
Ovral
taken orally in a dose of 50 mg 1 hour before the first dose of
Abstract Recommendations:
Objective: To provide guidelines for health-care providers on Chapter 4: Combined Hormonal Contraception
the use of contraceptive methods to prevent pregnancy and 1. A range of hormonal contraceptives should be available to
sexually transmitted diseases. ensure that the individual receives the preparation most suit-
Outcomes: Overall efficacy of cited contraceptive methods, ed for her needs. (Grade C)
assessing reduction in pregnancy rate, risk of infection, safety, 2. Women using oral contraceptives should be counselled that
ease of use, and side effects; the effect of cited contraceptive antibiotic use does not appear to affect combined OC effica-
methods on sexual health and general well-being; and the cost cy (except for griseofulvin and rifampicin). (Grade B)
and availability of cited contraceptive methods in Canada. Chapter 5: Progestin-Only Hormonal Contraception
Evidence: Medline and the Cochrane Database were searched 1. Progestin-only methods should be considered as contraceptive
for articles in English on subjects related to contraception, sex- options for postpartum women, regardless of breastfeeding
uality, and sexual health from January 1988 to March 2003, in status, and may be introduced immediately after delivery.
order to update the Report of the Consensus Committee on (Grade B)
Contraception published in May-July 1998. Relevant Canadian 2. Progestin-only methods should be considered as contraceptive
Government publications and position papers from appropriate options for women with a past history of venous throm-
health and family planning organizations were also reviewed. boembolism (VTE), or for women who are at a higher risk of
Values: The quality of the evidence is rated using the criteria myocardial infarction or stroke. In women with a proven
described in the Report of the Canadian Task Force on the thrombophilia, progestin-only preparations should be used
Periodic Health Examination. Recommendations for practice with caution. (Grade B)
are ranked according to the method described in this Report. 3. Young women who use depot medroxyprogesterone acetate
(DMPA) should be counselled about dietary and lifestyle fac-
tors that will affect their peak bone mass, such as smoking,
Key Words exercise, and calcium intake. (Grade A)
Contraception, statistics, Canada, sexuality, sexual health, hormonal Chapter 6: Special Considerations for Hormonal
contraception, emergency contraception, barrier methods of contra- Contraception
ception, contraceptive sponge, female condoms, contraceptive 1. All women who smoke should be counselled to stop. Women
diaphragm, cervical cap, spermicide, fertility awareness, abstinence, over 35 who smoke should be advised not to use combined
tubal ligation, vasectomy, sterilization, intrauterine devices oral contraceptives (OCs). (Grade A)
These guidelines reflect emerging clinical and scientific advances as of the date issued and are subject to change.The information should not be construed as
dictating an exclusive course of treatment or procedure to be followed. Local institutions can dictate amendments to these opinions. They should be well
documented if modified at the local level. None of the contents may be reproduced in any form without prior written permission of SOGC.
A “first-day start,” when the patch is applied on the first day of 2. PATCH APPLICATION, CHANGE, OR REMOVAL IS
menses, is recommended. This will be the “Patch Change Day.” FORGOTTEN
If the patch is applied after the first day of menses, a backup If the patch user forgets to apply the patch in week 1, the patch
method of contraception should be used for 1 week. A new patch user should apply a new patch as soon as she remembers. Back-
is applied weekly for 3 weeks including the week in which the up contraception is recommended for 1 week. The patch user
patch is started; week 4 is patch-free. Withdrawal bleeding usu- then has a new patch change day; although if she prefers to keep
ally occurs during the patch-free week. It is recommended that the same patch change day, that is an acceptable option.
the patch always be applied on the same day, e.g. on a Monday. If the patch user forgets to change the patch in week 2 or
The patch should be applied to clean, dry, healthy, intact 3, the recommended course of action depends on how late the
skin. The patch may be applied at 1 of 4 sites: the buttock; the user is in changing the patch. The patch can maintain target
abdomen; the upper outer arm; or the upper torso, but not hormonal serum concentrations through 9 full days of use.160
directly to the breast. These 4 sites are therapeutically equiva- For this reason, if the patch user is less than 48 hours late in
lent.159 Patch users should be advised to check daily that their changing her patch, she should change it immediately; she will
patch is adhering well. not require backup contraception. The patch change day does
A follow-up appointment should be made to assess the not change. If however, she is more than 48 hours late in
patch users’ satisfaction with the method, to discuss any side- changing her patch, a new 4 week cycle should be started
effects, to ensure that it is being used correctly, and to answer immediately by applying a new patch. She will have a new
questions. If indicated, a pelvic examination can be performed patch change day and will need to use backup contraception
at the follow-up visit. for 1 week.
If the patch user forgets to remove the patch in week 4, the
SWITCHING FROM THE COMBINED OC TO THE old patch should be removed as soon as it is remembered. The
CONTRACEPTIVE PATCH next patch is applied on the usual patch change day. Back-up
The contraceptive patch should be applied on the first day of contraception is not required if there is less than a 7 day patch-
withdrawal bleeding. If the patch is started after the first day of free interval. The patch-free interval should never exceed
withdrawal bleeding, a backup method of contraception should 7 days.
be used for 7 days. If more than 5 days have elapsed since the
last hormone-containing pill was taken, a backup method of 3. CHANGING THE PATCH-CHANGE DAY
contraception should be used for the first 7 days of patch use. A new cycle should be started by placing the first patch of the
Alternatively, the patch can be applied on the day after the new cycle on the new desired patch change day during the patch-
last hormonal pill is taken. In this case, there would be no free week. The patch-free interval should not exceed 7 days.
hormone-free interval. Back-up contraception would not be
needed in this case and the patient would not experience a men- DRUG INTERACTIONS
strual bleed in that month.
Pharmacokinetic studies have shown no significant interaction
SWITCHING FROM DEPOT- between tetracycline and the contraceptive patch.151 Other drug
MEDROXYPROGESTERONE ACETATE (DMPA) interactions have not been specifically studied and, at this time,
TO THE CONTRACEPTIVE PATCH drug interactions that are reported with the combined OC are
The first contraceptive patch should be applied on the day that assumed also to occur with the contraceptive patch.
the next DMPA injection would be due. If given at this time,
backup contraception is not required. THE VAGINAL CONTRACEPTIVE RING
TROUBLESHOOTING INTRODUCTION
1. PATCH PARTIALLY OR COMPLETELY DETACHES The vaginal contraceptive ring (NuvaRing) was approved by
If the patch has either partially or completely detached for less the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2001 and
In several thousand cycles of use, the Pearl Index — with per- 1. IRREGULAR BLEEDING
fect use of the vaginal ring — is between 0.4 and 0.77.162,163 Irregular bleeding occurs in up to 6.4% of cycles and usually
while the overall Pearl Index is between 0.65 and 1.18.162,163 consists of spotting.162 Unlike other contraceptive methods,
Knowing that compliance may affect contraceptive efficacy, irregular bleeding does not appear to be significantly higher in
compliance rates were calculated in studies. Perfect compliance the first cycles of ring use. When compared to the combined
is seen in 85.6 to 91% of contraceptive ring users.162,163 OC, the vaginal ring has significantly less irregular bleeding,
most notably in the first cycle of use.167 Withdrawal bleeding
MECHANISM OF ACTION occurs in the majority of cycles.162
CONTRAINDICATIONS The risks are felt to be the same as for oral contraceptives.162
Intrauterine devices have multiple mechanisms of action. The The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a
chief mechanism of action of all IUDs appears to be the pre- list of absolute and relative contraindications to use of an
vention of fertilization.3 If fertilization does occur, IUDs also IUD.13
appear to have post-fertilization effects, including the potential
inhibition of implantation.4 ABSOLUTE CONTRAINDICATIONS
The copper-bearing IUDs consist of a vertical stem with a • pregnancy
silver-cored copper wire wound around it. The presence of a • current, recurrent, or recent (within past 3 months)
foreign body and of copper in the endometrial cavity causes pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) or sexually transmit-
biochemical and morphological changes in the endometrium. ted infection (STI)
These changes adversely affect sperm transport so that fertil- • puerperal sepsis
ization rarely occurs.5-7 The copper ions also have a direct effect • immediate post-septic abortion
on sperm motility, reducing the ability of sperm to penetrate • severely distorted uterine cavity
cervical mucus. Ovulation is not affected in users of the cop- • unexplained vaginal bleeding
per IUD. • cervical or endometrial cancer
The levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system consists of • malignant trophoblastic disease
a small polyethylene T-shaped frame with a cylindrical reservoir • copper allergy (for copper IUDs)
containing levonorgestrel on its vertical arm. This cylinder slow- • breast cancer (for LNG-IUS)
ly releases hormone through a rate-limiting membrane. The
LNG-IUS produces a weak foreign body reaction and endome- RELATIVE CONTRAINDICATIONS
trial changes that include endometrial decidualization and glan- • risk factor for STIs or human immunodeficiency virus
dular atrophy. 8 Endometrial estrogen and progesterone (HIV)
receptors are suppressed.9 Cervical mucus may become thick- • impaired response to infection
ened, creating a barrier to sperm penetration.10 Ovulation may - in HIV-positive women
be inhibited in some women.11,12 - in women undergoing corticosteroid therapy
• from 48 hours to 4 weeks postpartum
INDICATIONS • ovarian cancer
• benign gestational trophoblastic disease
In the absence of contraindications, the IUD may be consid-
ered for any woman seeking a reliable, reversible, coitally inde- NON-CONTRACEPTIVE BENEFITS
pendent method of contraception. It is particularly suited for
women seeking long-term birth control or a method requiring Intrauterine devices are used primarily for contraception, but
less compliance. Women who have contraindications or sensi- they also provide a number of non-contraceptive health
tivities to estrogen, or women who are breastfeeding, may be benefits.
good candidates for use of an IUD. Case-control studies provide some evidence that use of non-
The copper IUD, in appropriately selected patients, may medicated or copper IUDs reduces the risk of endometrial can-
be used for postcoital contraception in women presenting up cer.14 This protective effect is not related to the duration or
to 7 days after an act of unprotected intercourse. timing of use, and its mechanism is not well understood.
The LNG-IUS has been shown to decrease menstrual flow Menorrhagia responds favourably to use of the LNG-IUS,
and cramping, and therefore has been used in women with with reported reductions in menstrual blood loss of 74 to
menorrhagia and dysmenorrhea.1 It should not be used for post- 97%15-19 and favourable effects on hemoglobin levels.20 In 2
coital contraception. studies of women scheduled to undergo hysterectomy for men-
orrhagia, 64 to 80% of women randomized preoperatively to
LNG-IUS insertion subsequently cancelled their hysterectomy,
Comparison of IUD and LNG-IUS Devices
compared with 9 to 14% of women randomized to receive
Failure rate other medical treatments.21,22 Dysmenorrhea may also improve
per 100 Ectopic rate
woman- per 100 in LNG-IUS users.16,23
years1 woman- Duration of A randomized controlled study found that use of the LNG-
Type of Device (Pearl Index) years1 action1
IUS protects against endometrial hyperplasia in women on
Copper IUD (Nova-T) 1.26 0.25 5 years tamoxifen.24 Small reports support a beneficial effect in the
LNG-IUS 0.09 0.02 5 years
treatment of fibroid-related menorrhagia.25,26
Abstract Recommendations
Objective: To provide guidelines for health-care providers on Chapter 8: Barrier Methods
the use of contraceptive methods to prevent pregnancy and 1. Health-care providers should promote the consistent and cor-
sexually transmitted diseases. rect use of latex condoms to protect against pregnancy,
Outcomes: Overall efficacy of cited contraceptive methods, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, and other STIs.
assessing reduction in pregnancy rate, risk of infection, safety, (Grade A) Men and women should be provided with informa-
ease of use, and side effects; the effect of cited contraceptive tion on the male and female condom.
methods on sexual health and general well-being; and the cost 2. Women who use barrier methods of contraception should be
and availability of cited contraceptive methods in Canada. provided with emergency contraception and relevant coun-
Evidence: Medline and the Cochrane Database were searched selling. (Grade B)
for articles in English on subjects related to contraception, sex- 3. Health-care providers should educate women and men about
uality, and sexual health from January 1988 to March 2003, in the correct use of barrier methods. They should emphasize
order to update the Report of the Consensus Committee on the need for dual protection against pregnancy and infections.
Contraception published in May–July 1998. Relevant Canadian (Grade B)
Government publications and position papers from appropriate 4. The use of spermicide-coated condoms should no longer be
health and family planning organizations were also reviewed. promoted. Nevertheless, the use of a nonoxynol-9 lubricated
Values: The quality of the evidence is rated using the criteria condom is preferable to the use of no condom at all.
described in the Report of the Canadian Task Force on the (Grade C)
Periodic Health Examination. Recommendations for practice 5. Health-care providers should be encouraged to be familiar
are ranked according to the method described in this Report. with the technique of fitting a diaphragm. Diaphragms and cer-
vical caps should continue to be available in Canada. (Grade C)
6. Nonoxynol-9 should not be used to reduce the risk of STIs
Key Words and HIV infection. Condoms should always be used to reduce
Contraception, statistics, Canada, sexuality, sexual health, hormonal the risk of infections. (Grade A)
contraception, emergency contraception, barrier methods of 7. Since frequent use of nonoxynol-9 products may cause epithe-
contraception, contraceptive sponge, female condoms, contraceptive lial damage and increase the risk of HIV infection, women
diaphragm, cervical cap, spermicide, fertility awareness, abstinence, who have multiple daily acts of intercourse should be advised
tubal ligation, vasectomy, sterilization, intrauterine devices to avoid using nonoxynol-9 products. (Grade A)
Chapter 9: Natural Family Planning Methods Contraception in Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities
1. Health-care providers should respect the choice of a natural 1. Health-care providers should include sexual health in the
family planning method and be able to provide resources to counselling of women and men with intellectual disabilities,
support the correct use of this method. (Grade C) explore potential coercion and abuse and should provide
2. The use of coitus interruptus (“withdrawal”) should be rec- counselling to help them avoid coercive and abusive situations.
ognized as a risk-reduction strategy. When couples use coitus (Grade B)
interruptus or other natural family planning methods, health-
care providers should provide information about emergency J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2004;26(4):347–87.
contraception. (Grade C)
3. Health-care providers should acknowledge and legitimize
abstinence as a valid contraceptive choice. (Grade B) CHAPTER 8: BARRIER METHODS
4. Comprehensive sex education should be available to all
Canadians. Education programs should provide information on Diane Francoeur, MD, FRCSC,1 Louise Hanvey, BN,
abstinence as well as on contraception and STI prevention. MHA,2 Ruth Miller, MEd,3 Helen Pymar, MD, MPH,
(Grade B)
FRCSC4
5. Health-care providers should be able to counsel postpartum 1Montréal QC
women about the contraceptive efficacy and correct use of 2Chelsea QC
the lactational amenorrhea method. (Grade A) 3Toronto ON
Chapter 10: Sterilization 4Toronto ON
1. Couples choosing a sterilization procedure should be in-
formed that vasectomy carries fewer risks than tubal ligation. Barrier methods of contraception use a mechanical or chemi-
However, social, cultural, and individual considerations should
cal barrier to obstruct the entry of spermatozoa into the upper
be taken into account before a choice of procedure is made.
(Grade A) female genital tract. Some of these methods (condoms, sper-
2. Before recommending a transcervical sterilization (cornual micides, sponge) do not require consultation with a health-care
occlusion technique), extensive counselling should be offered provider before use, and are widely available. Others
and the permanence of the procedure reinforced. (Grade B) (diaphragm, cervical cap) require an initial visit to a health-care
3. Counselling before sterilization should include discussion of provider for fitting. Each method provides variable protection
alternative contraceptive methods. Counselling should address
against both unplanned pregnancy and sexually transmitted
the risks, complications, potential for regret, and failure rates
associated with the procedure. (Grade B) infection (STI).
4. New techniques of female and male sterilization should be
available to all Canadians. (Grade C) 1. CONDOMS
Chapter 11: Contraception — Meeting Special Needs
Contraception in Perimenopause INTRODUCTION
1. Health-care providers should emphasize the need for effective
contraception in the perimenopausal woman. Non-contracep-
tive benefits of each method should be taken into account When placed correctly over the penis, the condom acts as a
when counselling these women. (Grade A) mechanical barrier that prevents contact between semen and
Postpartum Contraception the sexual partner. Most condoms are made of latex, although
1. Initiation of combined OC use should be delayed until breast- polyurethane, silicone, and lambskin condoms are available.
feeding is established, usually by 6 weeks postpartum. If the The latex condom is the most popular barrier method of
woman is not breastfeeding, combined OCs can be started at
contraception.1 Latex condoms are 0.3–0.8 mm thick. Sperm
3 to 4 weeks postpartum. (Grade B)
2. Progestin-only methods should be considered as contraceptive cannot penetrate condoms. Latex condoms are offered in a vari-
options for postpartum women, regardless of breastfeeding sta- ety of shapes and colours. Novelty condoms, offered in sex toy
tus, and may be introduced immediately after delivery. (Grade B) supply stores or catalogues do not offer pregnancy and STI pre-
Post-Abortion Contraception vention.
1. Contraceptive counselling should be offered at the time of A number of polyurethane condoms have recently become
abortion, and contraceptive methods should be provided
available in Canada. These new condoms may offer better phys-
immediately following the procedure. (Grade A)
2. Canadian women should have access to safe abortion proce- ical properties than latex condoms, and thus may be stronger.
dures regardless of geographical location. (Grade A) They transmit more body heat, allowing more sensitivity. They
Contraception for the Adolescent can be formulated to feel thinner than they actually are, with a
1. Adolescents should have ready access to contraception and less constricting fit. They are more resistant to deterioration.
methods of STI prevention. (Grade A) Unlike latex condoms, polyurethane condoms are compatible
2. Health-care providers should respect a patient’s right to con-
with oil-based lubricants. They can be used by those who are
fidentiality. (Grade A)
3. The health-care provider should help to ascertain that sexu- sensitive or allergic to latex.2,3
ally active adolescents are involved in a consensual relationship Three polyurethane condom brands are currently available
that is free of coercion and abuse. (Grade B) in Canada: Avanti, Trojan Supra (lubricated with or without sper-
“Putting it on interrupts everything and destroys the romantic “Not if I help put it on.” OR “We can make it erotic together.”
atmosphere.”
“But I love you.” “Then, if you love me, you’ll help me protect myself.”
“I guess you don’t really love me.” “I do, but I’m not risking my future to prove it.”
“You carry a condom around with you? You were planning on having “I always carry condoms because I care about myself and I care about
sex?” us.”
“I won’t have sex with you if you insist on using a condom.” “OK. Let’s put it off until we can agree. Let’s satisfy each other without
intercourse.”
“I don’t have a condom with me.” “I do.”
patients, walk through mentally when and how to purchase J Sex Marital Ther 1999;25(3):217–25.
condoms, where to carry them, and when and how to bring up 11. Kestelman P,Trussell J. Efficacy of the simultaneous use of condoms and
spermicides. Fam Plann Perspect 1991;23:226–7, 232.
the subject of condom use. They should teach negotiating skills 12. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes
when there is resistance to condom use. (See Table 3.) of Health, Department of Health and Human Services. Scientific evidence
on condom effectiveness for sexually transmitted disease (STD) preven-
tion. Available at <www.niaid.nih.gov/dmid/stds/condomreport.pdf>.Web
REFERENCES site updated July 20, 2001. Accessed January 20, 2004.
13. Centers for Disease Control. Update. Barrier protection against HIV
infection and other sexually transmitted diseases. MMWR Morb Mortal
1. Fisher W, Boroditsky R, Morris B.The 2002 Canadian Contraception Wkly Rep 1993;42(30):589–91.
Study. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. In press 2004. 14. Kelaghan J, Rubin GL, Ory HW, Layde PM. Barrier-method contracep-
2. McNeill ET, Gilmore CE, Finger WR, Lewis JH, Schellstede WP.The latex tives and pelvic inflammatory disease. JAMA 1982;248(2):184–7.
condom: recent advances, future directions. Available on-line at: 15. Zenilman JM,Weisman CS, Rompalo AM, Ellish N, Upchurch DM,
http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/booksReports/latexcondom/index.htm. Hook EW III, et al. Condom use to prevent incident STDs: the validity
Web site updated 2003. Accessed January 23, 2004. of self-reported condom use. Sex Transm Dis 1995;22(1):15–21.
3. Rosenberg MJ,Waugh MS, Solomon HM, Lyszkowski ADL.The male 16. Rosenberg MJ, Davidson AJ, Chen JH, Judson FN, Douglas JM. Barrier
polyurethane condom: a review of current knowledge. Contraception contraceptives and sexually transmitted diseases in women: a compari-
1996; 53:141–6. son of female-dependent methods and condoms. Am J Public Health
4. Health Canada. Listing of Medical Devices Licenses. Available on-line at: 1992;82(5):669–74.
<http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpfb-dgpsa/tpd-dpt/mdlic_e.html>.Web site 17. Obasi A, Mosha F, Quigley M, Sekirassa Z, Gibbs T, Munguti K, et al.
updated November 27, 2003. Accessed January 23, 2004. Antibody to herpes simplex virus type 2 as a marker of sexual risk
5. Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Ser- behaviour in rural Tanzania. J Infect Dis 1999;179:16–24.
vices. Lubricated baggy condom: summary of safety and effectiveness, 18. Manhart LE, Koutsky LA. Do condoms prevent genital HPV infection,
Sensicon Corporation submission. Directory of Medical Devices; 1997. external genital warts, or cervical neoplasia? Sex Transm Dis
6. Cates W, Stone KM. Family planning, sexually transmitted diseases, and 2002;29(11):725–35.
contraceptive choice: a literature update, part 1. Fam Plann Perspect 19. Ho GY, Bierman R, Beardsley L, Chang CJ, Burk RD. Natural history of
1992;24:75-84. cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. N Engl J Med
7. World Health Organization. Improving access to quality care in family 1998;338(7):423–8.
planning: medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use. 2nd ed. 20. Jamison JH, Kaplan DW, Hamman R, Eagar R, Beach R, Douglas JM Jr.
Geneva:WHO; 2001. Spectrum of genital human papillomavirus infection in a female adoles-
8. Trussell J. Contraceptive efficacy. In: Hatcher RA,Trussell J, Stewart F, cent population. Sex Transm Dis 1995;22(4):236–43.
Cates W, Stewart GK, Guest F, et al, editors. Contraceptive technology. 21. Allen S,Tice J,Van de Perre P, Serufilira A, Hudes E, Nsengumuremyi F,
17th ed. New York, NY: Ardent Media; 1998. p. 779–844. et al. Effect of serotesting with counselling on condom use and
9. Civic D, Scholes D, Ichikaw L, Grothaus L, McBride CM,Yarnall KS, seroconversion among HIV discordant couples in Africa. BMJ 1992;
Fish L. Ineffective use of condoms among young women in managed 304(6842):1605–9.
care. AIDS Care 2002;14(6):779–88. 22. de Vincenzi I. A longitudinal study of human immunodeficiency virus
10. Carter JA, McNair LD, Corbin WR,Williams M. Gender differences transmission by heterosexual partners. N Engl J Med 1994;331:341–6.
related to heterosexual condom use: the influence of negotiation styles. 23. Deschamps MM, Pape JW, Hafner A, Johnson WD Jr. Heterosexual
INDICATIONS
2. FEMALE CONDOM
The female condom prevents semen from contacting the vagi-
INTRODUCTION na. A woman who finds spermicides irritating, or does not like
the messiness of other vaginal barrier methods, may prefer to
The female condom is a soft, loose-fitting polyurethane sheath use the female condom.
which acts as an intravaginal barrier. (See Figure 1.) The Reality Advantages of the female condom include the following:
NON-CONTRACEPTIVE BENEFITS Women who plan to use female condoms do not require a fit-
ting, but they need to:
PROTECTION FROM SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED • understand how to use them correctly
INFECTION • insert them just prior to intercourse or up to 8 hours
Polyurethane is impenetrable in vitro to organisms the size of the before
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).10 The female condom • use a new condom for each act of intercourse
provides protection from sexually transmitted infection (STI) that • remove the female condom immediately after intercourse,
is similar to that of the male condom, although specific clinical squeezing and twisting the outer ring to keep semen
evidence is limited. The incidence of STI in sex workers given the inside the pouch, before standing up
choice of using male or female condoms has been reported lower
than the incidence in women using male condoms only.11,12 TROUBLESHOOTING
WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT If the female condom slips or breaks, women should be coun-
One of the most important features of the female condom is selled to use emergency contraception.
that it is a female-controlled method of contraception and STI
prevention.9,13-15 ACCEPTABILITY
Acceptability varies with study groups. For example, female con-
SIDE EFFECTS, RISKS, AND CHALLENGES doms are well-accepted in sex workers, a group in which as
many as 98% were satisfied with the method.16 The percent-
Problems are uncommon with the use of the female condom. age of satisfaction went down to as little as 65.2% in a survey
Slippage has been cited as a problem specific to the use of the of volunteers from hospital staff.19
female condom.7
COST
Like the male condom, the female condom is made for single
use only, so the cost of sustained use can be prohibitive. In
Canada the average cost is $3.00 per condom. Re-using the
female condom has been considered as one approach to make
the female condom more cost-effective; the safety and feasibil-
ity of re-use is currently the subject of research.20,21
REFERENCES
The health-care provider must rule out the presence of a large MYTHS AND MISCONCEPTIONS
cystocele, rectocele, or marked uterine prolapse,10 which would
reduce the efficacy of the method. 1. All barrier methods protect against HIV infection.
Some women are sensitive to spermicides and to latex. Fact: Protection from HIV is limited because of the expo-
There is also evidence of an increased risk of developing sure of vaginal mucosa.
bacterial vaginosis in diaphragm users. 15 Women with 2. Using a diaphragm alone (without spermicide) is equally
recurrent urinary tract infections (UTI) may need postcoital effective.
prophylaxis with antibiotics, since there is a 2 to 3 fold Fact: Studies suggest a decreased efficacy when used alone.14
increase in UTI risk with the use of spermicides. This is
probably related to changes in the vaginal flora and INITIATION
increased growth of E. coli.16,17
A pelvic examination by a qualified clinician is required for fit-
NON-CONTRACEPTIVE BENEFITS ting diaphragms. (See Table 4.) Fitting rings are produced by
diaphragm manufacturers in various sizes and with different rim
The use of a diaphragm offers potential protection from STIs types. Sizes range from 50 to 105 mm in diameter. The fitting
and their consequences by decreasing cervical exposure to the rings are most commonly available as flat spring or coil spring
causative organisms. Protection from HIV transmission is lim- rim types. It is important to fit the woman with the rim type
ited because of the exposure of the vaginal mucosa during the that she will ultimately use, and to have her practise with it
use of this method. The use of the diaphragm is also associated under the supervision of the clinician.
with a reduced incidence of cervical neoplasia.6,7 A sample sized diaphragm or fitting ring can then be insert-
ed into the correct position in the vagina. The diaphragm
RISKS AND SIDE EFFECTS should fit snugly in the upper half of the vagina, immediately
behind the pubic bone, with its rim in contact with the lateral
The use of a diaphragm may also increase the risk of persistent walls of the vagina and the posterior fornix.1
or recurrent UTI, possibly because of pressure from the Before a woman can successfully use the diaphragm or cer-
vical cap, she will require detailed instructions for insertion, the
opportunity to practise, and reassurance from the clinician.
Reinforcement of the correct procedures is valuable, as are tips
to becoming more comfortable with one’s body. Providing
information about the menstrual cycle will help women use
their barrier method more effectively. Providing information
Use of the cervical cap may aggravate symptoms in women with 1. Cervical caps increase the risk of cervical dysplasia.
sexually transmitted infections and vaginitis. The risk of toxic Fact: Cervical caps are not associated with an increased risk
shock syndrome is increased. Cervical caps may cause more of cervical cancer, although inflammatory changes have been
vaginal odour and discharge than diaphragms, and can be dis- reported.3-5
lodged during intercourse. Concerns about abnormal cervical 2. It is impossible to obtain a cervical cap in Canada.
cytology associated with cervical cap use have been shown to be Fact: Cervical caps are available in Canada in some family
unfounded.4,5 planning clinics and they can also be ordered through the
Internet.1
5. CONTRACEPTIVE SPONGE
INTRODUCTION
TROUBLESHOOTING RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Health-care providers should promote the consistent and
Inserting a spermicide should be practised before coitus takes correct use of latex condoms to protect against pregnancy,
place, in order to increase comfort with use. If genital irrita- human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, and
tion develops, steps must be taken to rule out an STI, vaginal other STIs. Health-care providers should provide men
moniliasis, and bacterial vaginosis. If there is an unpleasant and women with information on the male and female
genital odour, cultures should be taken and any specific condom. (Grade A)
infection treated. 2. Women who use barrier methods of contraception
If “messiness” is a problem, spermicidal film or bioadhesive should be provided with emergency contraception and
jelly should be recommended. relevant counselling. (Grade B)
If lack of spontaneity is an issue, bioadhesive jelly can be 3. Health-care providers should educate women and men
inserted up to 24 hours before intercourse. about the correct use of barrier methods. They should
emphasize the need for dual protection against preg-
nancy and infections. (Grade B)
Table 8. How to Use Spermicides 4. The use of spermicide-coated condoms should no longer
• Read and follow the package instructions. be promoted. Nevertheless, the use of a nonoxynol-9
• Insert spermicide high in the vagina to cover the cervix. lubricated condom is preferable to the use of no condom
• Use the appropriate amount of spermicide.
• Wait the recommended time between insertion and intercourse.
at all. (Grade C)
• Insert an additional application of spermicide with every act of 5. Health-care providers should be encouraged to be
intercourse. familiar with the technique of fitting a diaphragm.
• Do not douche for at least 6 hours after intercourse.
Diaphragms and cervical caps should continue to be
• Always have additional supply of spermicides.
available in Canada. (Grade C)
Natural family planning may be a contraceptive option for Instruction in NFP is recommended, although women can learn
• couples who wish to avoid using barrier or hormonal this method from a number of reference books — the most com-
methods of contraception prehensive of which is Taking Charge of Your Fertility.18 Courses
• couples who wish to increase the effectiveness of barrier may be given in the community, although potential users should
methods or withdrawal during the fertile phase be aware that some organizations teach natural family planning
• couples for whom an accidental pregnancy would be within a religious context and do not condone the use of barrier
acceptable methods as an adjunct to this method (e.g., the Serena organiza-
Please note: One additional indication for LAM is being post- tion). This organization uses a couple-to-couple approach to teach
partum which is a contra-indication for the other natural fam- the Symptothermal method of NFP within a religious framework.
ily planning methods. When fertility signs are difficult to assess (such as in the
presence of a vaginal discharge), either barrier contraceptives or
CONTRAINDICATIONS abstinence should be used. A woman who has intercourse with-
in the fertile period could use emergency contraception.
Natural family planning may not be a suitable option for The Billings ovulation method is taught by Billings certi-
• couples who are unwilling or unable to be diligent about fied instructors who work within the framework of the Roman
observing and charting the signs of fertility, and about Catholic Church.
complying with the rules to prevent pregnancy
• women whose menstrual cycles are erratic TROUBLESHOOTING
• women post-partum (except for LAM)
• women who have difficulty assessing cervical mucus Couples who chose NFP should be counselled about emergency
because of vaginal infection or use of vaginal agents contraception.
(e.g., lubricants, spermicides)
REFERENCES
NON-CONTRACEPTIVE BENEFITS
1. Lamprecht V,Trussell J. Natural family planning effectiveness: evaluating
Women who monitor or chart their fertility signs often have published reports. Adv Contracept 1997;13:155–65.
greater awareness of their own gynaecological health and are 2. Stanford JB,White GL, Hatasaka H.Timing intercourse to achieve
pregnancy: current evidence. Obstet Gynecol 2002;100:1333–41.
better able to discern the difference between normal and 3. World Health Organization. Improving access to quality care in family
abnormal cervical secretions. As well, charting fertility signs planning: medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use. 2nd ed.
can alert women to factors that may contribute to infertility, Geneva:WHO; 2001.
4. Guillebaud J. Contraception: your questions answered. 3rd ed.
such as anovulation.4 Incorporating this information into fam- Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1999. p. 23–37.
ily planning programs generally would greatly benefit 5. Dunson DB, Sinai I, Colombo B.The relationship between cervical
women.17 secretions and the daily probabilities of pregnancy: effectiveness of the
two-day algorithm. Hum Reprod 2001;16:2278–82.
6. Aravalo M, Sinai I, Jennings V. A fixed formula to define the fertile win-
RISKS AND SIDE EFFECTS dow of the menstrual cycle as the basis of a simple method of natural
family planning. Contraception 1999;60:357–60.
There is a high probability of failure with all fertility aware- 7. Hatcher RA,Trussell J, Stewart F, Cates W, Stewart GK, Guest F, et al.,
editors. Contraceptive technology. 17th ed. New York: Ardent Media;
ness methods if they are not used consistently and correctly. 1998. p. 309–23.
Also, for the protection against STIs condoms need to be used 8. Health Canada. Listing of medical devices licenses. Available on-line at
in addition to NFP. <http://www.pigscanfly.ca/~adouglas2/CMBES_Website_pages/daffodil
.hc-sc.gc.ca_8080/adouglas/CMBES_healthcanada_page.html>.Web site
updated September 25, 2003. Accessed February 10, 2004.
MYTHS AND MISCONCEPTIONS 9. May K. Monitoring reproductive hormones to detect the fertile period:
development of Persona – the first home-use system. Adv Contracept
1. Most women know when they are fertile. 1997;13:139–41.
10. Pyper CM, Knight J. Fertility awareness methods of family planning: the
Fact: Numerous studies have shown that many women are not physiological background, methodology, and effectiveness of fertility
well informed about when they are fertile during each month.17 awareness methods. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 2001;27:103–9.
2. NFP is unreliable. 11. Bonnar J, Flynn A, Freundl G, Kirkman R, Royston R, Snowden R. Per-
sonal hormone monitoring for contraception. Br J Fam Plann 1999;24:
Fact: These methods can be quite reliable when used
128–34.
correctly. The World Health Organization cites a failure rate 12. Bonnar J, Freundl G, Kirkman R. Personal hormone monitoring for
of 20% for common use and 1% to 9% for perfect use.3 contraception. Br J Fam Plann 2000;26:178–9.
During coitus the male withdraws the penis from the vagina Health care providers should make people aware that withdrawal
prior to ejaculation. should not be used permanently. Other options of contraception
should be offered. The patient should know about all the risks
INDICATIONS involved since the withdrawal requires considerable self-control.
Since reversibility of this procedure is virtually impossible, The following are possible short-term side effects from tubal
appropriate counselling is extremely important. Women with ligation:
uterine or tubal disease, who are ambivalent about sterilization, • shoulder tip pain secondary to usage and remaining of
or who feel uncomfortable about having a device or materials some gas (CO2) inside the peritoneal cavity
inserted into their fallopian tubes should not be offered this • lower abdominal pain or cramps
technique. Women who have a contraindication to laparoscopic • bruising, bleeding from incisions
sterilization (obese or severe medical conditions), and who are • post-operative nausea and light-headedness
over age 30 with no uterine or tubal anomaly, might be eligible
for transcervical sterilization. Long-term efficacy and potential RISKS
hidden side effects are not known for this method.
SHORT-TERM COMPLICATIONS
CONTRAINDICATIONS The incidence of complications depends on the procedure per-
formed (laparoscopy or laparotomy, mechanical or thermal),
The following are considered contraindications to performing the anaesthesia used (local or general), and the experience of the
tubal ligation: surgeon.2
1. systemic health problems, especially cardiopulmonary con- Potential complications include the following:
ditions that may be aggravated by general anaesthesia • anaesthesia-related risks
2. pregnancy (unless the sterilization procedure is done at the • wound infection
time of abortion or immediately postpartum) • bruising
3. the presence of pelvic infection, or inability to access the fal- • hematoma formation
lopian tubes at surgery • urinary complications
4. uncertainty about whether permanent contraception is • mesosalpingeal tears and trans-section of the tube from
desired ring or clip application (may require laparotomy to con-
The major concern with sterilization is regret. The cumulative like- trol bleeding)
POTENTIAL RISKS WITH USE OF THE Taking a medical and a contraceptive history is essential. Key
TRANSCERVICAL PROCEDURE elements in the medical history are the patient’s age, marital sta-
Some risks that are possible with the transcervical procedure tus, spouse’s age, type of relationship, number and age of chil-
include the following: dren, contraceptive experience, reasons for sterilization, and
• perforation or dissection of fallopian tube or uterine cornu systemic health problems. The medical history will emphasize
• uterine perforation by the hysteroscope any history of pelvic disease, previous abdominal or pelvic
• placement of micro-insert into the myometrium or into surgery, heart or lung disease, bleeding problems, allergies, med-
the distal tube ication, and previous problems with general anaesthesia.
• subsequent procedures such as electrocautery, endome- A complete physical examination must be performed short-
trial biopsy, dilatation and curettage, or endometrial abla- ly before sterilization.
tion potentially could dislodge a micro-insert or interrupt Laboratory evaluation may be limited to measurement of
its ability to prevent pregnancy11 haemoglobin level. Effective contraception must be used until
the time of the tubal ligation.
LONG-TERM COMPLICATIONS Since post-sterilization regret is common, careful pre-surgery
counselling with awareness of risk factors is essential. Informa-
ECTOPIC PREGNANCY tion about the type of operation — including risks and benefits,
Ectopic pregnancy should be ruled out whenever a woman the availability of alternative methods of family planning, the
shows signs of pregnancy following tubal occlusion. The possibility of failure, and the possibility of reversal — must all
CREST study demonstrated a 10-year cumulative probability be discussed so that the individual can provide informed con-
of ectopic pregnancy of 7.3 per 1000 women for all methods sent for surgical sterilization. A consent document, readily under-
combined.2 A report from Korea of ectopic pregnancies fol- standable in the individual’s own language, must be signed. It is
lowing sterilization showed an approximately 3-fold greater inci- recommended that the sterilization be performed a few weeks
dence of ectopic pregnancies after electro-coagulation than after after the initial interview, to allow more consideration of the
the use of silastic rings or clips.26 Ectopic pregnancy was most choice of sterilization. Written information may be useful.
often related to the following: utero-peritoneal fistula after
unipolar electro-coagulation; inadequate coagulation or recanal- TROUBLESHOOTING
ization after bipolar procedures; recanalization or fistula for-
mation after Pomeroy, tubal ring, or clip procedures.27 REVERSAL
Reversal of tubal ligation requires major surgery and special sur-
MENSTRUAL PATTERN CHANGES gical skills. Some women are not appropriate candidates because
Abnormal menstrual patterns have been thought to occur fol- of the way the sterilization was performed. Success cannot be
lowing sterilization, and a “post-tubal ligation syndrome” has guaranteed and reversal surgery is usually expensive. There are
been proposed. There is no supportive evidence.28-31 operative risks due to anaesthesia and the usual risks of major
A recent review of the literature comparing sterilized and abdominal surgery. The risk of ectopic pregnancy is about 5%
control women found no difference in hormones levels and lit- following reversal surgery and depends on the type of tubal lig-
tle difference in menstrual cycle characteristics.32 ation.2 Pre-reversal assessment includes exclusion of male pos-
sible infertility factors, female ovulation disorders and laparo-
PSYCHOSEXUAL PROBLEMS scopic assessment of the tubal segments.
No evidence of psychological problems or detrimental long- Rates of subsequent term delivery vary, but they are high-
term effects on sexuality has been demonstrated. est after reversal of occlusion techniques that damage a small
segment of the tube (such as with a tubal clip or ring) and low-
MYTHS AND MISCONCEPTIONS est after electrocoagulation. (See Table 2.) The occurrence of
ectopic pregnancy after reversal surgery may be due to pre-exist-
1. The risk of having a hysterectomy is increased after tubal ing abnormal tubal function, or to factors arising from the sur-
ligation. gical technique used. In vitro fertilization (IVF) may be an
Administration of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) 1. Briggs GG, Freeman RK,Yaffe SJ, editors. Drugs in pregnancy and lacta-
has been shown to be an effective method of postpartum con- tion: a reference guide to fetal and neonatal risk. 6th ed. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001.
traception with little or no effect on breast milk production or 2. World Health Organization. Improving access to quality care in family
on infant development.9-13 planning: medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use. 2nd ed.
It may be preferable to wait until breast milk is established Geneva:WHO; 2001.
3. Shikary ZK, Betrabet SS, Patel ZM, Patel S, Joshi JV,Toddywala VS, et al.
before giving the first dose of DMPA. If the woman is not
ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) Task Force study on hor-
breastfeeding, the first DMPA dose can be given immediately monal contraception: transfer of levonorgestrel (LNG) administered
after delivery. through different drug delivery systems from the maternal circulation