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Sometimes it is necessary to turn between power (VA), voltage (V) and amperage (A).

The diagram and


table below can be used to convert amperage between single phase and three phase equipment and vice
versa.

Volts 3 Phase
Volts Single Phase
Balanced Load
Power
(VA)
120 240 480 240 480

100 0.83 0.42 0.21 0.24 0.13


150 1.25 0.63 0.31 0.36 0.18
200 1.67 0.83 0.42 0.49 0.25
250 2.08 1.04 0.52 0.61 0.30
300 2.50 1.25 0.63 0.73 0.37

350 2.92 1.46 0.73 0.85 0.43


400 3.33 1.67 0.84 0.97 0.49
450 3.75 1.88 0.93 1.10 0.55
500 4.17 2.08 1.04 1.20 0.60
600 5.00 2.50 1.25 1.45 0.73

700 5.83 2.92 1.46 1.70 0.85


750 6.25 3.13 1.56 1.81 0.91
800 6.67 3.33 1.67 1.93 0.97
900 7.50 3.75 1.87 2.17 1.09
1,000 8.33 4.17 2.10 2.41 1.21

1,100 9.17 4.58 2.30 2.65 1.33


1,200 10.0 5.00 2.51 2.90 1.45
1,250 10.4 5.21 2.61 3.10 1.55
1,300 10.8 5.42 2.71 3.13 1.57
1,400 11.7 5.83 2.91 3.38 1.69

1,500 12.5 6.25 3.12 3.62 1.82


1,600 13.3 6.67 3.34 3.86 1.93
1,700 14.2 7.08 3.54 4.10 2.05
1,750 14.6 7.29 3.65 4.22 2.10
1,800 15.0 7.50 3.75 4.34 2.17

1,900 15.8 7.92 3.96 4.58 2.29


2,000 16.7 8.33 4.17 4.82 2.41
2,200 18.3 9.17 4.59 5.30 2.65
2,500 20.8 10.4 5.21 6.10 3.05
2,750 23.0 11.5 5.73 6.63 3.32

3,000 25.0 12.5 6.25 7.23 3.62


3,500 29.2 14.6 7.30 8.45 4.23
4,000 33.3 16.7 8.33 9.64 4.82
4,500 37.5 18.8 9.38 10.84 5.42
5,000 41.7 20.8 10.42 12.1 6.1

6,000 50.0 25.0 12.50 14.50 7.25


7,000 58.3 29.2 14.59 16.9 8.5
8,000 66.7 33.3 16.67 19.3 9.65
9,000 75.0 37.5 18.75 21.7 10.85
10,000 83.3 41.7 20.85 24.1 12.1

Common electrical units used in formulas and equations are:

 Volts - The units of electrical potential or motive force. The force is required
to send one ampere of current through one ohm of resistance.
 Ohms - The units of resistance. One ohm is the resistance offered to the
passage of one ampere when impelled by one volt.
 Amperes - The units of current. One ampere is the current which one volt
can send through a resistance of one ohm.
 Watts - The unit of electrical energy or power. One watt is the product of
one ampere and one volt. One ampere of current flowing under the force of
one volt gives one watt of energy.
 Volt Amperes - The product of the volts and amperes as shown by a
voltmeter and ammeter. In direct current systems, volt ampere is the same
as watts or the energy delivered. In alternating current systems, the volts
and amperes may or may not be 100% synchronous. When synchronous,
the volt amperes equal the watts on a wattmeter. When not synchronous,
volt amperes exceed watts. More about reactive power.
 Kilovolt Ampere - One kilovolt ampere - KVA - is equal to 1,000 volt
amperes.
 Power Factor - is the ratio of watts to volt amperes.

Electric Power Formulas

W = E I (1a)

W = R I2 (1b)
W = E2/ R (1c)

where

W = power (Watts)

E = voltage (Volts)

I = current (Amperes)

R = resistance (Ohms)

Electric Current Formulas

I = E / R (2a)

I = W / E (2b)

I = (W / R)1/2 (2c)

Electric Resistance Formulas

R = E / I (3a)

R = E2/ W (3b)

R = W / I2 (3c)

Electrical Potential Formulas - Ohms Law

Ohms law can be expressed as:

E = R I (4a)

E = W / I (4b)

E = (W R)1/2 (4c)

Example - Ohm's law

A 12 volt battery supplies power to a resistance of 18 ohms.

I = (12 Volts) / (18 ohms)

= 0.67 Ampere

Electrical Motor Formulas


Electrical Motor Efficiency

μ = 746 Php / Winput (5)

where

μ = efficiency

Php = output horsepower (hp)


Winput = input electrical power (Watts)

or alternatively

μ = 746 Php / (1.732 E I PF) (5b)

Electrical Motor - Power

W3-phase = (E I PF 1.732) / 1,000 (6)

where

W3-phase = electrical power 3-phase motor (kW)

PF = power factor electrical motor

Electrical Motor - Amps

I3-phase = (746 Php) / (1.732 E μ PF) (7)

where

I3-phase = electrical current 3-phase motor (Amps)

PF = power factor electrical motor

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the active (true or real) power
to the apparent power.

 Active (Real or True) Power is measured in watts (W) and is the power
drawn by the electrical resistance of a system that does useful work.
 Apparent Power is measured in volt-amperes (VA) and is the voltage on an
AC system multiplied by all the current that flows in it. It is the vector sum of
the true and the reactive power.

The third component of the AC power flow, the

 Reactive Power, is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR). Reactive


Power is the power stored in and discharged by the inductive motors,
transformers or solenoids.

The reactive power required by an inductive load will increase the amount of apparent power - measured in
kilovolt amps (kVA) - in the distribution system. Increasing the reactive and apparent power will cause the
power factor - PF - to decrease.

Power Factor

It is common to define the Power Factor - PF - as the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and
current - or the "cosφ". The power factor defined by IEEE and IEC is the ratio between the applied true
power - and the apparent power, and can in general be expressed as:

PF = Wactive / Wapparent (1)


where

PF = power factor

Wactive = active (true or real) power (Watt)

Wapparent = apparent power (VA, volts amps)

A low power factor is the result of inductive loads such as transformers and electric motors. Unlike resistive
loads creating heat by consuming kilowatts, inductive loads require a current flow to create magnetic fields
to produce the desired work.

Power factor is an important measurement in electrical AC systems because

 an overall power factor less than 1 indicates that the electricity supplier
need to provide more generating capacity than actually required
 the current waveform distortion that contributes to reduced power factor is
caused by voltage waveform distortion and overheating in the neutral cables
of three-phase systems

International standards such as IEC 61000-3-2 have been established to control current waveform
distortion by introducing limits for the amplitude of current harmonics.
Example - Power Factor

A industrial plant draws 200 A at 400 V and the supply transformer and backup UPS is rated 200 A × 400 V
= 80 kVA.

If the power factor - PF - of the loads is only 0.7 - only 80 kVA × 0.7 = 56 kVA of real power is consumed by
the system. If the power factor was close to 1, the supply system with transformers, cables, switchgear and
UPS could have been done considerably smaller.

A low power factor is expensive and inefficient and some utility companies may charge additional fees
when the power factor is less than 0.95. A low power factor will reduce the electrical system's distribution
capacity by increasing the current flow and causing voltage drops.

Power Factor for a Three-Phase Motor

The total power required by an inductive device as a motor or similar consists of

 Active (true or real) power (measured in kilowatts, kW)


 Reactive power - the nonworking power caused by the magnetizing current,
required to operate the device (measured in kilovars, kVAR)

The power factor for a three-phase electric motor can be expressed as:

PF = Wapplied / [(3)1/2 U I] (2)

where

PF = power factor

Wapplied = power applied (W, watts)

U = voltage (V)

I = current (A, amps)


Ampere - (A)

The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite
length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between
these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton per meter of length.

Coulomb - (C)

The standard unit of quantity in electrical measurements. It is the quantity of electricity conveyed in one
second by the current produced by an electro-motive force of one volt acting in a circuit having a resistance
of one ohm, or the quantity transferred by one ampere in one second.

Farad - (F)

The farad is the standard unit of capacitance. Reduced to base SI units, one farad is the equivalent of one
second to the fourth power ampere squared per kilogram per meter squared (s4 A2 kg-1 m-2).

When the voltage across a 1 F capacitor changes at a rate of one volt per second (1 V/s), a current flow of
1 A results. A capacitance of 1 F produces 1 V of potential difference for an electric charge of one coulomb
(1 C).

In common electrical and electronic circuits, units of microfarads (μF), where 1 μF = 10 -6 F, and picofarads
(pF), where 1 pF = 10-12 F, are used.

Ohm - (Ω)

The derived SI unit of electrical resistance; the resistance between two points on a conductor when a
constant potential difference of 1 volt between them produces a current of 1 ampere.

Henry - (H)

The Henry is the unit of inductance. Reduced to base SI units, one henry is the equivalent of one kilogram
meter squared per second squared per ampere squared (kg m2 s-2 A-2).

Inductance

An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field.

The standard unit of inductance is the henry, abbreviated H. This is a large unit. More common units are
the microhenry, abbreviated μH (1 μH =10-6H) and the millihenry, abbreviated mH (1 mH =10-3 H).
Occasionally, the nanohenry (nH) is used (1 nH = 10-9 H).

Joule - (J)

The unit of energy work or quantity of heat done when a force of one Newton is applied over a
displacement of one meter. One joule is the equivalent of one watt of power radiated or dissipated for one
second.

In imperial units, the British thermal unit (Btu) is used to express energy. One Btu is equivalent to
approximately 1,055 joules.

Siemens - (S)

The unit of electrical conductance S = A / V

Watt

The watt is used to specify the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated, or the rate at which
electromagnetic energy is radiated, absorbed, or dissipated.
The unit of power W or Joule/second

Weber - Wb

The unit of magnetic flux.

The flux that, when linking a circuit of one turn, produces in it an electromotive force (Emf) of 1 volt as it is
reduced to zero at a uniform rate in one second.

 1 Weber is equivalent to 108 Maxwells

Tesla - T

The unit of magnetic flux density. The Tesla is equal to 1 Weber per square meter of circuit area.

Volt

The Volt (V) is the Standard International (SI) unit of electric potential or electromotive force. A potential of
one volt appears across a resistance of one ohm when a current of one ampere flows through that
resistance. Reduced to SI base units, 1 V = 1 kg times m2 times s-3 times A-1 (kilogram meter squared per
second cubed per ampere).

NEMA eclosure classification are developed by NEMA and used in the U.S./American market.

Ingress Protection - IP - ratings are developed by the European Committee for Electro Technical
Standardization (CENELEC) (described IEC/EN 60529), and specifies the environmental protection and
enclosure provided.

The table below can be used to convert from NEMA Enclosure Types to IEC Enclosure Types:

NEMA Enclosure Types IEC Enclosure Classification Designation

Protected against solid


1 General Purpose - Indoor IP10 objects up to 50mm, e.g.
accidental touch by hands.

Protected against solid


objects up to 50mm, e.g.
accidental touch by hands.
2 Dripproof - Indoor IP11
Protection against vertically
falling drops of water e.g.
condensation.

Protected against dust


limited ingress (no harmful
Dusttight, Raintight, deposit).
3 IP54
Sleettight - Outdoor Protection against water
sprayed from all directions,
limited ingress permitted.

Protected against solid


Raintight, Sleet Resistant- objects up to 50mm, e.g.
3R IP14 accidental touch by hands.
Outdoor
Protection against water
sprayed from all directions,
limited ingress permitted.

Protected against dust


limited ingress (no harmful
Dusttight, Raintight, deposit).
3S IP54
Sleettight- Outdoor Protection against water
sprayed from all directions,
limited ingress permitted.

Protected against dust


Watertight, Dusttight, Sleet
4 IP56 limited ingress (no harmful
Resistant-Indoor & Outdoor
deposit).

Watertight, Dusttight, Protected against dust


4X Corrosion-Resistant- Indoor IP56 limited ingress (no harmful
& Outdoor deposit).

Protected against dust


limited ingress (no harmful
deposit).
5 Dusttight, Drip-Proof--Indoor IP52
Protection against direct
sprays of water up to 15o
from the vertical.

Totally protected against


Occasionally Submersible, dust.
6 Watertight, Sleet Resistant- IP67 Protected against the effect
Indoor & Outdoor of immersion between 15cm
and 1m.

Totally protected against


Watertight, Sleet Resistant- dust.
6P Prolonged Submersion- IP67 Protected against the effect
Indoor & Outdoor of immersion between 15cm
and 1m.

Protected against dust


limited ingress (no harmful
Dusttight and Driptight- deposit).
12 IP52
Indoor Protection against direct
sprays of water up to 15o
from the vertical.

Protected against dust


limited ingress (no harmful
Dusttight and Driptight, with deposit).
12K IP52
Knockouts- Indoor Protection against direct
sprays of water up to 15o
from the vertical.

Protected against dust


13 Oiltight and Dusttight- Indoor IP54 limited ingress (no harmful
deposit).
Protection against water
sprayed from all directions,
limited ingress permitted.

Note! NEMA standards meet or exceed IEC standards. The conversion does not work in the opposite
direction.

General information on the definitions of NEMA enclosure types:

For enclosures used in

Non-Hazardous Locations
Type 1 : General Purpose - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of protection to


personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed equipment and to
provide a degree of protection against falling dirt.

Type 2 : Dripproof - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of protection to


personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed equipment, to
provide a degree of protection against falling dirt, and to provide a degree of
protection against dripping and light splashing of liquids.

Type 3 : Dusttight, Raintight, Sleettight - Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree


of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet,
snow, and windblown dust; and that will be undamaged by the external
formation of ice on the enclosure.

Type 3R : Raintight, Sleet Resistant - Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree


of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet,
and snow; and that will be undamaged by the external formation of ice on
the enclosure.

Type 3S : Dusttight, Raintight, Sleettight - Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree


of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet,
snow, and windblown dust; and in which the external mechanism(s) remain
operable when ice laden.

Type 4 : Watertight, Dusttight, Sleet Resistant - Indoor &


Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree


of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet,
snow, windblown dust, splashing water, and hose-directed water; and that
will be undamaged by the external formation of ice on the enclosure.

Type 4X : Watertight, Dusttight, Corrosion-Resistant - Indoor &


Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree


of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt, rain, sleet,
snow, windblown dust, splashing water, hose-directed water, and corrosion;
and that will be undamaged by the external formation of ice on the
enclosure.

Type 5 : Dusttight, Drip-Proof - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of protection to


personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed equipment; to
provide a degree of protection against falling dirt; against settling airborne
dust, lint, fibers, and flyings; and to provide a degree of protection against
dripping and light splashing of liquids.

Type 6 : Occasionally Submersible, Watertight, Sleet Resistant -


Indoor & Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree


of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt; against
hose-directed water and the entry of water during occasional temporary
submersion at a limited depth; and that will be undamaged by the external
formation of ice on the enclosure.

Type 6P : Watertight, Sleet Resistant Prolonged Submersion -


Indoor & Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use to provide a degree


of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt; against
hose-directed water and the entry of water during prolonged submersion at
a limited depth; and that will be undamaged by the external formation of ice
on the enclosure.

Type 12 : Dusttight and Driptight - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed (without knockouts) for indoor use to provide a


degree of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the
enclosed equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt;
against circulating dust, lint, fibers, and flyings; and against dripping and
light splashing of liquids.

Type 12K : Dusttight and Driptight, with Knockouts - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed (with knockouts) for indoor use to provide a degree


of protection to personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment; to provide a degree of protection against falling dirt; against
circulating dust, lint, fibers, and flyings; and against dripping and light
splashing of liquids.

Type 13 : Oiltight and Dusttight - Indoor


 Enclosures constructed for indoor use to provide a degree of protection to
personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed equipment; to
provide a degree of protection against falling dirt; against circulating dust,
lint, fibers, and flyings; and against the spraying, splashing, and seepage of
water, oil, and noncorrosive coolants.

For enclosures used in

Hazardous Locations
Type 7 : Class I, Group A, B, C or D Hazardous Locations -
Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use in hazardous locations classified as


Class I, Division 1, Groups A, B, C, or D as defined in NFPA 70.

Type 8 : Class I, Group A, B, C or D Hazardous Location - Indoor


& Outdoor

 Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use in hazardous


locations classified as Class I, Division 1, Groups A, B, C, and D as defined
in NFPA 70.

Type 9 : Class II, Group E, F or G Hazardous Locations - Indoor

 Enclosures constructed for indoor use in hazardous locations classified as


Class II, Division 1, Groups E, F, or G as defined in NFPA 70.

Type 10 : Requirements of Mine Safety and Health


Administration

 Enclosures constructed to meet the requirements of the Mine Safety and


Health Administration, 30 CFR, Part 18.

For more detailed and complete information, NEMA Standards Publication 250-2003, Enclosures for
Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum) should be consulted.

Different motors of the same nominal horsepower can have varying starting current, torque curves, speeds,
and other variables. Selection of a particular motor for an intended task must take all engineering
parameters into account.

The four NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) designs have unique speed-torque-slip
relationships making them suitable to different type of applications:

NEMA design A

 maximum 5% slip
 high to medium starting current
 normal locked rotor torque
 normal breakdown torque
 suited for a broad variety of applications - as fans and pumps

NEMA design B

 maximum 5% slip
 low starting current
 high locked rotor torque
 normal breakdown torque
 suited for a broad variety of applications, normal starting torque - common
in HVAC application with fans, blowers and pumps

NEMA design C

 maximum 5% slip
 low starting current
 high locked rotor torque
 normal breakdown torque
 suited for equipment with high inertia starts - as positive displacement
pumps

NEMA design D

 maximum 5-13% slip


 low starting current
 very high locked rotor torque
 suited for equipment with very high inertia starts - as cranes, hoists etc.
 NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) have classified
electrical motors in four different NEMA designs where torques and
starting-load inertia are important criterions.
 Toques of IEC Design N motors are in general close to NEMA Design B
motors. IEC Design N and NEMA Design B are the most commonly
industrial used types.
 Torques of IEC Design H are nearly identical to NEMA Design C.

IEC/NEMA Standard Torques

2 Pole 4 Pole

Power (hp)
Locked Break Locked Break
Pull Up Pull Up
Rotor Down Rotor Down
Torque Torque
Torque Torque Torque Torque

3 170/160 110/110 200/230 180/215 120/150 200/250

5 160/150 110/105 200/215 170/185 120/130 200/225

7.5 150/140 100/100 200/200 160/175 110/120 200/215

10 150/135 100/100 200/200 160/165 110/115 200/200

15 - 20 140/130 100/100 200/200 150/150 110/105 200/200

Torque is the turning force through a radius and the units is rated in - N.m - in the SI-system and in - lb.ft -
in the imperial system.
The torque developed by a synchronous induction motors varies with the speed of the motor when its
accelerate from full stop or zero speed, to maximum operating speed.

Locked Rotor or Starting Torque

The Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque is the torque the electrical motor develop when its starts at
rest or zero speed.

A high Starting Torque is more important for application or machines hard to start - as positive
displacement pumps, cranes etc. A lower Starting Torque can be accepted in applications as centrifugal
fans or pumps where the start load is low or close to zero.

Pull-up Torque

The Pull-up Torque is the minimum torque developed by the electrical motor when it runs from zero to full-
load speed (before it reaches the break-down torque point)

When the motor starts and begins to accelerate the torque in general decrease until it reach a low point at
a certain speed - the pull-up torque - before the torque increases until it reach the highest torque at a
higher speed - the break-down torque - point.

The pull-up torque may be critical for applications that needs power to go through some temporary barriers
achieving the working conditions.

Break-down Torque

The Break-down Torque is the highest torque available before the torque decreases when the machine
continues to accelerate to the working conditions.

Full-load Torque or Braking Torque

The Full-load Torque is the torque required to produce the rated power of the electrical motor at full-load
speed.

In imperial units the Full-load Torque can be expressed as:

Tfl = Php 5,252 / ωmax (1)


where

Tfl = full-load torque (lb.ft)

Php = horsepower

ωmax = maximum shaft rotational speed (rev/min, rpm)

Example - The Braking Torque

The torque of a 60 hp motor rotating at 1725 rpm can be expressed as:

Tfl = 60 (hp) 5,252 / 1725 (rpm)

= 182.7 lb.ft

NEMA Design

NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) have classified electrical motors in four different
NEMA designs where torques and starting-load inertia are important criterions.

IEC/NEMA Standard Torques

2 Pole 4 Pole

Power (hp)
Locked Break Locked Break
Pull Up Pull Up
Rotor Down Rotor Down
Torque Torque
Torque Torque Torque Torque

3 170/160 110/110 200/230 180/215 120/150 200/250

5 160/150 110/105 200/215 170/185 120/130 200/225

7.5 150/140 100/100 200/200 160/175 110/120 200/215

10 150/135 100/100 200/200 160/165 110/115 200/200

15 - 20 140/130 100/100 200/200 150/150 110/105 200/200

Reduced Voltage Soft Starters

Reduced Voltage Soft Starters are used to limit the starting current and reducing the Locked Rotor Torque
or Starting Torque and are common in applications which is hard to start or must be handled with care - as
positive displacement pumps, cranes, elevators and similar.

who sets the design standards for motors, has established a NEMA Code letter designation to classify
motors by the ratio of locked rotor KVA per horsepower.
NEMA KVA/HP
Code Letter with locked rotor

A 0-3.14

B 3.15-3.55

C 3.55-3.99

D 4.0-4.49

E 4.5-4.99

F 5.0-5.59

G 5.6-6.29

H 6.3-7.09

J 7.1-7.99

K 8.0-8.99

L 9.0-9.99

M 10.0-11.19

N 11.2-12.49

P 12.5-13.99

R 14.0-15.99

S 16.0-17.99

T 18.0-19.99

U 20.0-22.39

V 22.4-and up
The starting KVA required by a motor starting at full voltage is determined from the nameplate on the motor
or from the manufacturer.

In general it is accepted that small motors requires higher starting KVA than larger motors. Standard 3
phase motors often have these locked rotor codes:

 less than 1 hp: Locked Rotor Code L, 9.0-9.99 KVA


 1 1/2 to 2 hp: Locked Rotor Code L or M, 9.0-11.19
 3 hp : Locked Rotor Code K, 8.0-8.99
 5 hp : Locked Rotor Code J, 7.1-7.99
 7.5 to 10 hp : Locked Rotor Code H, 6.3-7.09
 more than 15 hp : Locked Rotor Code G, 5.6-6.29

Electrical motor efficiency is the ratio between the shaft output power - and the electrical input power.

Electrical Motor Efficiency when Shaft Output is measured in Watt

If the power output is measured in Watt (W), efficiency can be expressed as:

ηm = Pout / Pin (1)

where

ηm = motor efficiency

Pout = shaft power out (Watt, W)

Pin = electric power in to the motor (Watt, W)

Electrical Motor Efficiency when Shaft Output is measured in Horsepower

If the power out is measured in horsepower (hp), efficiency can be expressed as:

ηm = Pout 746 / Pin (2)

where

Pout = shaft power out (horsepower, hp)

Pin = electric power in to the motor (Watt, W)

Primary and Secondary Resistance Losses

The electrical power lost in the primary rotor and secondary stator winding resistance are also called the
copper losses. The copper loss vary with the load in proportion to the current squared and can be
expressed as

Pcl = R I2 (3)

where

Pcl = stator winding - copper loss (W)

R = resistance (Ω)
I = current (Amp)

Iron Losses

These losses are the result of magnetic energy dissipated when when the motors magnetic field is applied
to the stator core.

Stray Losses

Stray losses are the losses that remains after primary copper and secondary losses, iron losses and
mechanical losses. The largest contribution to the stray losses is harmonic energies generated when the
motor operates under load. These energies are dissipated as currents in the copper windings, harmonic
flux components in the iron parts, leakage in the laminate core.

Mechanical Losses

Mechanical losses includes friction in the motor bearings and the fan for air cooling.

NEMA Design B Electrical Motors

Electrical motors constructed according NEMA Design B must meet the efficiencies below:

Power
Minimum Nominal Efficiency1)
(hp)

1-4 78.8

5-9 84.0

10 - 19 85.5

20 - 49 88.5

50 - 99 90.2

100 - 124 91.7

> 125 92.4

1)
NEMA Design B, Single Speed 1200, 1800, 3600 RPM. Open Drip Proof (ODP) or Totally Enclosed Fan
Cooled (TEFC) motors 1 hp and larger that operate more than 500 hours per year.

Insulation systems are rated by standard NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association)
classifications according to maximum allowable operating temperatures as follows:

Allowable Allowable
Temperature Maximum Operation Temperature Temperature
Tolerance Class Temperature Allowed Rise at full load Rise
1.0 service 1.15 service
factor motor 1) factor motor 1)

o o o o
C F C C

A 105 221 60 70

B 130 266 80 90

F 155 311 105 115

H 180 356 125 -

 T(oF) = [T(oC)](9/5) + 32

1)
Allowable temperature rises are based upon a reference ambient temperature of 40oC. Operation
temperature is reference temperature + allowable temperature rise + allowance for "hot spot" winding.
Example Temperature Tolerance Class F: 40oC + 105oC + 10oC = 155oC.

In general a motor should not operate on temperatures above the maximums. Each 10oC rise above the
ratings may reduce the motor's lifetime by one half.

Temperature Tolerance Class B is the most common insulation class used on most 60 cycle US motors.
Temperature Tolerance Class F is the most common for international and 50 cycle motors.

The enclosures of electrical motors are standardized by NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers
Association) as:

Drip-Proof

Ventilation openings in shield and/or frame prevents drops of liquid from falling into motor within up to 15
degree angle from vertical.

Designed for reasonably dry, clean, and well ventilated (usually indoors) areas. Outdoors installation
require the motor to be protected with a cover that does not restrict the flow of air to the motor.

Totally Enclosed Air Over (TEAO)

Dust-tight fan and blower motors for shaft mounted fans or belt driven fans. The motors mounted within the
airflow of the fan.

Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated (TENV)

No ventilation openings, enclosed to prevent free exchange of air (not airtight). No external cooling fan,
relies on convection cooling.

Suitable where the motor is exposed to dirt or dampness. Not suited in very moist humid or hazardous
(explosive) air.

Totally Enclosed Fan Enclosed (TEFC)

Same as TENV with an external fan as an integral part of the motor. The fan provides cooling by blowing
air on the outside of the motor.
Totally Enclosed, Hostile and Severe Environment

Designed for use in extreme conditions - moist and/or chemical environments. Not for hazardous locations.

Totally Enclosed Blower Cooled

Same as TEFC with external fan on a power supply independent of the inverter output. Full cooling even at
lower motor speeds.

Explosion-Proof Motors

The motor ambient temperature shall not exceed +400oC. Motors are approved for the classes:

CLASS I (Gases, Vapors)

 Group A - Acetylene
 Group B - Butadiene, ethylene oxide, hydrogen, propylene oxide
 Group C - Acetaldehyde, cyclopropane, diethel ether, ethylene,
isoprene
 Group D - Acetone, acrylonitrite, ammonia, benzene, butane, ethylene
dichloride, gasoline, hexane, methane, methanol, naphtha, propane,
propylene, styrene, toluene, vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, xylem

CLASS II (Combustible Dusts)

 Group E - Aluminum, magnesium and other metal dusts with similar


characteristics.
 Group F - Carbon black, coke or coal dust
 Group G - Flour, starch or grain dust

Ingress Protection (IP) ratings are developed by the European Committee for Electro Technical
Standardization (CENELEC) (described IEC/EN 60529), specify the environmental protection an enclosure
provides.

The IP rating normally has two (or three) numbers:

1. Protection from solid objects or materials


2. Protection from liquids
3. Protection against mechanical impacts (commonly omitted)

Example - IP Rating

With the IP rating IP 54, 5 describes the level of protection from solid objects and 4 describes the level of
protection from liquids.

IP First number - Protection against solid objects

0 No protection.

Protected against solid objects up to 50mm, e.g. accidental touch by


1
hands.

2 Protected against solid objects up to 12mm, e.g. fingers.


3 Protected against solid objects over 2.5mm (tools and wires).

4 Protected against solid objects over 1mm (tools, wire, and small wires).

5 Protected against dust limited ingress (no harmful deposit).

6 Totally protected against dust.

IP Second number - Protection against liquids

0 No protection.

1 Protection against vertically falling drops of water e.g. condensation.

2 Protection against direct sprays of water up to 15o from the vertical.

3 Protected against direct sprays of water up to 60o from the vertical.

Protection against water sprayed from all directions o limited ingress


4
permitted.

Protected against low pressure jets of water from all directions o limited
5
ingress.

Protected against low pressure jets of water, e.g. for use on ship decks -
6
limited ingress permitted.

7 Protected against the effect of immersion between 15cm and 1m.

8 Protects against long periods of immersion under pressure.

IP Third number - Protection against mechanical impacts (commonly omitted)

0 No protection.

Protects against impact of 0.225 joule (e.g. 150g weight falling from 15cm
1
height).

Protected against impact of 0.375 joule (e.g. 250g weight falling from
2
15cm height).

Protected against impact of 0.5 joule (e.g. 250g weight falling from 20cm
3
height).
Protected against impact of 2.0 joule (e.g. 500g weight falling from 40cm
4
height).

Protected against impact of 6.0 joule (e.g. 1.5kg weight falling from 40cm
5
height).

Protected against impact of 20.0 joule (e.g. 5kg weight falling from 40cm
6
height).

CE Marking, machine makers today are fitting their machines with


In order to comply with stringent requirements for
parts that are certified according to EU (European Union) and international standards.

NEMA electrical motor starters refer to a standardized rating system for the electrical performance of the
most common style of American-built motor starters. NEMA starters are rated by size: 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
and 7.

Maximum electrical motor horsepower for different NEMA starters for three phase motors can be found in
the table below:

Maximum Horsepower (hp)

NEMA Full Voltage Starting Part Winding Starting Wye Delta Starting
Continuous
NEMA
Amp
Size
Rating 460V 460V 460V
200V 230V 200V 230V 200V 230V
(Amp) 575V 575V 575V

00 9 1.5 1.5 2

0 18 3 3 5

1 27 7.5 7.5 10 10 10 15 10 10 15

2 45 10 15 25 20 25 40 20 25 40

3 90 25 30 50 40 50 75 40 50 75

4 135 40 50 100 75 75 150 60 75 150

5 270 75 100 200 150 150 350 150 150 300

6 540 150 200 400 300 600 300 350 700


7 810 300 600 450 900 500 500 1,000

Ease of selection is a fundamental design advantage of a NEMA-style starter. To select a NEMA starter
only horsepower and voltage are needed. NEMA starters have interchangeable heater elements and
makes NEMA starters attractive in projects where the motor specification is not known until the start-up
date.

Electrical power is in general rated in Watts or Horsepower. A horsepower is a unit of power equal to 746
watts or 33,000 lb.ft per minute (or 550 lb.ft per second).

A watt is a unit of measure equal to the power produced by a current of 1 amp across the potential
difference of 1 volt. A watt is 1/746 of 1 horsepower.

Even if the watt is the base unit of electrical power, its common to rate motor power is in either horsepower
or watts.

Power in Watts

Electric power of a motor can be expressed as:

Pw = ηm U I (1)

where

Pw = power (W, watt)

ηm = motor efficiency

U = voltage (V)

I = current (A, amps)

Power in Horsepower

Horse power of a motor can be expressed as:

Php = Pw / 746 (2)

or

Php = ηm U I / 746 (2b)

where

Php = horsepower (hp)

Example - The Horsepower of an Electrical Motor

The horsehorse power of an 230 V electrical motor with 85% efficiency pulling 10 amps can be calculated
as:
Php = 0.85 (230 V) (10 amps) / 746

= 2,62 hp

Some common single phase power equations can be expressed as

Real Power

Wapplied = U I PF / 1000 (1)

where

Wapplied = real power (Kilowatts)

U = voltage (volts)

I = current (Amps)

PF = power factor - 0.7 - 0.95

Total Power

W = U I / 1000 (2)

Break Horsepower

WBHP = U I PF μ / 746 (3)

where

μ = device efficiency

Some common three phase power equations can be expressed as

Real Power

Wapplied = 31/2 U I PF / 1000 (1)

where

Wapplied = real power (Kilowatts)

U = voltage (volts)

I = current (Amps)

PF = power factor - 0.7 - 0.95


Total Power

W = 31/2 U I / 1000 (2)

Break Horsepower

WBHP = 31/2 U I PF μ / 746 (3)

where

μ = device efficiency

The table below can used to determine electrical data for common asynchronous 380 Voltage motors.

Nominal Star - Delta Circuit


Directly Star - Delta
current contactor Breaker
KW HP Fused Started
- In - - In - - In -
(A) (A)
(A) (A) (A)

0.2 0.3 0.7 2 2 16

0.33 0.5 1.1 2 2 16

0.5 0.7 1.4 2 2 16

0.8 1.1 2.1 4 4 16

1.1 1.5 2.6 4 4 16

1.5 2 3.6 6 4 (16)22 16

2.2 3 5.0 10 6 (16)22 16

3 4 6.6 16 10 (16)22 16

4 5.5 8.5 20 16 (16)22 16

5.5 7.5 11.5 25 20 (16)22 16

7.5 10 15.5 35 25 (25)22 25

11 15 22.2 35 35 (40)30 40

15 20 30 50 35 (40)30 40
22 30 44 63 50 (63)/60 60

30 40 57 80 63 (63)/60 60

45 66 85 125 100 90 100

55 75 104 160 125 110 100

75 100 140 200 160 150 200

90 125 168 225 200 220 200

110 150 205 300 250 220 200

132 180 245 400 300 300 400

160 220 290 430 300 300 400

200 270 360 500 430 480 400

240 325 430 630 500 480 480

Full-voltage, single-speed motor starters

Full-voltage starters (manual and magnetic) apply full voltage directly to motor terminals.

Reduced-voltage, single-speed motor starters

Some machines or loads may require a gentle start and smooth acceleration up to full speed.

Many starters apply reduced voltage to motor windings; primary resistor, primary reactor, autotransformer,
and solid state. Part winding and wye-delta starters can also provide reduced-voltage starting, although
technically they are not reduced-voltage starters.

Motor Protection

Motors should have protection for themselves, the branch circuit, and the feeder line. Protection, provided
by fuses and circuit breakers, guards against fault conditions caused by short circuits or grounds and over
currents exceeding locked-rotor values.

The synchronous speed of an induction motor is based on the supply frequency and the number of poles in
the motor winding and can be expressed as:

ω = 2 60 f / n (1)

where
ω = pump shaft rotational speed (rev/min, rpm)

f = frequency (Hz, cycles/sec)

n = number of poles

The rotational speed at different frequencies and number of poles can be listed as:

Pump shaft rotational speed - ω - (rev/min, rpm)

Number of poles - n
Frequency - f -
(Hz)
2 4 6 8 10 12

10 600 300 200 150 120 100

20 1200 600 400 300 240 200

30 1800 900 600 450 360 300

40 2400 1200 800 600 480 400

501) 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500

602) 3600 1800 1200 900 720 600

70 4200 2100 1400 1050 840 700

80 4800 2400 1600 1200 960 800

90 5400 2700 1800 1350 1080 900

100 6000 3000 2000 1500 1200 1000

1. Motors designed for 50 Hz are common outside U.S


2. Motors designed for 60 Hz are common in U.S

Variable Frequency Drive

With a variable frequency drive its possible to modulate the speed of the motor by changing the frequency
supplied to the synchronous motor. The relation between motor speed, frequency and number of poles in
the motor can be found in the table above.

The approximate speed (RPM) at rated loads for small and medium motors operating at 60 hz and 50 hz at
rated volts can be found in the table below:
Approximate Electrical Motor Speed (RPM)

Speed with Rated Load Synchronous Speed (no Load)


No. Poles
60 hz 50 hz 60 hz 50 hz

2 Pole 3450 2850 3600 3000

4 Pole 1725 1425 1800 1500

6 Pole 1140 950 1200 1000

8 Pole 850 700 900 750

Electrical motors in air condition system contributes to the heat loads in air condition systems and have
influence on the cooling equipment dimensions. Gained heat load from electrical motor and fans in different
locations can be estimated from the table below:

Location of Fan and Motor

Full Load Motor Outside


Electrical Motor Electrical Motor the Air Flow or
Motor and Fan Motor in the
Shaft Output Efficiency Outside the
in the Inlet Air Room. The Fan
(kW) -η- Room. The Fan
Flow or in the in the Outlet Air
% in the Inlet Air
Room Flow
Flow or in the
(kW) (kW)
Room
(kW)

0.05 40 0.13 0.05 0.08

0.07 46 0.15 0.07 0.08

0.10 55 0.18 0.10 0.08

0.14 60 0.23 0.14 0.09

0.20 64 0.31 0.20 0.11

0.28 66 0.42 0.28 0.14

0.40 70 0.60 0.40 0.20


0.56 72 0.78 0.56 0.22

0.80 76 1.05 0.80 0.25

1.1 80 1.38 1.1 0.28

1.6 80 2.0 1.6 0.40

2.5 81 3.1 2.5 0.60

4.0 82 4.9 4.0 0.90

5.6 84 6.7 5.6 1.1

8.0 84 9.5 8.0 1.5

11.2 86 13.0 11.2 1.8

16 87 18.4 16 2.4

20 88 22.7 20 2.7

25 89 28.0 25 3.0

32 89 36.0 32 4.0

40 89 45.0 40 5.0

50 90 56.0 50 6.0

63 90 70.0 63 7.0

80 90 89.0 80 9.0

100 91 110.0 100 10.0

 1 kW = 1.34 hp
 1 hp = 0.746 kW

As a rule of thumb the heat loss from an electrical motor during operation can be estimated as
Size of Motor Heat Loss
(kW) (Watts/kW)

0-2 250

3 - 15 150

15 - 150 100

150 - 80

 1 kW = 1.34 hp
 1 hp = 0.746 k W

An AC (Amplitude Current) induction motor consists of two assemblies - a stator and a rotor. The
interaction of currents flowing in the rotor bars and the stators' rotating magnetic field generate a torque. In
an actual operation, the rotor speed always lags the magnetic field's speed, allowing the rotor bars to cut
magnetic lines of force and produce useful torque.

This speed difference is called the slip. The slip increase with load and is necessary for torque production.
Slip speed is equal to the difference between rotor speed and synchronous speed. Percent slip is slip
multiplied by 100. When the rotor is not turning, the percent slip is 100%.

The Slip can be expressed as

S = (ωs - ωa) 100% / ωs (1)

where

S = slip

ωs = synchronous speed of magnetic field (rev/min, rpm)

ωa = shaft rotating speed (rev/min, rpm)

Full-load slip varies from less than 1 % in high hp motors to more than 5-6 % minor hp motors.

Motor Size
0.5 5 15 50 250
(hp)

Typical Slip
5 3 2.5 1.7 0.8
(%)

Slip and Voltage

When the motor starts rotating, the slip is I00% and the voltage is at maximum. The slip and voltage are
reduced when the rotor begins to turn.

Slip and Frequency


Frequency will decrease when the slip decrease.

Slip and Inductive Reactance

Inductive reactance depends on the frequency and the slip. When the rotor is not turning, the frequency
and slip are at maximum and so is the inductive reactance.

A motor has a resistance and inductance and when the rotor is turning, the inductive reactance is low and
power factor will approach one.

Slip and Rotor Impedance

The inductive reactance will change with the slip since the rotor impedance is the phase sum of the
constant resistance and the variable inductive reactance.

When the motor starts rotating the inductive reactance is high and impedance is mostly inductive. The rotor
has a low, lagging power factor. When the speed increases the inductive reactance goes down equaling
the resistance.

A fan motor must be capable not only of driving the fan at operating conditions, but also be capable of
accelerating the fan wheel, drive and shaft to the operating speed. For a fan transporting a large volume of
air at low static pressure the motor power required during the continuous operating process may not be
enough for starting the fan. Often a correct designed and adjusted motor protection system will stop the fan
before the windings are overheated and insulation damaged.

The motor torque should during design be checked against the fan wheel torque up to 90% of the
synchronized speed.

Motor Starting Torque

The motor starting torque for a belt driven fan can be expressed as:

Im = 1.1 If (nf / nm)2 (1)

where

Im = moment of inertia that the motor must be capable of turning at the motor shaft (lbm ft2, kg m2)

If = moment of inertia of the fan wheel (lbm ft2, kg m2)

nf = fan speed (rpm, min-1)

nm = motor speed (rpm, min-1)

For direct drive fan Im always exceeds If.

Backward Centrifugal Wheels and Moment of Inertia

Typical inertia of Class IV steel and aluminum backward inclined centrifugal wheels:

Moment of Inertia (lb ft2)


Fan Wheel Size
(in)
Steel Wheel Aluminum Wheel

20 25 10
22 40 16

24 65 26

27 95 38

30 140 56

36 380 152

40 580 232

44 870 348

54 2030 812

60 3900 1560

66 5500 2200

Typical inertia of HVAC or process standard centrifugal fans with with steel backward wheels:

Fan Wheel Size Moment of Inertia


(m) (kg m2)

0.40 0.10

0.45 0.17

0.50 0.27

0.56 0.53

0.63 0.87

0.71 1.80

0.80 3.00

0.99 8.10
The service factor - SF - is a measure of periodically overload capacity at which a motor can operate
without overload or damage. The NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) standard service
factor for totally enclosed motors is 1.0.

A motor operating continuously at a service factor greater than 1 will have a reduced life expectancy
compared to operating at at its rated nameplate horsepower.

NEMA Service Factor at Synchronous Speed (RPM) for drip proof motors:

Synchronous Speed (RPM)


Power
(HP)
3600 1800 1200 900

1/6, 1/4, 1/3 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35

1/6 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25

3/4 1.25 1.25 1.15 1.15

1 1.25 1.15 1.15 1.15

1 1/2 and up 1.115 1.15 1.15 1.15

Example - Service Factor

A 1 HP motor with a 1.15 SF can operate at

1 HP x 1.15 = 1.15 HP

without overheating or otherwise damaging the motor if rated voltage and frequency are supplied to the
motor.

Insulation life and bearings life are reduced by the service factor load.

IEC (the International Electrotechnical Commission) uses eight duty cycle designations to describe an
electrical motors operating conditions:

 S1 - Continuous duty. The motor works at a constant load for enough time
to reach temperature equilibrium.
 S2 - Short-time duty. The motor works at a constant load, but not long
enough to reach temperature equilibrium. The rest periods are long enough
for the motor to reach ambient temperature.
 S3 - Intermittent periodic duty. Sequential, identical run and rest cycles with
constant load. Temperature equilibrium is never reached. Starting current
has little effect on temperature rise.
 S4 - Intermittent periodic duty with starting. Sequential, identical start, run
and rest cycles with constant load. Temperature equilibrium is not reached,
but starting current affects temperature rise.
 S5 - Intermittent periodic duty with electric braking. Sequential, identical
cycles of starting, running at constant load and running with no load. No rest
periods.
 S6 - Continuous operation with intermittent load. Sequential, identical cycles
of running with constant load and running with no load. No rest periods.
 S7 - Continuous operation with electric braking. Sequential identical cycles
of starting, running at constant load and electric braking. No rest periods.
 S8 - Continuous operation with periodic changes in load and speed.
Sequential, identical duty cycles run at constant load and given speed, then
run at other constant loads and speeds. No rest periods.

The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity.

Resistivity
Temperature Conductivity
Coefficient 2)
Material Coefficient 2) -σ-
-ρ-
per degree C (1 /Ωm)
(ohm m)

Aluminum 2.65 x 10-8 4.29 x 10-3 3.77 x 107

Antimony 41.8 x 10-8

Beryllium 4.0 x 10-8

Bismuth 115 x 10-8

Cadmium 7.4 x 10-8

Carbon (graphite)1) 3 - 60 x 10-5 -5.0 x 10-3

Chromel (alloy of
chromium and 0.58 x 10-3
aluminum)

Chromium 13 x 10-8

Cobalt 9 x 10-8

Constantan 49 x 10-8 0.20 x 107

Copper 1.724 x 10-8 4.29 x 10-3 5.95 x 107

Iron 9.71 x 10-8 6.41 x 10-3 1.03 x 107


Germanium1) 1 - 500 x 10-3 -50 x 10-3

Glass 1 - 10000 x 109

Gold 2.24 x 10-8

Iridium 5.3 x 10-8

Iron 9.7 x 10-8

Lead 20.6 x 10-8 0.45 x 107

Magnesium 4.45 x 10-8

Manganese 185 x 10-8

Mercury 98.4 x 10-8 8.9 x 10-3 0.10 x 107

Molybdenum 5.2 x 10-8

Nickel 6.85 x 10-8 6.41 x 10-3

Nichrome (alloy of
nickel and 0.40 x 10-3
chromium)

Niobium
13 x 10-8
(Columbium)

Osmium 9 x 10-8

Platinum 10.5 x 10-8 3.93 x 10-3 0.943 x 107

Plutonium 141.4 x 10-8

Potassium 7.01 x 10-8

Quartz
7.5 x 1017
(fused)

Rhodium 4.6 x 10-8


Rubber - hard 1 - 100 x 1013

Selenium 12.0 x 10-8

Silicon1) 0.1-60 -70 x 10-3

Silver 1.59 x 10-8 6.1 x 10-3 6.29 x 107

Sodium 4.2 x 10-8

Tantalum 12.4 x 10-8

Thorium 18 x 10-8

Tin 11.0 x 10-8

Titanium 43 x 10-8

Tungsten 5.65 x 10-8 4.5 x 10-3 1.79 x 107

Uranium 30 x 10-8

Vanadium 25 x 10-8

Zinc 5.92 x 10-8

1)
The resistivity depends strongly on the presence of impurities in the material

2)
Resistivity and Temperature Coefficients at 20oC reference

Resistivity

The electrical resistance of a wire is greater for a longer wire and less for a wire of larger cross sectional
area. The resistance depend on the material of which it is made and can be expressed as:

R = ρ L / A (1)

where

R = resistance (ohm)

ρ = resitivity coefficient (ohm m)

L = length of wire (m)

A = cross sectional area of wire (m2)


The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity. Since it is
temperature dependent, it can be used to calculate the resistance of a wire of given geometry at different
temperatures.

Conductivity

The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity and can be expressed as:

σ = 1 / ρ (2)

where

σ = conductivity (1 / Ω m)

Resistance

The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to
the electric current which flows through it:

R = V / I (3)

where

R = resistance (ohm)

V = voltage (V)

I = current (A)

Ohm's Law

If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law,

I = V / R (4)

can be used to predict the behavior of the material.

Temperature Coefficient

The electrical resistance increases with temperature. An intuitive approach to temperature dependence
leads one to expect a fractional change in resistance which is proportional to the temperature change:

dR / Rs = α dT (5)

where

dR = change in resistance (ohm)

Rs = standard resistance according reference tables (ohm)

α = temperature coefficient of resistance

dT = change in temperature (K)


Properties of some different systems of rechargeable batteries are indicated in the table below:

Energy Density
Open
(Wh/kg) Charge/Discharge
Temperature Cell Life
Type Electrolyte Efficiency
(oC) Voltage Cycle
(%)
(V)
Theoretical Achievable

Lead- 500-
H2SO4 20-30 2.1-2.2 171 30-40 70-90
Acid 1000

Nickel-
KOH 20-30 1.2 267 60 65 2000
Iron

Zinc-Iron KOH 50-60 1.65 1084 90 45 600

Sodium- 1.76-
β-Al2O3 300-375 664 120 75 2000
Sulfur 2.08

Lithium-
Iron LiCl-KCl 400-450 1.6 869 150 75 1000
Sulfide

Nickel-
1.2 70-90 2000
Cadmium

Nickel-
Metal 1.2 30-80 65 1000
Hydride

Nickel-
60
Zinc

Lithium
3.6 160 99.9 1200
ion

Lithium
ion 3.7 130-200
polymer

The table below can be used as a guide to installed light power (Watts/Sq.Ft.) in some common types of
buildings and rooms.

Light Power
Type of Building/Room
(Watts/Sq.Ft.)
Apartments 1.0 - 4.0

Banks 2.0 - 5.0

Bars 1.5 - 2.0

Cafeterias 1.5 - 2.5

Churches 1.0 - 3.0

Clubhouses 1.5 - 2.0

Cocktail Lounges 1.5 - 2.0

Computer Rooms 1.5 - 5.0

Court Houses 2.0 - 5.0

Dental Centers 1.5 - 2.5

Department Stores 1.0 - 3.0

Dining Halls 1.5 - 2.5

Drug Store 1.0 - 3.0

Fire Stations 2.0 - 3.0

Hospitals, General Areas 1.5 - 2.5

Hotels Public Spaces 1.5 - 3.0

Kindergarten 1.0 - 3.0

Kitchens 1.5 - 3.0

Jail 1.0 - 2.5

Libraries 1.0 - 3.0


Luncheonettes 1.5 - 2.5

Lunch Rooms 1.5 - 2.5

Malls 1.0 - 3.0

Medical Centers 1.5 - 2.5

Motels Public Areas 1.5 - 3.0

Motels Guest Rooms 1.0 - 3.0

Municipal Buildings 2.0 - 5.0

Museums 1.0 - 3.0

Nightclubs 1.5 - 2.0

Nursing Home Patient Rooms 2.0 - 3.0

Police Stations 2.0 - 3.0

Post Offices 2.0 - 3.0

Precision Manufacturing 2.0 - 3.0

Residential 1.0 - 4.0

Retail Stores 2.0 - 6.0

Restaurants 1.5 - 3.0

School Classrooms 2.0 - 6.0

Shops 1.0 - 3.0

Supermarkets 1.0 - 3.0

Taverns 1.5 - 2.0


Town Halls 2.0 - 5.0

 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2 = 144 in2 = 0,1111 yd2

The heat gained from lights in a modern office or production area may be of a significant amount. The heat
emitted to a room depends on the

 preferred light level in the room


 type of lights and their construction
 location of the light equipment

Light Level - Illuminance

The preferred light level in a room depends primarily on the type of activity. For common office work the
level may be in the range of 500 - 1000 lux.

 Recommended Light Levels in Rooms

Necessary Installed Electric Power for Lights

The electric power to the light equipment is at the end converted to heat emitting to the room (unless
special arrangements is used as local cooling or air outlets through the lighting equipment). Electric power
to achieve a recommended light level can be expressed as:

P = b / (ηe ηr ls) (1)

where

P = installed electric power (W/m2 floor area)

b = recommended light level (lux, lumen/m2)

ηe = light equipment efficiency

ηr = room lighting efficiency

ls = emitted light from the source (lumen/W)

Emitted Light From Source - ls

The purpose of a lamp is to convert electrical power (Watts) into light (lumens). Different lamps do this with
varying efficiencies and the light emitted from a source depends on the type of source.

The typical efficiency of different lamp types can be found in the table below:

Emitted Light from The


Lifetime
Lamp Type Source
(hours)
(lumen/Watt)

GLS Bulbs 10 - 15 1,000


Low Voltage Halogen 20 2,000 - 5,000

Mercury Vapor 40 - 60 22,000

Fluorescent 50 - 90 more than 7,000

Metal Halide 70 - 90 more than 12,000

High Pressure Sodium 90 - 125 25,000

Low Pressure Sodium 120 - 200 20,000

 A typical incandescent GLS light bulb emit approximately 10 lumen/Watt.


 A typical fluorescent tube emit up to approximately 60 lumen/Watt.

Light Equipment Efficiency - ηe

The light equipment efficiency express how much of the light is really emitted from the light equipment to
the room.

A bare fluorescent tube emits 100% to the room. A shielded tube emit less - between 50% to 80% is
common.

Room Lighting Efficiency - ηr

The room lightning efficiency express how much of the light is absorbed by the room before entering the
activity area.

Light Equipment Efficiency and Room Lightning Efficiency influence each other. Common values of the
product ηe ηr are in the range 0.3 - 0.6.

Example - Heat Load from Lights

1,000 lux is recommended light level in a office where detailed drawing work is performed. The room and
lightning equipment efficiency an be set to 0.5.

Using standard GLS bulbs - the electric power for lightning bgcolor="#FFFFCC"can be calculated as:

P = (1,000 lumen/m2) / (0.5 (10 lumen/W))

= 200 W/m2

Using standard fluorescent tubes - the electric power for lightning can be calculated as:

P = (1,000 lumen/m2) / (0.5 (60 lumen/W))

= 33.3 W/m2

Due to the high energy consumption an the major impact on the air conditions system, standard GLS bulbs
is not an alternative for high illuminance applications.
The table below shows the installed electrical effect at different light levels:

Illumination - Light Level (lux)


Installed effect (W)
200 400 600 800 1000

Incandescent GLS bulb lamp 40 80 120 160 200

Fluorescent tubes 6.7 13.3 20 26.7 33.3

Note! Datasheets from manufacturers should always be consulted before detail engineering. The numbers
above will do for rough preliminary calculations.

Light Level or Illuminance, is the amount of light measured in a plane. The work plane is where the most
important tasks in the room or space are performed.

Measuring Units Light Level - Illuminance

Illumenance is measured in foot candles (ftcd, fc) (or lux in the metric SI system). A foot candle is actually
one lumen of light density per square foot, one lux is one lumen per square meter.

 lux = fc 10.752
 fc = lux / 10.752

Common Light Levels Outdoor

Common light levels outdoor at day and night can be found in the table below:

Illumination
Condition
(ftcd) (lux)

Sunlight 10,000 107,527

Full Daylight 1,000 10,752.7

Overcast Day 100 1,075.3

Very Dark Day 10 107.53

Twilight 1 10.75

Deep Twilight .1 1.08


Full Moon .01 .108

Quarter Moon .001 .0108

Starlight .0001 .0011

Overcast Night .00001 .0001

Common and Recommended Light Levels Indoor

The outdoor light level is approximately 10,000 lux on a clear day. In the building, in the area closest to
windows, the light level may be reduced to approximately 1,000 lux. In the middle area its may be as low as
25 - 50 lux. Additional lighting equipment is often necessary to compensate the low levels.

Earlier it was common with light levels in the range 100 - 300 lux for normal activities. Today the light level
is more common in the range 500 - 1000 lux - depending on activity. For precision and detailed works, the
light level may even approach 1500 - 2000 lux.

The table below is a guidance for recommended light level in different work spaces:

Illumination
Activity
(lux, lumen/m2)

Warehouses, Homes, Theaters, Archives 150

Easy Office Work, Classes 250

Normal Office Work, PC Work, Study Library, Groceries,


500
Show Rooms, Laboratories

Supermarkets, Mechanical Workshops, Office


750
Landscapes

Normal Drawing Work, Detailed Mechanical Workshops,


1,000
Operation Theatres

Detailed Drawing Work, Very Detailed Mechanical


1,500 - 2,000
Works
Circuit Wiring - Single Phase (230V) Electrical Motors
Recommended copper wire gage and transformer size for single phase - 230
Volts - electrical motors

All wiring and electrical connections should comply with the National Electrical Code (NEC) and with local
codes and practices.

Wire Gage (AWG)

Transformer Distance from Motor to Transformer (feet)

hp kVA 100 150 200 300 500

1.5 3 10 8 8 6 4

2 3 10 8 8 8 4

3 5 8 8 8 4 2

5 7.5 6 4 4 2 0

7.5 10 6 4 3 1 0

 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m

If undersized wire is used between the motor and the power source, the starting and load carrying
capabilities of the motor will be limited.

Circuit Wiring - Three Phase (230 & 460V) Electrical Motors


Recommended copper wire gage and transformer size for Three Phase - 230 &
460V - electrical motors

All wiring and electrical connections should comply with the National Electrical Code (NEC) and with local
codes and practices.

Wire Gage (AWG)

Transformer Distance - Motor to Transformer (Feet)


HP Volts kVA 100 150 200 300 500

1.5 230 3 12 12 12 12 10

2 460 3 12 12 12 12 12

3 230 3 12 12 12 10 8

2 460 3 12 12 12 12 12

3 230 5 12 10 10 8 6

3 460 5 12 12 12 12 10

5 230 7.5 10 8 8 6 4

5 460 7.5 12 12 12 10 8

7.5 230 10 8 6 6 4 2

7.5 460 10 12 12 12 10 8

10 230 15 6 4 4 4 1

10 460 15 12 12 12 10 8

15 230 20 4 4 4 2 0

15 460 20 12 10 10 8 6

1)
20 230 4 2 2 1 0

1)
20 460 10 8 8 6 4

1)
25 230 2 2 2 0 0

1)
30 230 2 1 1 0 0

1)
30 460 8 6 6 4 2
1)
40 230 1 0 0 0 0

1)
50 230 1 0 0 0 0

1)
50 460 4 4 2 2 0

1)
30 230 1 0 0 0 0

1)
60 460 4 2 2 0 0

1)
75 230 0 0 0 0 0

1)
75 460 4 2 2 0 0

1)
The local power company should be consulted

 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m

If undersized wire is used between the motor and the power source, the starting and load carrying cap
abilities of the motor will be limited.

The circular mil is a unit of area used especially when denoting the cross-sectional size of a wire or cable.

 A circular mil is the equivalent area of a circle whose diameter is 0.001 (10-
3
) inch, or approximately 0.7854 millionths of a square inch.

Mils of circular wire or cable can be calculated as:

mils = 1000 d (1)

where

d = diameter of cable or wire (inches)

Example - Calculating Mil

Mils of a 1 inch wire:

mils = 1000 1 (in)

= 1000

Mils of a 1/2 inch wire:

mils = 1000 1/2 (in)

= 500
The Circular Mil Area

The circular mil area of a wire or cable is equal to its diameter - expressed in mils - squared:

CM = mil 2 (2)

where

CM = circular mil area (CM)

The diameter in mil of a circular wire can be expressed as:

mil = CM1/2 (2b)

Example - Calculating mil area

The mil area of an 3/8 in wire (0.375 in or 375 mil) can be calculated as

CM = 375 (mils) 375 (mils)

= 140,625 CM

Example - Calculating mil

The mil of an circular wire with area 140.325 CM can be calculated as

mil = 140,6251/2

= 375 mils

The Square Mil Area

The square mil is the area of a square whose sides are one mil, or 1 x 10-3 inch, and can be expressed as:

One Square Mil = (1 x 10-3)2

= 1 x 10-6 in2

Converting Circular Mil to Square Inch

 1 mil = 0.7854 x 10-6 Square Inch

Converting Circular Mil to Square Mil

 1 Circular Mil = 0.7854 Square Mil


 1 Square Mil = 1.27 Circular Mils

Converting Mil to metric units

 1 mil = 5.066 x 10-10 m2 = 5.066 x 10-6 cm2


 1 m2 = 1.974 x 109 mil
 1 cm2 = 1.974 x 105 mil

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