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Volts 3 Phase
Volts Single Phase
Balanced Load
Power
(VA)
120 240 480 240 480
Volts - The units of electrical potential or motive force. The force is required
to send one ampere of current through one ohm of resistance.
Ohms - The units of resistance. One ohm is the resistance offered to the
passage of one ampere when impelled by one volt.
Amperes - The units of current. One ampere is the current which one volt
can send through a resistance of one ohm.
Watts - The unit of electrical energy or power. One watt is the product of
one ampere and one volt. One ampere of current flowing under the force of
one volt gives one watt of energy.
Volt Amperes - The product of the volts and amperes as shown by a
voltmeter and ammeter. In direct current systems, volt ampere is the same
as watts or the energy delivered. In alternating current systems, the volts
and amperes may or may not be 100% synchronous. When synchronous,
the volt amperes equal the watts on a wattmeter. When not synchronous,
volt amperes exceed watts. More about reactive power.
Kilovolt Ampere - One kilovolt ampere - KVA - is equal to 1,000 volt
amperes.
Power Factor - is the ratio of watts to volt amperes.
W = E I (1a)
W = R I2 (1b)
W = E2/ R (1c)
where
W = power (Watts)
E = voltage (Volts)
I = current (Amperes)
R = resistance (Ohms)
I = E / R (2a)
I = W / E (2b)
I = (W / R)1/2 (2c)
R = E / I (3a)
R = E2/ W (3b)
R = W / I2 (3c)
E = R I (4a)
E = W / I (4b)
E = (W R)1/2 (4c)
= 0.67 Ampere
where
μ = efficiency
or alternatively
where
where
The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the active (true or real) power
to the apparent power.
Active (Real or True) Power is measured in watts (W) and is the power
drawn by the electrical resistance of a system that does useful work.
Apparent Power is measured in volt-amperes (VA) and is the voltage on an
AC system multiplied by all the current that flows in it. It is the vector sum of
the true and the reactive power.
The reactive power required by an inductive load will increase the amount of apparent power - measured in
kilovolt amps (kVA) - in the distribution system. Increasing the reactive and apparent power will cause the
power factor - PF - to decrease.
Power Factor
It is common to define the Power Factor - PF - as the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and
current - or the "cosφ". The power factor defined by IEEE and IEC is the ratio between the applied true
power - and the apparent power, and can in general be expressed as:
PF = power factor
A low power factor is the result of inductive loads such as transformers and electric motors. Unlike resistive
loads creating heat by consuming kilowatts, inductive loads require a current flow to create magnetic fields
to produce the desired work.
an overall power factor less than 1 indicates that the electricity supplier
need to provide more generating capacity than actually required
the current waveform distortion that contributes to reduced power factor is
caused by voltage waveform distortion and overheating in the neutral cables
of three-phase systems
International standards such as IEC 61000-3-2 have been established to control current waveform
distortion by introducing limits for the amplitude of current harmonics.
Example - Power Factor
A industrial plant draws 200 A at 400 V and the supply transformer and backup UPS is rated 200 A × 400 V
= 80 kVA.
If the power factor - PF - of the loads is only 0.7 - only 80 kVA × 0.7 = 56 kVA of real power is consumed by
the system. If the power factor was close to 1, the supply system with transformers, cables, switchgear and
UPS could have been done considerably smaller.
A low power factor is expensive and inefficient and some utility companies may charge additional fees
when the power factor is less than 0.95. A low power factor will reduce the electrical system's distribution
capacity by increasing the current flow and causing voltage drops.
The power factor for a three-phase electric motor can be expressed as:
where
PF = power factor
U = voltage (V)
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite
length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between
these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton per meter of length.
Coulomb - (C)
The standard unit of quantity in electrical measurements. It is the quantity of electricity conveyed in one
second by the current produced by an electro-motive force of one volt acting in a circuit having a resistance
of one ohm, or the quantity transferred by one ampere in one second.
Farad - (F)
The farad is the standard unit of capacitance. Reduced to base SI units, one farad is the equivalent of one
second to the fourth power ampere squared per kilogram per meter squared (s4 A2 kg-1 m-2).
When the voltage across a 1 F capacitor changes at a rate of one volt per second (1 V/s), a current flow of
1 A results. A capacitance of 1 F produces 1 V of potential difference for an electric charge of one coulomb
(1 C).
In common electrical and electronic circuits, units of microfarads (μF), where 1 μF = 10 -6 F, and picofarads
(pF), where 1 pF = 10-12 F, are used.
Ohm - (Ω)
The derived SI unit of electrical resistance; the resistance between two points on a conductor when a
constant potential difference of 1 volt between them produces a current of 1 ampere.
Henry - (H)
The Henry is the unit of inductance. Reduced to base SI units, one henry is the equivalent of one kilogram
meter squared per second squared per ampere squared (kg m2 s-2 A-2).
Inductance
An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field.
The standard unit of inductance is the henry, abbreviated H. This is a large unit. More common units are
the microhenry, abbreviated μH (1 μH =10-6H) and the millihenry, abbreviated mH (1 mH =10-3 H).
Occasionally, the nanohenry (nH) is used (1 nH = 10-9 H).
Joule - (J)
The unit of energy work or quantity of heat done when a force of one Newton is applied over a
displacement of one meter. One joule is the equivalent of one watt of power radiated or dissipated for one
second.
In imperial units, the British thermal unit (Btu) is used to express energy. One Btu is equivalent to
approximately 1,055 joules.
Siemens - (S)
Watt
The watt is used to specify the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated, or the rate at which
electromagnetic energy is radiated, absorbed, or dissipated.
The unit of power W or Joule/second
Weber - Wb
The flux that, when linking a circuit of one turn, produces in it an electromotive force (Emf) of 1 volt as it is
reduced to zero at a uniform rate in one second.
Tesla - T
The unit of magnetic flux density. The Tesla is equal to 1 Weber per square meter of circuit area.
Volt
The Volt (V) is the Standard International (SI) unit of electric potential or electromotive force. A potential of
one volt appears across a resistance of one ohm when a current of one ampere flows through that
resistance. Reduced to SI base units, 1 V = 1 kg times m2 times s-3 times A-1 (kilogram meter squared per
second cubed per ampere).
NEMA eclosure classification are developed by NEMA and used in the U.S./American market.
Ingress Protection - IP - ratings are developed by the European Committee for Electro Technical
Standardization (CENELEC) (described IEC/EN 60529), and specifies the environmental protection and
enclosure provided.
The table below can be used to convert from NEMA Enclosure Types to IEC Enclosure Types:
Note! NEMA standards meet or exceed IEC standards. The conversion does not work in the opposite
direction.
Non-Hazardous Locations
Type 1 : General Purpose - Indoor
Hazardous Locations
Type 7 : Class I, Group A, B, C or D Hazardous Locations -
Indoor
For more detailed and complete information, NEMA Standards Publication 250-2003, Enclosures for
Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum) should be consulted.
Different motors of the same nominal horsepower can have varying starting current, torque curves, speeds,
and other variables. Selection of a particular motor for an intended task must take all engineering
parameters into account.
The four NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) designs have unique speed-torque-slip
relationships making them suitable to different type of applications:
NEMA design A
maximum 5% slip
high to medium starting current
normal locked rotor torque
normal breakdown torque
suited for a broad variety of applications - as fans and pumps
NEMA design B
maximum 5% slip
low starting current
high locked rotor torque
normal breakdown torque
suited for a broad variety of applications, normal starting torque - common
in HVAC application with fans, blowers and pumps
NEMA design C
maximum 5% slip
low starting current
high locked rotor torque
normal breakdown torque
suited for equipment with high inertia starts - as positive displacement
pumps
NEMA design D
2 Pole 4 Pole
Power (hp)
Locked Break Locked Break
Pull Up Pull Up
Rotor Down Rotor Down
Torque Torque
Torque Torque Torque Torque
Torque is the turning force through a radius and the units is rated in - N.m - in the SI-system and in - lb.ft -
in the imperial system.
The torque developed by a synchronous induction motors varies with the speed of the motor when its
accelerate from full stop or zero speed, to maximum operating speed.
The Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque is the torque the electrical motor develop when its starts at
rest or zero speed.
A high Starting Torque is more important for application or machines hard to start - as positive
displacement pumps, cranes etc. A lower Starting Torque can be accepted in applications as centrifugal
fans or pumps where the start load is low or close to zero.
Pull-up Torque
The Pull-up Torque is the minimum torque developed by the electrical motor when it runs from zero to full-
load speed (before it reaches the break-down torque point)
When the motor starts and begins to accelerate the torque in general decrease until it reach a low point at
a certain speed - the pull-up torque - before the torque increases until it reach the highest torque at a
higher speed - the break-down torque - point.
The pull-up torque may be critical for applications that needs power to go through some temporary barriers
achieving the working conditions.
Break-down Torque
The Break-down Torque is the highest torque available before the torque decreases when the machine
continues to accelerate to the working conditions.
The Full-load Torque is the torque required to produce the rated power of the electrical motor at full-load
speed.
Php = horsepower
= 182.7 lb.ft
NEMA Design
NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) have classified electrical motors in four different
NEMA designs where torques and starting-load inertia are important criterions.
2 Pole 4 Pole
Power (hp)
Locked Break Locked Break
Pull Up Pull Up
Rotor Down Rotor Down
Torque Torque
Torque Torque Torque Torque
Reduced Voltage Soft Starters are used to limit the starting current and reducing the Locked Rotor Torque
or Starting Torque and are common in applications which is hard to start or must be handled with care - as
positive displacement pumps, cranes, elevators and similar.
who sets the design standards for motors, has established a NEMA Code letter designation to classify
motors by the ratio of locked rotor KVA per horsepower.
NEMA KVA/HP
Code Letter with locked rotor
A 0-3.14
B 3.15-3.55
C 3.55-3.99
D 4.0-4.49
E 4.5-4.99
F 5.0-5.59
G 5.6-6.29
H 6.3-7.09
J 7.1-7.99
K 8.0-8.99
L 9.0-9.99
M 10.0-11.19
N 11.2-12.49
P 12.5-13.99
R 14.0-15.99
S 16.0-17.99
T 18.0-19.99
U 20.0-22.39
V 22.4-and up
The starting KVA required by a motor starting at full voltage is determined from the nameplate on the motor
or from the manufacturer.
In general it is accepted that small motors requires higher starting KVA than larger motors. Standard 3
phase motors often have these locked rotor codes:
Electrical motor efficiency is the ratio between the shaft output power - and the electrical input power.
If the power output is measured in Watt (W), efficiency can be expressed as:
where
ηm = motor efficiency
If the power out is measured in horsepower (hp), efficiency can be expressed as:
where
The electrical power lost in the primary rotor and secondary stator winding resistance are also called the
copper losses. The copper loss vary with the load in proportion to the current squared and can be
expressed as
Pcl = R I2 (3)
where
R = resistance (Ω)
I = current (Amp)
Iron Losses
These losses are the result of magnetic energy dissipated when when the motors magnetic field is applied
to the stator core.
Stray Losses
Stray losses are the losses that remains after primary copper and secondary losses, iron losses and
mechanical losses. The largest contribution to the stray losses is harmonic energies generated when the
motor operates under load. These energies are dissipated as currents in the copper windings, harmonic
flux components in the iron parts, leakage in the laminate core.
Mechanical Losses
Mechanical losses includes friction in the motor bearings and the fan for air cooling.
Electrical motors constructed according NEMA Design B must meet the efficiencies below:
Power
Minimum Nominal Efficiency1)
(hp)
1-4 78.8
5-9 84.0
10 - 19 85.5
20 - 49 88.5
50 - 99 90.2
1)
NEMA Design B, Single Speed 1200, 1800, 3600 RPM. Open Drip Proof (ODP) or Totally Enclosed Fan
Cooled (TEFC) motors 1 hp and larger that operate more than 500 hours per year.
Insulation systems are rated by standard NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association)
classifications according to maximum allowable operating temperatures as follows:
Allowable Allowable
Temperature Maximum Operation Temperature Temperature
Tolerance Class Temperature Allowed Rise at full load Rise
1.0 service 1.15 service
factor motor 1) factor motor 1)
o o o o
C F C C
A 105 221 60 70
B 130 266 80 90
T(oF) = [T(oC)](9/5) + 32
1)
Allowable temperature rises are based upon a reference ambient temperature of 40oC. Operation
temperature is reference temperature + allowable temperature rise + allowance for "hot spot" winding.
Example Temperature Tolerance Class F: 40oC + 105oC + 10oC = 155oC.
In general a motor should not operate on temperatures above the maximums. Each 10oC rise above the
ratings may reduce the motor's lifetime by one half.
Temperature Tolerance Class B is the most common insulation class used on most 60 cycle US motors.
Temperature Tolerance Class F is the most common for international and 50 cycle motors.
The enclosures of electrical motors are standardized by NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers
Association) as:
Drip-Proof
Ventilation openings in shield and/or frame prevents drops of liquid from falling into motor within up to 15
degree angle from vertical.
Designed for reasonably dry, clean, and well ventilated (usually indoors) areas. Outdoors installation
require the motor to be protected with a cover that does not restrict the flow of air to the motor.
Dust-tight fan and blower motors for shaft mounted fans or belt driven fans. The motors mounted within the
airflow of the fan.
No ventilation openings, enclosed to prevent free exchange of air (not airtight). No external cooling fan,
relies on convection cooling.
Suitable where the motor is exposed to dirt or dampness. Not suited in very moist humid or hazardous
(explosive) air.
Same as TENV with an external fan as an integral part of the motor. The fan provides cooling by blowing
air on the outside of the motor.
Totally Enclosed, Hostile and Severe Environment
Designed for use in extreme conditions - moist and/or chemical environments. Not for hazardous locations.
Same as TEFC with external fan on a power supply independent of the inverter output. Full cooling even at
lower motor speeds.
Explosion-Proof Motors
The motor ambient temperature shall not exceed +400oC. Motors are approved for the classes:
Group A - Acetylene
Group B - Butadiene, ethylene oxide, hydrogen, propylene oxide
Group C - Acetaldehyde, cyclopropane, diethel ether, ethylene,
isoprene
Group D - Acetone, acrylonitrite, ammonia, benzene, butane, ethylene
dichloride, gasoline, hexane, methane, methanol, naphtha, propane,
propylene, styrene, toluene, vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, xylem
Ingress Protection (IP) ratings are developed by the European Committee for Electro Technical
Standardization (CENELEC) (described IEC/EN 60529), specify the environmental protection an enclosure
provides.
Example - IP Rating
With the IP rating IP 54, 5 describes the level of protection from solid objects and 4 describes the level of
protection from liquids.
0 No protection.
4 Protected against solid objects over 1mm (tools, wire, and small wires).
0 No protection.
Protected against low pressure jets of water from all directions o limited
5
ingress.
Protected against low pressure jets of water, e.g. for use on ship decks -
6
limited ingress permitted.
0 No protection.
Protects against impact of 0.225 joule (e.g. 150g weight falling from 15cm
1
height).
Protected against impact of 0.375 joule (e.g. 250g weight falling from
2
15cm height).
Protected against impact of 0.5 joule (e.g. 250g weight falling from 20cm
3
height).
Protected against impact of 2.0 joule (e.g. 500g weight falling from 40cm
4
height).
Protected against impact of 6.0 joule (e.g. 1.5kg weight falling from 40cm
5
height).
Protected against impact of 20.0 joule (e.g. 5kg weight falling from 40cm
6
height).
NEMA electrical motor starters refer to a standardized rating system for the electrical performance of the
most common style of American-built motor starters. NEMA starters are rated by size: 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
and 7.
Maximum electrical motor horsepower for different NEMA starters for three phase motors can be found in
the table below:
NEMA Full Voltage Starting Part Winding Starting Wye Delta Starting
Continuous
NEMA
Amp
Size
Rating 460V 460V 460V
200V 230V 200V 230V 200V 230V
(Amp) 575V 575V 575V
00 9 1.5 1.5 2
0 18 3 3 5
1 27 7.5 7.5 10 10 10 15 10 10 15
2 45 10 15 25 20 25 40 20 25 40
3 90 25 30 50 40 50 75 40 50 75
Ease of selection is a fundamental design advantage of a NEMA-style starter. To select a NEMA starter
only horsepower and voltage are needed. NEMA starters have interchangeable heater elements and
makes NEMA starters attractive in projects where the motor specification is not known until the start-up
date.
Electrical power is in general rated in Watts or Horsepower. A horsepower is a unit of power equal to 746
watts or 33,000 lb.ft per minute (or 550 lb.ft per second).
A watt is a unit of measure equal to the power produced by a current of 1 amp across the potential
difference of 1 volt. A watt is 1/746 of 1 horsepower.
Even if the watt is the base unit of electrical power, its common to rate motor power is in either horsepower
or watts.
Power in Watts
Pw = ηm U I (1)
where
ηm = motor efficiency
U = voltage (V)
Power in Horsepower
or
where
The horsehorse power of an 230 V electrical motor with 85% efficiency pulling 10 amps can be calculated
as:
Php = 0.85 (230 V) (10 amps) / 746
= 2,62 hp
Real Power
where
U = voltage (volts)
I = current (Amps)
Total Power
W = U I / 1000 (2)
Break Horsepower
where
μ = device efficiency
Real Power
where
U = voltage (volts)
I = current (Amps)
Break Horsepower
where
μ = device efficiency
The table below can used to determine electrical data for common asynchronous 380 Voltage motors.
3 4 6.6 16 10 (16)22 16
11 15 22.2 35 35 (40)30 40
15 20 30 50 35 (40)30 40
22 30 44 63 50 (63)/60 60
30 40 57 80 63 (63)/60 60
Full-voltage starters (manual and magnetic) apply full voltage directly to motor terminals.
Some machines or loads may require a gentle start and smooth acceleration up to full speed.
Many starters apply reduced voltage to motor windings; primary resistor, primary reactor, autotransformer,
and solid state. Part winding and wye-delta starters can also provide reduced-voltage starting, although
technically they are not reduced-voltage starters.
Motor Protection
Motors should have protection for themselves, the branch circuit, and the feeder line. Protection, provided
by fuses and circuit breakers, guards against fault conditions caused by short circuits or grounds and over
currents exceeding locked-rotor values.
The synchronous speed of an induction motor is based on the supply frequency and the number of poles in
the motor winding and can be expressed as:
ω = 2 60 f / n (1)
where
ω = pump shaft rotational speed (rev/min, rpm)
n = number of poles
The rotational speed at different frequencies and number of poles can be listed as:
Number of poles - n
Frequency - f -
(Hz)
2 4 6 8 10 12
With a variable frequency drive its possible to modulate the speed of the motor by changing the frequency
supplied to the synchronous motor. The relation between motor speed, frequency and number of poles in
the motor can be found in the table above.
The approximate speed (RPM) at rated loads for small and medium motors operating at 60 hz and 50 hz at
rated volts can be found in the table below:
Approximate Electrical Motor Speed (RPM)
Electrical motors in air condition system contributes to the heat loads in air condition systems and have
influence on the cooling equipment dimensions. Gained heat load from electrical motor and fans in different
locations can be estimated from the table below:
16 87 18.4 16 2.4
20 88 22.7 20 2.7
25 89 28.0 25 3.0
32 89 36.0 32 4.0
40 89 45.0 40 5.0
50 90 56.0 50 6.0
63 90 70.0 63 7.0
80 90 89.0 80 9.0
1 kW = 1.34 hp
1 hp = 0.746 kW
As a rule of thumb the heat loss from an electrical motor during operation can be estimated as
Size of Motor Heat Loss
(kW) (Watts/kW)
0-2 250
3 - 15 150
15 - 150 100
150 - 80
1 kW = 1.34 hp
1 hp = 0.746 k W
An AC (Amplitude Current) induction motor consists of two assemblies - a stator and a rotor. The
interaction of currents flowing in the rotor bars and the stators' rotating magnetic field generate a torque. In
an actual operation, the rotor speed always lags the magnetic field's speed, allowing the rotor bars to cut
magnetic lines of force and produce useful torque.
This speed difference is called the slip. The slip increase with load and is necessary for torque production.
Slip speed is equal to the difference between rotor speed and synchronous speed. Percent slip is slip
multiplied by 100. When the rotor is not turning, the percent slip is 100%.
where
S = slip
Full-load slip varies from less than 1 % in high hp motors to more than 5-6 % minor hp motors.
Motor Size
0.5 5 15 50 250
(hp)
Typical Slip
5 3 2.5 1.7 0.8
(%)
When the motor starts rotating, the slip is I00% and the voltage is at maximum. The slip and voltage are
reduced when the rotor begins to turn.
Inductive reactance depends on the frequency and the slip. When the rotor is not turning, the frequency
and slip are at maximum and so is the inductive reactance.
A motor has a resistance and inductance and when the rotor is turning, the inductive reactance is low and
power factor will approach one.
The inductive reactance will change with the slip since the rotor impedance is the phase sum of the
constant resistance and the variable inductive reactance.
When the motor starts rotating the inductive reactance is high and impedance is mostly inductive. The rotor
has a low, lagging power factor. When the speed increases the inductive reactance goes down equaling
the resistance.
A fan motor must be capable not only of driving the fan at operating conditions, but also be capable of
accelerating the fan wheel, drive and shaft to the operating speed. For a fan transporting a large volume of
air at low static pressure the motor power required during the continuous operating process may not be
enough for starting the fan. Often a correct designed and adjusted motor protection system will stop the fan
before the windings are overheated and insulation damaged.
The motor torque should during design be checked against the fan wheel torque up to 90% of the
synchronized speed.
The motor starting torque for a belt driven fan can be expressed as:
where
Im = moment of inertia that the motor must be capable of turning at the motor shaft (lbm ft2, kg m2)
Typical inertia of Class IV steel and aluminum backward inclined centrifugal wheels:
20 25 10
22 40 16
24 65 26
27 95 38
30 140 56
36 380 152
40 580 232
44 870 348
54 2030 812
60 3900 1560
66 5500 2200
Typical inertia of HVAC or process standard centrifugal fans with with steel backward wheels:
0.40 0.10
0.45 0.17
0.50 0.27
0.56 0.53
0.63 0.87
0.71 1.80
0.80 3.00
0.99 8.10
The service factor - SF - is a measure of periodically overload capacity at which a motor can operate
without overload or damage. The NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) standard service
factor for totally enclosed motors is 1.0.
A motor operating continuously at a service factor greater than 1 will have a reduced life expectancy
compared to operating at at its rated nameplate horsepower.
NEMA Service Factor at Synchronous Speed (RPM) for drip proof motors:
1 HP x 1.15 = 1.15 HP
without overheating or otherwise damaging the motor if rated voltage and frequency are supplied to the
motor.
Insulation life and bearings life are reduced by the service factor load.
IEC (the International Electrotechnical Commission) uses eight duty cycle designations to describe an
electrical motors operating conditions:
S1 - Continuous duty. The motor works at a constant load for enough time
to reach temperature equilibrium.
S2 - Short-time duty. The motor works at a constant load, but not long
enough to reach temperature equilibrium. The rest periods are long enough
for the motor to reach ambient temperature.
S3 - Intermittent periodic duty. Sequential, identical run and rest cycles with
constant load. Temperature equilibrium is never reached. Starting current
has little effect on temperature rise.
S4 - Intermittent periodic duty with starting. Sequential, identical start, run
and rest cycles with constant load. Temperature equilibrium is not reached,
but starting current affects temperature rise.
S5 - Intermittent periodic duty with electric braking. Sequential, identical
cycles of starting, running at constant load and running with no load. No rest
periods.
S6 - Continuous operation with intermittent load. Sequential, identical cycles
of running with constant load and running with no load. No rest periods.
S7 - Continuous operation with electric braking. Sequential identical cycles
of starting, running at constant load and electric braking. No rest periods.
S8 - Continuous operation with periodic changes in load and speed.
Sequential, identical duty cycles run at constant load and given speed, then
run at other constant loads and speeds. No rest periods.
The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity.
Resistivity
Temperature Conductivity
Coefficient 2)
Material Coefficient 2) -σ-
-ρ-
per degree C (1 /Ωm)
(ohm m)
Chromel (alloy of
chromium and 0.58 x 10-3
aluminum)
Chromium 13 x 10-8
Cobalt 9 x 10-8
Nichrome (alloy of
nickel and 0.40 x 10-3
chromium)
Niobium
13 x 10-8
(Columbium)
Osmium 9 x 10-8
Quartz
7.5 x 1017
(fused)
Thorium 18 x 10-8
Titanium 43 x 10-8
Uranium 30 x 10-8
Vanadium 25 x 10-8
1)
The resistivity depends strongly on the presence of impurities in the material
2)
Resistivity and Temperature Coefficients at 20oC reference
Resistivity
The electrical resistance of a wire is greater for a longer wire and less for a wire of larger cross sectional
area. The resistance depend on the material of which it is made and can be expressed as:
R = ρ L / A (1)
where
R = resistance (ohm)
Conductivity
σ = 1 / ρ (2)
where
σ = conductivity (1 / Ω m)
Resistance
The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to
the electric current which flows through it:
R = V / I (3)
where
R = resistance (ohm)
V = voltage (V)
I = current (A)
Ohm's Law
If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law,
I = V / R (4)
Temperature Coefficient
The electrical resistance increases with temperature. An intuitive approach to temperature dependence
leads one to expect a fractional change in resistance which is proportional to the temperature change:
dR / Rs = α dT (5)
where
Energy Density
Open
(Wh/kg) Charge/Discharge
Temperature Cell Life
Type Electrolyte Efficiency
(oC) Voltage Cycle
(%)
(V)
Theoretical Achievable
Lead- 500-
H2SO4 20-30 2.1-2.2 171 30-40 70-90
Acid 1000
Nickel-
KOH 20-30 1.2 267 60 65 2000
Iron
Sodium- 1.76-
β-Al2O3 300-375 664 120 75 2000
Sulfur 2.08
Lithium-
Iron LiCl-KCl 400-450 1.6 869 150 75 1000
Sulfide
Nickel-
1.2 70-90 2000
Cadmium
Nickel-
Metal 1.2 30-80 65 1000
Hydride
Nickel-
60
Zinc
Lithium
3.6 160 99.9 1200
ion
Lithium
ion 3.7 130-200
polymer
The table below can be used as a guide to installed light power (Watts/Sq.Ft.) in some common types of
buildings and rooms.
Light Power
Type of Building/Room
(Watts/Sq.Ft.)
Apartments 1.0 - 4.0
The heat gained from lights in a modern office or production area may be of a significant amount. The heat
emitted to a room depends on the
The preferred light level in a room depends primarily on the type of activity. For common office work the
level may be in the range of 500 - 1000 lux.
The electric power to the light equipment is at the end converted to heat emitting to the room (unless
special arrangements is used as local cooling or air outlets through the lighting equipment). Electric power
to achieve a recommended light level can be expressed as:
where
The purpose of a lamp is to convert electrical power (Watts) into light (lumens). Different lamps do this with
varying efficiencies and the light emitted from a source depends on the type of source.
The typical efficiency of different lamp types can be found in the table below:
The light equipment efficiency express how much of the light is really emitted from the light equipment to
the room.
A bare fluorescent tube emits 100% to the room. A shielded tube emit less - between 50% to 80% is
common.
The room lightning efficiency express how much of the light is absorbed by the room before entering the
activity area.
Light Equipment Efficiency and Room Lightning Efficiency influence each other. Common values of the
product ηe ηr are in the range 0.3 - 0.6.
1,000 lux is recommended light level in a office where detailed drawing work is performed. The room and
lightning equipment efficiency an be set to 0.5.
Using standard GLS bulbs - the electric power for lightning bgcolor="#FFFFCC"can be calculated as:
= 200 W/m2
Using standard fluorescent tubes - the electric power for lightning can be calculated as:
= 33.3 W/m2
Due to the high energy consumption an the major impact on the air conditions system, standard GLS bulbs
is not an alternative for high illuminance applications.
The table below shows the installed electrical effect at different light levels:
Note! Datasheets from manufacturers should always be consulted before detail engineering. The numbers
above will do for rough preliminary calculations.
Light Level or Illuminance, is the amount of light measured in a plane. The work plane is where the most
important tasks in the room or space are performed.
Illumenance is measured in foot candles (ftcd, fc) (or lux in the metric SI system). A foot candle is actually
one lumen of light density per square foot, one lux is one lumen per square meter.
lux = fc 10.752
fc = lux / 10.752
Common light levels outdoor at day and night can be found in the table below:
Illumination
Condition
(ftcd) (lux)
Twilight 1 10.75
The outdoor light level is approximately 10,000 lux on a clear day. In the building, in the area closest to
windows, the light level may be reduced to approximately 1,000 lux. In the middle area its may be as low as
25 - 50 lux. Additional lighting equipment is often necessary to compensate the low levels.
Earlier it was common with light levels in the range 100 - 300 lux for normal activities. Today the light level
is more common in the range 500 - 1000 lux - depending on activity. For precision and detailed works, the
light level may even approach 1500 - 2000 lux.
The table below is a guidance for recommended light level in different work spaces:
Illumination
Activity
(lux, lumen/m2)
All wiring and electrical connections should comply with the National Electrical Code (NEC) and with local
codes and practices.
1.5 3 10 8 8 6 4
2 3 10 8 8 8 4
3 5 8 8 8 4 2
5 7.5 6 4 4 2 0
7.5 10 6 4 3 1 0
1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m
If undersized wire is used between the motor and the power source, the starting and load carrying
capabilities of the motor will be limited.
All wiring and electrical connections should comply with the National Electrical Code (NEC) and with local
codes and practices.
1.5 230 3 12 12 12 12 10
2 460 3 12 12 12 12 12
3 230 3 12 12 12 10 8
2 460 3 12 12 12 12 12
3 230 5 12 10 10 8 6
3 460 5 12 12 12 12 10
5 230 7.5 10 8 8 6 4
5 460 7.5 12 12 12 10 8
7.5 230 10 8 6 6 4 2
7.5 460 10 12 12 12 10 8
10 230 15 6 4 4 4 1
10 460 15 12 12 12 10 8
15 230 20 4 4 4 2 0
15 460 20 12 10 10 8 6
1)
20 230 4 2 2 1 0
1)
20 460 10 8 8 6 4
1)
25 230 2 2 2 0 0
1)
30 230 2 1 1 0 0
1)
30 460 8 6 6 4 2
1)
40 230 1 0 0 0 0
1)
50 230 1 0 0 0 0
1)
50 460 4 4 2 2 0
1)
30 230 1 0 0 0 0
1)
60 460 4 2 2 0 0
1)
75 230 0 0 0 0 0
1)
75 460 4 2 2 0 0
1)
The local power company should be consulted
1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m
If undersized wire is used between the motor and the power source, the starting and load carrying cap
abilities of the motor will be limited.
The circular mil is a unit of area used especially when denoting the cross-sectional size of a wire or cable.
A circular mil is the equivalent area of a circle whose diameter is 0.001 (10-
3
) inch, or approximately 0.7854 millionths of a square inch.
where
= 1000
= 500
The Circular Mil Area
The circular mil area of a wire or cable is equal to its diameter - expressed in mils - squared:
CM = mil 2 (2)
where
The mil area of an 3/8 in wire (0.375 in or 375 mil) can be calculated as
= 140,625 CM
mil = 140,6251/2
= 375 mils
The square mil is the area of a square whose sides are one mil, or 1 x 10-3 inch, and can be expressed as:
= 1 x 10-6 in2