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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 2 – 3
WCES 2013
International Advisory Board
Prof. Dr. Steven M. Rose - Educational Technology Research & Development (USA)
Prof. Dr. Doğan İbrahim - Near East University (UK)
Prof. Dr. Nick Rusby - British Journal of Educational Technology (UK)
Prof. Dr. Hıfzı Doğan (Turkey)
Prof. Dr. Ulku Koymen - Ajman University of Science and Technology (UAE)
Prof. Dr. H. Ferhan Odabaşi - Anadolu University (Turkey)
Prof. Dr. Marilyn Campbell - Australian Journal of Guidance and Counseling (Australia)
Prof. Dr. Loreta Ulvydiene - Vilnius University, Lithuania
Prof. Dr. Kobus Maree - Pretoria University, South Africa
Prof. Dr. Hafize Keser - Ankara University (Turkey)
Prof. Dr. Jerry W. Willis - Louisiana State University (USA)
Prof. Dr. Jesus Garcia Laborda - University of Alcala, Spain
Prof. Dr. Gülsün A. Baskan - Hacettepe University (Turkey)
Prof. Dr. Jean Underwood - Computers & Education Journal (UK)
Prof. Dr. Kinshuk - Educational Technology and Society (Canada)
Prof. Dr. Jung - Cheol Shini - Asia Pacific Education Review (South Korea)
Prof. Dr. Nejdet Osam - Eastern Mediterranean University (North Cyprus)
Prof. Dr. Halil I. Yalin - Gazi University (Turkey)
Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Uzunboylu - Near East University (North Cyprus)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fatoş Silman - Near East University (North Cyprus)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hamit Caner - Eastern Mediterranean University
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Çağlar - Near East University (North Cyprus)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nadire Çavuş - Near East University (North Cyprus)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Özge Hacıfazlıoğlu - Arizona State University (Home: Bahçeşehir University) (Turkey)
1877-0428 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Academic World Education and Research Center.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.157
International Advisory Board / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 2 – 3 3
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Şirin Karadeniz - Bahcesehir University (Turkey)

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zehra Özçinar - Atatürk Teacher's Academy (North Cyprus)
Assist. Prof. Dr. Ciğdem Hürsen - Near East University (North Cyprus)
Assist. Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Bicen - Near East University (North Cyprus)
Assist. Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Yaratan - Eastern Mediterranean University (North Cyprus)
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali Öztürk - Bahcesehir University (Turkey)
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Erdem - University of Nevada (USA)
Assist. Prof. Dr. Murat Tezer - Near East University (North Cyprus)
Assist. Prof. Dr.Fezile Özdamlı - Near East University (North Cyprus)
Dr. Birikim Özgür - Near East University (North Cyprus)
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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 1
Message from the Guest Editors

It is the great honor for us to edit this special issue of Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences Journal for the
selected revised papers presented in The 5th World Conference on Educational Sciences (WCES-2013) held on
th
February 05th – 08 2013, at the University of Rome Sapienza University in historical city of Rome in Italy,
which is organized collaboratively with University of Sapienza, Near East University, Ankara University, and
Bahcesehir University and hosted by Rome Sapienza University. This privileged scientific event has contributed
to the field of educational sciences and research for four years.
As the guest editor of this issue, we are glad to see variety of articles focusing on the curriculum and
instruction, educational technology, educational administration, guidance and counselling, educational
planning, measurement and evaluation, learning psychology, developmental psychology, instructional design,
learning and teaching, special education, distance education, lifelong learning, mathematics education, social
sciences teaching, science education, language learning and teaching, human resources in education, teacher
training, pre-school education, primary school education, secondary school education, vocational education,
college and higher education, learner needs in the 21st century, the role of education in globalization, human
rights education, democracy education, innovation and change in education, new learning environments,
environmental education, professional development, nursery education, health education, sport and physical
education, multi-cultural education, mobile learning, technology-based learning, computer usage in education
and etc.
Furthermore, the journal is getting more international each year, which is an indicator that it is getting
worldwide known and recognized. Scholars from all over the world contributed to this issue of the journal.
Special thanks are to all the reviewers, the members of the international editorial board, the publisher, and
those involved in technical processes. We would like to thank all who contributed to in every process to make
this issue actualized. A total of 2321 full papers or abstracts were submitted for this issue and each paper has
been peer reviewed by the reviewers specialized in the related field. At the end of the review process, a total of
1039 high quality research papers were selected and accepted for publication.
I hope that you will enjoy reading the papers.
Guest Editors
Prof. Dr. Jesus Garcia Laborda, University of Alcala, Spain
Assist. Prof. Dr. Fezile Ozdamli, Near East University, North Cyprus
Yasar Maasoglu, Near East University, North Cyprus
Editorial Assistants
Didem Işlek
Vasfi Tuğun
Erinç Eçağ
Gülşen Hüssein
Ezgi Pelin Yıldız
Tahir Tavukçu
Naziyet Uzunboylu
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.156
ScienceDirect
WCES 2013
The Reviewers List
Abdurrahman Tanriogen Pamukkale University Turkey

Adnan Baki Black Sea Technical University Turkey
Ahmet Kaya Inonu University Turkey
Alaa Sadik Sultan Qaboos University Sultanate of Oman
Alev Onder Marmara University Turkey
Ali Gunay Balim Dokuz Eylul University Turkey
Ali Riza Erdem Pamukkale University Turkey
Ali Sabanci Akdeniz University Turkey
Arif Saricoban Hacettepe University Turkey
Asuman Seda Saracaloglu Adnan Menderes University Turkey
Ayfer Kocabas Dokuz Eylül University Turkey
Ayse Çakir Ilhan Ankara University Turkey
Aysen Karamete Balıkesir University Turkey
Aytekin Isman Sakarya University Turkey
B Qin S Spuzic University of South Australia Australia
Behbud Muhammedzade Cyprus International University North Cyprus
Burhanettin Donmez Inonu University Turkey
Cem Birol Near East University North Cyprus
Cemal Yilmaz Gazi University Turkey
Chai Ching Sing Nanyang Technological University Singapore
Cumali Oksuz Adnan Menderes University Turkey
Dele Braimoh University of South Africa South Africa
Deniz Arikan Ege University Turkey
Dilek Dursun Marmara University Turkey
Ebru Aktan Kerem Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University Turkey
Enver Yolcu Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University Turkey
Ercan Akpinar Dokuz Eylul University Turkey
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.158
The Reviewers List / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 4 – 6 5
Erdogan Basar Ondokuz Mayıs University Turkey

Erol Ongen Akdeniz University Turkey
Ersen Yazici Selcuk Selcuk University Turkey
Esra Macaroglu Akgul Yeditepe University Turkey
Esra Omeroglu Gazi University Turkey
Ferhan Odabasi Anadolu University Turkey
Feryal Beykal Orhun Pamukkale University Turkey
Fusun Ozturk Kuter Uludag University Turkey
Gabriela Grosseck University of the West Timisoara Canada
Gulden Ilin Cukurova University Turkey
Guzin Ozyilmaz Akamca Dokuz Eylul University Turkey
Hafize Keser Ankara University Turkey
Hale Bayram Marmara University Turkey
Halil Ibrahim Yalin Gazi University Turkey
Haluk Soran Hacettepe University Turkey
Hamit Caner Eastern Mediterranen University North Cyprus
Hamza Akengin Marmara University Turkey
Hasan Gurgur Anadolu University Turkey
Hasan Sevki Ayvaci Black Sea Technical University Turkey
Hilmi Demirkaya Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Turkey
Hu Zhong-ping South China Normal University China
Hulya Hamurcu Dokuz Eylul University Turkey
Huseyin Uzunboylu Near East University North Cyprus
Huseyin Yaratan Eastern Mediterranen University North Cyprus
Ibrahim Kisaç Gazi University Turkey
Iskender Sayek Hacettepe University Turkey
J. Mark Halstead University of South Africa South Africa
Jesús García Laborda Polytechnic University of Valencia Spain
Josie Arnold Swinburne University of Technology Australia
Kamisah Osman University Kebangsaan Malaysia Malaysia
Lilia Halim University Kebangsaan Malaysia Malaysia
Liu Zhao-ui South China Normal University China
Mahmut Izciler Gazi University Turkey
Mehmet Ali Özturk Bahcesehir University Turkey
Mehmet Bahar Abant Izzet Baysal University Turkey
Mehmet Demirezen Hacettepe University Turkey
6 The Reviewers List / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 4 – 6
Mehmet Taspinar Gazi University Turkey

Melih Elcin Hacettepe University Turkey
Meltem Huri Baturay Gazi University Turkey
Mesude Atay Hacettepe University Turkey
Mohd Majzub National University Malaysia Malaysia
Murat Tezer Near East University North Cyprus
Mustafa Kurt Near East University North Cyprus
Mustafa Murat Inceoglu Ege University Turkey
Nadire Cavus Near East University North Cyprus
Noshaba Awais University of Management & Technology Pakistan
Nurhan Unusan Selcuk University Turkey
Omer Faruk Bay Gazi University Turkey
Ozge Hacifazlioglu Bahçeşehir University Turkey
Saima Awais University of Management & Technology Pakistan
Salih Cepni Black Sea Technical University Turkey
Sercin Karatas Gazi University Turkey
Sirin Karadeniz Bahcesehir University Turkey
Soner Durmus Abant Izzet Baysal University Turkey
Soner Mehmet Ozdemir Kirikkale University Turkey
Suat Delibalta Nigde University Turkey
Tarkan Kacmaz Dokuz Eylül University Turkey
Teresa Magal Royo Universidad Politécnica de Valencia Spain
E.P.S. Gandía
Umran Dal Near East University North Cyprus
Xiao Shao-ming South China Normal University China
Yavuz Akpinar Bogazici University Turkey
Yusuf Sonmez Gazi University Turkey
Zehra Ozcinar Ataturk Teacher Training Academy North Cyprus
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference on Educational Sciences - WCES 2013
A Call for Multicultural Special Education in Hong Kong:

Insights from a Case Study
Kim Fong Poon-McBrayera *
a
Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, Hong Kong
Abstract
The increasing number of Mainland Chinese immigrant children with difficulties in Hong Kong schools mandates understanding
of the complex interactions between cultural-linguistic differences and disabilities. This case study adopted narrative inquiry to
probe deep into participants’ lived experiences to reveal that the special education teacher was primarily concerned about the
student participant’s difficulty associated with his disabilities, totally unaware of the impact of her limited proficiency in the
child’s first language. Researchers called for government policies to integrate special and multicultural teacher education.
© 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and peer
Selection and/or review under
peer-review underresponsibility
the responsibility of Prof.
of Academic Dr.Education
World Servet Bayram
and Research Center.
Keywords: First keywords, second keywords, third keywords, forth keywords;
1. Introduction
Global immigration trends create heterogeneous classrooms that pose substantial pedagogical challenges for
educators (Lotan, 2006). As such, the need for culturally sensitive pedagogy (Tabulawa, 2003) and a teacher’s
proficiency in his/her student’s first language has been recognized as significant for effective teaching of students
who are speakers of languages different from the local language used in schools.
The diverse demographics in the United States have been cited as reasons to mandate training in multiculturalism
for pre-service and in-service teachers (e.g., Dunn, 1993). Countries with demographic diversity such as Canada
(British Columbia Ministry of Education, 2009), England (Teacher Education by Learning through Two Languages,
2010), Australia (Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training, & Youth Affairs, 2007), and New
Zealand (May, Hill, & Tiakiwai, 2004) have had a long tradition of providing bilingual education and associated
teacher training. In Asia, many educators still perceive schooling as being relatively stable and homogeneous while
it is increasingly chaotic, complex, and beyond control (Townsend & Cheng, 2000).
The existing literature reflects that teachers are often uncertain as to whether a culturally-linguistically diverse
(CLD) student has difficulties due to disabilities or their limited proficiency in the second language (Gersten &
Brengelman, 1994). Beginning in the 1980s, researchers and educators turned to examine training programs that
* Corresponding Author name. Poon-McBrayer Tel.: +0-000-000-0000

E-mail address: author@institute.xxx
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.231
410 Kim Fong Poon-McBrayer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 409 – 414
emphasized an interface between special education and bilingual education for teachers of CLD students with
disabilities (e.g., Baca & Amato, 1989). Though research, policies, and practices of bilingual special education have
been vigorous at the international level for over two decades, terms such as bilingual, multilingual, or multicultural
special education are unheard of in Hong Kong, much less policies and practices. Only a handful of the huge volume
of research studies (e.g., Yuen, 2004) have addressed issues of multicultural education in Hong Kong but none
included students with disabilities. Earlier studies addressing the education of Mainland immigrant children either
examined government policies (e.g., Townsend & Cheng, 2000), gathered teachers’ views through interviews (e.g.,
Chong, 2005) or surveys (e.g., Yuen, 2004). Little has been done on examining actual teaching and learning
situations in Hong Kong. This case study thus seeks to answer one overarching research question: What is the status
of teaching and learning involving Chinese immigrant students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD)?
2. Method
Researchers of multicultural education (e.g., Clandinin & Connelly, 2000) specifically advocate narrative inquiry
as a methodology to probe deep into participants’ lived experiences that can reveal significant insight into learning
needs and teacher preparation for multicultural settings. Thus, the narrative approach was used. I sought to respond
to the overarching research question: (a) What skills did the teacher consider essential and how did she self-evaluate
her skills to teach Chinese immigrant students with ADHD? (b) What strategies were employed?
2.1. Setting and participant
This study took place in a Hong Kong elementary school during a 6-month period. The school was in the heart of
a government-subsidized housing estate, situated in a newly developed neighborhood on the outskirt of the urban
areas. Most of the students were from the housing estate and some from private apartment complexes in the
immediate vicinity while a handful of them came from neighborhoods farther out within the school district. The
majority of students are considered to come from low income families. The school had 20 students diagnosed with
learning disabilities (LD), many of whom also had attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Except for a
second grade student, Eric, these students received small-group instructions from the teacher participant, Ms. Chan,
who was the only special education teacher in that school. All students with disabilities were served in this pull-out
resource room. Eric was also the only Chinese immigrant student with ADHD. Considered to have a high level of
learning needs, Eric was given individual lessons for Chinese language in Ms. Chan’s classroom.
2.1.1. Teacher participant

Ms. Chan is a Hong Kong born Chinese with a bachelor’s degree in social science and another in special
education that qualifies her as a special education teacher. She also had basic training in inclusive education and
counseling. Ms. Chan spent nine of her 11years of primary school teaching as a special education teacher, working
with students with LD, autism, ADHD, and mild intellectual disabilities.
2.1.2. Student participant

Eric, the 7-year-old student participant came from Mainland China and lived in a university staff quarter where
his father was a professor. Eric’s older sister was in Grade 8 of the same school and had good academic
performance. They both attended the same international school and enjoyed schooling there. At home, his sister and
their living-in maid spoke English during their interactions. Eric thus spoke fluent English which was his preferred
language. Both parents spoke Putonghua at home. For reasons unknown to the school, Eric’s parents decided to
transfer him to the current school shortly after the beginning of second grade. He had only been in this school for
less than a year at the time of study. Eric was diagnosed with ADHD in kindergarten. His parents employed a
behavioral therapist to help him at home for 5 months prior to his enrolment in Grade 1.
Kim Fong Poon-McBrayer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 409 – 414 411
2.2. Data Collection and analysis
Data collected from field notes, unstructured- and semi-structured reflection interviews of the participating
teacher, and several classroom observations. We talked about her training backgrounds, experiences, skills she
considered essential to teach Chinese immigrant students with ADHD, Eric’s greatest needs, her view on the effect
of his cultural-linguistic diversity, and strategies she selected to facilitate Eric’s learning. Classroom observations
focused on implementation of strategies and effect of ADHD and cultural-linguistic diversity on both teaching and
learning. Post-observation interviews provided an opportunity for reflections and clarifications of what I thought
was happening. Data of this study was transcribed and coded to find elements that respond to the research questions
of the study. Verifications of interpretations with the teacher participant were done throughout the coding process.
3. Findings
3.1. Self-evaluation of competencies
Throughout our many conversations, Ms. Chan asserted that she was perceived as the expert of working with
students with ADHD in her school, that other teachers looked up to her for solutions when they had difficulty in
meeting students’ needs, and that she had acquired skills necessary to teach them effectively. Ms. Chan considered it
effective to structure learning activities with incentives to encourage desired behaviors that would benefit learning.
Thus, she devised a few routine learning activities with a sticker-system to encourage Eric to concentrate and
participate in learning activities. She believed that such a structure was effective with Eric and used this approach
for the 8 months she worked with Eric.
3.2. Linguistic differences and behavioral responses
Eric came to Ms. Chan for Chinese language lessons of which Putonghua was designated as the medium of
instruction. Even though Ms. Chan believed that Eric should be instructed in English and Putonghua and that she
was supposed to use Putonghua according to the school policy, she alternated between Cantonese and Putonghua
because of her limited proficiency in Putonghua. When Eric had difficulty to understand, she switched to English.
Because of her limited proficiency in English, she would try Cantonese or Putonghua again. Eric was repeatedly
seen with tremendous difficulty to focus when he could not understand Ms. Chan’s instructions, both when she used
Cantonese that he had greatest difficulty with or English/Putonghua with which she struggled. Sometimes he would
correct her English when he figured out what she was trying to say. The frequent consequent behavior was to ask
“what did you just say?” and “can I go play now?” If the lesson remained difficult to understand, he would get out
of seat and go to the play area of the classroom. His irritability level aggravated when Ms. Chan, desperately trying
to get him focused, repeatedly reminded him of the need to focus so that he could progress at the same pace as his
peers in another classroom and threatened to report his behaviors to the assistant principal who was responsible for
disciplinary issues. In our post-lesson discussions, Ms. Chan insisted that Eric’s irritability and out-of-seat behaviors
were probably results of not taking Ritalin even though she did not know for sure. When asked if frustration caused
by not understanding the content through Chinese might be a possible cause, she firmly disagreed. However, he was
observed to be calmer when he was allowed to converse in English, in which his proficiency was judged to be
equivalent to grade 4, using school curricula as a benchmark. He also won first place in English achievement
competition of his grade.
4. Discussions
4.1. Policy impact on teacher competence
According to Gorski’s analysis (2008), eliminating educational inequities is identified as the underlying goal of
multicultural education. The Hong Kong government policy clearly aims at immigrant children’s early integration
into the Chinese education system (Education Bureau, 2009a). Acculturation and adjustment are perceived as a
matter of students’ understanding of the education system, central curriculum, and expectations. Such a view has
resulted in the government policy of using induction and language programs outside the classrooms to deal with
student needs. The government also stresses that no separate curriculum be developed or another language be used
as the medium of instruction (Education Bureau, 2009b). This orientation moves away from securing equity through
education in which multicultural curricula and teacher competence are deemed fundamental (Grant & Sleeter, 2006).
As currently practiced, schools and teachers of immigrant students with ADHD are charged with little responsibility
to deal with the impact of cultural-linguistic diversity inside the classrooms. The government policy is undeniably
shaped by the underestimation of the impact of cultural-linguistic diversity on Chinese immigrant students. The
impact can be clearly felt in the observed teaching and learning situations. Because of her previous special education
training, Ms. Chan demonstrated skills in assisting Eric to learn by devising an incentive system and establishing
routines. In the absence of policy to adequately prepare teachers for the multicultural and multilingual classrooms in
Hong Kong, Ms. Chan’s lack of readiness was clear when she did not see any association between Eric’s difficulties
and frustrations with her limited proficiency in English and Putonghua for effective communication and instruction.
4.2. Cultural and linguistic dissonance within the same ethnicity
In a position paper, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ([UNESCO], 2003)
stated that speakers of mother tongues that are different from the local language, are often disadvantaged in the
schooling process, comparable to that of receiving instructions in a foreign language. It further complicates the
matter when the use of the term ‘mother tongue’ often fails to discriminate between all the variants of a language
(UNESCO, 2003). Speakers of various Chinese dialects around the world are commonly perceived as speakers of
the same language when they often cannot communicate with one another through their dialects. Dutcher and
Tucker (1997) conducted a comprehensive review of research on the use of first and second languages in education
for the World Bank and identified two teacher elements vital to successful multilingual language programs: (a)
teachers’ high proficiency of the language of instruction, whether it is their first or second language; and (b) teachers
equipped with cultural competence, subject knowledge, quality basic training, and continual upgrade of skills
through professional development. The absence of support for language and cultural adjustments in Eric’s school
may reflect similar thinking the UNESCO has identified. Eric has been disadvantaged because of his Chinese
ethnicity. Neither Ms. Chan nor other teachers of the school was equipped with the language proficiency and
cultural competence to provide quality education for Chinese immigrant students.
The lack of cultural and language competencies also contributed to Ms. Chan’s focus on strategies commonly
used to assist students with ADHD and why she attributed all his misbehaviors to the lack of attention span. If the
Cultural Competence Continuum (Cross, Bazron, Dennis, & Isaacs, 1989) were used to rate Ms. Chan and her
school, they can be said to be at the midpoint of the continuum, namely cultural blindness. Organizations and
individuals at this stage believe that culture makes no difference and that all people are the same. Individuals at this
stage may view themselves as unbiased and believe that they address cultural needs. Services or programs created
by organizations at this stage are virtually useless to address the needs of diverse groups. They place little value on
training and resource development that facilitate cultural and linguistic competence and dedicate few resources to
acquiring cultural knowledge. Findings affirm the cultural and linguistic dissonance between Ms. Chan and Eric,
even though they are of the same race and the significance for the teacher to be aware of such differences.
Kim Fong Poon-McBrayer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 409 – 414 413
5. Conclusion
The above dissonance speaks to the need for better preparation and training of special education teachers.
Chinese and English language teachers in Hong Kong schools are required to pass the Language Proficiency
Assessment for Teachers in order to be qualified for the teaching of these two subjects (Education Bureau, 2008). At
present, there is still no language proficiency requirement for special education teachers of languages. Existing
training programs for special education teachers do not include multicultural competences. Even though Hong Kong
teachers have been found to lack knowledge and skills in these aspects (Chong, 2005; Poon-McBrayer, 2002), the
issue of teacher preparation for CLD environments has yet to be addressed (Poon-McBrayer, 2002). To this date,
bilingual or multicultural special education is basically unheard of in Hong Kong. Thus, we call for policies on
integrating special and multicultural teacher education as done in many Western countries. Policymakers must work
with teacher education providers to reform teacher education to address the identified needs. A comprehensive
review of the existing literature (e.g., Dutcher & Tucker, 1997) concluded that individual cognitive skills, literacy
skills, and content materials are most easily developed when using a familiar language of the child. Because teachers
being the key to the quality of teaching and learning (Tatoo, 2006) and almost all special education teachers in Hong
Kong schools are mainly responsible for helping students in language learning, the significance of connecting
culture and language with disabilities cannot be undermined.
References
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16(2), 117-129.
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education.pdf
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A Case Study About Using Instructional Design Models In Science Education

İlke Çalışkan a *
a
Hacettepe Universiy, Departmant Of Science Education, Beytepe, Ankara 06532, Turkey
Abstract
The purpose of the study is to identify the perceptions of preservice science teachers’ about using instructional design models in
terms of planning and using their lesson plans during Teaching Applications course. This research is based on qualitative
methodology. Study group consists of 12 preservice science teachers who take Teaching Applications course. Semi-structured
questions were used for focus group interviews. Content analysis was used as a statistical technique for analyzing qualitative
data. Bloom’s Learning Taxonomy, Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction, Dick&Carrey Model and Kemp’s Instructional Design
Model were mostly preferred by student teachers in terms of results.
Selection
© 2013 Theand peer review
Authors. under
Published the responsibility
by Elsevier of under
Ltd. Open access Prof.CC
Dr.BY-NC-ND
Servet Bayram
license.
Keywords:Instructional design models, science education, teacher education.
1. Introduction
The instructional theory used depends upon the learning situation, just as the atomic theory used, depends upon
the learning situation. The bohr atom is often used to introduce the concept of protons, neutrons and electrons to
grade school students. Perhaps behaviorism is suitable to certain basic learning situations, whereas "quantum"
constructivism is better suited to advanced learning situations (Good &Brophy, 1990).
The classification of instructional theories is somewhat analogous to the classification system designed by
biologists to sort out living organisms. Like any attempt to define categories, to establish criteria, the world does not
fit the scheme in all cases. Originally there was a plant kingdom and an animal kingdom, but eventually organisms
that contained cholophyll and were mobile needed to be classified. The protist kingdom was established. The exact
criteria for protists are still not established, but it is a classification that gives us a place for all of the organisms that
don't fit neatly into either the plant or animal kingdoms (Lewis, 1996).
To extend the analogy, biologists continued to modify the classification system as know knowledge and insights
into existing knowledge were discovered. The advent of new technology such as the electron microscope enabled
the addition of the monera kingdom. Recently, the distinctive features of fungi have brought about a proposal for a
fifth kingdom, fungi. This development and adjustment of the taxonomy remins one of behaviourism, cognitivism,
constructivism, postmodernism, contextualism, semiotics... (Reigeluth, 1995).
This research study starts on what makes one a good teacher question and focuses on instructional design models.
There are lots of instructional design models in education. Student teachers were asked about which instructional
* Corresponding Author name. İlke Çalışkan Tel.: +090312-2978625-143

E-mail address: ilkeonal@hacettepe.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.228
İlke Çalışkan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 394 – 396 395
design models they prefer during their teaching practices and their reasons. In terms of this background
investigation, The purpose of the study is to identify the perceptions of preservice science teachers’ about using
instructional design models in term of planning and using their lesson plans during Teaching Applications course.
2. Method
This research is based on qualitative methodology. Study group consists of 12 preservice science teachers who
take Teaching Applications course.. 12 preservice teachers take the all courses related to pedagogical knowledge
and pedagogical content knowledge such as Introduction to Education, Educational Psychology, Instructional
Methodologies, Science and Technology Planning, Classroom Management, Counseling, Special Teaching Methods
I and II. They are academically successful students and dedicative student teachers. They voluntarily participated
this research study. Researcher observed 12 student teachers during their teaching experince in an elementary school
with an observation form. Observation form consist of 10 open-ended items related to instructional methodologies
and design models. Each student teacher was observed at least two times. After the observation process, focus group
interviews were conducted with group of students. Focus group interview consists of 6 open-ended questions. Focus
group interviews identify the student teachers’ mostly preferred instructional models, their reasons and in what ways
they use them. Semi-structured questions were used for focus group interviews and observation form. Content
analysis was used as a statistical technique for analyzing qualitative data. Themes were identified by researcher by
investigating related literature and codes which are taken from student observations and interviews were related with
the proper themes.
3. Findings and Results
In terms of observation results all of the student teachers prefer mostly cognitive based instructional design
models. They use mostly Bloom’s learning taxonomy. During the focus group interview process,
Participant B: “I like to use Bloom because I understand all stages and I can find examples related to this stages
during my teaching process. I believe that students understand better this way and concepts will be more
concrete.....”
Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the
lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified
as evaluation. This hiearchy is proper to concrete to abstract, simple to complex, familiar to unfamiliar approach of
learning.
Eight of the twelve student teachers used Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction and Dick and Carrey model during
their teaching application process. Related to this finding during the focus group interview;
Participant A “When I construct my daily plan and instructional strategies I prefer to use Dick and Carrey model
because it is more systematic, I can easily understand components and make relations with my daily plan. As a
teacher, it is easy to prepare and act plans doing by Dick and Carrey Model”
Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view
of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an
entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. According to
Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system,
and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired
student learning outcomes.
Participant E “ Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction is a very good model focusing on students’ individual
characteristics and differences during their learning process. This model gives systematic characteristics of
providing feedback and assessing performance...”
Participant E also deals with considering indivdual characteristics and superiority of systematic levels of Gagne’s
approach. Robert Gagné is considered to be the foremost contributor to the systematic approach to instructional
396 İlke Çalışkan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 394 – 396
design and training. Gagne and his followers are known as behaviorists, and their focus is on the outcomes (or
behaviors) resulting from training. Gagné's book, The Conditions of Learning, identified the mental conditions for
learning. Gagné created a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which correlate to and address the
conditions of learning.
Six of the twelve student teachers prefer to use Kemp’s instructional design model during their teaching
application process. Related to this finding during the focus group interview;
Participant D “Kemp’s Model is the best model to use when I make my plan because it is more flexible than the
others. If I make a false during the preparation process, I can easily make corrections on the plan by the
characteristics of the model. I feel that students can easily internalize their learnings with this model...”
This student teacher underlines the flexibility of the model. The Jerold Kemp instructional design method and
model defines nine different components of an instructional design and at the same time adopts a continuous
implementation/evaluation model. Kemp adopts a wide view, the oval shape of his model conveys that the design
and development process is a continuous cycle that requires constant planning, design, development and assessment
to insure effective instruction. The model is systemic and nonlinear and seems to encourage designers to work in all
areas as appropriate. This model is particularly useful for developing instructional programs that blend technology,
pedagogy and content to deliver effective, inclusive (reliable) and efficient learning such as gaining attention,
informing learner of objectives, stimulating recall of prior learning, presenting stimulus material, providing learner
guidance, eliciting performance, providing feedback, assessing performance, enhancing retention transfer.
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
In terms of results and findings student teachers prefer mostly systematic linear instructional design models such
as Bloom, Dick and Carrey and Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction. Flexible instructional design models wer also
preferred for making possible changes related to planning process. Instructional design models are important to
identify relationship between the philosophy of the program and application processes. Micro teaching applications
could be provided for student teachers to analyze different instructional models in different contexts. Studies with
both learners and teachers together can be conducted for identfying the effectiveness of the instructional models.
Research studies about theories of learning, teacher thinking, decision making and planning processes and their
relations with instructional models can be conducted.
References
Bloom’s Learner Taxonomy. Retrieved 03-01-2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom's_Taxonomy
Dick and Carrey Model. Retrieved 03-01-2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#Dick_and_Carey
Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction. Retrieved 03-01-2012 from http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Nine_events_of_instruction
Good, T. L., Brophy, J. E. (1990). Educational psychology: A realistic approach. (4th ed.).White Plains, NY: Longman
Kemp Model. Retrieved 03-01-2012 from http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Kemp_design_model
Lewis, D. (1996). Perspectives on instruction. [On-line]. Available: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtech540/Perspectives/Perspectives.html
Reigeluth, C. M. (1995). What is the new paradigm of instructional theory. [On-line]. Available
http://itech1.coe.uga.edu/itforum/paper17/paper17.html
ScienceDirect
A research about mobile learning perspectives of university students

who have accounting lessons
Filiz Angay Kutluk a *, Mustafa Gülmez b

a
Akdeniz University, Ayşe Sak School of Applied Sciences, Poyraz Sok. No:55, Yeşilbayır, Döşemealtı, 07190 Antalya, Turkey Country
b
Akdeniz University, Faculty of Tourism, Dumlupınar Bulvarı, Kampus, 07058 Antalya, Turkey
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to determine the mobile learning perspectives of university students who have accounting lessons and to
detect the differences of these perspectives and benefit of mobile technology on accounting lessons. Data is collected by face to
face meeting of 4th class students who have had 2 or more accounting lessons at some programs in Akdeniz University.
Convenience sampling method of non-random sampling methods is used. Frequencies of demographic questions and means and
standard deviations for statements are performed. Mann Whiney U tests and Kruskal Wallis tests are performed whether there are
significant differences in students’ perspectives on mobile learning. Students haven’t used mobile devices effectively for
accounting lessons yet, but they are interested in using mobile devices in the case of technological support. They think that a
reliable service and an easy content to navigate are important for mobile learning to be effective.
Keywords: Mobile learning, accounting
1. Introduction
Mobile technology has been developed rapidly in almost every sector nowadays. One of the sectors that show
development is education. Especially due to the mobile phones and handheld computers, it is very easy to reach the
information.
According to Lehner et al. (2003, p. 24), a shift from ‘electronic’ to ‘mobile’ service has begun with the
paradigm of ‘anytime, anywhere computing’ and so, mobile learning is the next step in the evolution of e-learning .
They define (p. 24) mobile education as “any service or facility that supplies a learner with general electronic
information and educational content that aids in the acquisition of knowledge, regardless of location and time”.
Rosman (2008, p. 119) describes mobile learning as “an array of ways that people learn or stay connected with
their learning environments while going mobile”. He states that e-learning takes learning away from the classroom
or campus and mobile learning takes learning away from a fixed point, so e-learning is an alternative or
complementary to classroom learning and mobile learning is a complementary activity to both e-learning and
*Corresponding Author: Filiz Angay Kutluk, Tel: 00 90 242 4432067

angay@akdeniz.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.210
292 Filiz Angay Kutluk and Mustafa Gülmez / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 291 – 297
traditional learning (p. 121). Shih et al. (2011a, 373-374) state that mobile learning is the advanced model
following-e-learning which uses devices like personal digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones, portable computers.
The main characteristics of mobile devices are portability, instant connectivity and context sensitivity which
respectively mean that they can be taken to different locations, they can be used to access a variety of information
anytime and anywhere, and they can be used to find and gather real or simulated data (Cheon et al. (2012, p. 1055).
Life-long learning and just in time learning are the other advantages (Gulsecen et al., 2010, p. 796). There are also
some disadvantages of mobile learning such as limited memory, small screen, disconnection at times and limited
battery life.
Learning in a mobile environment would become more interesting, because mobile tools like smart phones have
also computing facilities which allow the users to communicate with other people and to create documents, read data
files, and access the Internet, besides communication facilities (Hussin et al., 2012, p. 277). Recent innovative
technology like tablet PCs or iPAD also provide a more convenient way of computing and of communicating with
people while users can receive emails, instant messages in text forms or multimedia formats, lecture notes, and
audio and video files in 3G formats.
There may be also complexities about mobile learning, such as its cost, familiarization of both students and
instructors, students’ readiness, instructors’ readiness and perception about the efficiency of it, implementation of
mobile learning and technical limitations.
The purpose of this study is to determine the mobile learning perspectives of university students who have
accounting lessons and to detect the differences of these perspectives and benefit of mobile technology on
accounting lessons. The following questions will also be tried to answer:
1-Is there any significant difference between students’ perspectives on mobile learning in terms of usage of
mobile devices for learning or educational purposes or making a research /homework about accounting lessons?
2-Is there any significant difference between students’ perspectives on mobile learning in terms of the time they
have been using computer and the daily time they spent on mobile devices for Learning/Education.
2. Literature Review
Derakhshan (2009, 77-83)’s study aimed to explore how university students and faculty use handheld devices in
their learning and teaching, According to the results, students indicated higher levels of interest in using mobile
devices than faculty members. It may be thought that, students are more familiar with the digital language of
computers, handheld devices, and the Internet than instructors. Content was a feature in which students showed
higher interest than faculty. It may indicate that faculty members have not yet accepted handheld devices as an
appropriate tool to deliver learning materials.
Parsons (2010, p.231, 242) surveyed distance learning students to determine their information access habits,
mobile device usage, and attitudes towards future changes. The results showed that distance learners want to access
electronic materials, but are not yet using mobile devices in education, instead primarily using laptops and desktop
PCs, despite most respondents owning a mobile phone and almost half having an mp3 player. Reasons were
technological or compatibility of material. Half of the respondents have bought or would buy mobile devices for
education.
Hussin et al. (2012)’s study focused on basic readiness, skills readiness, psychological readiness and budget
readiness of students at two different universities in relation to mobile learning, and the results showed that the
students were familiar with computing and communication skills and they welcomed the idea of integration mobile
learning in education. But they were uncertain about the financial issues (p. 276, 282).
Akour (2009, p. 12) focused on students at institutions of higher education in order to understand students’
perceptions of mobile learning and factors that influence their acceptance of mobile learning. The results show that
the external factors of student readiness, quality of service, extrinsic influence, and university commitment are
determinants of mobile learning acceptance (p. 210).
The results of Croop (2008)’s study which was related to student perceptions and attitudes toward mobile
learning showed that students wanted more mobile access through wireless network for laptop computers but were
not interested in expanding mobile learning through the use of other mobile devices (p. 135)
Filiz Angay Kutluk and Mustafa Gülmez / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 291 – 297 293
3. Method
The population of this study is students who take 2 or more accounting lessons during four years of their
education at Business Administration, Public Finance and Economy programs of Faculty of Economics and
Administrative Sciences, Alanya Faculty of Business and Tourism Faculty of Akdeniz University. Students who
attended 4th class of the mentioned programs are chosen, because they have taken 2 or more accounting lessons
until 4th class, so they would be familiar about accounting lessons. Data collection method is non-random sampling.
A survey is prepared and conducted to the students during accounting lessons. There are approximately 540 students
at the 4th classes of these programs who had 2 or more accounting lessons. 343 surveys are obtained. (Rate of return
is 64%). The survey is organized by the authors of this paper and by previous studies (Cheon et al., 2012; Hussin et
al., 2012; Croop, 2008; Akour, 2009; Williams, 2009; Jones, 2009; Brown, 2009; McCombs, 2010) related to
mobile learning. Survey includes 2 sections: The first section consists of 13 demographic questions. The second
section of the survey includes 17 Likert type statements about perspectives of mobile learning with the scale interval
of 1: Strongly Disagree to 5: Strongly Agree. The Cronbach Alpha level of reliability analysis for the second section
is 77 %.
Frequencies of demographic questions and means and standard deviations for statements about the perspectives
of mobile learning are shown in the tables. Mann Whitney U test and Kruskal Wallis test are used to determine
whether there are significant differences between students’ perspectives on mobile learning in terms of usage of
mobile devices for learning or educational purposes or making a research /homework about accounting lessons
before, the time they have been using computer and the daily time they spend on mobile devices for
Learning/Education.
4. Findings
The highest or the most remarkable percent of demographic questions are written. Means and standard
deviations for statements about the perspectives of mobile learning, Mann Whiney U tests and Kruskal Wallis tests
results are shown in Tables.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics (percentages of frequencies) for Demographic Questions
Item Variable (percentages)

1- Gender Female (51,3) Male (48,7)
2- Age <22 (19,5) 22-23 (58,3) 24-25 (27,2) >25 (5,0)
3- Graduation Gym. (41,7) Voc.high sch (12,0 ) Anatolian high sch.(28,0) Other (18,4)
4- Program Business Administration (19,0) Public Finance (22,4) Economics (10,5)
Tourism (34,1) Alanya Faculty of Business (14,0)
5- Own a laptop computer Yes (83,7) No (16,3)
6- Own handheld computer Yes (7,6) No (92,4)
7- Used mobile devices for learning or educational
purposes Yes (77,3 ) No (22,7)
8- Access the internet from cell phone Yes (81,9) No (18,1)
9- Ever made a research / homework about accounting
lessons with cell phone. Yes (20,4) No (79,6)
10- Ever made a research /homework about accounting
lessons with handheld computer. Yes (9,6) No (90,4)
11- Location to access the internet most? Campus(7,0) Home(77,8) Workpl.(1,2) Public com.(3,5)Other(10,5)
12- Time of using computers. < 2 years(2,3) 2-4 years (18,7) 5-8 years( 34,7) > 8 years (44,3)
13- Aver. time spent on mobile devices on a daily basis for:
a-Conversation: None(3,2) < 1 hour (51,0) 1-3 hrs (35,3) 4-6 hrs (6,7) > 6 hrs(3,8)
b-Messaging: None(10,8) < 1 hour (47,8) 1-3 hrs (20,4) 4-6 hrs (11,4) > 6 hrs(9,6)
c- Internet (Web/mail) None(7,6) < 1 hour (29,7) 1-3 hrs (38,2) 4-6 hrs (16,0) > 6 hrs(8,5)
d- Games/Music: None(12,2) < 1 hour (45,8) 1-3 hrs (29,4) 4-6 hrs (7,9) > 6 hrs(4,7)
e- Learning/Education: None(12,5) < 1 hour (46,4) 1-3 hrs (35,9) 4-6 hrs (3,8) > 6 hrs(1,5)
According to Table 1, most of the students are female (51,3%), 22-23 years old (58,3%), graduated from
Gymnasium (41,7%) and educating at Tourism Faculty (34,1%) now. 83,7% own laptop and 7,6% own handheld
computer. 77,3% used mobile devices for learning or educational purposes before and 81,9% can access internet
from cell phone. 20,4% made a research or homework about accounting lessons with cell phone and only 9,6% with
handheld computer before. 77,8% access internet from home and 44,3% have been using computer for more than 8
years. For the question of spending average time on mobile devices on a daily basis, Table 1 shows that, most of
them spend less than 1 hour for conversation (51,0%),for messaging (47,8%), for games and music (45,8%) and for
learning or education (46,6%) and 1-3 hours for internet (web or mail) (38,2%).
Table 2. Means and standard Deviations for Statements about the Perspectives of Mobile Learning
STATEMENTS Mean SD
1-Using mobile devices would enable me to make research/homework about accounting lessons more quickly. 3,67 1,21
2- Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be easy. 3,98 1,06
3- I have the knowledge necessary to use mobile devices for making research/homework about accounting lessons. 3,40 1,18
4- I am interested in carrying out some of my learning activities of accounting lessons by using cell phone. 3,08 1,31
5- I am interested in carrying out some of my learning activities of accounting lessons by using handheld computer. 3,36 1,31
6- Using mobile devices for making research/homework about accounting lessons would help me perform my studies anyplace. 3,79 1,15
7- I would more likely to use mobile learning for making research/homework about accounting lessons if the university 3,90 1,16
provides technical support.
8- Using mobile devices for making research/homework about accounting lessons would be very appealing to me if the 3,79 1,13
majority of my friends used it.
9- For mobile learning to become effective it is important that content is easy to navigate. 4,14 1,01
10- For mobile learning to become effective it is important to have a reliable service. 4,22 1,00
11- Mobile learning in accounting lessons would be an alternative to traditional method. 3,81 1,10
12- Mobile learning in accounting lessons would be a good alternative for those who are working. 3,99 1,02
13- I would like that accounting instructors integrate mobile learning into traditional method. 3,80 1,08
14- Mobile learning would be expensive. 3,27 1,24
15-Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be difficult because they have small screen. 3,11 1,29
16-Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be difficult because of the limited memory. 2,90 1,30
17- I would use mobile devices to communicate with my friends or to listen to the music rather than learning purposes. 2,59 1,36
Table 2 shows that, students mostly agree with the statements of “For mobile learning to become effective it is
important to have a reliable service”, “For mobile learning to become effective it is important that content is easy
to navigate”, “Mobile learning in accounting lessons would be a good alternative for those who are working”
respectively. Students mostly disagree with the statements of “I would use mobile devices to communicate with my
friends or to listen to the music rather than learning purposes”, “Using mobile devices for learning purposes would
be difficult because of the limited memory”, “I am interested in carrying out some of my learning activities of
accounting lessons by using cell phone”.
Table 3. Mann Whitney-U test between Using Mobile Devices for Learning or Educational Purposes and
Statements about the Perspectives of Mobile Learning
Statement Group n Mean Rank U Z P
Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be easy. Yes 265 178,21 8688,500 -2,268 0,023
No 78 150,89
I have the knowledge necessary to use mobile devices for Yes 265 178,58 8591,000 -2,341 0,019
making research/homework about accounting lessons. No 78 149,64
I am interested in carrying out some of my learning activities of Yes 265 178,01 8742,000 -2,116 0,034
accounting lessons by using cell phone. No 78 151,58
For mobile learning to become effective it is important that Yes 265 181,51 7814,500 -3,517 0.000
content is easy to navigate. No 78 139,69
P<0,05
As can be seen in Table 3, there are differences between “Using Mobile Devices for Learning or Educational
Purposes” and the statements of “Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be easy”, “I have the necessary
knowledge to use mobile devices for making research/homework about accounting lessons”, “I am interested in
carrying out some of my learning activities of accounting lessons by using cell phone” and “For mobile learning to
become effective it is important that content is easy to navigate”. Students who used mobile devices for learning or
educational purposes are more agree with the mentioned statements than who didn’t use.
Table 4. Mann Whitney-U test between Making Research or Homework about Accounting Lessons with Cell Phone
and Statements about the Perspectives of Mobile Learning
Using mobile devices would enable me to make Yes 70 197,99 7735,500 -2,549 0,011
research/homework about accounting lessons more quickly. No 273 165,34
Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be easy. Yes 70 192,63 8111,000 -2,068 0,039
No 273 166,71
I have the knowledge necessary to use mobile devices for Yes 70 197,55 7765,500 -2,497 0,013
making research/homework about accounting lessons. No 273 165,45
I am interested in carrying out some of my learning activities Yes 70 201,64 7480,000 -2,867 0,004
of accounting lessons by using cell phone. No 273 164,40
Mobile learning would be expensive. Yes 70 151,51 8121,000 -1,991 0,047

No 273 177,25
P<0,05
Table 4 shows that, there are differences between “Making Research or Homework about Accounting Lessons
with Cell Phone” and the statements of “Using mobile devices would enable me to make research/homework about
accounting lessons more quickly”, “Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be easy”, “I have the
necessary knowledge to use mobile devices for making research/homework about accounting lessons”, “I am
interested in carrying out some of my learning activities of accounting lessons by using cell phone” and “Mobile
learning would be expensive”. Students who have done research or homework about accounting lessons with cell
phone agree more with the first four statements and students who have not done research or homework about
accounting lessons with cell phone agree more with the last statement (Mobile learning would be expensive).
Table 5. Mann Whitney-U test between Making Research or Homework about Accounting Lessons with Handheld
Computer and Statements about the Perspectives of Mobile Learning
Using mobile devices would enable me to make Yes 33 207,52 3943,000 -2,244 0,025
research/homework about accounting lessons more quickly. No 310 168,22
Yes 33 205,21
Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be easy. No 310 168,46 4019,000 -2,146 0,032
I am interested in carrying out some of my learning activities Yes 33 225,92
of accounting lessons by using handheld computer. No 310 166,26 3335,500 -3,377 0,001
P<0,05
Table 5 shows that, there are differences between “Making Research or Homework about Accounting Lessons
with Handheld Computer” and the statements of “Using mobile devices would enable me to make
research/homework about accounting lessons more quickly”, “Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be
easy” and “I am interested in carrying out some of my learning activities of accounting lessons by using handheld
computer”. Students who have done research or homework about accounting lessons with Handheld Computer agree
more with the mentioned statements.
Table 6. Kruskal Wallis test between Time of Using Computers and Statements about the Perspectives of Mobile
Learning
Statement Group n Mean Rank sd χ2 P
I would more likely to use mobile learning for making <2 years 8 91,31 3 9,171 0,027
research/homework about accounting lessons if the 2-4 years 64 156,51
university provides technical support. 5-8 years 119 173,61
> 8 years 152 181,51

For mobile learning to become effective it is important that <2 years 8 105,44 3 12,229 0,007
content is easy to navigate. 2-4 years 64 146,07
5-8 years 119 173,94
> 8 years 152 184,90
P<0,05
According to the Table 6, there are differences between “Time of using computers” and the statements of “I would
more likely use mobile learning for making research/homework about accounting lessons if the university provides
technical support” and “For mobile learning to become effective it is important that content is easy to navigate”.
When subgroups are considered, st ces between “Average Time Spending on Mobile Devices for Learning or
Education Daily” and the statements of udents agree more with the mentioned statements as the time they have been
using computers increases.
Table 7. Kruskal Wallis test between Average Time Spending on Mobile Devices for Learning or Education Daily
and Statements about the Perspectives of Mobile Learning
Statement Group n Mean Rank Sd χ2 P
Using mobile devices would enable me to make None 43 124,26 4 15,829 0,003
research/homework about accounting lessons more quickly. <1 hour 159 170,14
1-3 hours 123 185,96
4-6 hours 13 205,62
> 6 hours 5 210,90
Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be easy. None 43 127,20 4 12,814 0,012
<1 hour 159 182,05
1-3 hours 123 171,74
4-6 hours 13 184,73
> 6 hours 5 211,00
P<0,05
Table 7 shows that , there are differen “Using mobile devices would enable me to make research/homework about
accounting lessons more quickly” and “Using mobile devices for learning purposes would be easy”. When
subgroups are considered, students agree more with the mentioned statements as the time they spent on mobile
devices for learning/education on daily basis increases (except for the last statement and spending 1-3 hours on
mobile devices for learning).
5. Conclusion
The purpose of this study is to determine the mobile learning perspectives of university students who take
accounting lessons and to detect the differences between these perspectives and benefit of mobile technology on
accounting lessons. Most of the students own laptop computers, but most of them don’t own handheld computers.
Majority of the students own cell phones that can access internet and have used mobile devices for educational
purposes before, but a few of them use mobile devices for making research or homework about accounting lessons.
Most of the students who have used mobile devices for learning and educational purposes or made
research/homework about accounting lessons with cell phone and handheld computer and spent more time on
mobile devices for learning and education on daily basis, think that they have the necessary knowledge to use
mobile devices for making research or homework about accounting lessons, using mobile devices for learning
purposes would be easy and would enable them to make research/homework about accounting lessons more quickly.
Also in Williams (2009)’s study, the majority of the students had showed a positive attitude toward using m-learning
strategies and had found the m-learning strategies convenient and as they had their cell phones with them all the
time, they always had access to information. In Kissinger (2011)’s study, students reported that they competently
used their e-books and expressed feelings and perceptions of high self-efficacy. Mathur (2011)’s study showed that
students would intend to use mobile application if they perceived Mobile Learning is convenient and easy to use.
Students think that a reliable service and an easy content to navigate are important for mobile learning to be
effective. Content was a feature in which students showed high interest in Derakhshan (2009)’s study and quality of
service is one of the factors of mobile learning acceptance determinants in Akour (2009)’s study. Ozcelik and
Acarturk (2011)’s study which found that mobile phones have the potential to enhance learning by facilitating the
access to online information sources by 2D barcode tags on course books also emphasizes the importance to
improve the access to the online information sources.
Generally it can be said that students haven’t used mobile devices effectively for accounting lessons yet, but they
are interested in using mobile devices in the case of technological support. Students who have been using computers
for longer time agree more with this idea. Also in Parson (2010)’s study, students were not yet using mobile devices
for education despite most of them owning a mobile phone.
Shih et al. (2011b, p. 502) state that mobile learning can provide more opportunities for students to apply
exploratory and critical thinking abilities than classroom lectures and it can effectively increase students’ positive
learning attitudes. By giving students access to meaningful and just-in-time resources, they can construct their own
knowledge and with the application of mobile devices, their learning achievement, effectiveness, and motivation can
exhibit an overall increase. Hunton (2002, 4-5) thinks that digitization of economic phenomena across the world has
changed the accounting profession and he suggests that a large proportion of basic research must incorporate the
impact of information and communication technologies on the psychology and behavior of accountants and other
consumers of accounting information.
Establishments should (Parsons, 2010, 242) continue to experiment with mobile device use and assess student
willinness or ability to incorporate it into their study routines before significant investment in the many possibilities
new technologies offer. People’s habits are changing to incorporate new technology into their lives, with the
technological advances. It is important to understand the reasons of acceptance or resistance of mobile learning and
the ways of improving its acceptance (Cheon, et al., 2012, p. 1062). Faculty also needs to be familiar with mobile
learning because faculty members influence students’ use of mobile learning, faculty should involve in
implementation plans, emerging technologies could resolve the technical limitations of mobile devices; so all
participants should play their role in creating a new way to learning with mobile devices. In this paper, we can state
that mobile learning is a way of learning which benefits from the advancement of technology and it is an education
alternative to access to knowledge anytime and anywhere.
The limitation of this study is that it is performed with one university about accounting lesson. It is suggested
that student readiness and perspectives about mobile learning acceptance should be determined in different
universities and in different lessons.
References
Akour, H. (2009). Determinants of mobile learning acceptance: An empirical investigation in higher education (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved
from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. AAT 3408682)
Brown, Q. (2009). Mobile intelligent tutoring system: Moving intelligent tutoring systems off the desktop (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. AAT 3374733)
Cheon, J, Lee, S., Crooks, S. M. & Song, J. (2012). An investigation of mobile learning readiness in higher education based on the theory of
planned behavior. Computers & Education, 59, 1054-1064.
Croop, F. J. (2008). Student Perceptions Related to Mobile Learning in Higher Education (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. AAT 3341141)
Derakhshan, N. (2009). Student and faculty perceptions of the features of mobile learning management systems in the context of higher Education
(Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. AAT 1513264)
Gulsecen, S., Gursul, F., Bayraktar, B., Cilengir, S. & Canım, S. (2010). Yeni Nesil Mobil Öğrenme Aracı: Podcast. In XII. Akademik Bilişim
Konferansı Bildirileri, Muğla Üniversitesi, Muğla, Turkey, 10 - 12 Şubat 2010 (pp. 795-800). Akademik Bilişim’10.
Hunton, J. E. (2002). The impact of digital technology on accounting behavioral research. Advances in Accounting Behavioral Research, 5, 3-17.
Hussin, S., Manap, M. R., Amir, Z. & Krish, P. (2012). Mobile Learning Readiness among Malaysian Students at Higher Learning Institutes,
Asian Social Science, 8(12), 276-283.
Jones, R. (2009). Physical ergonomic and mental workload factors of mobile learning affecting performance of adult distance learners: Student
perspective (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. AAT 3357875)
Kissinger, J. S. (2011). A collective case study of mobile e-book learning experiences (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. AAT 3458925)
Lehner, F., Nösekabel, H. & Lehmann, H. (2003). Wireless E-Learning and Communication Environment: WELCOME at the University of
Regensburg. e-Service Journal, 2(3), 23-41.
Mathur, R. (2011). Students' Perceptions of a Mobile Application for College Course Management Systems. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved
from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. AAT 3466835)
McCombs, S. W. (2010). Mobile learning: An analysis of student preferences and perceptions surrounding podcasting (Doctoral dissertation).
Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. AAT 3411306)
Ozcelik, E. & Acarturk, C. (2011). Reducing the spatial distance between printed and online information sources by means of mobile technology
enhances learning: Using 2D barcodes. Computers & Education, 57, 2077-2085.
Parsons, G. (2010). Information provision for HE distance learners using mobile devices. The Electronic Library, 28(2), 231-244.
Rosman, P. (2008). M-Learning-As a paradigm of new forms in education. E+M Economie a Management, 1, 119-125.
ScienceDirect
A Romanian Student Profile for a European On-line Course - The

“Designing TEL Course” Experience
Gabriel Gorghiua *, Laura Monica Gorghiub
a
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Information Technology, Valahia University Targoviste, 18-24 Unirii Blvd., 130082
Targoviste, Romania
b
Faculty of Sciences and Arts, Valahia University Targoviste, 18-24 Unirii Blvd., 130082 Targoviste, Romania
Abstract
It is obvious that in the last decade e-learning technologies marked a significant growth in education and training. At the same
time, Information Technology has been implemented in actual education on a large scale, and became a real support for web-
based learning. However, despite the great impact that e-learning have produced in the educational area, the developers of e-
platforms need to know more about what the students really need, how they perform and reacts to on-line requirements, in order
to design and adapt the best solutions that increase the students’ motivation and enhance learning. The paper tries to define a
general profile of a Romanian student, involved as a learner in the on-line course “Designing Technology-Enhanced Learning”,
organized in the frame of the European LLP-KA3 project: “CoCreat - Enabling Creative Collaboration through Supportive
Technologies” (code 511733-LLP-1-2010-1-FI-KA3-KA3MP). The course gathered students from 4 different countries (Finland,
Romania, Estonia and Norway) and had as objective to make students familiar with the concepts, theory and approaches of
designing, in strong relation with the use of a distributed set of integrated Technology-Enhanced Learning systems and tools.
Trying to draw a specific student’s profile, an initial evaluation was made, and provided interesting results related to what is the
Romanian student’s profile and what are the main students’ expectations, before being engaged in an on-line course - in their
case, the first one in which the collaboration with international students in related groups was compulsory.
© 2013
© 2013 The
The Authors.
Authors.Published
PublishedbybyElsevier
ElsevierLtd.
Ltd.Open
All access
rightsunder
reserved.
CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selectionand/or
Selection and peer reviewunder
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: technology-enhanced learning, creative collaboration, student’s profile, on-line course, KA3-ICT project;
1. Introduction
E-learning technologies marked major changes in the educational practice. In fact, many institutional investments
in practice and the uptake of web-based education tools in the last two decades illustrates that e-learning practice
represents an important part of the actual education, as Mark Nichols anticipated in 2003. But there are also voices
that specify the fact that “despite the continuously growth of the e-learning technologies and related blended
approaches that integrate on-line components into traditional classes, the developers and providers of on-line
* Corresponding name: Gabriel Gorghiu. Tel.: +40-245-217683

E-mail address: ggorghiu@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.165
Gabriel Gorghiu and Laura Monica Gorghiu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 38 – 42 39
learning need more understanding of how students perceive and react to elements of e-learning, along with how to
apply those approaches most effectively to enhance learning” (Koohang, & Durante, 2003; Smart, & Cappel, 2006).
Nowadays, e-learning involves more collaborative learning which can be enhanced easily when including very
popular and widely used technologies (as Web 2.0), just implemented in several classroom approaches. Those
technologies consist of wikis, blogs, podcasts, social networks, video-sharing (YouTube as main environment), and
virtual world environments (like Second Life). In this respect, it is important that teachers, educators and researchers
must adapt the new technologies to the students’ and instructors’ needs, but also investigate their effectiveness
(Galy, Downey, & Johnson, 2011). In this respect, it is important to look for “clues as to how e-learning
technologies can become powerful catalysts for change as well as tools for redesigning our learning and
instructional systems” (Shroff, & Vogel, 2009).
On the other hand, in many countries is still in operation the traditional classroom setting when the teacher offers
lectures and students listen and take notes. This is also the Romania’s case, even major reforms were made for
introducing computers and Internet in primary and secondary schools. At the same time, in the Romanian
universities, the implementation of new technologies represented a clear priority and distance learning / on-line
education has become a reality starting with this century. It is not so far the moment when “e-learning will be
promoted as the educational pedagogy of the future”, even there still remain academic incredulous staff who do not
trust in e-learning and address the traditional question of “how will those new educational delivery approaches - that
move away from the basic face-to-face relationship between a professor and students - impact student learning and
student perceptions of learning” (O’Malley, & McCraw, 1999). But important steps have been already achieved to
reach - in the near future - the predicted residential based model, where “the students will not attend classes at
prearranged times and locations anymore” (Drucker, 1997; Blustain, Goldstein, & Lozier 1999). In addition, in the
last decade, a series of e-learning based projects offered to the students, the possibility to cooperate and learn in
specific groups, with the support of the new technologies, and to develop their skills, knowledge and perception of
the world, having at least one tutor as monitor.
2. Method
As one of the most important objectives of the actual education (taking also e-learning into consideration) is
represented by how to support creative collaboration, 8 European institutions (under the coordination of University
of Oulu, Finland) proposed the LLP-KA3 project: “CoCreat - Enabling Creative Collaboration through Supportive
Technologies” - code 511733-LLP-1-2010-1-FI-KA3-KA3MP (http://www.cocreat.eu/), having as main aim to find
out how to enhance creative collaboration by applying the theory of collaborative learning, through distinguish
channels (CoCreat Application Form, 2010):
• exploring how social media and mobile technology can effectively enhance creative collaboration;
• developing and evaluating different collaborative spaces where specific related technologies and applications
are applied, developed and tested;
• providing the formal (elementary school, upper secondary school & higher education), informal (leisure time
activities) and non-formal (adult education) educational sectors with a clear understanding of how people can be
supported to work and learn together, in order to attain creative ways of thinking, solving problems and
investigating different phenomena;
• exploring and testing how to integrate and adapt social mobile media technology and social media applications
for collaborative learning purposes, in a sustainable way;
• understanding how the theory of collaborative learning can be linked to theories of creativity, in order to
support and enhance the process of creative collaboration.
In the frame of the project, an on-line course called “Designing Technology-Enhanced Learning” was organized
in the project second year - February, the 24th - May, the 22nd, 2012 (details at: http://www.oulu.fi/let/node/11372).
The course gathered students from 4 different countries (Finland, Romania, Estonia and Norway) and had the
objective to make students familiar with the concepts, theory and approaches of designing, in strong relation with
40 Gabriel Gorghiu and Laura Monica Gorghiu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 38 – 42
the use of a distributed set of integrated Technology Enhanced Learning systems and tools. Students were asked to
work in groups and collaborate internationally with the final view to design a prototype of an advanced TEL course.
In the beginning, there were created 12 international mixed groups of 6-7 students, having monitors who tutored
every group’s activity - in particular, a tutor monitored two groups of students, simultaneously. During the course,
each group of students had to accomplish specific tasks: creating a teaching script, developing a technical script and
designing a virtual course. As working methods, the course summarized 160 hours, including 15 hours of virtual
lectures and 145 hours of individual and collaborative studying in the proposed virtual learning environments
(mainly, Moodle Course Management System and Second Life).
The students were assessed taking into account their active participation to the lectures and individual /
collaborative studying in the selected virtual learning environment.
Before the starting of the course, in the selection phase, an initial evaluation was made, offering an image of what
are the students’ expectations, taking into account that, for the Romanian students, the “Designing Technology-
Enhanced Learning” course was the first one in which they collaborated with international students, in particular
groups.
3. Results and Discussion

Having also the aim to draw a specific Romanian student’s profile for those who are involved in an international
on-line course, 42 Romanian students (license and master students) were selected to be enrolled in the “Designing
Technology-Enhanced Learning” course, most of them having consistent knowledge in networking and using e-
platforms. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the specific gender distribution and the level of education. The figures respect -
in great lines - the proportion males / females which is recorded in the Romanian Science and Technology higher
education, but also the balance between master students / license students.
Figure 1. Gender distribution in the case of Romanian students Figure 2. Level of study for the Romanian students involved in the
involved in the “Designing Technology-Enhanced Learning” “Designing Technology-Enhanced Learning” course
course
Figure 3 presents the actual knowledge related to ICT, as an important background for the students who
participated to the on-line course. It is interesting that 5% declared themselves as “beginners”, even they have
previously preparation on ICT. A justification was coming later: they were informed about the content of the
Designing TEL course and felt some missing knowledge in the relation to the course requirements.
Figure 4 illustrates the interests for training expressed by the selected students in relation to various ICT topics. It
is relevant for those kinds of courses that virtual reality or e-learning platforms constituted important subjects that
are taken into consideration by the students. In this case, the most mentioned answers to the actual development of
the society, are oriented to on-line communication and virtualization. This fact is also in-line with the requirements
announced by the IT companies, but also by the key employers (industrial, financial etc) from the region.
Figure 5 presents the most known ICT applications by the Romanian students involved in the “Designing
Technology-Enhanced Learning” course. Here, the Powerpoint presentations are in the top - not surprisingly, taking
Gabriel Gorghiu and Laura Monica Gorghiu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 38 – 42 41
into account that they use this kind of applications for many purposes in their student’s life. But more than half of
them are not familiarized with the video editing techniques or simulation / virtual experiments designing. This fact
can also explain their interest to participate in the Designing TEL course - they surely hope to use simulations (or
virtualized contexts) in order to increase their knowledge.
Figure 3. Prior ICT knowledge and experience for the Romanian Figure 4. Interested ICT topics for the selected Romanian students who
students involved in the “Designing Technology-Enhanced participated to the “Designing Technology-Enhanced Learning” course
Learning” course
Figure 5. Known ICT applications by the Romanian students involved in the “Designing Technology-Enhanced Learning” course
On the other hand, figure 6 illustrates the most known web applications by the Romanian students involved in the
“Designing Technology-Enhanced Learning” course. It is evident in this case that students are very familiar on
using related technologies. The only missing point seems to be the virtual reality topic - this aspect was important
when they chose to participate to the Designing TEL course. In a clear manner, they expected to learn more about
the virtual reality technology (in particular about the Second Life environment), with the view to enrich their
knowledge and interact / cooperate with other colleagues in a 3D space. More than that, their expectations were
great in this direction, mostly keeping in touch that no specific courses oriented on how to use 3D environments are
provided at the moment, according to the actual curricula.
Figure 6. Known web applications by the Romanian students involved in the “Designing Technology-Enhanced Learning” course
42 Gabriel Gorghiu and Laura Monica Gorghiu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 38 – 42
4. Conclusions
It is clear that the introduction of distant learning / on-line courses is not an easy process, but as “e-learning will
be promoted as the educational pedagogy of the future” it comes the proper moment to extend the process. Near
teachers and tutors, students must play an important role - as learners -, but also as beneficiaries of the new
technologies, fully expressing their actual knowledge and their immediate expectations. In this way, education will
become more accessible and the contents more adapted to the learners’ needs.
It was obvious that the Romanian students who participated to Designing TEL course considered it as a great
experience, since they highly appreciated the possibility to learn more about different new technologies in general,
and virtual reality technology, in special. A big number of Romanian students involved in the Designing TEL course
had a technical background and they did not have so much knowledge related to the topics concerning pedagogical
strategies and / or teaching / learning methods. On the other hand, the course met their expectations and it can be
said that the student’s profile ready to be involved in a distant learning / on-line course is a technology-oriented one
with an important knowledge related to ICT and web-technologies areas. In the end, the students proposed creative
solutions inside their groups which emphasized the students’ joy to learn and use various environments for
implementing their own designed course.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded through the LLP Key Activity 3 project: CoCreat - Enabling Creative Collaboration
through Supportive Technologies - code 511733-LLP-1-2010-1-FI-KA3-KA3MP. The support offered by the
European Commission as well as the Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, as responsible for the
management of Lifelong Learning Programme, through the project mentioned above, is gratefully acknowledged.
This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any
use, which may be made of the information contained therein.
References
Blustain, H., Goldstein, P., & Lozier, G. (1999). Assessing the New Competitive Landscape, in Dancing with the Devil, Editors: Richard N. Katz
and Associates, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.
Drucker, P. (1997). An Interview with Peter Drucker, Forbes Magazine, March 10, 126-127.
Galy, E., Downey, C., & Johnson, J. (2011). The Effect of Using E-Learning Tools in Online and Campus-based Classrooms on Student
Performance. Journal of Information Technology Education, 10, 209-230. Retrieved from
http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol10/JITEv10p209-230Galy975.pdf
Koohang, A., & Durante, A. (2003). Learners’ Perceptions toward the Web-based Distance Learning Activities. Assignments Portion of an
Undergraduate Hybrid Instructional Model. Journal Information Technology Education, 2, 106-113. Retrieved from
http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol2/v2p105-113-78.pdf
Nichols, M. (2003). A theory for eLearning. Educational Technology & Society, 6(2), 1-10.
O’Malley, J., & McCraw, H. (1999). Students’ Perceptions of Distance Learning, Online Learning, and the Traditional Classroom. Online
Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 2(4). Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ omalley24.html
Shroff, R. H., & Vogel, D. R. (2009). Assessing the Factors Deemed to Support Individual Student Intrinsic Motivation in Technology Supported
Online and Face-to-face Discussions. Journal of Information Technology Education, 8, 59-85. Retrieved from
http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol8/JITEv8p059-085Shroff416.pdf
Smart, K. L., & Cappel, J. J. (2006). Students’ Perceptions of Online Learning: A Comparative Study. Journal of Information Technology
Education, 5, 201-219. Retrieved from http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol5/v5p201-219Smart54.pdf
*** CoCreat Consortium. (2010). CoCreat Application Form. Unpublished.
*** CoCreat Project webpage. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.cocreat.eu/
*** Designing Technology-Enhanced Learning course. (2012). University of Oulu. Retrieved from http://www.oulu.fi/let/node/11372
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference Educational Sciences -WCES 2013
A Study of the Relation between Mental health and Academic

Performance of Students of the Islamic Azad University Ahvaz
Branch
Mehdi Bostani1* Amir Nadri 2, Azami Rezaee Nasab3
1. Department of physical Education ,Ahvaz branch, Islamic Azad University,Ahvaz, Iran
2. Department of physical Education ,Izeh branch, Islamic Azad University, Izeh, Iran
3. M.Sc of Educational Psychology, Allameh Tabataba'I University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
The relation between mental health and Academic performance has been reported variously in different studies. The present
research aims to study the Relation between Mental health and Academic Performance in athletic and non-athletic Students of the
Islamic Azad University Ahvaz branch, Iran. For this purpose, 200 students Includes 100 athletic and 100 non-athletic were
selected via random cluster sampling method. In order to collect data, the Goldberg general health questionnaire (GHQ-28) was
used. The students’ total average score was used as an index of their Academic performance. Finally the data were analyzed
though using correlation coefficient and independent t-test at the level of confidence of 95%. The results showed that general
health and some of its components, such as depression and anxiety, had a significant relation with educational performance,
while no significant relation was observed between Academic performance and other components such as physical symptoms
and social performance disorders. According to the findings of this research, it can be concluded that the higher the mental health
of the students, the better their educational performance, although it seems that the students’ educational performance is also
affected by other factors and their interactional effects as well.
© 2013 The
© 2013 The Authors.
Authors.Published byElsevier
Published by ElsevierLtd.
Ltd.Open
All rights reserved.
access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection
Selectionand peerpeer-review
and/or review underunder
responsibility Dr. ServetWorld
of Academic BayramEducation and Research Center.
Keywords: mental health, Academic performance, depression, anxiety
1. Introduction
University years are exciting and challenging years for students; it is essential for the students to overcome these
challenges and stress-inducing factors in order to pave the way for their own educational achievement (Bahrami,
2007). Obviously, university students are one of the most sensitive strata of society, many of whom will become the
future’s managers and planners, and the mental health of the society is contingent upon their mental health. One of
the characteristics of a normal personality is having full mental health. Various definitions have so far been
proposed for “mental health”, all of which emphasizing the integrity of personality. Goldstein defines mental health
as the balance between organs and environment in the progress towards self-actualization. Chauhanss (1991)
considers mental health as a state of psychological maturity defined as the maximum effectiveness and satisfaction
obtained through individual and social opposition including positive feedbacks and feelings towards self and others.
Challenges of the university years can bring students sources of anxiety, hence endangering their health. A study
conducted by Yousofi and Amini showed that male and female students receive anxiety from different sources and
respond to it differently (Amini and et al, 2001). Anxiety, depression, physical problems, and lack of health in
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +989167017668; fax: +98 6114426228
E-mail address: bostanim@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.186
164 Mehdi Bostani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 163 – 165
general, lead to a decline in learning. In a study carried out by Abbasabadi, a reverse, significant relation was
observed between hidden and obvious anxiety, on the one hand, and educational achievement, on the other
(Abbasabadi, 1998). Many researchers have reported significant correlations between mental health and educational
achievement (Muijs,1997). Lee asserts that factors such as students’ lack of familiarity with the university
environment upon their entrance, detachment from family, lack of interest in educational major, failure to get along
with others, insufficient economic/welfare amenities, etc. can bring about mental problems and, consequently, a
decline in students’ performance (Madadi, 2002). In his study, Asgari (2008) concluded that there is no significant
relation between mental health and academic performance both among male students and among female ones.
However, Shaìri (2004) reported a significant relation between mental health and academic performance.
Therefore, conflicting results have been reported in various studies on the relation between mental health and
academic performance; the current research aims to examine the relation between these two factors among the
students of Islamic Azad university of Ahvaz branch, Iran.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
This research is a correlational study, the statistical population of which consists of the students of Islamic Azad
university of Ahvaz branch, Iran; the sample comprised of 200 hundred students, selected through random cluster
sampling. In order to examine their mental health, the general health questionnaire GHQ-28 was used; this
questionnaire contains 28 multiple-choice questions, classified into four areas of depression, anxiety, physical
symptoms, and disorder social performance, with a marking range of 0–3. The total sum of scores in this
questionnaire equals the student’s mental health total score. Each area contains 7 questions with a maximum score
of 28; hence the maximum of total score is 84. Higher scores indicate lower level of mental health (Goldenberg,
1997). The total reliability coefficient of this questionnaire was 0.96 and that of the subscales of depression, anxiety,
physical symptoms, and disorder in social performance were 0.94, 0.90, 0.89, and 0.78, respectively (Bahmani,
2006). Also, students’ academic performance was measured against their total average grade.
2.1.1. Measurements
At first, the researcher explains the objective of the study to the testees and then asks them to fill out the required
information (such as age, sex, year of university entrance, major, academic degree, and total grade-point average)
and then to complete the mental health questionnaire. The respondents were told that mentioning their names was
optional, and this enhanced both their sense of security and their truthfulness in answering the questions.
2.1.1.1. Procedure
Statistical analysis of data was carried out using SPSS-16 at the level of 95% and also using Pearson correlation
coefficient and independent t-test. Furthermore, in order to examine the relation between educational status and
variables of mental health, ‘multiple regression’ was applied.
3. Results
Statistical analysis showed that there was a significant relation between mental health and educational
performance, that is, the higher the students’ level of mental health, the better their educational performance.
Moreover, there was a significant relation between educational performance and certain components of mental
health, such as depression and anxiety; however, no significant relation was observed between educational
Mehdi Bostani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 163 – 165 165
performance and other components of mental health (physical symptoms and disorder in social performance). The
data related to these findings is presented in Table 1 below.
Table1. The statistical data related to mental health, its components, and educational performance
Average and standard

Variables Number t P Results
deviation
GPA 200 15.9±4.32 5.85 - -
Mental health 200 21.3±11.9 2.25 0.024 Sig
Physical symptoms 200 4.8±9.2 3.12 0.156 NS
Anxiety 200 5.2±3.5 2.70 0.040 Sig

Disorder in social
200 6.8±3.7 1.96 0.095 NS
performance
Depression 200 3.0±4.2 0.92 0.015 Sig
4. Discussion and Conclusion
In this research, significant relations were found between educational performance and mental health and some
of its components, such as depression and anxiety, while such relation was not observed between other components
(physical symptoms and disorder in social performance). It seems that students who have a better mental health
status, that is, those who obtained lower scores in the mental health questionnaire, have a better educational
performance as well. These finding were not in agreement with findings of the study done by Asgari (2008), while
they supported the findings of the research carried out by Shaìri (2004) and others. This non-agreement can be
ascribed to the difference among testees in terms of age, sex, living environment, social/economic conditions, etc. It
seems that the students’ educational status is influenced by other factors as well. Depression and anxiety – which are
psychological disorders – affect mental health and cause a decline in educational performance. As a result, it is
recommended that educational centers apply recreational, counseling, and sports programs in order to enhance their
students’ mental health and hence their educational performance.
References
Amini, M. &Yousofi, F. (2001). “Examining sources of stress and how students react to them among the students of Shiraz University and
Marvdasht Azad university”, in The Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Shiraz University. Vol. 32: 149–179. [Persian].
Abbasabadi, B. (1998). The Relation between Anxiety and Educational Achievement (MA Thesis). Faculty of Educational and sciences and
Psychology, Ferdosi University, Mashhad. [Persian].
Muijs, R.D.(1997).“Predictors of academic achievement and academic self-concept; a longitudinal perspective “In Br J Educational Psychology
1997 Sep; 67: 263-267.
Ali Madadi, A. & Lavasani, F.(2001). “Examining the relation between mental health and comparative style and demographic characteristics
among students of the Islamic Azad University of Zanjan”. In Medicine and Edification: special issue for the conference on students and mental
health. Summer 2001, p. 44. [Persian].
Asgari, P. et al. (2008). “The relation of happiness, self-actualization, mental health, and educational performance with gender duality among
male and female students in Science and Research Unit, Ahvaz Branch”. In Science and Research in Psychology. 2008, Vol. 33. [Persian].
Shaìri, M. R. (2004). “Aspects of mental health and educational achievement”. In the scientific research monthly of Shahed University. Vol. 7;
2004. [Persian].
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WHO study of mental illness in general health care”. In Psychol Med 1997 Jan; 27(1): 191-7.
Bahmani, B., & Agars, A. (2006) “National standardization and evaluation of psychometric indices of the mental health questionnaire for medical
students of Iran”. In the collection of papers presented at the third national seminar of students’ mental health. 2006. Tehran. Iran University of
Science and Technology. 2006. Pp. 62–70. [Persian]
ScienceDirect
A study on mutual engagement in communities of practice

Wen-Bing Gau a *
a
National Chung Cheng University, Department of Adult and Continuing Education,
168, University Rd., Min-Hsiung, Chia-Yi, Taiwan 62102, ROC
Abstract
The Morakot flood disaster was caused by Typhoon Morakot, which was one of the catastrophic typhoons that have influenced
Taiwan in recorded history. The government was criticized for their slow response to the disaster. It was not the government
rescue crew but the voluntary rescue teams that offered the most important helping hand to the victims to retrieve thousands of
trapped citizens from buried villages. Why can voluntary rescue teams be so professional and efficient? The answer is: they are a
kind of Community of Practice (CoP). Although Wenger (1998) proposed 3 elements of forming a CoP, a deep analysis into the 3
elements is lacking, to say nothing of discussing “mutual engagement”, one of the 3 elements, from the perspective of NGOs. In
order to explore the members’ mutual engagement in rescue CoPs, the researchers used the data derived from rescue teams in
Taiwan to understand two questions: A)Why did the rescue team members initially participate in the mutual engagement? B)Why
did the members continue to participate in the mutual engagement? The semi-structured interview method was employed to
collect data, while the theoretical framework of CoPs was applied to structure the analysis. The main opinions adopted in this
study were from 20 interviewees, who belonged to 6 of the visited rescue teams. This study concludes with some factors in
people’s initial participation in mutual engagement, and with some factors relating to members’ continuing motivation to
participate. Mutual engagement is triggered by varied social learning processes, so the elements interact and are intertwined with
each other.
Selectionand/or
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Rescue team members, communities of practice, mutual engagement, social learning;
1. Introduction
The Morakot flood disaster was caused by Typhoon Morakot, which was one of the catastrophic typhoons that
have influenced Taiwan in recorded history. Because of the disaster, there were 461 people dead and 192 missing.
The government was criticized for their slow response to the disaster. It was not the government rescue crew but the
voluntary rescue teams that offered the most important helping hand to the victims to retrieve thousands of trapped
citizens from buried villages. Why can voluntary rescue teams be so professional and efficient? The answer is: they
are a kind of Community of Practice (CoP).
Although the concept of CoPs has been highlighted in many fields, the majority of the studies are about
knowledge sharing and the application of CoPs. For example, in medical related applications, some patients have
*
Corresponding Author: Wen-Bing Gau. Tel.: +886-5-2720411#26155
E-mail address: robinwenbing@yahoo.com.tw
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.238
Wen-Bing Gau / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 448 – 452 449
organized communities of practice to discuss health issues (Watson-Gegeo, 2005). Mørk, Hoholm, Ellingsen, Edwin
& Aanestad (2010) have studied a plan of medical innovation in Norway. They found some conflicts and political
issues derived from the process of forming a CoP. In education related applications, Moule (2006) has explored
CoPs for distance learning, while Green (2005) studied a CoP involved in qualitative research in higher education.
In a business related application, Probst & Borzillo (2008) highlighted the importance of building a knowledge
database by way of CoPs, while Amin & Roberts (2008) analyzed CoPs for traders in a stock market. From 2005 to
2009, the academic focus has been mainly on applications in various fields. Although Wenger’s (1998) 3 elements
of practice have been referred to in some studies, a deep analysis of the 3 elements is lacking. From 2009 to 2011,
topics such as power and conflict issues within a CoP have been discussed (Hong & K.H.O., 2009; Venters &
Wood, 2007), while some imperfections in CoPs have also been identified and suggestions were given (Gau, 2011).
None of these studies was about voluntary rescue teams. Few articles discussed the 3 elements suggested by Wenger
(1998), to say nothing of deconstructing or analyzing the elements in depth. In order to fill the academic gap, the
focus of this research is on one of the 3 elements, mutual engagement, to see why mutual engagement is formed in
rescue CoPs.
According to Wenger (1998), people who want to participate in CoPs get ready to share their knowledge, sharpen
their expertise, build up interpersonal networks and pursue their interest. These interactions cannot be completed by
the individual him or herself. They need other people to offer responses, mutually to continue the engagement to
link different enterprises and to build up shared repertoires (Hara, 2009). Therefore, mutual engagement means not
merely participating in activities, but also triggering continuing opportunities for further interactions (Guldberg &
Mackness, 2009). The initial motivation to participate is crucial, while the continuing motivation to remain involved
is even more important. In order to explore the members’ motivation to participate in mutual engagement in rescue
CoPs, the researcher tried to use the data derived from rescue teams in Taiwan to identify the initial and continuing
motivations for participation. The researcher aims to understand the following questions:
(1) Why did the rescue team members initially participate in the mutual engagement?
(2) Why did the members continue to participate in the mutual engagement?
2. Research method
The focus of this research, in terms of learning, is on exploring the keys to triggering rescue team members’
initial and continued motivations to participate in daily rescue interactions. The semi-structured interview method
was employed to collect data, while the theoretical framework of CoPs was applied to structure the analysis. In order
to find appropriate rescue CoPs to study, the researchers visited all the 16 voluntary rescue teams which were
recognized by the government in the Morakot flood disaster. The main opinions adopted in this study were from 20
interviewees, who belonged to 6 of the visited rescue teams. The majority of the interviewees are male, which
echoes the population structure of rescue teams. For example, team D has 42 members only 3 of whom are female
(about 7%) making the organization a male-dominated organization. Each interview lasted about 2-3 hours in total.
In order to understand the rescue team members’ interactions with their leaders, their colleagues and the
environment, the researchers selected 3 positions of people in each rescue CoP, including the leaders, senior
members and junior members.
The research schedule was structured by Wenger’s (1998) description of the 3 elements. The researchers adjusted
the questions depending on the situation. In interviewing the leaders, some questions, such as “how do you establish
the organizational culture? or “please tell us your experience about helping team members”, were raised. For
senior and junior members, some questions referring to “mutual engagement” or “making comparisons with others”
were asked. Common questions such as their motivation to participate in the rescue team were also asked to obtain a
general view on their participation motivation. Tape-recording and transcription techniques were employed so that
the raw data could be labeled and well categorized according to the theoretical framework. The story lines were
finally developed through repeated checking between the labels, the theories and the raw data we obtained from the
fieldwork.
3. Findings and discussion
3.1. The rescue teams in Taiwan

450 Wen-Bing Gau / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 448 – 452
In rescue teams, members have developed varied and sound network systems to receive emergency calls and to
respond to calls for help. All the rescue teams we visited have experience of assisting firefighters and had at some
point been called out on hazardous missions to serious accidents such as car accidents, fire, flood, debris flow,
earthquakes, and so on.
In order to rescue victims safely and successfully deal with hazardous missions, rescue team members continue to
receive training, equipping them with professional knowledge and sharpening rescue skills. There are 3 sorts of
learning programs arranged in their daily training activities, regular formal training, practical training and skill
discussions (Mr. E). Practical experience is strongly highlighted in these training activities. According to Mr. F,
“…the most important thing is practice. Practice makes perfect. We learn from each other. Practice again and
again…if anything is confused, we will teach each other”. When team members learn a new skill, those who know
will teach those who don’t. When a brand new skill is introduced, they will discuss it with each other and put it into
practice to grasp the technique completely (Mr. S). This reflects what Wenger (1998) refers to as “mutual
engagement”. Engaging in learning and practice mutually is a key to digesting the training courses they receive. The
voluntary rescue team members on the one hand devote themselves to relief work to fulfill their aspiration of social
service, while on the other hand they sharpen their professional skills to satisfy their desire to pursue knowledge.
This sort of voluntary organization is very different from general CoPs, even though it can still be viewed as one
of them. Members join the team voluntarily, pay the membership fees and spend their time and money on training
programs (Mr. E). The work can be full-time or part-time (Mr. S). According to our interviews, most of the team
members are part-time members and have their own family and business. Although they are part-time volunteers,
they view the job as a 24-hour service (Mr. E). When an emergency call is received, some will put their work aside
to join the rescue task immediately, while others may call for help to find someone else available to help in the
situation. Because the job is strongly associated with people’s life, the rescue team members give top priority to the
rescue activities and are even willing to contribute their own personal resources to the activities. The involvement is
very different from those in general CoPs and is so much more than just sponsoring activities or learning particular
professional knowledge.
3.2. Initial motivations to participate
6 keys have been identified in this study to explain why the voluntary rescuers initially participate in the rescue
teams. The 6 keys are as follows: being concerned about local affairs, having shared interests or attention, paying
back what has been given by society, attractive atmosphere of interaction, social exchange, making it easy to be a
rescue professional and making training friendly.
The cause of a rescue team cannot be ignored when one’s initial reason for participation is discussed. Wenger
(1998) suggests that a CoP is normally formed by participants’ shared interests. This echoes what we have found in
this study. Some rescue teams were built by groups of people who were interested in radio. Because of mutual
engagement, members changed their interests from playing with radio to studying rescue techniques. In other words,
the initial interest triggers members’ mutual engagement, while the mutual engagement influences the content of the
interest. The findings also identified some other motivations derived from people's self will. Some interviewees in
this study show their strong desire to save lives, to serve the public and to worry about the local authority’s slow
action and inability to respond to disasters. Some highlight the concept of giving and receiving and showing their
gratitude to society. Compared with other initial motivations in this study, the above 3 elements, which are derived
from self will, can be viewed as internal elements of initial motivation.
Initial motivation to participate is also affected by external elements. Some voluntary rescuers were attracted by
the friendly atmosphere of interaction, while some participate in the group in order to learn rescue skills. The
attractive atmosphere of interaction and social exchange seem to have explained why the team members initially
joined the group. Additionally, because rescue skill is, in the general view, hard to learn, some rescue teams try to
break the barriers to participation to enable people to feel comfortable accessing the activity. Lowering the threshold
(making it easy to be a member and making training friendly) enables some who are of peripheral status to feel less
pressure to join the mutual engagement.
Wen-Bing Gau / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 448 – 452 451
3.3. Continuing motivations to participate
4 extra keys about members’ long-term engagement were also identified to explain why members keep
participating in activities and why the 6 initial keys may keep developing. The 4 keys are the sense of doing a
meaningful thing, the identity of belonging, the effect of shared habit, and the sense of achievement.
Most interviewees believe that they are doing a meaningful job. Because they value what they have done, the
sense of meaning and purpose groups like-minded people together to form shared practice to continue the 6 initial
motivations for participation.
The identity of belonging enables the rescue teams to create a family-like atmosphere to foster positive
interactions. Because the identity has been formed, the individuals believe that they are insiders and will be pleased
to share their personal expertise with each other without worrying about being cheated. Additionally, some rescue
teams try to involve members' families in their training activities and hope the families have a consensus view on the
meaningful job. When both the individual and his or her family agree with the voluntary job, the identity of
belonging can gradually be formed to enable the individual to be involved in learning and daily sense-making
activities (Wenger, 1998).
A sense of achievement may arise when the individual is intensively involved in gaining knowledge and engages
in meaningful activities. The sense of achievement enables members to strengthen their original belief in
participation. For example, those who are interested in local affairs are more enthusiastic than before because they
have gained achievement during the process of helping others (Mr. I). For those who aim at exchange, they approve
the purpose more because of the achievement derived from mutual engagement (Mr. M). Therefore, the sense of
achievement seems able to strengthen and continue one’s original motivation.
One’s continuing motivation to participate is also supported by shared habits in the group. The shared habit
comes from members' on-going mutual practices. The individual’s motivation to participate in a CoP cannot always
rely on having the sense of achievement, but on fostering a habit of engaging in shared practices. When the
participants get used to the rescue job, the risky but meaningful job has become a part of their life. In this situation,
the voluntary rescuers cannot help but keep participating in the mutual engagement. The ongoing interaction habits
enable members to participate in mutual engagement continually to reflect on the established practice and the
knowledge domain they usually engage in. Members in the community can then have unspoken consensus to form a
joint enterprise and shared repertoire (Wenger, 1998).
On the one hand, because the individuals can get a sense of accomplishment through mutual engagement, they
strengthen their initial belief (the 6 keys) in participation so that the mutual engagement may keep developing.
When the daily interactions last long enough to cultivate members’ habits and unspoken consensus, the 6 original
keys may be developed or changed. On the other hand, when the individual can be accepted by the group, the
individual can then set his or her mind to engage in social exchange, to have positive interactions with team
members and so on, to keep participating in mutual engagement. Because the individual senses that he or she is
doing a meaningful job, he or she may feel that it is worth persisting since the initial reasons for mutual engagement
are still relevant.
4. Conclusion
Since rescue teams are so important in society, the existence of the CoPs is crucial. From the angle of social
assistance, the CoPs can be viewed as an assistance mechanism which will be triggered when the government is
inactive. From the angle of professionalism, a CoP can be viewed as a knowledge base through which experts get
together to share their insight to sharpen their knowledge to enable the CoPs to rescue citizens from danger.
The CoPs are formed because members learn from the daily sense making activities. The volunteer rescuers
experience accidents and value what they are doing. The senses of value, achievement and family-like atmosphere
enable the rescuers to shape the community, the knowledge domain and the practices. This study concludes with 6
keys to people’s initial participation in mutual engagement. Some have a strong desire to provide services (being
concerned about local affairs, what is taken from the society is used on the society), while others are attracted by a
warm atmosphere of interaction, personal interest and gaining something through social exchange. In order to make
people feel less pressure to join activities, some rescue teams try to make training programs easy and friendly, to
beak the barriers to participation.
452 Wen-Bing Gau / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 448 – 452
All of the 10 keys (the 6 initial keys and the 4 continuing keys) are associated with members’ continuing
motivation to participate. When people join the rescue team, the 6 initial keys keep developing and become the
reason for continued interaction. Because the members have opportunities actually to engage in dealing with rescue
tasks, they may enjoy the risky but meaningful job and keep developing the 6 keys. Because it is a meaningful job to
them and to the society, they feel it is worth engaging in the daily shared practices. Through daily routines, dealing
with rescue tasks becomes a part of their life (the effect of shared habit), which enables shared repertoires, and
pushes them towards more mutual engagement. In the meanwhile, daily routines provide members with more
opportunities to clarify their identities in the group. When the individual is truly accepted by the group, he or she
will feel more comfortable engaging in shared practice and this enables the 6 initial keys to keep developing.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the financial support from the National Science Council, Taiwan, ROC, NSC 99-2410-
H-194 -058 -MY2. Thanks to Dr. Malcolm Wren at the University of York for his assistance in the preparation of
this paper in English, which greatly assisted the author.
References
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online publication. doi: 10.1007/s11135-011-9605-z
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ScienceDirect
A Study on Turkish Adaptation, Validity and Reliability of the Brief

Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory (BAMBI)
Bekir Fatih Merala,b*,Ahmet Fidanb
a
The University of Kansas, Beach Center on Disability, 1200 Sunnyside Av. 3111 Haworth Hall, Lawrence, KS, 6604, USA
b
Sakarya University, Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Hendek/Sakarya, 54300, Turkey
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to determine the psychometric properties of the Brief Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory. After
ensuring linguistic equivalence of the scale, it was applied to 308 mothers who have children with autism to determine the
mealtime behavior of the children with autism. The scale, which has 3 sub-domain and 5 liker type, consists of 18 items
originally. After the validity and reliability work, 4 items were eliminated and 14 items remained. The results of Confirmatory
Factor Analysis (x2/sd=3.6, RMSEA=.09, SRMR=.07, GFI=.89, AGFI=.84, IFI=.90, CFI=.90) showed that the scale has an
acceptable goodness of fit. The internal consistency coefficient (α=.79) and values of the split-half reliability (Pearson r=.86 and
Spearman's rho=.83) were high. Item-total correlations of the scale were acceptable and t-tests between items’ means of upper
27%-lower 27% points were significant. According to the results, it can be said that the scale can be used as a valid and reliable
scale to determine the mealtime behavior of the children with autism in Turkey.
Selectionand/or
World Servet Bayram
Keywords:Brief Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory, autism, mealtime behavior problems, confirmatory factor
analysis, reliability;
Introduction
Autistic disorder is a complicated developmental disability experienced in the first three years of life (Autism
Society of America-ASA, 2006). Autistic disorder is the main sub group in common developmental disorder
classification (it covers autistic disorder, Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder, Asperger's syndrome and
common developmental disability/atypical autism which cannot be named in any other way) (DSM-IV-TR, 2007).
Autistic disorder shows itself (a) in social interaction, (b) with delays in the language used in social communication
or symbolic or fictions game and/or existence of an extraordinary functionality, (c) various obsessions. Depending
on these disabilities, reluctance to get into social interaction with other people around, limitation in making eye
contact, language and communication problems and as well as clear disabilities in symbolic and fictions activities
such as games can be seen in children exhibiting autistic characteristics (DSM-IV-TR, 2007). It is reported that
some of the children exhibiting autism and common developmental disability (in a way to include autism which
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-785-979-3433; fax: +1 785-864-5825

E-mail address: bfmeral@gmail.com – fatihmeral@ku.edu
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.230
404 Bekir Fatih Meral and Ahmet Fidan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 403 – 408
cannot be named in any other way) have abnormal feeding/eating behaviors such as sensibility to the
hardness/consistence of the food and selectivity in choosing certain foods (Ahearn, Castrne, Nault, & Green, 2001).
Current diagnosis criteria of autism and common developmental disability do not include abnormal eating
behaviors (Ritvo & Freeman, 1978). However, reports on feeding/eating problems exhibited by the children in this
disability group emphasize that the children in this disability group show selectivity for foods according to variety or
hardness/consistence (Burd, Shantz, Swearingen, Ahearn, & Kerwin, 1995), they refuse some liquid beverages
(Farrell, Amari, & Hogapian, 1996) and they exhibit unusual mealtime behaviors (Powell, Hecimovic, &
Christensen, 1992). Regarding the generality of feeding/eating problems in children with autism, many reasons such
as not being able to focus on detail regarding variety and hardness/consistence in food, their determination not to eat
the food, reactiveness, avoiding eating new food they are not used to, sensorial disabilities, disabilities in social
harmony and not being able to tolerate foods biologically are suggested (Cumine, Leach, & Stevenson, 2000).
In the researches, it was found that feeding problems were more common in children with autism. When
especially children with autism are compared with their normal peers, it was observed that they refuse more food,
they need more special kitchen utensils (such as modified eating and drinking tools and accessories, gastronomy
tube), it is necessary to offer food in more particular ways (such as offering food they like and food they don't like
together), they can prefer less hard food (such as mashed food) and they eat a narrower variety of food (Schreck,
Williams, & Smith, 2004). It can be said that mealtime problems are more common in individuals with autism than
other developmental disability groups (Kodak & Piazza, 2008).
Many evaluation processes can used to determine the variables related with feeding and mealtime problems in
children. Early in the list, there are evaluation scales which may help determine feeding and meal time problems.
The most prominent two of the related evaluation tools are Screening Tool of Feeding Problems (STEP) and Brief
Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory (BAMBI) scales. STEP was developed by Matson and Kuhn (2001) to define
the feeding problems of individuals with autism and mental disability. This scale consists of 23 questions which
aims at certain feeding and mealtime problems such as being choosy about/distinguishing between food (according
to variety or consistence/hardness), eating fast, vomiting and pushing food. Scale consists of 5 sub-categories/sub-
scales including risk of breathing obstruction, being choosy about food, problem behaviors during mealtime, feeding
skills and feeding. BAMBI is a scale developed by Lukens (2005) and Lukens and Linscheid (2008) which consists
of 18 questions about limitation in consuming different foods, food refusal, disruptive mealtime behaviors and
behaviors related with autism (such as shortness of attention span, anger, self-injurious behavior).
No measuring tool has been seen which was developed or adapted to measure the mealtime and feeding problems
of individuals with autism or intellectual disabilities in Turkey. The purpose of the study is to examine the
psychometric properties of Brief Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory (BAMBI) developed by Lukens (2005) and
Lukens and Linscheid (2008) on children with autism in Turkey.
1. Method
1.1. Research group
The research includes 308 children with autism. Data collected from mothers of children with autism going to 10
Autistic Children Education Center providing service in 8 different provinces (Istanbul, Sakarya, Bursa, Denizli,
Trabzon, Kütahya, Van, and Diyarbakir), three centers of which are in the same province (Istanbul). The data of the
study are based on parent-proxy report application which takes getting information on target individual from related
family into basis. Age average of children with autism was calculated as 9.18 (ds=4.59), height average as 131.41
(sd=25.82) and weight average as 36.54 (sd=20.34). 240 of children were male and 61 were female (7 missing
values).
Bekir Fatih Meral and Ahmet Fidan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 403 – 408 405
1.2. Process
Before applying Turkish form of Brief Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory (BAMBI) to the sample in our
country, written permission was obtained from Colleen Taylor Lukens (Pediatric Psychologist, Pediatric Feeding
and Swallowing Center, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia PA/USA) who developed the inventory.
Under linguistic equivalence studies of BAMBI, it was translated into Turkish by two professionals and an
English teacher who were competent in English. Three independent translations were turned into a single Turkish
form by making the related comparisons. Lastly, Turkish form and original English form were compared by a
profession from English Teaching Department and necessary corrections were made and the scale took its final form
for field. The data of Brief Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory (BAMBI) were collected in three months. Data
was analyzed with PASW Statistics 18.0 (SPSS Statistics) and LISREL 8.71 programs.
1.3. Instrument
Brief Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory (BAMBI). Brief Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory (hereafter
referred to as BAMBI) is a measuring tool developed by Lukens (2005) and Lukens and Linscheid (2008) which
aims to determine mealtime behaviors and feeding problems of children with autism. The highest score and the
lowest score to be obtained from the 5-point grading type scale (1=Never/Very Rarely - 5=In Almost All Mealtimes)
which includes 18 items in total are 18 and 90. There are 4 items (3, 9, 10 and 15) which requires reverse
calculation in the scale. Three-factor structure of BAMBI which are Limited Variety, Food Refusal and Features of
Autism explains 45% of the total variance. Cronbach's alpha internal consistency coefficient of the scale was
calculated as .88. Criterion validity of the scale was calculated high and significant (r108=.77, p< .01) over The
Behavioral Pediatric Feeding Assessment Scale-BPFAS which was developed by Crist and Napier-Phillips in 2001
(Lukens, 2005; Lukens & Linscheid, 2008).
In the field form which included BAMBI, apart from the scale, there are questions about the age, height, weight
and gender variables of teachers and a short instruction about the study.
2. Findings
2.1. Reliability
2.1.1. Item total correlation calculation and significance of differences between 27% upper-lower group item
averages
It can stated that items with item total correlation of .30 and higher distinguish the individuals in a good level in
terms of measured property and items between .20 and .30 can be included in the tests in case it is seen obligatory or
those items should be corrected and items lower than .20 should not be included in the test (Büyüköztürk), 2008;
Crocker & Algina, 2008). Accordingly, items with no 3, 9, 10 and 15 were excluded from the scale and the scale
whose original had 18 items has 14 items. It was observed that item-total correlations of BAMBI ranged between
.22 and .55 (see Table 1).
t-test was used in comparing item scores of %27 upper-lower groups of BAMBI determined according to total
score. 27% upper-lower t (sd=165) values of BAMBI vary between -6.23 and -12.49 and the difference between
27% upper-lower groups (p<.001) is significant (see Table 1).
Table 1. Item total correlations and 27% upper-lower group item averages of BAMBI (N=308)
Items rjx t
Limited Variety sub- field
I-10. My child is willing to try new foods. .15 -
I-11. My child dislikes certain foods and won't eat them. .30 -7.75
I-13. My child prefers the same foods at each meal. .41 -12.49
I-14. My child prefers 'crunchy' foods (i.e., nuts, cracker, chips). .31 -7.86
I-15. My child accepts or prefers a variety of foods. .13 -
I-16. My child prefers to have food served in a particular way (i.e., cut into small pieces, mashed or .41 -9.91
with straw, etc.)
I-17. My child prefers only sweet foods (i.e., candy, sweet cereals). .22 -7.15
I-18. My child prefers foods prepared in a particular way (i.e., mostly fried foods, cold foods, .46 -12.26
raw vegetables).
Food Refusal sub-field
I-1. My child cries or screams during mealtimes. .44 -9.28
I-2. My child turns his/her face or body away from food. .54 -12.39
I-4. My child expels food that he/she has eaten. .46 -8.46
I-7. My child is disruptive during mealtimes (i.e., pushing/throwing away plate, fork-spoon, food). .50 -8.66
I-8. My child closes mouth tightly when food is presented. .55 -10.48
Features of Autism sub-field
I-3. My child remains seated at the table until meal is finished. .15 -
I-5. My child is aggressive during mealtimes (i.e., hitting, kicking, and pinching those sitting .39 -6.44
beside him/her).
I-6. My child displays self-injurious behavior during mealtimes (i.e., hitting/biting himself/herself). .38 -6.23
I-9. My child is flexible about mealtime routines (he/she is not obsessed with/strict about mealtimes, .09 -
seating order, places of having the meal).
I-12. My child refuses to eat foods that require a lot of chewing (i.e., preferring only soft or mashed foods). .40 -7.45
Answering choices: Never/Very Rarely=1, Rarely/Seldom=2, Occasionally/Sometimes=3, Often=4, In Almost All Meals=5
*** p< .001
2.1.2. Internal consistency reliability and split-half reliability

Cronbach's alpha (α) internal consistency coefficient of BAMBI was calculated as .79. It is observed that the
scale has an acceptable internal consistency (see Table 2). In order to determine split-half reliability values of
BAMBI, two split-half test correlation was calculated between odd numbered items (1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17=6 items) and
even numbered items (2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 14, 16, 18=8 items) of the inventory. Split-half reliability of BAMBI was
calculated as .86 (p<.01) according to Pearson r calculation and .83 (p<.01) according to Spearman Brown rho
calculation. Findings indicate that split-half reliability of BAMBI was good (see Table 2).
Table 2. Internal consistency and split-half reliability coefficients of BAMBI (N=308)

Reliabilities Values
Cronbach's alpha (α) internal consistency .79
Pearson r split-half reliability .86
Spearman Brown rho. split-half reliability .83
** p<.01
2.2. Validity
2.2.1. Structure validity - confirmatory factor analysis

Structure validity of BAMBI was calculated with "Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Critical N value which
includes minimum number of participants for CFA was calculated as (CN)=133.53 in the research. Accordingly, it
can be stated that the study group consisting of 308 participants was suitable for CFA.
In CFA, it is required that many fit index values used to determine the sufficiency of the examined model have
certain interims (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Anderson & Gerbing, 1984; Cole, 1987; Marsh, Ballave, & McDonald, 1988;
Gulbahar & Buyukozturk, 2008; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993; Schermelleh-Engel & Moosbrugger, 2003; Simsek,
Bekir Fatih Meral and Ahmet Fidan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 403 – 408 407
2007; MacCallum, Browne, & Sugawara, 1996; Byrne, 2006; Schermelleh-Engel, Moosbrugger & Muller, 2003).
Related fit index values and fit values of BAMBI are given in Table 3.
Table 3.Fit values of BAMBI according to fit criteria and fit values (N=308)
Fit Criteria Good Fit Values Acceptable Fit Values Fit Values of BAMBI
x2 /sd <3 <5 3.6
RMSEA .00<RMSEA<.05 .05<RMSEA<.08 or .10 .09
SRMR .00<SRMR<.05 .05<SRMR<.08 or .10 .07
GFI .95<GFI<1.00 .85 or .90<GFI<.95 .89
AGFI .90<AGFI<1.00 .80 or .85<AGFI<.90 .84
IFI .95<IFI<1.00 .90<IFI<.95 .90
CFI .95<CFI<1.00 .90<CFI<.95 .90
According to CFA results, it was seen that Chi-Square value (x2=268.87, N=308, sd=74, p=0.00000) was
significant. In the research, it is observed that the model of BAMBI has an acceptable goodness of fit (fit=3.6)
according to x2/sd=fit (268.87/74=3.6) calculation. Fit index values of the model based on CFA were calculated as
RMSEA=.09, SRMR=.07, GFI=.89, AGFI=.84, IFI=.90 and CFI=.90. It is seen that factor loads of the factor vary
between .30 and .71. Fix index values indicate that the model was fit and it achieved an acceptable fit with the data.
3. Results
In the study, it was aimed to determine the psychometric properties of BAMBI developed by Lukens (2005) and
Lukens and Linscheid (2008) over the children with autism in Turkey. To this end, results of Confirmatory Factor
Analysis, Cronbach's alpha (α) internal consistency coefficient, split-half reliability, item total correlation and the
significance of the difference between 27% upper-lower item averages of BAMBI achieving linguistic equivalence
were examined.
According to CFA results made under validity studies of the research, it was observed that fit values of suggested
model of BAMBI are within acceptable fit index values range and the model of the scale has an acceptable fit.
Under reliability calculations of the study, it was determined that internal consistency reliability values of
BAMBI were acceptable and split-half reliability was good. According to item total correlations of the scale, it was
determined that prediction and representation of BAMBI items the total score was good, except for the 4 eliminated
items. It was also seen that the differences between 27% upper-lower item averages of BAMBI were significant. It is
a limitation not to be able to examine test-retest reliability and criterion related validity in the study. Therefore,
related reliability and validity calculation may be included in further studies.
According to the findings of the research, it can be stated that Brief Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory can be
used as a valid and reliable measuring tool to determine the mealtime and feeding problems of individuals with
autism in Turkey.
References
Ahearn, W.H., Castrne, T., Nault, K., & Green, G. (2001). An assessment of food Acceptance in children with autism or pervasive
developmental disorder-not otherwise specified. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(5), 505-511.
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1984). The effect of sampling error on convergence, improper solutions, and goodness-of-fit indices for
maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis. Psychometrika, 49, 155-173.
Autism Society of America (ASA) (2006). Defining autism. Retrieved from
http://www.autismsociety.org/site/PageServer?pagename=aboutwhatis.
Byrne, B. M. (2006). Structural equation modeling with EQS. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Burd, D., Shantz, J., Swearingen, W. S., Ahearn, W. H., & Kerwin, M. L. (1995, May). The treatment of food selectivity. Poster presented at the
annual meeting of the Association for Behavior Analysis. Washington, DC.
Buyukozturk, S. (2004). Veri Analizi El Kitabi [Data analysis manual]. Ankara: Pegem A Pub.
Cole, D. A. (1987). Utility of confirmatory factor analysis in test validation research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 1019-
1031.
Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (2008). Introduction to Classical and Modern Test Theory. Ohio, USA: Cengage Learning Pub.
Cumine, V., Leach, J., & Stevenson, G. (2000). Autism in the early years. London: David Fulton.
DSM-IV-TR (2007). Ruhsal Bozukluklarin Tanimsal ve Sayimsal El Kitabi (2007). American Psychiatric Association/2000 [Manual of defining
and classifying diseases in psychiatry, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV-TR] (4th ed.) (DSM-IV-TR), Translated by
Koroglu E, Ankara: Hekimler Yayın Birligi.
Farrell, D. A., Amari, A., & Hagopian, L. P. (1996, May). Treatment of total liquid refusal in a 12-year-old male with chronic gastrointestinal
problems, autism, and mental retardation. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Behavior Analysis, San Francisco.
Gulbahar, Y., & Buyukozturk, S. (2008). Degerlendirme Tercihleri Olceginin Turkceye Uyarlanmasi [Adaptation of assessment preferences
inventory to turkish]. Hacettepe Universitesi Egitim Fakultesi Dergisi, 35, 148-161.
Hu, L.T., & Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structural analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives.
Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55.
Joreskog, K., & Sorbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: Structural equation modeling with the SIMPLIS command language. Lincolnwood, USA:
Scientific Software International, Inc.
Kodak, T., & Piazza, C.C. (2008). Assessment and behavioral treatment of feeding and sleeping disorders in children with autism spectrum
disorders. Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America,17, 887–905.
LISREL, Joreskog, K., & Sorbom, D. (2004). Interactive LISREL® Lincolnwood, USA: Scientific Software International, Inc.
Lukens, C.T. (2005). Development and validatıon of an inventory to assess eating and mealtime behavior problems in children with autism
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The Ohio State University. UMI Number: 3192869
Lukens, C.T., & Linscheid, T.R. (2008). Development and Validation of an inventory to assess mealtime behavior problems in children with
autism. J Autism Dev Disord, 38, 342–352. doi: 10.1007/s10803-007-0401-5.
MacCallum, R.C., Browne, M.W., & Sugawara, H.M, (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for cavariance structure
modeling. Psychological Methods, 1, 130-149.
Matson, J.L., & Kuhn, D.E. (2001). Identifying feeding problems in mentally retarded persons: development and reliability of the Screening Tool
of Feeding Problems (STEP). Res Dev Disabil, 22,165–72.
Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R., & McDonald, R. P.(1988). Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect of sample size.
Psychological Bulletin, 103, 391-410.
Powell, T. H., Hecimovic, A., & Christensen, L. (1992). Meeting the unique needs of families. In D. E. Berkell (Ed.), Autism: Identification,
education and treatment (pp. 187–224). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Ritvo, E. M., & Freeman, B. J. (1978). National society for autistic children definition of the syndrome of autism. Journal of Autism and
Childhood Schizophrenia, 8, 162–170.
Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Muller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Test of significance and
descprictive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8(2), 23-74.
Schreck, K.A., Williams, K., & Smith, A.F. (2004). A comparison of eating behaviors between children with and without autism. Journal of
Autism Dev Disord, 34, 433–8.
Simsek, O.F. (2007). Yapısal Esitlik Modellemesine Giris, Temel Ilkeler ve LISREL Uygulamalari [Introduction to structural equation modeling,
basic principles and LISREL applications]. Ankara: Ekinoks Egitim Pub.
SPSS. (2009). PASW® Statistics 18.0.0. Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc.
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference Educational Sciences - WCES 2013
A Theoretical Research on the Constraints of Development of

Gastronomy Education in Turkey
Mehmet Sarıoğlana*
a
Balıkesir University The School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Balıkesir, 10100, Turkey.
Abstract
This study aims to identify the possible positive impacts which may occur if the constraints are eliminated, by revealing the
constraints preventing the development of gastronomy education. For this purpose theoretical research has been made about the
constraints in the field of gastronomy education in Turkey. As a result of the research it is concluded that main constraints in the
development of gastronomy education are protectionist attitude of Turkish family structure on children, not including the science
of gastronomy in basic and advanced training curriculum in Turkey, not to make an quantitative and qualitative investment in
gastronomy education. Within the framework of the main results applicable suggestions were developed to improve gastronomy
education in Turkey.
Keywords: Turkey, Gastronomy, Gastronomy Education.
1. Introduction
Physical and mental well-being at every stage of life and maintaining health are possible with the adequate and
balanced nutrition of food production. Science interested in this pursuit is called gastronomy (Gillespie, 2006;
Santich, 2004; Solier, 2010; Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010). Gastronomy can be defined as arranging the food and
beverage activities that the indispensible primary factor in their daily lives in a systematic way (Engler, 2010; Adria,
2009; Ko, 2010). As a matter of fact it is indicated that the need to eat and drink is indispensable according to
Maslow’s Hiearachy of Needs. Gastronomy as a process that not only directly affects mental health and physical
health, but also provides the necessities of psychological and sociological needs constitutes a source of scientific
studies which left mark in 21st century (Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Brown, 2011; Avcıkurt, Sarıoğlan & Girgin, 2007).
The development of gastronomy has led to increase the diversity and quantitiy of food and beverage production.
Growth and diversification of food and beverage production provide a commercial value for the science of
gastronomy (Pedersen, 2012; Cheng, Godwin & Hamouz, 2011). Increasing disposable incomes of individuals with
the development of industrial revolution and phenomenon of eating outside as a result of leisure time are the most
important factors in providing commercial value. As a result of the development of this phenomenon gastronomy
has become an important industry by means of triggering food and beverage sector operate as a commercial business
(Zakaria, Wahab & Jasmi, 2010; Aktaş, 2001: Aymankuy & Sarıoğlan, 2007).
* Corresponding Author name. Mehmet Sarıoğlan Tel.: +90 543 677 91 18

E-mail address: mehmets@balikesir.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.205
Mehmet Sarıoğlan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 260 – 264 261
2. Current Status of Gastronomy Education in Turkey
The primary purpose of individual, family and society is to become healthy and productive. A symbol of being
healthy and productive is physical, mental, spiritual and social well-developed body structure and continuation of
this structure (Scarpato, 2002; Güven, 2005). Physical and mental well-being at every stage of life and keep healthy
are possible with the adequate and balanced nutrition (Brunson & Smith, 2001; Tanır et. all, 2001). Meeting these
conditions is possible with the quantitative and qualitative development of gastronomy in educational systems of the
countries (Marsico, and others, 1998; Harrington, Mandabach, & Thibodeaux, 2008; Ruetzler & Taylor, 2009).
Turkish cuisine, especially in terms of cultural wealth and diversity of food-drink is one of the most important
cuisines (Karaosmanoğlu, 2007; Aktaş, 2001; Sarıoğlan, 2007). However when the rate of population about the
gastronomy and gastronomy education in Turkey are examined in other countries, it can be expressed that it keeps in
the background qualitatively and quantitatively (Hegarty, 2011; Zahari, Jalis, Zulfifly, Radzi. & Othman, 2009;
Aymankuy & Sarıoğlan, 2007; Harrington, Mandabach, VanLeeuwen & Thibodeaux, 2005; Stitt, 1996). It can be
said that in the direction of reality that gastronomy sector has an important position in Turkish economy, it hasn’t
reached the desired levels of gastronomy education today.
Gatronomy education is given in two seperate parts including secondary and higher education level in Turkey. At
the secondary level it operates under the departments of food and beverage and kitchen in Anatolian Hotel and
Tourism Vocational High Schools and Vocational School For Girls. The number of students studying gastronomy in
secondary education is around 4600 approximately in 80 schools (Ministry of Education General Directorate of
Commerce and Tourism Education).
Gastronomy education is given in two parts including graduate and undergraduate level. At the undergraduate
level in the gastronomy and culinary arts and food and beverage management departments, approximately 1470
students at 24 graduate level have been provided training. At pre-graduate level in 39 culinary departments,
approximately 1785 students have been provided training for gastronomy (2012 Higher Education Institutions
Student Selection and Placement Guide).
In the light of these data, it can be confirmed that quantitative status of education of gastronomy in Turkey is
quite low. In addition the quantitative gastronomy education in turkey is inadequate; it is not easy to say that it is
adequate in qualitative terms. Thus, we may encounter the results that a large part of teaching staff and faculty
members providing education did not receive adequate training in gastronomy and laboratory equipments needed for
gastronomy education are insufficient. In the light of these data, it is concluded that a strategic plan that can be
applied is needed for the development of education in gastronomy (Ministry of Education, Department of
Educational Research and Development, 2009, 2006, 2000).
3. Constrains on Development of the Gastronomy Education in Turkey
Turkey is a highly developed country in terms of gastronomic items with the effect of factors such as its
geographical location, Anatolian civilizations that lived in the past and intercontinental spread of Ottoman Empire.
Although Turkey has a wide, potential and effective gastronomic item, it is quite behind the desired level for
gastronomy education. In this section, the factors that have appreciable extent on the development of gastronomy
education in turkey have been examined.
262 Mehmet Sarıoğlan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 260 – 264
3.1. Constraint-I: Defensive Training of Individuals with Turkish Family Structure:
Individuals acquire the capability, conceptual and factual skills in their families first. In this context, the
individuals acquire the basic skills of gastronomy in their families. Gastronomy education contains pretty much
capability and concept skills as well as conceptual and factual skills. However, different from all countries on earth,
the Turkish family structure adopts the protectionist style of rising children (Sarıoğlan, 2012; Atalay, Kontaş,
Beyazıt & Madenoğlu, 1993).
Protectionism factor in the structure of Turkish family impoverishes the individuals in terms of ability, self-
confidence and practical skill that is a component of gastronomy education. In particular those parents do
gastronomic phenomena and applications, which can be easily done by children, they with protectionist instinct,
impoverish the basic gastronomy education that the children can obtain in their families. In this context it can be
said that there is absence of a specific course about the gastronomy and it postpones the individuals to acquire
gastronomic skill.
3.2. Constraint-II: Gastronomy Education doesn’t Take Place in Turkish Education Policy at Desired Level:
It is not easy to express that gastronomy education in the Turkish National Education Policy is in the desired
degree. Indeed, primary and secondary educations lack the lesson that is in the field of gastronomy in the curriculum
(Sarıoğlan, 2012). In this context it can be said that there is absence of a specific course about the gastronomy and it
postpones the individuals to acquire gastronomic skill.
3.3. Constraint-III: Not Performing Active Quantitative and Qualitative Research and Development Investments on
Gastronomy Education in Turkey:
Including public and private initiatives, investment in the field of gastronomy in Turkey takes place at very lower
levels. Although it contains Ottoman Palace Cuisine, Turkish Cuisine Culture and it has a very wide framework in
gastronomy, research and development investments in the field of gastronomy are at a very low level. It can be said
that that investments allocated to research and development of gastronomy and gastronomy education are very low
qualitatively and quantitatively is the most important constraint against the education of gastronomy in Turkey.
4. Conclusions and Suggestions
In the study it has been concluded that gastronomy is one of the most important science branches that individuals
need in daily life. In the literature review making up the first part of the study, it has been concluded that Turkey can
not provide both quantitative and qualitative adequacy in the science and education of gastronomy. In this context,
in the second part of the study, constraints preventing the development of gastronomy education have been
examined. In this study, various proposals have been developed in order to avoid the constraints on the development
of gastronomy education in Turkey. These are;
* Measures should be taken which can be accepted as a basis for the education of gastronomy and which support the
individuals’ creativity, skills and practices in the home kitchen culinary. Non-formal education programs should be
developed for parents on this subject.
Mehmet Sarıoğlan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 260 – 264 263
* Ministry of education should apply the courses developing the skills of gastronomy in the curriculum of primary,
secondary and higher education.
* Public and private initiative investments should be increased both qualitatively and quantitatively to develop the
gastronomy education in Turkey.
In the event of effective implementation of the recommendations of the study mentioned above, science of
gastronomy, education of gastronomy and the value added will increase. In this context, the development of healthy
generations will be provided by expanding gastronomic science and education in Turkey and the added value of the
science of gastronomy will increase. This study is thought to be a basis for the future studies of gastronomy
education in Turkey.
References
Adria, F. (2009). Modern Gastronomy A to Z. London. CRC Press.

Aktaş, A. (2001). Ağırlama İşletmelerinde Yiyecek-İçecek Yönetimi, Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara.
Atalay, B., Kontaş, Y.M., Beyazıt, S., & Madenoğlu, K. (1992). Türk Aile Yapısı Araştırması, Başbakanlık Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı, Ankara.
Avcıkurt, C., Sarıoğlan M. & Girgin, G.K. (2007). Yiyecek-İçecek Olgusuna Sosyolojik Bakış. I. Ulusal Gastronomi Sempozyumu (4-5 Mayıs
2007). Antalya.
Aymankuy, Y. & Sarıoğlan, M. (2007). Yiyecek-İçecek Felsefesi ve Beslenme Alışkanlığının Geliştirilmesine Yönelik Bir Model Önerisi. I.
Ulusal Gastronomi Sempozyumu (4-5 Mayıs 2007). Antalya.
Brown, N.J. (2011). Integrating Eisner’s Arts Education Philosophy into Culinary Arts Education. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 4
(1), 89-99.
Brunson, E. & Wilburn S. (2001). Culinary Education and Training Program for At-Risk Youth, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice
Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, USA.
Cheng, M., Godwin-Charles, O.A. & Hamouz, F.L. (2011). The Development of Culinary Arts and Food Science into a New Academic
Discipline-Culionology. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 9 (1), 17-26.
Engler, Rachel. (2010). Food, Cooking Skills and Health: A Literature Review, Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, Volume:
71, Number: 3, pp. 141-145.
Gillespie, Cailein. (2006). European Gastronomy into the 21st Century, Butterworth-Heinemann of Elsivier, Burlington-USA.
Harrington, R. & Ottenbacher, M.C. (2010). Culinary Tourism-A Case Study of the Gastronomic Capital. Journal of Culinary Science &
Technology, 8 (1), 14-32.
Harrington, R., Mandabach, K.H. & Thibodeaux, W. (2008). The Institutionalization of Culinary Education. Journal of Culinary Science &
Harrington, R., Mandabach, K.H. VanLeeuwen, D. & Thibodeaux, W. (2005). A Multi-Lens Framework Explaining Structural Differences
Across Foodservice and Culinary Education. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 24 (2), 195-218.
Hegarty, J.A. (2011). Achieving Excellence by Means of Critical Reflection an Cultural Imagination in Culinary Arts and Gastronomy Education.
Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 9 (2), 55.65.
Kivela, J, & John C. C.; (2006). Tourism and Gastronomy’s Influence on How Tourists Experience a Destination, Journal of Hospitality &
Tourism Research, Volume: 30, Number: 3, pp.354-377.
Ko, W. (2010). To Evaluate the Professional Culinary Competence of Haspitality. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 8 (2-3), 136-146.
Marsico, C, Marianne EB, Lee M.H. & Marie L. (1998). Ratings of Food Course and Culinary Training Components in Dietetics Education,
Journal of the American Dietetic Association. Volume: 98, Issue: 6, pp. 692-693.
Karaosmanoğlu, D. (2007). Surviving the Global Market: Turkish Cuisine Under Construction, Food, Culture and Society. An International
Journal of Multidiciplinary Research, 10 (3), 425-448.
Pedersen, L.B. (2012). Creavity in Gastronomy, Thesis, Copenhang Business School.
264 Mehmet Sarıoğlan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 260 – 264
Ruetzler, T. & Taylor, J. (2009). Internet Sites of Current Interest to Culinarians and Culinary Teachers. Journal of Culinary Science &
Santich, B. (2004). The study of gastronomy and its relevance to hospitality education and training. International Journal of Hospilaty
Management, 23, 15-24.
Sarıoğlan, M. (2012). Present Condition of Gastronomy Education at Turkey and Model Suggestion Intended to Improve, IV. International
Congress of Educational Research (4-7 May 2012), Istanbul, pp. 130-134.
Scarpato, R. (2002). Gastronomy Studies in Search of Hospitality, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Volume: 9, Number: 2.
Solier, I.de. (2010). The Foodie Lifestyle: Gastronomic Education, Serious Consumption and Creative Production, University of Melbourne,
USA.
Stitt, S. (1996). An International Perspective on Food and Cooking Skills in Education. British Food Journal, 98 (10), 27-34.
Zahari, M.S.M., Jalis, M.H., Zulfifly, M.I., Radzi, S.M. & Othman, Z. (2009). Gastronomy: An Opportunity for Malaysian Culinary Educators.
International Education Studies, 2 (2).
Zakaria, A. M, Wahab, S.H.A.. & Jasmi. M.A. (2010). Culinary Art Education: A Demand Profession in Culinary Tourism for Malaysian’s New
Economy Niche, Proceeding of the I. UPI International Conference on Technical and Vocational Education and Training Bandung,
Indonesia (10-11 November 2010), pp. 534-542.
2011 Yüksek Öğretim Kurumları Öğrenci Seçme ve Yerleştirme Klavuzu, (http://www.osym.gov.tr/belge/1-13170/2012-ogrenci-secme-ve-
yerlestirme-sistemi-osys-kilavuzu-.html
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference Educational Sciences-WCES 2013
An Analysis of Comfortable Teaching and Learning Environment:

Community Response to Climate Change in School
Marzita Puteha* , Mazlini Adnana, Mohd Hairy Ibrahimb , Noraini Mohamed Nohc,
Che Nidzam Che’Ahmada
a
Faculty of Science and Mathematics
b
Faculty of Humanity Science
c
Faculty of Education and Human Development
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, 35900, Perak, Malaysia
Abstract
Global climate change has an impact on the climate to the cities in the Archipelago areas such as Malaysia, Indonesia and
Brunei. The urban communities are experience and these changes while carrying out their daily activities. These changes
in the climate, forced the urban communities to adjust their activities accordingly. These is worsen by the rapid
development of the urban areas which has an impact to the local climate. The local climate change could affect the micro-
environment such as plants, people and buildings, including external and internal school environment that causes discomfort
during the process of teaching and learning in the classroom especially teachers and students. This study involved 917
respondents. Result shows that the majority of the respondents felt uncomfortable with the changes of climate.
Selection
© 2013 Theand peer Published
Authors. review under the responsibility
by Elsevier Ltd. Open accessofunder
Prof.CCDr. Servet license.
BY-NC-ND Bayram
© 2013 The
Selection Authors.
and/or Published
peer-review underbyresponsibility
Elsevier Ltd.ofAll rights reserved.
Academic World Education and Research Center.
Keywords: Community response, climate change, comfortable teaching and learning environment., thermal comfort;
1. Introduction
The rapid growth of development in the urban areas has an influence/impact on the local climate. This
micro climate changes has an impact to the the local surroundings including the school environmental comfort.
However research on the teaching and learning comfort are very limited especially at the school level. Hence,
this research analyzes the level of comfort of the teaching ad learning environment in the secondary schools in
the state of Malacca due to the climate changes in the urban. Therefore, this research explores the internal
climate of the schools which uses mechanical air ventilations such that of the secondary schools in the
Malacca town, which is a typical town in Malaysia.
This research also looks into the students’ perceptions regarding the climate change, classroom physical
environment, classroom thermal comfort, comfortable teaching and learning environment and the impact of
thermal and environment changes in the urban area towards health and well being. Environment and classroom
*Corresponding Author name. Tel.: +0-019-3581115
E-mail address: marzita@fsmt.upsi.edu.my
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.209
286 Marzita Puteh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 285 – 290
thermal comfort plays an important part in the teaching and learning process as it will influence the activities
and performance of pupils (Puteh et al., 2012). Hence, appropriate and comfortable physical facilities will
stimulate intellectual activities, higher social communication, encourage the pupils’ learning development and
limiting any negative behavior among the pupils (Azri, 2003).
Generally, temperature rises in the urban area which is pack with rapid development of buildings and
saturated with traffic as compared to the country side or the outskirt of urban areas. This is supported by a
research done by Shaharuddin et al. (2009) which stated that the current trends of research, discusses
environmental issues which is related to the rapid development of the urban area and industrial factors which
has a tendency to influence the natural pattern and climate trends in the urban environment.
Hence, this research was conducted in Malacca due to its rapidly growth in development especially in the
torismn and industralization. Malacca is also known as a ”World Heritage City” in Malaysia and located at 5°
25'N dan longitud 100° 19'E. According to the Malaysian Meteorological Services (MMS, 2009), the
temperature range for Malacca is between 27 oC - 33°C during the day and 22°C - 24°C, during the night and
its humidity is between 70% - 90%. Therefore the climate is warm and bright. Malacca also experiences rain
during the monsoon season from April till September. It’s islanded climate that is influenced by the
surrounding sea and ( sistem tetingkap) and more over due to its close proximity with Sumatera, Indonesia, it is
easily exposed to the dust and smoke that is brought by the wind from its open forest burning.
2. Literature Rerview
Malaysia is one of the most rapidly developed country in Asia (Hanafiah & Chan, 2011). Its rapidly
developed urban area resulted in a changed of urban climate, whereby acid rain, urban heat island, which
resulted in an increased in temperature, marred the daily human lives (Ibrahim et al., (2010).
The development in terms of urbanisation of the town has resulted in a number of changes and
transformations including its socio-economic, and significantly changes its climate and weather (Ismail et al.,
2009). Hence, it resulted in a change of its thermal comfort. Thermal comfort and thermal comfort model,
especially buildings which has its natural ventilation, situated in a warm and humid area will be the discussion
of this paper because of its importance in the efficient design and energy flow of the building.
Other related issues that will be discussed, such as differences in the thermal comfort among the subjects
with regard to types of ventilation such ad air-conditioned and naturally ventilated buildings, adaptiveness of its
occupancies to certain environment resulted in behavioral and psychological factors. Thermal comfort as
defined by the ISO 7730 Standard (1994) as ” state of mind, which is satisfied with the environmental heat”.
This definition has been widely agreed, however it is not an easy definition to be defined into the physical
parameter (Olesen, 2000). There three factors that can effect human comfort, which must be considered, i.e
temperature, humidity and air ventilation. Besides, there are also other factors such as body heat omission, cold
and warm surfaces and occupancies air stratification. Humans are more sensitive towards changes in the
temperature as compared to relatif humidity (Hussein et al., 2002), and there are some evidence that shows,
human health are affected by the high or low in humidity. A number of researches conducted by researchers
such as Agung Murti Nugroho (2011), Hussein and Rahman (2009), and Wafi and Ismail (2010) too, shows
that thermal comfort does not have an effect on its occupancies.
Most research on thermal comfort that has been carried out, focuses on determining the comfortable
temperature in various background, such as in climates within the four seasons and in the tropical. A number of
research on thermal comfort in the Equator had been carries in the 1950’s. Webb (1959) carries out a research
in Singapore and proposed an Equator comfort index based on the temperature of the dry temperatue bulb and
wet temperature bulb and also the speed of the wind. Ellis (1952) too, conducted a research in Singapore and
concluded that thermal comfort is the same for European and Asian men and women. Accordin to Hussein
dan Rahman (2009), the accepted range of temperature is from 27.1º C till 29.3 ºC. Learning environment
Marzita Puteh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 285 – 290 287
is where pupils and educators converge for a period of time to take part in a learning activity. The environment
that is created in this activity is regarded as an important component in the teaching and learning process..
Decades ago, research has created a relationship between the classroom environment and performance of
pupils and identifying the determinant for learning environment (Fraser, 1994). In fact, at the root of it,
research shows that students’ performance is higher in a conducive environment where by pupils felt safe and
positive. save (Wald rip & Fisher, 2003). Moreover, a conducive.
Hence, there a relationship between pupils’ participation and a condusive learning environment, teachers’
support and organisation and classroom instructions (Fraser & Tobin, 1989; Puteh, 2010; Che Ahmad et al.,
2010). In Malaysia, research in learning environment is still in its embryoic stage. Research by Halim (2009)
focuses towards students’ perceptions regarding the classroom psychological traits. However her research was
limited to the physical trait only such as classroom thermal comfort which might affect the students’ learning
experiences.
3. Methodology
This paper reports on the findings of a preliminary questionnaire survey conducted in this study to identify
and investigate the students’ perceptions towards classroom thermal comfort and the schools’ surrounding. The
Teaching and Learning Classroom Thermal Comfort Inventory (TLTCI) instrument was used in this survey.
It consist of 5 parts : i) demographic; ii) Climate change awareness; iii) Teaching and Learning Comfort
Inventory; iv) Classroom Thermal Effect; v) Adabtibility and Involvement. This instrument was shown to two
expertist in order to determine its validity and the reliability of this instrument was obtained by using Cronbach
Alpha. The survey was conducted at three secondary schools in Malacca and 916 form four students from seven
schools in Malacca participate. There were 525 (57.3 %) male and 391(42.7 %) female. The participants came
from Malaysian National Secondary Schools (622 (67.9%)) and 294 (32.1%) from Malaysian National Chinese
Secondary Schools.
This study explores students’ perception on thermal comfort of the classroom. The study used quantitative
methods and data were collected using questionnaires. Students’ perception on classroom thermal comfort
aspects were measured by using The Teaching and Learning Classroom Thermal Comfort Inventory (TLTCI).
TLTCI consists of five parts which are, demographic; Climate change awareness; Teaching and Learning
Comfort Inventory; Classroom Thermal Effect; and Adabtibility and Involvement. Reliability is also obtained
through a pilot study. This instrument was shown to two expertist in order to determine its validity and the
reliability of this instrument was obtained by using Cronbach Alpha. The internal consistency reliability
(coefficient alpha) ranged from 0.64 to 0.87 for TLTCI. This range is considered acceptable to good (George &
Mallery,2001), since the closer the alpha is to 1, the greater the internal consistency of the items.
4. Result and Discussion
This study was conducted to understand the students’ perception towards school and classroom thermal
comfort. Hence, this section discusses the findings of students’ awareness regarding climate changes,
environmental teaching and learning comfort, the effect of classroom discomfort, students participations and
their adaptibility towards the envoronment.
4.1. Climate Change Awareness
Based on the data related with the awareness of climate change (Table 1), this study shows that there is a
high awareness amongst students' regarding climate change on the environment (mean 3.99; s.d 0.64). Mean
values (mean 4.21; sp 1:02) is the highest on the statement "a growing industrial area can increase the pollution
problem". Similarly, the level of students' awareness of climate change on pollution is also high with a mean
value 3.94 (s.d 0.67). Mean values (mean 4.12; s.d 1.00) the highest on the statement "pollution from vehicle
emissions causing air pollution in Malacca".
In addition, the study also found that the level of students' awareness of climate change on temperature was high
with a mean value 4.08 (s.d 0.57). The mean values (min 4.52; s.d 0.87) is the most high on the statement "Plants
can reduce the temperature". Overall, the level of students' awareness of climate change is high (mean 4.00; s.d
0.61). This Scale Mean Standard Deviation (s.d) shows that
students are Environment 3.99 0.64 aware of the
climate Pollution 3.94 0.67 change that
Temperature 4.08 0.57
occurred Total 4.00 0.61
around them
especially in school.
Table 1. The Average Mean for Climate Change Awareness
4.2. Physical Classroom Environment
Based on the data related to the physical classroom environment (Table 2), it was found that the mean physical
classroom environment of space is 3.23 (sp 0.98). The mean values (min 3:42; sp 1.25) is the highest of the
statement "classroom area tailored to the needs of teaching and learning". Similarly, the mean of the physical
environment of the classroom furniture is 3:34 (sp 0.88). Mean values (mean 4.12; sp 1.00) is the highest in the
dimensions of the furniture is in the statement "chair in the classroom comfortable to be occupied."
In addition, the study also found that the mean physical classroom environment to light is 3:34 (sp 0.73). Mean
values (mean 3.61; sp 1.06) the highest in the dimension of temperature is on the expression "sufficient sunlight to
illuminate classrooms, green plants can reduce hotter temperatures". Similarly, the study found that the mean of
physical classroom environment on the quality of indoor air is 3.40 (sp 0.77). Mean values (mean 3.82; sp 1.01) is
the highest of the statement "Installed ceiling fan to increase air circulation". Overall, this study shows that there is a
high awareness amongst students' regarding their classroom environment (mean 3:38; s.d 0.80). This shows that
the physical classroom environment secondary school in Malacca is at a good level.
Table 2. The Average Mean of Physical Classroom Enviroment
Scale Mean Standard Deviation (s.d)

Space 3.23 0.98
Furniture & Equipments 3.34 0.88
Lighting 3.34 0.73
Air Quality 3.40 0.77
Total 3.38 0.80
4.3. Classroom Thermal Comfort
Based on the data related to the effect of thermal comfort (heat) in the classroom (Table 3), it was found that the
mean effect of thermal comfort (heat) in the classrooms of the indoor climate is 3.40 (s.d 0.77). Mean values (mean
3.84; sp 1.03) is the highest of the statement "I feel more comfortable when the ceiling fans function well in my
classroom". Similarly, the mean effect of thermal comfort (heat) in the classroom to the physical classroom is 3:07
(s.d 0.78). The mean value (min 3:38; s.d 1.14) is the highest in the physical dimensions of the classroom is based
on the statement "I am comfortable with chairs provided in the classroom".
In addition, the study also found that the mean effect of thermal comfort (heat) in the classroom for
environmental comfort is 2.86 (sp 0.86). Mean values (mean 3.28; s.d 1.24) is the highest of the statement "I feel
comfortable with the recreational areas around my school". Overall, this study shows that there is a moderate
awareness amongst students' regarding the effect of thermal comfort (heat) in the classroom (mean 3:00; s.d 0.75).
Marzita Puteh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 285 – 290 289
This shows that the effect of thermal comfort (heat) in the secondary school classroom in Malacca is at a moderate
level.
Table 3. The Average Mean of Classroom Thermal Comfort

Indoor Climate 3.40 0.77
Physical Classroom 3.07 0.78
Environmental Comfort 2.86 0.86
Total 3.00 0.75
4.4. Teaching and Learning Comfort
Based on the data related to Teaching and Learning Comfort (Table 4), it was found that the mean of Comfort
Teaching and Learning is 3.14 (s.d 0.91). Mean values (mean 3.26; s.d 1.14) is the highest of the statement "I feel
comfortable learning in this classroom." This shows the comfort level of teaching and learning is at a moderate
level.
Table 4. The Average Mean of Teaching and Learning Comfort

Teaching and Learning Comfort 3.14 0.91
4.5. Effects of Thermal/Heat and Environment towards Health
Based on the data associated with the thermal effects on health and the environment (Table 5), it was found that
the mean effect of heat on health and the environment is moderate 3.15 (s.d 0.89). The mean values (mean 3.35; s.d
1.16) is the highest of the statement "I often have a health problems regarding my eyes, such as watery eyes,
redness and blurring of the eyes due to polluted air." This show is an eye sore to the health effects most often faced
by students due to the heat and the environment from contaminated air.
Table 5. The Average Mean of Effects of Heat and Environmet towards Health

Effects of Heat and Environmet 3.15 0.89
5. Conclusion
This study shows that there is a high awareness amongst students' regarding climate change and their classroom
environment. Meanwhile, the study also found that the effects of thermal and teaching and learning comfort (heat) in
the classroom is at a moderate level. Finally, this study also showed that the most frequent health problems faced by
students is regarding their eyes, such as watery eyes, redness and blurring of the eyes. Therefore, this study
proposed that a systematic evaluation of the learning environment especially for thermal comfort classroom is
considered as important because the information obtained can be used as a basis for improving educational quality
and effectiveness of teaching and learning in the classroom.
References
Ahmad S., Hashim N.M & Jani Y.M. (2009). Urban Heat Island phenomenon and environmental issues in Kuala Lumpur. GEOGRAFIA Online,
Malaysian Journal of Society and Space, 5: 57 – 67.
Agung Murti Nugroho, A. (2011). Prelimanary Study of Thermal Environment in Malaysia’s Terrace Houses, Journal of Economics and
Engineering, 2(1).
Arzi, H. (2003). Enhancing science education laboratory environment: More than wall, benches and widgets. Dlm. B. J. Fraser & K. G. Tobin
(Eds.), International Handbook of Science Education, ms. 595-608. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Che’ Ahmad, C.N., Osman, K. & Halim, L. (2010). Physical and psychosocial aspect s of science laboratory learning environment. Procedia
Social and Behavioral Sciences Jounal, 9: 87-91.
Fraser, B.J. & Tobin, K. (1989). Student perceptions of psychosocial environments in classrooms of exemplary science teachers. International
Journal of Science Education, 11: 19-34.
Fraser, B. J. (1994). Research on classroom and school climate. Dlm. G. Gabel (Ed.), Handbook of research on science teaching and learning
(ms. 493-541). Washington, D.C.
George, D. & Mallery, P. (2001). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference 10.0 update (edisi ke 3). Toronto: Allyn and
Bacon.
Halim, L. (2009). Improving science literacy through a conducive laboratory learning environment: A proposed model. Plenary paper presented
at Third International Conference on Science and Mathematics Education (CoSMEd) Penang, Malaysia, 10 -12 November 2009.
Hanafiah. N.H & Chan., N.W. (2011). The occurrence Urban Heat Island and its effect human thermal discomfort in Penang, National
Conference of Human, Space and Environment, 16 dan 17 November, Penang.
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Hussein, I., Mohd Ibrahim, M. I. , Yusoff, M. Z. & Bosrooh, M. H. (2002). Thermal Comfort Zone of Campus Buildings in Malaysia”,
Proceedings of the BSME-ASME International Conference on Thermal Engineering, 31 Dis 2001-2 Januari 2002, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Ibrahim, M.H, Hashim, M., Nayan, N., Omar Baki, M.H. & Che Ngah, M.S.Y. (2010). Relationship of Land Use on Temperature in Tanjong
Malim, Perak. Journal of Techno-Social, 2: 47-68.
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thermal comfort’, International Standards Organization, Geneva, 1994.
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Kuala Lumpur.
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Context: A Case Study. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences Journal, 8: 446-452.
Puteh, M, Ibrahim, M.H., Adnan, M, , Che Ahmad, C.N & Mohamed Noh, N. (2012). Thermal comfort in classroom: constraints and issues.
Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences Journal, 46: 1834 – 1838.
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Bangladesh. World Journal of Management, 2: 59 – 69.
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Malaysia. European Journal of Scientific Research, 46(3).
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Environments Research: An International Journal, 6: 157-174.
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Environmental Science and Technology Conference (ESTEC2009) Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia, 7-8 Disember 2009.
ScienceDirect
An investigation of meta-linguistic corrective feedback in writing

performance
Isar Gholaminiaa*, Azadeh Gholaminiab, Amir Marzbanc

a
English Language Departement, Parsa higher education institute, Mazandaran, Iran
b
English Language Departement, Allameh Mohaddes Nouri University, Mazandaran, Iran
c
English Language Departement, Qaemshahr Branch,Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr,Iran
Abstract
Debate about the value of providing corrective feedback on L2 writing has been prominent in recent years. According to
Chandler (2003) meta-linguistic corrective feedback operates as the provision of the correct form in the student’s written texts by
underlining the error and writing the target form above it and directing the written corrections at errors in a specific structure. By
comparing traditional direct error feedback with meta-linguistic corrective feedback the present study attempts to find out,
whether experimental group will be more accurate than the control group or not. After conducting the experiment and analyzing
the results through t-test, it was revealed that the experimental group subjects who were assessed and instructed through
implementing meta-linguistic code-correction outperformed the traditionally-instructed control group in their post test.
Selection
by Elsevier ofunder
Ltd. Open access Prof.CCDr. Servet Bayram
BY-NC-ND license.
© 2013 The
Selection Authors.
and/or Published
peer-review byresponsibility
under Elsevier Ltd.ofAll rights reserved.
Keywords: Meta-linguistic corrective, Feedback, Error, Paragraph Writing
1. Introduction
The question of whether teachers should provide feedback in the writing assignments of English as second/foreign
language students (ESL/EFL), and if so how, has been a matter of considerable debate in the field of second
language acquisition (SLA). A range of studies have investigated whether certain types of written corrective
feedback or combination of different types are more effective than others. These studies have most often categorized
feedback, as either direct, (explicit) or indirect, (implicit). Direct corrective feedback can be defined as the provision
of the correct linguistic form or structure by the teacher to the student above the linguistic error (Ferris 2002). It may
include the crossing out of an unnecessary word/phrase/morpheme, the insertion of a missing
word/phrase/morpheme, or the provision of the correct form or structure. Additional forms of direct feedback may
include written meta-linguistic explanation (the provision of grammar rules and the examples at the end of the
student’s script with a reference back to places in the text where the error has occurred) and spoken meta-linguistic
explanation (eg, a mini-lesson where rules and examples are presented, practiced and discussed; conferences
between teacher and small groups of students). On the other hand, indirect corrective feedback is that, which
indicate errors in some ways: underlining or circling the error, recording in the margin the number of errors in given
line, or using code to show where the error has occurred and what type of error it is. Rather than the teacher
Corresponding Author: Isar Gholaminia. Tel: +98 9111143209

E-mail address: isar_tabari@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.214
Isar Gholaminia et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 316 – 320 317
providing an explicit correction, students are left to resolve and correct the problem that has been drawn to their
attention. Those who suggest that indirect feedback is more effective than direct feedback argue that it requires
students to engage in guided learning and problem solving and as a result promotes the type of reflection, noticing
and attention that is more likely to foster long-term acquisition (Ferrias and Roberts, 2001). In general, error
identification may be worthwhile and meaningful, as it is a useful starting point for discussing errors with students
(Raimes, 1991).
1.2 Research Questions: In accordance with what was already mentioned, the article seeks to answer the following
research questions:
1. Does meta-linguistic error feedback have any effect on the improvement of paragraph writing ability of
Iranian EFL intermediate students?
2. What kind of error feedback is more useful, traditional error feedback or meta-linguistic error feedback?
1.3 Research Hypotheses: In order to be in the safe side, and also reach logical answers to the aforementioned
research questions, the following null hypothesizes are formulated:
H0: 1.Written meta-linguistic corrective feedback has no effect on the improvement of paragraph writing ability
among Iranian EFL students.
H0: 2. There is no significant difference between traditional and meta-linguistic corrective feedback.
2. Methodology
2.1. Participants: The study was conducted in the department of English Language in an Iranian university, where
all courses are taught in English. To obtain the population required for the experiment, a large number of students
were chosen (two classes and 91 students) and a Nelson proficiency test was administered. From among those who
took the test, two groups (experimental and control) were selected. As it is conventional, the scores of the students
were ranked, and from among all the scores 60 students were elicited. It means that the highest and lowest scores did
not participate in this research and the researcher tried to choose the most homogeneous students of the class. The
classes were taught by two instructors of paragraph writing.
2.2 Materials: The materials used in this study comprised a) Nelson test that intended to elicit 60 homogeneous
intermediate students out of 91, b) Since the research revolves around writing, a writing test was necessary to be
used as a pretest, and after training sessions, as a post test. For this part writing test from Interchange/Passages
Placement and Evaluation Package test by Tay Lesely with Christa Hanson and Jean Zokowski/Faust (Cambridge
University Press, Third Edition 2005) has been chosen. In order to increase the reliability of the Pre and Post test the
researcher used three instructors to make sure that the rating was consistent. Then inter-rater reliability was
calculated. Both instructors used one book and one kind of material during the research period, c) "Paragraph
Development" (Martin L.Arnaudet, Mary Ellen Barrett, 1990) is the book was used for this research.
2.3 Procedure: the Nelson test was first administered and 60 homogeneous students were elicited and divided into
two groups of experimental and control group. In both groups basic components of paragraph writing from the book
“Writing Development” (Martin L.Arnaudet, Mary Ellen Barrett, 1990) were taught. Then they were given a topic
from the book and were required to write a paragraph in 30 minutes. Students were free to use dictionaries. In the
control group, the students’ paragraphs were corrected by the instructor through conventional method of error
correction with underlining the error and writing the correct form for students. But in the experimental group, the
instructor used code correction. There was a table of codes available for each student. At the first session of the class
all the students were asked to buy the book "English Grammar in Use" (Raymond Myrphy, 2001). Whenever the
instructor found one noticeable error in students’ writings, he indirectly used some specific codes for the error, and
318 Isar Gholaminia et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 316 – 320
students had to go for the error and correct it on their own; most of the errors were grammatical errors; thus, English
Grammar in Use was a good source for intermediate students to find the correct form of their errors. Finally, after
ten sessions of treatment the writing ability post-test was administered to check the participants’ progress in
paragraph writing through indirect error correction. The participants’ scores on the pre-test and posttest were then
compared to find the degree of improvement of each group. The analysis and comparison of the test results are
presented in following sections.
3. Data Analysis and Results
This section presents the results from the analysis of the obtained data. A descriptive statistics for quantitative
variables was represented to investigate the resulting data on minimum and maximum scores, sum, mean, standard
deviation, and variance of the scores and mean performances in the pretest and posttest both in the control and the
experimental groups. As it can be observed, the mean performance of control and experimental groups in the pretest
is nearly the same but they are different in the posttest.
3.1 Pretest
A paragraph writing pretest was administered to both control and experimental groups and the paragraphs were rated
by three raters. In order to make sure the raters have been consistent in their ratings, the inter-rater reliability was
first calculated before comparing the two means obtained from the pretest through t-test and checking whether the
two groups have also been homogeneous regarding their paragraph writing ability or not. The consistency of the
ratings was tested in two ways, both with the pretest and posttest results: first, the scores given by the raters were
compared and represented visually in the form of histograms and then, the mean of the scores given by each rater
were compared and represented in the form of tables.
3.1.1 Comparison of the Mean Performance of the groups in Pretest
After making sure of the inter-rater reliability of the raters, the mean score of the group were compared through t-
test in order to see whether the two groups are also homogeneous regarding their paragraph writing ability or not.
But before implementing the t-test, it was required to check if the p-variance of scores in the two groups was the
same or not.
Table 1: Fisher test for the equality of variance in mean performances of the two groups in pretest
Table 1 shows P-value is 0.915502 and it is more than a = 0.05. It shows there is no significant difference between
the variance of the scores in two groups.
Table 2: T-test for mean performances of the two groups in pre-test

Isar Gholaminia et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 316 – 320 319
According to table 2 the mean performance of both control and experimental group has been compared through
implementing t-test. The result show p-value equals 0.875831 which is more than a = 0.5 and it shows there is no
statistically significant difference between mean performances of the two group in pretest and it can be concluded
that there has been no significant difference in writing performance of the two group and they have been
homogeneous in this regard.
3.2 Post-tests
A paragraph writing test was also administered to both control and experimental group after ten sessions of
treatment and the paragraphs were rated by the same three raters. In order to make sure the raters have been
consistent in their ratings, the inter-rater reliability was also calculated for the scores given by the raters in posttest
before comparing the two means obtained from the post test through t-test and checking which of the two group
have progressed more in their paragraph writing ability.
3.2.1 Comparison of the mean performance of the groups in post-test

After making sure of the inter-rater reliability of the raters, the mean score of the groups were compared through t-
test in order to see which of the two groups has made more progress in writing skill. But before implementing the t-
test, it required to check if P-variance of the scores in the two groups was the same or not.
Table 3: Fisher tests for the equality of variance in the mean performances of the two groups in post-test
Table 3 shows the P-value is 0.836568 which is more than a = 0.05, and it shows there is no significant difference
between the variances of two sets of scores.
Table 4: t-test for mean performance of the two groups in post-test
In table 4 the result of comparing the mean performance of two groups in posttest has been reported and it shows the
P-value of 0.000125, which is less than a = 0.05. This shows the mean performance of the two sets of scores in post
test are significantly different and the meta-linguistic error correction group has out-performed the traditional-based
writing group. The null hypothesis in this study is rejected. And it can be concluded that implementing meta-
linguistic error feedback can have a significant effect on the paragraph writing ability of Iranian intermediate EFL
learners.
320 Isar Gholaminia et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 316 – 320
4. Discussion and Conclusions
With regard to the analysis of the data in the previous section and the results thereof, the following significant
conclusions can be drawn and discussed:
- Teaching the structure of paragraph writing tasks through meta-linguistic feedback can enable the learners to make
use of writing tasks more actively and efficiently.
- Meta-linguistic code-correction let the learners to revise their first draft several times and work on the quality of
their paragraph and therefore get more sensitive and pay more attention to the mistakes and errors they made and
make progress faster and more effectively than usual.
- When learners know they are going to be assessed based on their writing corrective feedback based on code-
correction, they will be more motivated in learning and feel more responsible for their learning.
The above conclusions for the two groups in the study confirm the major claim of this research that implementing
meta-linguistic error feedback in Iranian EFL courses is quite successful for improving learners’ writing ability.
As this study showed, corrective feedback can be a means of assessing students’ accuracy and helping them to be
aware of the errors and more importantly, to make fewer errors in writing. Meta-linguistic error feedback helped
learners to become aware of their own errors and monitor themselves. The students learned to be responsible for
their own errors and become more independent learners.
References
Bitchener, J, Knoch, U, (2008). The value of written corrective feedback for migrant and international students.
Language Teaching Research 12 (3).
Cardelle, M, & Corno, L. (1981). Effects on second language learning of variations in written feedback on
homework assignments. TESOL Quarterly, 15, 251–261.
Chandler, J, (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accuracy and fluency of
L2 student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 12, 267–296.
Ferris, D. R. (2002). Treatment of error in second language student writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press.
Ferris, D.R, (2006). Does error feedback help student writers/new evidence on the short- and long-term effects of
written error correction.
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Second Language Writing, 10(3), 161–184.
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Hendrickson, J. M. (1980). Error correction in foreign language teaching: Recent theory, research, and practice.
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Lee, I. (1997). ESL learners’ performance in error correction in writing: Some implications for college-level
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Sheen, Y, (2007). The effect of focused written corrective feedback and language aptitude on ESL learners’
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Truscott, J, 1996. The case against grame (pp. 281-304).New York: E-Publishing Inc.
ScienceDirect
Biology Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Thailand:

Understanding & Practice
Suriya Chapooa*, Kongsak Thathongb, Lilia Halimc
a
Science education Program, Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
b
c
Faculty of Education, University Kebangsaan, Malaysia
Abstract
The capacity of experienced teachers to help students construct knowledge depends heavily on the tactful blending of content
and pedagogy, which is conceptualized as pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). This study investigated the teachers’
understanding and practice, which comprise three Biology teachers’ PCK. In this research, the participants demonstrated their
PCK through the process of writing a content representation (CoRe), actual teaching in the classroom, and discussion with the
researcher during interviews. The results showed that all three teachers lacked adequate content knowledge in Biology and had
some difficulties in their classroom teaching of the subject. Their inability to design appropriate instructional and assessment
activities is also a matter of great concern. It is suggested that there is an urgent need to improve the Biology teachers’ teaching
methods, while promoting their better understandings of the fundamental purposes of science education, the curriculum and the
content of the subject.
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), Content representations (CoRes), Biology teachers ;
1. Introduction
In the process of developing competent citizens in society, teachers have an important role in educational reform and
science education (ONEC, 2001 : Pitiyanuwat, 2004 ; Roadrangka, 2004). In Thailand, teachers are considered the
most important and essential component in the teaching and learning process occurring in classroom, so they are
widely accepted as the heart of learning reform (Office of Rajabhat Insitute Council, 2002). Thus they play an
important role in facilitating the development of students who are considered as an indicator of success in economy,
society, politics, education, culture, science and technology development (Pornsrima, 2002) and an important
resource of the nation in the future (Secretariat of the Teacher Council, 1994). Therefore the success of educational
reform depends on the quality of teachers and their cooperation and Thailand attaches great importance to improving
the status and quality of teachers and education personnel.
Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

The term PCK while debated by many researchers. PCK is an important concept in science education. The highly
specialized form of professional knowledge is embedded in individual teachers’ classroom practice and is rarely
* Corresponding Suriya Chapoo. Tel.: +0-088-572-8767

E-mail address: chakreeya2518@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.237
Suriya Chapoo et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 442 – 447 443
articulated within the teaching community of practice. Geddis (1993) described PCK as a set of attributes that
helped someone transfer the knowledge of content to others. According to Shulman, it includes “most useful forms
of representation of these ideas, the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and
demonstrations-in a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to
others” (Shulman, 1987, p.9).
In addition, Shulman (1987) suggested that PCK is made up of the attributes a teacher possess that help her/him
guide students towards an understanding of specific content, such as industrial design, in a manner that is
meaningful. Shulman argued that PCK included “an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are
organized, presented and adapted to the divers interests and abilities of learners and presented for instruction” (1987,
p.8)
PCK is a unique knowledge processed only by individuals within the profession of teaching, and consequently
the concept of PCK is useful to help teachers’ understandings of what teachers know, what teachers ought to know,
and how they might develop it (Baxter and Lederman, 1999; Park, 2005). Magnusson et al. (1999) conceptualized
pedagogical content knowledge for science teaching as consisting of five components : orientations towards science
teaching, knowledge of curriculum, knowledge of curriculum, knowledge of assessment, knowledge of students’
understanding of science, knowledge of instructional strategies.
2. Purpose of the study
This study examines the nature of a biology teacher’s pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). The research
objectives is expressed through the research question: What are the understandings and practices of biology
teacher’s PCK?
3. Methodology/Experimental Design
This study constitutes a report of case-study method used to look at how mentor science teachers conceptualized
their own PCK that impacted their teaching practice. According to Merriam (1998), this research method is the best
vehicle for providing intensive descriptions and analyses of a single unit or bounded system such as an individual,
program, or group (p. 19).
Participant
The participant in this study was 3 biology teachers who was teaching at the secondary school level (10th grade
students) in public school under Secondary Educational Service Area Office 24. To protect her privacy she was
given pseudonyms, Miss Malee, Miss Napa and Miss Sopha.
Malee’s Background Information

Miss Malee was 31 years old. She was an experienced biology teacher with 6 years of teaching experience
leading in to 2012 academic year. She taught at Kalasinpittayasan School, Thailand, a public school which is funded
by the government. She completed a Bachelor’s degree of Biology at Khon Kaen University,Thailand , a Grad
Diploma of Teaching Science Professional at Khon Kaen University, Thailand. In the 2012 academic year, she
taught biology for 15 hours per week. She taught general Science in 7th grade for 3 hours and classroom counseling.
In this study, classroom observations were conducted with a class of 10th grade students. There were 54 students,
comprised of 30 females and 24 males.
Napa’s Background Information
Miss Napa was 27 years old. She was an experienced biology teacher with 4 years of teaching experience leading
in to 2012 academic year. She taught at Kalasinpittayasan School, Thailand, a public school which is funded by the
government. She completed a Bachelor’s degree of Biology at Khon Kaen University, Thailand, a Grad Diploma of
Teaching Science Professional at Khon Kaen University, Thailand and Master’s Degree of Science Education at
Khon Kaen University, Thailand. In the 2012 academic year, she taught biology for 12 hours per week. She taught
general Science in 7th grade for 3 hours and classroom counseling. In this study, classroom observations were
conducted with a class of 10th grade students. There were 50 students, comprised of 26 females and 24 males.
444 Suriya Chapoo et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 442 – 447
Sopha’s Background Information

Miss Sopha was 25 years old. She was an experienced biology teacher with 1 year of teaching experience leading
in to 2012 academic year. She taught at Kalasinpittayasan School, Thailand, a public school which is funded by the
government. She completed a Bachelor’s degree of Biology at Mahasarakham University, Thailand, a Grad Diploma
of Teaching Science Professional at Rajabhat Mahasarakham University, Thailand. In the 2012 academic year, she
taught biology for 15 hours per week. She taught general Science in 7th grade for 3 hours and classroom counseling.
In this study, classroom observations were conducted with a class of 10th grade students. There were 55 students,
comprised of 35 females and 20 males.
Data Collection
The researcher visited teachers in school and had conversations with the school administrators regarding the
study plan. The researcher took the questionnaire to 3 biology teachers. When they completed a questionnaire and
they were interviewed. After one week, the research observed and video recorded teaching in her classroom. When
they finished teaching, the researcher interviewed students in classroom. After that, the research interviewed
teachers by using a semi-structured interview and voice recorded the interview. In this research, classroom
observation, individual interview, questionnaire, inquiry based lesson plan, written reflection are preferred to assess
all teachers‘ PCK with their thinking, actions, and reasons in the specific context and setting. The researcher used
the extent and nature of PCK in relation to the Magnusson et al. (1999) model as illustrated in their PCK. This
study employed a multiple case research design, the data analysis methods began with within-case analysis and
followed by cross-case analysis. Triangulation was used to describe the idea that the researcher tried to construct an
explanation by using more than one or multiple sources of data.

The teachers’ understanding and practice of PCK were analyzed according to 5 components: orientations toward
science teaching; knowledge of curriculum; knowledge of assessment; knowledge of students’ understanding of
science; knowledge of instructional strategies.
4.1 The Case Study of Malee
Orientations towards science teaching
Malee said that the most important goal for her was to help students understand science content and get high
scores on national examinations. “…I would be proud of my students if they have good understanding of science
content and they could get high score in science from school test for their opportunities in higher education (Malee’s
interview). She thought that the scientific method consisted of only one approach and the method needed to be step-
by-step for acquiring the knowledge.
Knowledge of curriculum
Malee explained about curriculum as, “…I used science curriculum standard provided by The Promotion of
Teaching Science and Technology (IPST) more frequently than the school-based curriculum because I would like to
make sure that my students learn and cover every science topic that is in the curriculum.” She commented that the
content in the Science Curriculum Framework was very general. Most people might understand about the
curriculum but did not know how to bring this into a real classroom. She referred to school-based curriculum that
she had never used it for preparing her teaching.
Knowledge of assessment
The classroom observation showed that Malee’s major method of assessing was checking students’ worksheets
completed by students. Students had to finish their worksheets at the end of the class. She used paper and pencil test
to assess the students’ understanding of organelle in animal cell. As Malee stated “…It is easy to know that my
teaching is successful or not from checking students’ score. I always used multiple choice tests to assess students’
development in learning science” (Malee’s reflective written).
Knowledge of students’ understanding of science
Classroom observation illustrated that Malee directed students to do learning activities in worksheets and guided
students to formulate hypotheses, do experiments, collect data and formulate conclusion. She assigned students to
read from her reading sheets to get ideas and then she explained the concepts at the end of class. In her lesson plan,
Malee did not elicit student prior knowledge in teaching about organelle in animal cell. She did not identify what
students’ prior knowledge and students’ alternative conceptions.
Knowledge of instructional strategies
In Malee classroom, she used cell pictures to motivate students’ interest at the beginning. She used yes-no
questions to ask students and sometimes, when the students could not answer her questions, Malee delivered the
right answers for students. She did not probe her students’ prior knowledge of the organelle in animal cell. After that
she assigned the students to read from their textbooks and complete the questions from her worksheets. She
expected the students to learn the concept by listening to her explanation.
4.2 The Case Study of Napa

Napa’s expectations for teaching and learning science that she also realized the students were not only learning
science in classroom. They could learn science from outside of the school and they should be able to bring their
knowledge to solve the problems related to their daily life. As she mentioned during the interview, “…In my
opinion, I think that students’ understanding of scientific knowledge and having scientific skills are my major goals
and purposes for teaching science.”
Napa said that her learning and teaching science were based on school science curriculum because she created it.
As she mentioned this through interview; “…when I prepare my lessons, I always study the national science
curriculum standard in aspects of what science concepts and scientific processes that the students should learn in
their grade level” (Napa’s interview). However, she did not note that students should be motivated to learn science
in the aspects of scientific attitude and attiude toward science as her goals.
Napa used assignments and students’ answers in worksheets to assess students’ conceptual understanding.
Students’ work was checked only for classroom participation. In addition, questions were often used when teacher
interacted with students during classroom observation. Napa was not concerned on how or why the students
answered as they did.
Napa mentioned that inquiry teacher had roles including motivator, activity director, guide, facilitator and
lecturer. As Napa explained “…I think inquiry-based teaching and learning should focus on student’s role. I think
the teacher should not be a main director in the classroom. The teacher should be a facilitator or an assistant”
(Napa’s interview). In practice, Napa motivated student’s interest, designed learning activities, guided students how
to do the activities. However, students did not play the role of mind-on investigators. Students did not analyze data
on their own.
Napa thought a teacher should introduce an inquiry based lesson by motivating student’s interest. She noted
stimulating student’s curiosity through discussion. As Napa explained, “…In this class, my students are asked with
open-ended questions for motivating them to be interested in my lesson. The questions are related to student’s
experience in their daily lives”. With regards to Napa’s teaching, she used discussion and examples of some
experiments to stimulate student’s curiosity. However, both experiment and demonstration were devised by the
teacher. She did not ask students to share ideas regarding the design of the investigations.
4.3 The Case Study of Sopha

In the expectations of Sopha for teaching and learning science, she showed that the students should learn science
in aspect of understanding of science content, having science process skills and apply science in to daily life. The
result from classroom observation showed that Sopha taught mainly using lecture and experiment. With regard to
her purposes for teaching science the goals were not aligned with her practice. She wrote science concepts on the
blackboard and assigned the students to remember the concepts for answering the questions in Sopha’s worksheet.
Sopha commented about National Education Act that “I understand what content I should teach the students but
still did not know how to bring this into a real classroom practice”. She explained about science curriculum, “…I
use the science curriculum standard provided by IPST more often than the school based curriculum because I would
like to make sure that my students learn science topics that is in the national curriculum.
Sopha understood that paper test could show much the students learned and accomplished in biology. She did not
assess students’ learning covering her purpose for student learning such as science process skills, scientific attitudes.
Paper-and-pencil tests were utilized to assess the student’s understanding. She mentioned that she collected
student’s works and scores to grade student’s outcomes.
In classroom, Sopha designed the learning activities, motivated students’ interest, posed question, guided students
how to do the activities. Even though Sopha engaged students’ interest by asking students, students’ responses to her
question were not paid much attention too. Her understood that the inquiry based teaching and learning. Sopha did
not understand the teacher as an activity director. As she stated; “…In my lesson plans, my role was a facilitator.
Students are active learners. I help them when they did not understanding about investigations. I had to tell them
what they should do”.
Sopha expressed that she struggled with how to sequence the learning activities related to science content. In
practice, Sopha introduced her inquiry-based lessons by motivating student’s interest, clarifying the main questions
and providing the concepts of study. Sopha understood that students should learn science in groups. As she stated;
“…For me, group work is related to cooperative learning which is an approach to organized classroom activities in
to social learning experiences. The finding indicated that her practice was not compliant with her understanding. In
practice, students sat in group but they did not work cooperatively. Even though each student had a specific duty in
his group, such as the head of group, students did not play their roles and duties in groups.
5. Conclusions
The three teachers did not have full understanding and practice of PCK. They rarely focused on prior knowledge
and learning. The most focused learning activities were based on lectures. They were frustrated with the ideas of
students-centered teaching. The three teachers indicated that the students should learn the science concepts from
textbooks or teacher’s explanations before doing investigations. They formulated conclusions for students or had
students make conclusions on their own without sharing their conclusions with others. They especially paid more
attention to paper-pencil tests and worksheets for evaluating student’s learning at the end of a course. They mainly
used the Science Curriculum Framework as teaching and learning resource. The findings indicated that the teacher’s
instructional practice was somewhat different from their beliefs. The three teachers understood what that they should
implement their teaching and learning science based on educational reform. However, they abandoned many aspects
in their classrooms because they did not have colleagues to consult and to discuss with. In this manner, the further
development of teacher’s PCK could be supported as they learn from their practice. It is suggested that there is an
urgent need to improve the Biology teachers’ teaching methods, while promoting their better understandings of the
fundamental purposes of science education, the curriculum and the content of the subject.
Acknowledgements
The researcher would like to express my deepest thanks to my advisor Associate Professor Dr.Kongsak Thathong,
Professor Dr. Lilia Halim for their meaningful suggestions and tremendous encouragement throughout the research.
References
Baxter, J. A. and N. G. Lederman. 1999. “Assessment and measurement of pedagogical content knowledge.” In J. Gess-Newsome and
N. G. Lederman (ed). Examining Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Dordrecht, Netherlands:Kluwer Academic Publishers, 147-161.
Geddis, N. 1993. “Transformating subject matter knowledge: the role of pedagogical content knowledge in learning to reflect in teaching.”
International Journal of Science Education 15 (6): 673-683.
Magnusson, S., Krajcik, J., & Borko, H. (1999). Nature, sources, and development of pedagogical content knowledge for science teaching.
In J. Gess-Newsome & N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Examining pedagogical content knowledge: The construct and its implications for science
education (pp. 95–132).
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Bangkok: ONEC.
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Development. (Online). Available: http://www.rajabhat.ac.th/edu/develop.htm.
Park, S. 2005. “A study of PCK of science teachers for gifted secondary students going through the national board certification process”. Ph.D.
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Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22.
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference Educational Sciences – WCES 2013
Career self-efficacy among Lithuanian adolescents in sports schools

Andrius Brusokas, Romualdas Malinauskas*
Lithuanian Academy of Physical Education, Sporto 6, Kaunas 44221, Lithuania
Abstract
This study focuses on career self-efficacy among Lithuanian adolescents in sports schools. In total, 224 basketball players
participated: 116 aged 15–16 and 108 aged 17–18. It was found that there was a significant difference (p <0.05) in the sources of
career self-efficacy between basketball players aged 17–18 and those aged 15–16, with the former being influenced to a greater
extent by the following sources: vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, positive emotional arousal and accomplishment in
performance. The comparison of career self-efficacy among those aged 15–16 and 17–18 showed that the former had a higher
level of career self-efficacy.
Keywords: Career education, career self-efficacy, sports school, adolescents, basketball players;
1. Introduction
Career is a sequence of various socially significant human roles related to self-expression and individual
professional development and reflecting the vision and style of life of an individual (Betz, 2007). Self-efficacy is
defined as one’s confidence in personal skills as well as the belief that one can effectively direct personal behaviour
to reach the goals set. Self-efficacy is the expectation and conviction of an individual in relation to how successfully
he/she can perform a certain task. In terms of this definition, self-efficacy may be assessed as a prerequisite for the
productivity and efficiency of the activities of an individual (Bandura, 1997). Career self-efficacy plays an important
role in studying the career objectives of teenagers and young people and the peculiarities of their career choices
(Bandura et al., 2001; Wolfe & Betz, 2004). The development of career self-efficacy is especially helpful for
teenagers and young people who engage in sports to a great extent or belong to an at-risk group due to learning
difficulties (O'Brien et al., 1999).
The indicator of career self-efficacy helps determine the behaviour of an individual in different situations when
planning his/her career. High self-efficacy in complex situations helps to overcome feelings of doubt, various
unpleasant occurrences and conflicts with much greater ease. Career self-efficacy is confidence in one’s ability to
perform the actions related to further career choices (Anderson & Betz, 2001; Lent & Hackett, 1987). Career self-
efficacy is associated with many psychosocial factors, such as self-esteem, anxiety and internal locus of control
(Miranda & Umhoefer, 1998; Muris, 2002).
Bandura (1997) defined four major sources of self-efficacy (i.e. experience of mastery, vicarious experience,
social persuasion and emotional state). It was determined that self-efficacy could be successfully altered by
* Corresponding Author :Romualdas Malinauskas. Tel.: +370-37-302-672

E-mail address: r.malinauskas@lkka.lt
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.196
Andrius Brusokas and Romualdas Malinauskas / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 212 – 216 213
manipulating the information sources related to effectiveness and by performing tasks (Malinauskas & Brusokas,
2010; McAuley et al., 2001). However, Bandura (1997) did not study career self-efficacy and its sources. Thus, the
question of the connection between career self-efficacy and career-seeking in the teenage years and at a young age
remains unanswered. This study is relevant because it may help understand what motivates Lithuanian adolescents
in sports schools to look for career possibilities.
Comprehending ones’ lack of abilities most often causes low career self-efficacy, which in turn weakens the wish
to seek a career (Betz & Hackett, 1981). In contrast, people with high career self-efficacy usually also have high
career ambitions (Bandura, 1993). People with high career self-efficacy tend to set higher career goals and
objectives and show more perseverance to achieve such goals (Bandura, 1993; 1997). The level of career self-
efficacy may be altered: low career self-efficacy can be raised and high career self-efficacy can be improved to an
even higher degree. Also, career self-efficacy is a prerequisite when seeking successful results from an activity and
it may have an impact on behaviour independently of a person’s knowledge and skills (Bandura, 1993). This study is
based upon the conviction that a person with high career self-efficacy tends to seek a way of life which will grant
him/her career possibilities. The relevance of the study is not in doubt because there is a lack of scientific research in
this field, especially in terms of the career self-efficacy of students playing sports, as we failed to find any such
studies.
This study is original because career self-efficacy among adolescents in sports schools has not been studied in
detail. However, it is a complex matter to research levels and sources of career self-efficacy. This study poses the
question: what are the features of career self-efficacy among adolescents in sports schools (young basketball
players)? The purpose of the study is to analyse the career self-efficacy of young basketball players (15–16 and 17–
18 year olds) in sports schools.
2. Methods
2.1. Sample and procedure
The study was carried out during the school year of 2010–2011. The sample size of the study consisted of 116
young basketball players of 15–16 years old and 108 young basketball players of 17–18 years old (junior and youth
groups). A two-stage selection was employed. First, two basketball sports schools from Kaunas and Vilnius were
randomly selected from the list of Kaunas and Vilnius basketball sports schools. Later, all the basketball students in
the cadet group (15–16 years old) and the junior group (17–18 years old) from the two sports schools participated in
the study. When questioning the respondents, the ethical and legal study principles were upheld, i.e. every
participant expressed their consent to participate in the study, the goal of the study was explained to the respondents,
and the anonymity of the participants was ensured. The questionnaires were distributed during training sessions.
2.2. Instruments: data collection and analysis
The Career Self-Efficacy Sources Scale (CSESS) (Anderson & Betz, 2001) was employed to assess the sources
of career self-efficacy (i.e. experience of mastery, vicarious experience, social persuasion and positive or negative
emotional state). The scale consists of 20 statements. Each of the statements is graded on a scale from 1 to 5 (where
1 = never and 5 = very often) and the respondent selects the most suitable option. The scale contains five subscales
(each with four statements): experience of mastery, vicarious experience, social persuasion, positive emotional state
and negative emotional state. When the data were analysed, the mean was calculated for each subscale and this
value indicates the source of career self-efficacy. Internal consistency was measured using Cranach’s alpha
coefficient (0.76). The internal consistency of each subscale was measured in the same way resulting in a range from
0.69 to 0.84.
The short form of the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale consists of 25 statements (CDMSE-SF) (Betz
et al., 1981). This scale shows the level of one’s self-confidence when performing actions related to the selection of
one’s further career. Each statement is evaluated using a 5-point Liker scale (where 1 = not at all confident and 5 =
214 Andrius Brusokas and Romualdas Malinauskas / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 212 – 216
extremely confident), the respondent choosing the most appropriate option. Internal consistency was measured using
Cornbrash’s alpha coefficient (0.64). When the data were analysed, the mean was calculated for each respondent
and this value indicates the level of career self-efficacy, the value distribution corresponding to the regular
probability distribution.
The statistical hypotheses were verified using Student’s t-test because the data distribution was normal.
3. Results
The analysis of the sources of career self-efficacy in the cadet group (15–16 years old) and the junior group (17–
18 years old) and the calculation of the means of the indicators showed that the basketball players aged 17–18 were
better at employing vicarious experiences (3.31±0.59). The effect of vicarious experiences gained by observing the
successful activities of others (modelling) was lower for those aged 15–16 (3.13±0.74), a finding confirmed by the
statistically significant difference (t(222)=-2.02; p<0.05) (Table 1).
Table 1: Statistical indicators of the career self-efficacy sources of respondents (M±SD)

Sources of career self-efficacy Basketball players: cadets Basketball players: juniors t p
(N=116) (N=108)
Vicarious experience 3.13±0.74 3.31±0.59 -2.02 p<0.05
Verbal persuasion 3.08±0.76 3.27±0.68 -1.97 p<0.05
Positive emotional arousal 3.16±0.66 3.34±0.63 -2.09 p<0.05
Negative emotional arousal 2.81±0.81 2.88±0.79 -0.65 p>0.05
Performance accomplishments 3.72±0.65 3.89±0.63 -1.99 p<0.05
Note: M = mean; SD = standard deviation.
The application of Student’s t-test showed that the career self-efficacy of the basketball players aged 17–18 years
old was based more on other sources, such as verbal persuasion, positive emotional arousal and vicarious
experiences, when compared to the results of the 15–16 year olds (p<0.05). There was no statistically significant
difference between the basketball players aged 15–16and those aged 17–18 in terms of negative emotional arousal
(tension, fear and anxiety) (t(222)=-0.65; p>0.05).
The analysis of the research data showed that there were no basketball players with a low self-efficacy level (1‒
2.9 points) either in the cadet group aged 15–16 (3.63±0.51) or in the junior group aged 17–18 (3.77±0.53).
However, the research revealed that a statistically significant difference exists between basketball players aged 15–
16 and those aged 17–18 in terms of career self-efficacy level (t(222)=-2.01; p<0.05).
4. Discussion
The study helped to assess the sources and levels of career self-efficacy of basketball players in the cadet group
(15–16 years old) and the junior group (17–18 years old). The results of this research correspond to those of other
studies which state that there are differences between teenagers and young people in terms of their career self-
efficacy (Gianakos, 2001; Kracke, 2002). This confirms the reliability of the data collection and analysis. This study
revealed that studying self-efficacy is a complex process. However, the information provided could further
understanding on how to encourage teenagers and young people to pursue their career goals. We believe that only
complex research which includes analysis of many sources of career self-efficacy or its components can have any
practical benefit because the conclusions drawn on the basis of such studies may assist people to choose the
direction of their career (Jepsen & Dickson, 2003; Taveira & Moreno, 2003). We agree with Blustein (1997) that
studying the career self-efficacy of teenagers and young people is highly profitable because respondents in this age
group usually have an inherent natural curiosity. In contrast, studies with children tend to be problematic and
ineffective (Blustein, 1997). On the other hand, when the respondents are those who are already trying to pursue a
Andrius Brusokas and Romualdas Malinauskas / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 212 – 216 215
certain career (in our case, a career in sports), the experience of such individuals enriches career development
studies (Atkinson & Murrell, 1988).
Our study revealed a reliable connection between the ability of people playing sports to use sources and levels of
career self-efficacy in their teenage years and at a young age. These findings are in line with similar works by other
researchers (Dawes et al., 2000; Foltz & Luzzo, 1998). Even though these studies did not consider teenagers and
young people playing sports, their results were similar to those of our research: Dawes et al. (2000) determined that
a low level of career self-efficacy may limit one’s career development, and Foltz and Luzzo (1998) revealed that
career self-efficacy may influence the behaviour of an individual when pursuing career goals.
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, it was found that the sources of career self-efficacy of basketball players aged 17–18 differed
significantly (p <0.05) from those aged 15–16 being based predominantly on the following sources: vicarious
experience, verbal persuasion, positive emotional arousal and accomplishment in performance. The comparison of
career self-efficacy among basketball players aged 15–16 and 17–18 showed that those aged 17–18 players had a
higher level of career self-efficacy. It may be stated that the analysis of career self-efficacy involves the
consideration of many variables. Therefore, we believe that such studies could also include analyses of career self-
efficacy components and the search for career possibilities in addition to considering sources and levels of career
self-efficacy. Also, it would be beneficial to pursue studies in this field and analyse the peculiarities of career self-
efficacy in teenagers and young people playing sports in relation to age and gender, rather than just age.
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Malinauskas, R., & Brusokas, A. (2010). Self-efficacy concept and characteristics of athletes’ self-efficacy. Science and Processes of Education,
4, 68–80.
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O’Brien, K. M., Dukstein, R. D., Jackson, S.L., Tomlinson, M. J., & Kamatuka, N. A. (1999). Broadening career horizons for students in at-risk
environments. Career Development Quarterly, 47, 215–229.
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Counselling, 31, 89–208.
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Career Development Quarterly, 52, 363–36.
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference on Educational Sciences-WCES 2013
Collaboration between Inservice Teachers and Student Intern in Thai

Lesson Study
Weerasuk Kanauan a *, Narumol Inprasitha b
a
Center for Research in Mathematics Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
b
Center for Research in Mathematics Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Abstract
Thailand implemented a Lesson Study and Open Approach in Thai school culture with a unique way of adapting Japanese
professional development (Inprasitha, 2012). In schools with student interns, there is a collaboration between them and
inservice teachers in a 3 phase Lesson Study (Inprasitha, 2010). This qualitative case study research aimed to study the
collaborative working of a first grade’ Lesson Study team (two inservice teachers and one student intern) from Kookham
Pittayasan school. Data were collected by participatory observation and using questionnaires, interviewing and video
recording. Research results revealed as follows: 1) collaboratively designed research lessons, these research lessons have been
used by the same group of inservice teachers and group of student interns in the last six years. This year, the student intern
revised these research lessons and brought forward to discuss with inservice teacher. 2) collaboratively observing the research
lesson, based on their classroom observations in the previous years, inservice teachers took their roles in observing and
recording students’ ideas, ways of solving problems, and etc., in order to bring to the discussion in the third phase.
3) Collaboratively reflections on teaching practice. Steps of reflections were a) immediately after the classes, they discuss
student’ ideas and how to improve the next class. b) At the end of the week, all teachers in school have weekly reflections
together. The research findings support the way inservice teacher and student intern can work collaboratively, rather than
inservice teachers just supervising student intern.
Selection
Authors. under
by Elsevier ofunder
BY-NC-ND license.
© 2013 The
Selection Authors.
and/or Published
under Elsevier Ltd.of
Keywords: Collaboration, Lesson Study, Open Approach, Working together;
1. Introduction
Collaboration and cooperation are regarded as key factors in professional development (Gellert, 2008), the
process that made teacher collaboration concrete and focuses on specific goals was Lesson Study (Wang-
Iverson, 2005) It originated in Japan from Japanese Language “Jugyokenkyuu” (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999, Baba,
2007) as an important model of Japanese Teacher Development (Lewis, 2002). It was also a process the teachers
used continuously to develop their teaching method by working with other teachers to investigate and understand
* Corresponding name: Weerasuk kanauan Tel.: +6-680-746-1748

E-mail address: vrs_tom@hotmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.163
Weerasuk Kanauan and Narumol Inprasitha / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 28 – 32 29
student thinking. The major point of Lesson Study in every process was teachers working together (Baba, 2007).
Lesson Study provided opportunities for teachers to observe directly learning and teaching in the classroom, and
for students to be the focus for teachers’ professional development as well as teachers’ individual professional
development (Inprasitha, 2009). The implementation of Lesson Study included various steps by different
researchers: Lewis (2002) specified four steps, Fernandez & Yoshida (2004) specified six steps, whereas Stigler
& Hiebert (1999) specified eight steps. The number of steps of Lesson Study differed, but there was the same
goal of working together based on the Lesson Study process. It might be said that the Japanese teachers had
simple steps including collaboration in Learning Management Planning, the use of Planning and classroom
observation together, and reflection together after classroom observations (Inprasitha et. al., 2007, Isoda 2010,
Yoshida, 2008). Thailand implemented this Lesson Study and Open Approach in Thai school culture with a
unique way of adapting Japanese professional development (Inprasitha, 2012) by the Center for Research in
Mathematics Education, Khon Kaen University by adjusting the steps of Lesson Study Process into three phases:
Phase 1: Collaboratively design research lesson, Phase 2: Collaboratively observing the research lesson, and
Phase 3: Collaboratively reflecting on teaching practice. It was a weekly activity throughout a school year and
was developed aligned with the Open Approach as a teaching method and included four steps: 1) Posing open-
ended problems, 2) Student’s self-learning through problem solving, 3) Whole class discussion and comparison,
and 4) Summarization through students’ mathematical idea association occurring in the whole class (Inprasitha,
2010).
In Thailand, the student interns participated in Lesson Study in 2008 by working with teachers as a school
teacher as well as a member of Lesson Study Team based on Inprasitha’s (2010) approach. It was a weekly
activity throughout a school year. In 2009, there were schools using the Lesson Study under the Center for
Research in Mathematics Education in many areas of Thailand. The student interns who administered the Lesson
Study and Open Approach as an instrument in teaching practice in school were in those areas to teach and work
with in-service teachers. In-service teachers consisted both of those who understood the innovation and those
who didn’t experience the training or understand it. They had to work together under the umbrella of Lesson
Study.
Collaboration between teachers and student interns supported the existence of these two innovations. Owing
to different contexts, working habits of each student intern, and teacher, which could lead to various guidelines
for working together, adjusting the working style based on the Lesson Study Process in order to survive in that
context. In real practice, it wasn’t easy, for those persons had to work on the process regularly. There were
problems since they couldn’t practice their work according to the Lesson Study every week. The researcher
viewed that it was necessary to study the approach in working together between teachers and student interns who
used the Lesson Study and Open Approach in existing conditions, in order to see the picture in practice as a
guideline of teacher development in the future.
2. Research Methodology
This qualitative case study research aimed to study the collaborative working of the first grade’ Lesson Study
team from Kookham Pittayasan school. The target group was the first grade’ Lesson Study team from Kookham
Pittayasan school, which included two inservice teachers and one student intern from the major field of
mathematics education, Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University during the 2011 school year. The data was
gathered in three way, 1) Questionnaire with inservice teachers and student intern, 2) Participatory observation
and video recording following Lesson Study activity for one month and 3) Interviewing with inservice teachers
and student intern. Data were analyzed by protocol analysis and analytic description based on the process of
Inprasitha’s Lesson Study (2010) including three phases of implementation under the following model:
30 Weerasuk Kanauan and Narumol Inprasitha / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 28 – 32
Posing open-ended Students’ self

problem learning through
problem solving
Whole class
Summarization through discussion and
connecting students’ comparison
Collaboratively mathematical ideas
designing emerged in the classroom
research lesson Open Approach
Collaboratively Collaboratively
reflecting on observing the
teaching practice research lesson
Lesson Study Weekly Cycle
Figure 1. Model of Lesson Study cycle and Open Approach for analysis of
Collaboration between inservice teachers and student interns
(adapted from Inprasitha, 2010)
3. Context
Kookham Pittayasan school has implemented Lesson Study since 2006 and was a pilot school of the project of
Mathematics Teaching Professional Development by Lesson Study and Open Approach based on Center for
Research in Mathematics Education, Khon Kaen University. The school adapted Lesson Study throughout the
whole school based on Inprasitha (2010) that was weekly activity. This research focus on The first grade’ Lesson
Study team that developed lesson plans with Open Approach ongoing. Lesson Study has currently operated
continuously for 6 years. 2008 was the first year in which student interns participated in Lesson Study by
working with inservice teachers as a school teacher as well as a member of Lesson Study team based on
Inprasitha’s approach (2010). It was a weekly activity throughout a school year and used Open Approach with
whole first grade’ mathematics curriculum. They have lesson plan to improve next year. Student interns, which
worked together with inservice teachers in school, used Lesson Study for one academic year (eight months in two
semesters).
4. Research Result
4.1 Collaboratively designing research lesson
The time for collaborative designed research lesson was officially set by the school for every Tuesday at
03:30 p.m. - 06:00 p.m. but implementation of first grade’ Lesson Study team spent more of their time than that
alloteed at school practice; 1) The time is officially set by the school 2) unofficial time (immediately after
teaching practice and after school each day). The research lessons have been used by the same group of inservice
teachers and groups of student interns in the last six years. This year, student interns revised these research
lessons and brought them to discuss with inservice teachers. The student intern played an important role in
Weerasuk Kanauan and Narumol Inprasitha / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 28 – 32 31
determining the sequence of activities more than the teacher. The inservice teachers played a major role in
determining the key words, giving information in conjecturing students’ ideas and ways of solving problems as
well as outcome, as compared to the former school year in order to be major information in determining the
sequence of activities, and open-ended problem situation. They made shared decision making the issues of
activity sequence in teaching practice.
4.2 Collaboratively observing the research lesson
When the student intern organized teaching by four steps of Open Approach based on specified lesson plan,
the inservice teachers was a observer by observing and recording based on their classroom observations in the
previous years, inservice teachers took their roles in observing and take notes students’ ideas, way of solving,
effectiveness of problem situations and materials, in order to bring forth discussion in the third phase. Then, the
in-service teachers helped the student intern in classroom by facilitating the students in managing the materials,
equipment, and site such as handing out equipment for performing activity to the classroom students.
4.3 Collaboratively reflecting on teaching practice
The time for collaborative designed research lesson is officially set by the school on every Thursday at
03:00 p.m. – 06:00 p.m. But thier implemented 2 steps of reflections were a) immediately after the classes, they
discuss student’ ideas and how to improve in next teaching. b) At the end of the week, all teachers in school have
weekly reflections together. The student intern as a teacher reflected before inservice teachers as an observer. It
found that the student intern reflected on occurring things by reflecting the outcome of lesson plan with details in
steps of teaching, weak points of activity, existing problems, the students’ ideas and way of solving. Whereas
the inservice teachers provided additional reflection in the classroom students’ ideas more than the student intern
in order to utilize in developing the learning process management further.
5. Discussions
The context of working based on process of Lesson Study, was the area in which both of teacher and school
student intern could learn through collaborative working. The student intern learned knowledge from theories in
her field of study whereas the teacher obtained knowledge from participation in training. The important thing
was that: the inservice teacher had experience from practicing. When both of them worked together, they could
share knowledge and experience with each other. According to this context, this teacher’s development model
could be used for developing both of inservice teachers, and student intern who would be an inservice teacher in
the educational system in the future. The research findings support the way inservice teacher and student intern
can work collaboratively, rather than inservice teachers just supervise student intern. It was supported by
Yoshida’s (2008) statement as: Lesson Study prepared working experience which was more than teacher’s work
development. The structure and collaborative work according to Lesson Study Process, could create system in
transferring all experience for developing the new teacher.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Higher Education Research Promotion and National Research University
Project of Thailand, Office of the Higher Education Commission, through the Cluster of Research to Enhance the
Quality of Basic Education. I would like to thank Center for Research in Mathematics Education, Khon Kaen
University, Thailand for supporting by grant fund for this research.
32 Weerasuk Kanauan and Narumol Inprasitha / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 28 – 32
References
Baba, T. (2007). “How is Lesson Study Implemented?”. Japanese Lesson Study in Mathematics: Its Impact, Diversity and Potential for
Educational Improvement. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing.
Fernandez, C. & Yoshida, M. (2004). Lesson Study: A Japanese approach to improving mathematic teaching and learning. New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associate.
Gellert, U. (2008). Routines and collective orientations in mathematics teachers’ professional development. Educational Studies in
Mathematics, 67, 93-110.
Inprasitha, N. (2009). Lesson Study: An Innovation for Teacher and Student. Doctoral Dissertation in Curriculum and Instruction, Graduate
School, Khon Kaen University.
Inprasitha, M. (2012). How to transfer Lesson Study to outside Japan: A decade of Thailand experience. Proceedings of 12th International
Congress on Mathematical Education (ICME12), Seoul, Korea.
Inprasitha, M. (2010). One Feature of Adaptive Lesson Study in Thailand: Designing Learning Unit. Proceedings of the 45 National Meeting
of Mathematics Education, 193-206. Gyeongju: Dongkook University.
Inprasitha, M., Pattanajak, A. & Tesarin, P. (2007). Context Preparation for Application in Japanese Teaching Professional
Development called “Lesson Study,” in Thailand. Proceedings of The First National Academic Conference in Japanese Study Network.
Bangkok: Sangseau Co. Ltd.
Isoda, M. (2010). Lesson Study: Problem Solving Approaches in Mathematics Education as a Japanese Experience. Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 8, 17-27.
Lewis, C. (2002). Lesson Study: A Handbook of Teacher-Led Instructional Change. Philadelphia, PA: Research for Better Schools, Inc.
Stigler, J.W.& Hiebert, J. (1999). The Teaching Gap: Best Ideas from the World’s Teacher for Improving Education in the Classroom. New
York: The Free Press.
Wang-Iverson, P. (2005). What Makes Lesson Study Unique?. Building Our Understanding of Lesson Study. Philadelphia: Research for
Better schools, 15-20.
Yoshida, M. (2008). Exploring Ideas for a Mathematics Teacher Educator’s Contribution to Lesson Study. The International Handbook of
Mathematics Teacher Education vol. 2 Tools and Processes in Mathematics Teacher Education, Sense Publisher, 8-15.
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference on Educational Sciences WCES-2013
Collaborative Action Professional Development of School

Principals
Somprach Kanokorn a *, Popoonsak Pongtorn b, Tang Keow Ngang c
a
Department of Educational Administration, Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen and 40002, Thailand
b
Rajabhat Maha Sarakam University, Maha Sarakam and 44000, Thailand
c
School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden and 11800, Malaysia
Abstract
The professional development of school principals is not only crucial to the reform agenda but also a matter of national concern
and part of the strategic plan of the Thailand Ministry of Education. Therefore policy educational institutions and related
organizations are required to form strong collaborative teams within schools in order to widely develop schools and community
networking. The aim of this study is to investigate collaborative action for the professional development of school principals.
This collaborative action involves three parties composed of universities, the Office of Educational Service Area and its schools
and communities. The timeframe of this study was two years and included four phases. The first phase consisted of a contextual
study and model construction, followed by the model verification in the second phase. The third phase involved the development
of programme assessment tools and preparation of supplementary learning documents. Finally, an evaluation of the implemented
programme was carried out in the last phase. Results revealed that the majority of school principals are satisfied with the training
and learning process. Hence they have improved their knowledge skills and competencies in management. Consequently, they
developed quality projects for their schools by using action research, strategic planning and instructional leadership. In
conclusion, an effective model of collaborative action is multi-dimensional involving needs assessment, goal setting,
empowerment, self-study, intensive seminars, action research and programme evaluation.
Keywords: Professional development, school principal, collaborative action;
1. Introduction
Globalization has brought with it an intense interest in education quality overall. It is strongly believed that
empowering schools would lead to better administration and higher student achievement (Keawdeang, 2003;
Somprach, 2003; Ruenchareon, 2005). In respect of this, the professional development of school principals is vital
because leadership has a direct impact on learners and plays a central role in developing the quality of students
(Whitaker, 1993; Kinney, 2008; Yan & Ehrich, 2009). Therefore principals are expected to be leaders and managers
* Corresponding Author: Kanokorn Somprach. Tel.: ++66-881166995

E-mail address: kanoklin@kku.ac.th
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.171
78 Somprach Kanokorn et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 77 – 81
who are visionary, provide guidelines, make strategic plans and decisions, resolve problems, develop teachers and
generally oversee every aspect of the school’s functioning (Butler, 2008; Moller, 2009).
2. Research objectives
The main aim of this study is to develop a framework for the professional development of school principals. The
following are the objectives of the study:
• To study different methods for achieving the professional development of school principals at the Office of
Educational Service Area.
• To develop the collaboration necessary for the professional development of school principals.
• To study the outcomes of the model for school principals' professional development.
3. Methodology
This study was conducted in four phases in order to build a model in which personal initiative and networking
make substantial contributions to the renewal ongoing education and development of principals. The four phases
included contextual study and model construction, verification of the model, development of performance and
programme assessment tools, and implementation and evaluation of the programme.
3.1. Contextual study and model construction
The first phase generally covered the study of concepts, theories, contexts, and policies and practices in order to
develop and outline the collaboration pattern of the professional development of school principals. Below are the
details:
• To study concepts, theories and review of related literature in the professional development of school
principals.
• To study the self-development of outstanding school principals.
• To interview three experts from the Ministry of Education, leading Thai universities and the Educational
Administrator Development Institute, specifically on the topic of collaboration and the professional development of
school principals.
• To analyse and synthesize concepts and related information for developing a process or a model of the
professional development of school principals.
3.2. Verification of the model
The second phase dealt with connoisseurship - to interview experts on an appropriate model. Below is the
procedure followed in the second phase.
• To identify the qualifications of experts and recruit 17 experts.
• To plan seminars, determine related issues, prepare documentation, set appropriate times and make
appointments to meet the experts.
• To establish a suitable model of development according to the research plan.
• To improve the components and activities of the model of development according to the experts'
suggestions.
Somprach Kanokorn et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 77 – 81 79
3.3. Development of performance and programme assessment tools
This phase mainly prepared supplementary learning documentation that dealt with the performance instruments and
programme assessment tools.
3.4. Implementation and evaluation of programme
The two groups of principals, 29 and 36 respectively, from the Office of Educational Service Area, Khon Kaen
province, Thailand who were involved in this phase, mainly study how the professional development of school
principals is put into action. This phase required coordination between the Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen
University specifically, the Office of Educational Service Area and those schools under their supervision.
4. Results
4.1. Requirement and restrictions of professional development
The results of the researchers’ investigation, which included a 'ten questions survey', indicated that effective
professional development for school principals was based on professional knowledge and a professional mindset. In
addition, principals valued the knowledge they obtained through networking with other principals and considered
professional development as a means of career development. This professional mindset influenced their commitment
to staff and students, a positive and person-cantered attitude, and life-long learning.
The results revealed that factors hindering principals' professional development are a lack of understanding of
contemporary views of administration and management, inadequate knowledge of research skills specifically on
school-based research, heavy workloads that reduced opportunities to do academic work, scarcity of consultants or
experts, uneven distribution of resources across the region, lack of exposure to good models and practices, and lack
of self-confidence.
4.2. Professional knowledge
Findings indicated that in order to promote professional knowledge, professional development consisted of the
following elements.
4.2.1. Self-study
A variety of text material was made available and found to be useful for reinforcing the existing knowledge of
principals and as a means of introducing new concepts of leadership.
4.2.2. Intensive seminar

This intensive seminar was conducted over seven days by senior educational administrators, Faculty of
Education staff and some school principals. A large amount of content focused on case studies.
4.2.3. Internship
Each principal was required to study a school that is identified as a best practice school and write a case study of
the school.
4.2.4. Improvement project

Principals were required to design a project to be implemented in their own schools. The project could be either
a practical development or formal research project.
4.2.5. Project implementation

Finally, principals implemented their proposal which took place over a period of four to six months.
80 Somprach Kanokorn et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 77 – 81
4.3. Professional mindset
This is a complex problem because a mindset is a constructed variable and is open to multiple interpretations. By
applying a process approach emphasis was placed on empowerment, networking, personal initiative and team work.
As authority and status are closely connected in Thai culture many principals do not see themselves as an integral
part of the system. Researchers did their best to develop a collaborative and empowering environment and in
particular they were concerned with developing a mutual understanding between the principals because this would
contribute to empowerment. However, it proved to be difficult for some of the principals to move away from
authority and status to a more democratic style of interaction.
Researchers believed that it is cost effective to immerse principals in a supportive environment and allow them
to support and learn from each other. The purpose of professional development at this point in Thailand's transition
is to empower principals to lead their schools through empowering teachers by complementing traditional thinking
with the development of a knowledge economy.
4.4. Model of professional development
Based on the findings above, Figure 1 summarizes the framework for principals' professional development.
Context
Concept of
Collaboration Knowledgeable person
and Networking R: Reconnaissance & setting goal
E: Empowerment Individual competencies
Adult learning & S: Self study
Self efficacy I : Intensive seminar High performing
P: (Good) Practice schools
Change P: Project approach
Management & A: Action research
Knowledge E: Evaluation
management
Professional
development & Collaborative action
Assessment
Figure 1. Framework of professional development
5. Discussion
The current content of professional development is determined by external authorities and consists of an expert
lecturing style which serves to reinforce Thai social and professional culture. If principals really are to be change
agents, they need to be committed to the school as the learners' community (Mullen & Hutinger, 2008). However,
this is unlikely to happen with a simple top-down process.
This study found that the feeling of being in a supportive environment is fundamental to the participation and
commitment of the principals. In a supportive environment, principals will actively participate in their own
professional development. The results were not all that the researchers had hoped, but they were encouraged through
the collaboration that they experienced.
Somprach Kanokorn et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 77 – 81 81
The final model that was developed as part of this study consists of eight steps summarized using a mnemonic
device: RESIPPAE, where R represents reconnaissance and goal setting, E empowering, S self-study, I intensive
seminar, P (best) practice or internship, P project, A action research or research and development, and E evaluation.
These steps are consistent with the work of Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989), Daresh and Playko (1992), Bates
(1994), Robinson (1994), Charoenwongsak (2000), and Somprach (2003).
Acknowledgements
This project was made possible with funding from the National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT),
Thailand.
References
Bates, R. (1994). Critical theory of educational administration. In C. Evers & J. Chapman (Eds.), Educational administration: An Australian
perspective. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Butler, K. (2008). Principal preparation programmes. District Administration, 44(20), 66-68.
Charoenwongsak, K. (2000). Networking. Bangkok: Success Media Press, Thailand.
Daresh, J.C., & Playko, M.A. (1992). The professional development of school administrators. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Keawdeang, R. (2003). The school as a legal entity (2nd ed.). Bangkok: Thaiwattana Press, Thailand.
Kinney, P. (2008). Developing leadership skills. Principal Leadership, 9(4), 60-61.
Moller, J. (2009). School leadership in an age of accountability: Tensions between managerial and professional accountability. Journal of
Educational Change, 10(1), 37-46.
Mullen, C., & Hutinger, J.L. (2008). The principal's role in fostering collaborative learning communities through faculty study group
development. Theory into practice, 47(4), 276-285.
Robinson, H.A. (1994). The ethnography of empowerment: The transformative power of classroom interaction. London: The Falmer Press.
Ruenchareon, T. (2005). Becoming professional school principals. Bangkok: Khawfang Press, Thailand.
Somprach, K. (2003). Educational leadership. Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
Sparks, P., & Loucks-Horsley, S. (1989). Five models of staff development for teachers. Journal of Staff Development, 10(4), 40-57.
Whitaker, P. (1993). Managing change in schools. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Yan, W., & Enrich, L.C. (2009). Principal preparation and training: A look at China and its issues. International Journal of Educational
Management, 23(1), 51-64.
ScienceDirect
Collective Work of Novice Teachers in Changing Teaching

Practices
Tang Keow Ngang a *,

b, Apipalakul Chanya c
a
School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang and 11800, Malaysia
!!#
!""
c
Department of Public Health Administration, Faculty of Public Health, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen and 40002, Thailand
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the problems faced by the novice teachers and the effect of novice teachers' collective
work on their teaching practices. A total of 10 novice teachers from six secondary schools was selected from three states in
Malaysia. Generally novice teachers faced various problems in their teaching practices as well as their involvement in collective
work. Consequently to what extent the actual need gained by the novice teachers from collective work was a crucial aspect. Since
majority of novice teachers were lacking of social skills, this study aimed to explore how they collaborated effectively with other
teachers under school context. A set of structured interview questions was used as an instrument. The findings revealed that
novice teachers involved in a wide range of collective work such as curriculum, extra-curricular, school events, courses and inter-
school activities, specifically in their subject area. Results also indicated that most of the novice teachers were comfortable to
participate in collective work either voluntary or compulsory. Classroom management was an important criteria in determining
good teaching practices. Discussions and formal interactions with colleagues were the best collective work that helped to
overcome the problems and embraced their teaching practices.
Selection
Authors. under
Dr.BY-NC-ND
Servet Bayram
license.
Keywords: Collective work, novice teachers, teaching practices;
1. Introduction
The role of a teacher in this modern, globalised and materialistic age is increasing complex and challenging.
Teachers who work closely on matters of curriculum, pedagogy within subjects and instruction find themselves
better equipped for actual situation of classroom tasks. Therefore, collective work plays an important role in the
success of effective teaching and learning (Tomlinson, 2004). According to Pederson and Yager & Yager (2010),
becoming a highly qualified teacher in today's educational system is depending on how well teachers work together
with their principals and colleagues. Through collective work, teachers explore the potential to practice more
effective decision making as a skill for supporting acquisition of additional professional knowledge and skills.
Teachers usually work in organizations such as schools which are inherently collective (Grangeat & Gray, 2007;
Alexander, 1984). Meaningful and extensive collective work is taking place in schools regardless the size, type and
* Corresponding Author :Tang Keow Ngang. Tel.: +6-017-539-6315

E-mail address: tang@usm.my
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.254
Tang Keow Ngang et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 536 – 540 537
location. Each teacher values the insight, problem sharing, analysis and action planning offered by their colleagues
(Rogers, 2004). Thus teachers' collective work is always important to maintain and secure high quality teaching,
effective use of resources and improve the standards of learning as well as achievement. In addition, school
reformation depends on teachers who are dedicated, committed and accountable for students' progress.
Many novice teachers enter the profession with ideals, high expectations and a determination to be effective
teachers of their students' learning (Roffey & Rogers, 2004). However the first year of teaching is especially
stressful as novice teachers face the emotional challenges of adapting to a new workplace and colleagues
(Stansburry & Zimmerman, 2000; Roffey & Rogers, 2004). Therefore experienced teachers can be a great source of
strength to share beneficially and constructively suggestions that help to develop a sense of self-efficacy and self-
confidence among the novice teachers in their teaching practices. A collaborative school culture among the teachers
would support novice teachers to draw upon knowledge of subject matter, curriculum, learners, educational context,
pedagogical content and general pedagogical knowledge as they work to ensure that there would be an improvement
on students' achievement.
2. Problem statement
Many if not all teachers experienced classroom control problems, particularly at the initial stage of their teaching
career (Charles & Senter, 2008; Dean, 2005; Noor Mala, 1998). Despite efforts to help novice teachers to succeed,
many still experienced problems, ranged from feelings of isolation to lacking of support from experienced teachers
and supervisors (Lunenburg, 2011). Collective work or collegiality breaks the isolation of the classroom and brings
career rewards and daily satisfactions. Unfortunately in actual school situation, most teachers especially novice
teachers work out of sight and sound of one another, plan and prepare their lessons and teaching materials
individually (Inger, 1993; Marshall, 2009). Novice teachers have to struggle on their own to solve their instructional,
curricular and classroom management problems (Inger, 1993).
Novice teachers need to face a myriad of challenges in their workplace, this including an increasingly diverse
student population and lack of support or mentoring (Hover, Stephannie, Yeager & Anne, 2004). To deal with a
culturally diverse student population is a working condition that can add to the work pressure and workload of
novice teachers. Under Malaysia context as a multicultural society, novice teachers are lacking of sociable skills and
interactions with colleagues. Therefore researchers wonder whether novice teachers can collaborate effectively with
other teachers within the school culture that led to the desire of the researchers to look into it in-depth.
Effective teaching practices can be a daunting experience for novice teachers such as how to make the most
productive use of resources and create a positive learning environment for every student in the classroom (Dean,
2005). The most critical problems that encounter in teaching practices by novice teachers are adapting themselves in
the real situation, managing students from different background and language deficit of students (Bartell, 2005).
Hence researchers would like to explore whether the existing collective work occurring in school will be able to
assist the novice teachers to overcome the problems.
Novice teachers are instantly bombarded with various problems and situations that they have not anticipated such
as adapting oneself in the real situation, encounter problems in handling different background of students and did
not acquire sociable techniques in dealing with their colleagues. It is indeed a great challenge for novice teachers to
deliver quality teaching which promotes effective learning to ensure that the teaching practices that have been done
in the classroom is relevant to individual educational needs. A mechanism to support novice teachers is needed to
assist them to work collaboratively in an integrated culture.
3. Objectives of the study
The aim of this study is to examine novice teachers' collective work and its implication in their teaching
practices.
(a) To identify the involvement of novice teachers in their collective work.
(b) To investigate the actual need gained of collective work among the novice teachers.
538 Tang Keow Ngang et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 536 – 540
(c) To explore the problems faced by novice teachers in their teaching practices.
(d) To examine the implications of novice teachers' collective work in their teaching practices.
4. Methodology of the study
A qualitative design is chosen in this study to gather in-depth understanding of respondents' perspective
(Creswell & Clark, 2007). This study is carried out in three states in the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia,
namely Kedah, Penang and Perak state. By using purposive sampling, a total of six secondary school (two from each
state) is selected. There are 10 novice teachers who have less than two years of teaching experiences after
graduation from university or teaching training institutions with approximately equal number of respondents from
each state (3-3-4) are the study respondents.
Interview questions is a single type of instrument utilized in this study to collect data. An interview is the most
prominent data collection tool in qualitative method as it is a very good way of accessing people's perception,
definition of situation and construction of reality (Punch, 2009). This instrument is adopted from an intact
instrument developed by Tang (2011). Appropriate permission for using this instrument has been obtained. This
instrument comprised of 10 questions, other than collecting the personal background of novice teachers, the major
concern is to examine problems faced by them in their teaching practices, the need gained of collective work and its
implications of collective work to enhance their teaching practices.
A pilot study was carried out to check on the validity and reliability of the instrument. A panel of three lecturers
from a teaching training institutions in Penang state who obtained doctorate qualification and have more than 10
years of teaching experiences help to validate the instrument. On top of that, researchers also carried out the
reliability test upon nine novice teachers from the three states respectively who would be excluded from the actual
study.
The actual study is carried out on one-to-one basis interview and made up of 30 to 50 minutes. Firstly,
researchers would create a conducive atmosphere and develop rapport (Lichtman, 2006) to motivate the respondents
to communicate freely and willingly. No voice recording is taken to ensure respondents feel safe to talk and express
opinion. Researchers need to take note the major points made in order to capture respondent's actual words
(Puvenesvary et al., 2008). Additional techniques such as probing of personal opinions and values are used to elicit
rich information. Mixed mode of two languages either in English or Malay prior to respondent's convenience and
literacy level. Content analysis is used to analyze data.
5. Results
The results addressed five key aspects consist of novice teachers' involvement in collective work activities,
problems faced and assistance gained by novice teachers and implications of collective work in their teaching
practices. Results revealed that novice teachers participated in various aspects of collective work in schools
including curriculum, extra-curricular and interschool activities. In addition, they involved directly in their core area
tasks like being subject panel, majority as ordinary members, some as committees and only one exceptional case as
the panel chairman. Nine out of the 10 respondents have attended courses organized by the state educational
department, district educational office or in-service courses at school level. Likewise formal and informal
discussions with colleagues while preparing assessment and teaching aids are the other ongoing curriculum activities
indicated by the respondents. Besides, respondents also involved in various extra-curricular activities such as sports
and games, clubs and uniform units. School events like cross country competition, speech day, Parent and Teacher
Association annual meeting, staff meeting, sport day and also inclusive in their collective tasks.
Respondents indicated that they participated in collective work either vertically or mixed of vertically and
horizontally. Only three respondents responded that they have to get involved in collective work which is
compulsory whereas the rest of them can accept any task assigned to them either compulsory or voluntary.
All the respondents indicated that they are experiencing different problems in their teaching practices. However,
the most critical problem that they dread of is the classroom management, specifically while handling students from
Tang Keow Ngang et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 536 – 540 539
weak classes. Communication and student motivation are another problems faced by novice teachers to understand
students with different ethnic and background. There are seven respondents who confronted problems while
implementing effective strategies in their teaching practices. Four out of the 10 respondents are having difficulty
with their content knowledge especially when they are assigned to teach the subjects which are not their option
during their pre-service training.
All respondents gained support and assistance from experienced teachers and administrators through their
guidance and discussion ranged from sharing of ideas, effective strategies used in teaching as well as marking
scheme. However, only one respondent obtained guidance through observing other teachers teaching. Undoubtedly,
all the novice teachers considered effective classroom management is the key to assist them in their teaching
practices. Additionally, eight of them felt that active participation of students play a vital role whereas seven of them
revealed that effective communication and teaching strategies to achieve learning objectives is equally important in
good teaching practices.
The results of this study revealed that discussion and informal interactions with colleagues helped them to
overcome their problems and thus enhance their teaching practices. Furthermore, improving classroom management,
motivating and enhancing communications with students, applying creative and effective strategies are several ways
suggested by the respondents to make students more concentrated in their studies. In conclusion, collective work
helps novice teachers to develop their confidence in their teaching career.
6. Discussion
The nature of collective work of teaching is more than an individual task performed in isolation. Typically,
novice teachers are assigned to handle various aspects of work tasks in school either voluntary or compulsory. This
is coherent with Grangeat & Gray's concept (2007), collective work exists in different dimensions, functions and
modes as well as always overlapping each other. As novice teachers are still lack of experience in the real world of
teaching, they may face problems during the first few years of teaching. Thus support and assistance gained from
experienced teachers would enable novice teachers to develop capacity for critical self-reflection on teaching
practices (Stansbury & Zimmerman, 2000).
Finding showed that classroom management is the most critical problem in teaching practices is paralleled with
the past researchers' findings like Charles & Senter (2008), Burden & Bryd (2007), Rogers (2004) and Noor Mala
(1998). Problems related to lacking of knowledge in communications with students and students' motivation found
to be in line with the results of past researchers who indicated that novice teachers are lacking of understanding on
students' culture and interests (Mutton, Hagger & Burn, 2011), students' self-motivation (Charles & Senter, 2008;
Burden & Bryd, 2007).
Results from this study highlighted that novice teachers are able to overcome many problems faced in their
teaching practices by participating in collective work added with support gained from experienced teachers and
administrators encompassed managing classroom, applying effective teaching strategies and building up
constructive communications with students. This finding reinforced the Work Process Knowledge Model by
Boreham, Samurcay & Fischer (2002) which emphasizes creating and sharing knowledge need teamwork and
collaboration to promote corporate effectiveness and professional knowledge.
7. Conclusion
Different dimensions, functions and modes of collective work takes place and overlaps in schools. Various
problems faced by novice teachers is an undeniable fact. Thus the overall aim of collective work is to build novice
teachers autonomous ability to prioritize the challenging aspects of teaching. Though a mechanism of collective
work which emphasizes on novice teachers gain input in the process of participation in collective work which in
return produce output of better quality that consequently helps to enhance effective teaching practices manageably
made the effort worthwhile.
540 Tang Keow Ngang et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 536 – 540
Acknowledgements
This project was made possible with funding from Research Creativity and Management Office, Universit Sains
Malaysia, Malaysia.
References
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Teachers of Mathematics, Inc.
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Burden, P.R. & Byrd, D.M. (2007). Methods of effective teaching: Promoting K-12 student understanding (4th ed.). USA: Pearson Education,
Inc.
Charles, C.M. & Senter, G.W. (2008). Building class discipline (9th ed.) USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Creswell, J.W. & Clark, V.P. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: SAGE
Publications.
Dean, J. (2005). The effective primary school classroom: The essential guide for new teachers. New York: Routledge Falmer.
Grangeat, M. & Gray, P. (2007). Teachers' collective work: Theory and research in France and UK. Paper presented at BERA 2007, Institute of
Education, London.
Hover, V., Stephannie, D., Yeager, Anne, E. (2004). Challenges facing beginning history teachers: An exploratory study. International Journal of
Social Education EJ718724.
Inger, M. (1993). Teacher collaboration in secondary schools. National Center for Research in Vocational Education: University of California at
Berkeley. Retrieved May 16, 2011 from http://rocserve,berkeley.edu/centerfocus/sf2.html.
Lichtman, M. (2006). Qualitative research in education: a user's guide. United Kingdom: SAGE Publication, Inc.
Lunenburg, C. (2011). Orientation and induction of the beginning teacher. Sam Houston State University: National Forum of Education
Administration and Supervision Journal, 28(4). Retrieved August 31, 2011 from
http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Lunenburg
Marshall, K. (2009). Rethinking teacher supervision and evaluation: How to work smart, build collaboration, and close the achievement gap. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass A Wiley Imprint.
Mutton, T., Hagger, H. & Burn, K. (2011). Learning to plan, planning to learn: The developing expertise of beginning teachers. The Journal of
the International Study Association for Teachers and Teaching, 17(4), 399-416.
Noor Mala M. Yunus. (1998). Perceived problems of beginning teachers: A study among beginning teachers in Kuala Terengganu District.
Unpublished Master degree project paper. International Islamic University Malaysia: Management Center.
Pederson, J., Yager, S. & Yager, Y.E. (2010). Distributed leadership influence on professional development initiations: conversations with eight
teachers, Vol.8, Issue Summer 2010.
Punch, K.F. (2009). Introduction to research methods in education. Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, Washington: SAGE
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Puvenesvary, M., Radzih, A.R., R. Sivabala, N., Mastura, B., Noor Fadhilah, M.N. & Noor Hashim A.A. (2008). Qualitative research: Data
collection & data analysis techniques. Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia Press.
Roffey, S. & Rogers, B. (2004). The new teacher's survival guide to behaviour. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Rogers, D.L. (2004). How to manage children's challenge behaviour. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Stansburry, K. & Zimmerman, J. (2000). Lifelines to the classroom: Designing support for beginning teachers. WestEd: Improving education
through research, development and service. Retrieved Mac 11, 2011 from http://www.wested.org/online-pubs/tchrbrief.pdf.
Tang, K.N. (2011). Teaching as collective work: Relationship to changing in teaching practices. Universiti Sains Malaysia Research Grant
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Tomlinson, H. (2004). Educational leadership: Personal growth for professional development. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: SAGE
Publication.
ScienceDirect
5thWorld Conference Educational Sciences 2013 - WCES 2013
Compares the Degree of Hardiness and Public Health Between Iranian and
English Women University Students.
Arezoo tarimoradi
Arezoo tarimoradi, Department of psychology Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University (IAU), Alborz, Iran
Abstract
This study compares the degree of hardiness and public health between Iranian and English women university
students. The study comprises 60 women plus 30 persons in each group. The evaluating criteria include the health
questionnaire of Goldberg and a 50- questions questionnaire of Kubasa which fulfilled between women students in
Newcastle and karaj Azad university in Iran. The hypothesis includes: Hardiness in English women is different with
Iranians'. Public health in each group is different. There is a relation between health and hardiness. The method of
analysis of data is the comparison of T- test median and the correlation. The following data been achieved based on
the three conclusions: The hardiness of English women is not higher than Iranian's and the difference is not logic.
Public health in English women is higher than Iranian's. There's no relation between hardiness and health and the
difference is not logic.

Hardiness, Public Health, Commitment, challenge
Selection and peer review under the responsibility of Prof. Dr. Servet Bayram
© 2013 The Authors.Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Nowadays, stress is one of the common phenomenons. It influences on everybody’s life. According to Sallie (1959),
stress is the flavor of our life and we cannot get out of that until we die. Arthur defines stress as a psychological
challenge which is created by kinds of forces and psychic or social pressures…This doesn’t mean that stress is
always negative and we must avoid it. Sallie claims that any demand from organism causes stress. People who are
resistant against psychic pressure, get involve in their job as well as social life more than others. Moreover, they can
control stressful life events better. Those who find change an opportunity for change; for instance, those who
consider job missing as an opportunity for finding a new job; they are likely to suffer psychic pressure less than
others. In this way, they can change events in their interest. Personal features of resistant people against psychic
pressures are summarized into three words: commitment, control and challenge (Atkinson, Boraheni, 1994). Modi
and Kobasa imply that those who can control and deal with stressful life events properly, they are health. Successful
people give a warm welcome to change and find it a movement toward creativity. On the other hand, the managers
who do not possess this feature consider it as a threat (Kuri, Gharachedaghi, 1999).
Corresponding Auhor: Arezoo Tarimoradi Tel: 32453454

E-mail: arezootarimoradi@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.175
102 Arezoo Tarimoradi / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 101 – 105
Public health has four features: somatic systems, anxiety, social dysfunction and depression. Since hardiness is a
feature of resistant people against stress and also it can influence in people’s public health to some extent, studying
these features (hardiness and public health) can help local and foreign women to enjoy life to the highest degree.
Statement of the problem
Healthy can be defined as balance of physical, mental and social activities. Through this systematic balance, human
being s control illness (Milanifar, 1999).
Somatic symptoms: Somatic symptoms include one’s own feeling of healthy and fatigue (Dadsetan, 1998).
Anxiety: In advance anxiety of danger or future disaster without any enjoyment or somatic symptoms are the
sources of danger and it can be either internal or external (Dadsetan, 1998).
Social dysfunction: One’s disability to control desires and daily life events as well as his/her feeling of how to deal
with stressful life events is called social dysfunction (CHRISTOPHER J.FERGUSON,PHD,JPHN
KILBURN,PHD,2008)
Depression: depression is one of the most prevalent mental disorders including several illness symptoms such as
sadness, low sprit, loss of interest, energy and appetite
Hardiness, one of the personality traits, is known as an effective factor in stressful situations. It has three features:
Commitment:
Those who have high commitment are usually hard working. They believe in importance and value of their job.
They are willing to deeply involved in life-from working to family and social relationship. They believe that all
daily activities lead to one general goal (Mindi D, Foster,Kenneth L.Dion,2004).
Control:
The performance of the people who have full control shows that they have an impact on stressful events they face
instead of being incapable of them. They insist on their responsibilities for life. They are able to act independently
(Naderi, 2001).
Challenge:
Challengers find changes normal not a threat. They give a warm welcome to change and consider it as an
opportunity for promotion. They have a flexible and free thought (Dimatteo, Mousavi Asl, 1999).
The present study is an attempt to investigate
• The relationship between public health and hardiness;

• The effect of environmental and cultural circumstances on public health and hardiness;
• The effect of society and society’s view of women on public health and hardiness;
• The effect of women’s physical condition on public health and hardiness.
Statement of research question:
1. Is the degree of hardiness in Englishwomen higher than that in Iranian women?

2. Is the degree of public health in Englishwomen higher than that in Iranian women?
3. Is there any significant relationship between public health and hardiness?
Statement of research hypothesis:
1. The degree of hardiness in Englishwomen is different from that in Iranian women.

2. The degree of public health in Englishwomen is different from that in Iranian women.
3. There is a significant relationship between public health and hardiness.
Arezoo Tarimoradi / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 101 – 105 103
2. Method
2.1 The participants of this study were 60 English and Iranian women. The participants were selected randomly.
The range of students’ age was 18 to 30 years.
Instrumentation:
In order to collect data, two questionnaires of Kubasa and Goldberg were used. Participants took an individual view
test designed by Kubasa composed of 50 multiple choice items. The test covers three parts of challenge,
commitment and control consisting 17, 16 and 17 questions.
The public health test designed by Goldberg composed of 28 items. The test covers anxiety, somatic symptoms,
social dysfunction and depression.
The tests were validated and their reliabilities were estimated through Krunbakh formula. Commitment, control,
challenge and correlation with other questionnaires were calculated based on Kili Vagil’s study. These amounts are
described as below:
Commitment: 95%
Control: 94%
Challenge: 91%
Correlation with other questionnaire: 89%
Human (1997) calculated public health in GHQ-28 questionnaire:
Correlation coefficient in GHQ-28 was estimated from 65% to 71%.
Correlation coefficient in two questionnaires was estimated 82%.
According to obtained data by the researcher, reliability and validity in hardiness test were 77% and 87%. The
amounts in public health test were 79% and 80%.
Statistical analysis:
The mean of group A was compared with the mean of group B by submitting the two means to a t-test.
Table (1): comparison of the two means in hardiness test
Meaninglessness t Degree of Freedom Standard Deviation Mean No. Groups
0.315 -1.013 58 16.566 63.96 30 Iranian
-1.013 58 207.666 135.17 30 English
60 Sum
As it is shown in Table (1), the degree of hardiness in English women is different from that in Iranian women but
the degree of difference is meaningless (p>0.96). In other word, the degree of hardiness in English women is not
higher than that in Iranian women. Hence, the first hypothesis is rejected.
Table (2): comparison of the two means in public health test.
104 Arezoo Tarimoradi / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 101 – 105
Meaninglessness t Degree of Freedom Standard Deviation Mean No. Groups
0.000 -7.777 58 9.003 22.20 30 Iranian
-7.777 58 5.835 37.43 30 English
60 Sum
As it is shown in Table (2), the degree of public health in English women is different from that in Iranian women but
the degree of difference is meaningful p). In other word, the degree of public health in English women is higher than
that in Iranian women. Therefore, the third hypothesis is accepted.
Table (3): Correlation coefficient between the two variables
Meaninglessness Correlation coefficient No. Variables
0.635 63% 60 Public health
Hardiness
As it is shown in Table (5), the correlation between the two variables is meaningless.
4. Conclusion
Based on obtained data, the first and third hypotheses are rejected. Only the second one is accepted. Hence,
1. The degree of hardiness in English women is not higher than that in Iranian women but the degree of
difference is meaningless.
2. The degree of public health in English women is higher than that in Iranian women.
3. There is no relationship between hardiness and public health but the degree of difference is meaningless.
Limitation and Delimitation:
1. English students did not pay attention to some questions. So, some questions were answered carelessly.
2. The participants of this study were female students. Therefore, the results may not be generalized to others.
3. Since the questionnaire was not in original language and it was a translation copy, there may be
misconception. This issue can influence on answering the questions.
Suggestion for further research:
1. It is recommended that researchers investigate other sources in order to decrease stress and subsequently
increase health.
Some features such as self-esteem, efficiency, control, optimism will help people to be resistant against stressful
events. So, it is suggested that researchers consider the relationship between these features and hardiness and also
search other interrelat .
References
Atkinson. R. Hilgard. A, Translator: Baraheni and colleagues, (1994). Psychology Hypothesis. Roshd Publication,
vol 2, 6th Edition.
Arezoo Tarimoradi / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 101 – 105 105
Estoura (1998), Stress: Modern Disorder, Translator: Dadsetan, Parirokh. Samt Publication.
Behrouzi, N. (2000), the role of hardiness in stress reduction of managers, local and foreign researches review,
abstract of articles, Allame Tabatabayi University.
Dimatteo, M. Robin (1999), Psychology of health, Traslator: Mousavi,.Seyyed Mahdi & colleagues, Tehran, Samt
Publication.
Kurri, J. Kurri, M.A.(1999),Idont know have no choice. Translator: Gharachedaghi. Publisher: Peyke bahar, first
edition.
Milanifar, Behrouz (1999), mental healthcare, Tehran, Ghomes Publication
Mindi D.Foster and Kenneth L.Dion (2004), The Role Of Hardiness in Moderating the Relationship Between
Global\Specific Attributions and Actions Against Discrimination.
Naderi, Faride (2001) job satisfaction difference between hard-working and easygoing staffs, thesis, Islamic Azad
University of Karaj
Christopher j. Ferguson,Phd.John Kilburn,Phd(2008),The Public Health Risks Of Media Violence .The Journal of
Pediatrics.
ScienceDirect
Constructing CoRe as a Methodological for Capturing Pedagogical Content

Knowledge: A case study of Thailand Teachers Teaching Global Warming
Boonliang Chordnork a *, Chokchai Yuenyong b
a
b
Abstract
This paper presents on four primary science Thailand teachers case studies which was constructing the
content representation (CoRe). Their perspective and approach for constructing the CoRe could be interpreted to
show the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). This study determines how primary science teachers interpreted,
used and developed their understanding of teaching global warming. The finding elucidated that their developed
affluent understanding of their professional knowledge of teaching practice, class assignment and making
understanding content knowledge of global warming. As a consequence, their CoRe offered a meaningful way for
them to come to understand PCK and its influence on science teaching.
Selectionand/or
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Pedagogical content knowledge, Content representation, Global warming
1. Introduction
Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) was introduced to explain the identification of teaching knowledge. Lee
Shulman (1986) described the PCK as “missing paradigm” (Shulman, 1986, p. 7). 25 years ago, it appeared to be an
appealing construct to researchers, it is complexity and difficult to capturing and portraying. Also, it was shown
distinct teachings’ practice of each individual participant. (Baxter & Lederman, 1999; Van Driel et al., 1998;
Loughran et al., 2006). PCK, that special amalgam of content and pedagogy that is uniquely the province of
teachers, their own special form of professional understanding (Shulman, 1987, p.8). More simply, PCK is a
teachers’ knowledge how to teach subject matter knowledge in certain ways to particular students that helps the
students learning. PCK has become an approach of understanding the complex relationship between pedagogy and
content through an integrated process rooted in teaching practice (Van Driel et al., 1998). Recently, there is
developing and examining the PCK, it was captured and portrayed through two instruments: Content
Representation (CoRe); and, Pedagogical and Professional-experience Repertoires (PaP-eRs) which was devised by
Loughran et al. Essentially, CoRe is an approach and tool to articulation, portrayal, and capture of science teachers’
PCK. CoRe is representation of teachers’ PCK and a sophisticated way of exploring science teachers’ knowledge
about teaching specific content to particular students (Loughran et al., 2001; Kapyla et al., 2009; Hume & Berry,
2010). This paper report on a study which intend to describe in detail the PCK development of each individual
* Corresponding Author name. Boonliang Chordnork Tel.: +66-810-619-134

E-mail address: ychok@kku.ac.th.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.233
422 Boonliang Chordnork and Chokchai Yuenyong / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 421 – 425
participant. The following research question was central to the study: How primary science teachers interpreted,
used and developed their PCK through CoRe methodological of teaching the cause of global warming.
2. Method and Research Design

This section starts to describe about the participants in this inquiry and how they were selected. We then turn to
an account of research instrument used in this study to examine the primary science teachers’ PCK, and description
of the research procedure.
2.1. Participant and Instrument in this study
The primary science teachers who participated in this study (n=4) were in their first semester in 2011 to the first
semester in 2012. They came from different schools and were collected by opportunistic sampling. They
participated in work shop that is the development of science teaching approach to enhance students understanding.
The researcher described a content representation and explained the method for capturing teachers’ PCK. The
participants have constructing CoRe in the first time. They participated voluntarily. They have been taught general
science at Udon Thani Primary Education Service Area Office 1. Also, at least they graduated bachelor degree and
they have teaching experience in general science more than 20 years. Moreover, the most popular topic selected was
global warming.
A Core is provided for primary science teachers who will teach a topic like global warming. It look like a blank
template in table format across the top row, are the ‘Big Ideas’, which are mean to represent the major ideas and
concepts. Down the left hand column are the CoRe’s questions/prompts, which are to be answered for each ‘Big
Idea’. This inquiry has used questions from CoRe for pre and post interviews four primary science teachers. The
main issue of question is teaching practice of global warming.
2.2 Research design and Data collection

This paper was described in the project of the development science teaching approach to enhance students
understanding. There are forty primary science teachers in work shop. Four participants have included with the sixty
primary science teachers. Firstly, before started the work shop, the researcher described the CoRe design for all
participants and they were interviewed by CoRe questions in the first semester, 2011. Finding of interviewing is the
CoRe pre-test. Secondly, they have participated in the workshop about constructing content representation. The
work shop was conducted in early the first semester, 2012. The first day, there were five participants in each group,
so there were eight groups. Each group had constructed four Big ideas of the Global warming which based on their
freedom opinion and tried to write in to column A, B, C and D. Each group has chosen only Big idea to answer the
question of CoRe. Next, they presented their work and the other discussed about CoRe. The second day, the
participant constructed the Big ideas by themselves and answered the CoRe prompt. Each group has chosen a
participant to present in front of the room. Four primary science teachers who participated in this study present too.
Finally, after finished work shop, four primary science teachers constructed their CoRe post-test and they were
interviewed about how to construct PCK, that influenced teachers’ view about the development of science teaching.
2.3 Analysis of CoRe: Learning about teaching the cause of global warming
Data were collected by using questionnaires, interview and documentation, which were analyzed by combination
of documentary interpretation (Erickson, 1986) and content analysis (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Trustworthiness
was shown in terms of credibility and dependability. Credibility showed aspects of triangulation-multiple methods
to confirm the emerging findings, peer debriefing, and member checks-taking data. Dependability was shown in
triangulation and audit trial, which were described about data collection and analysis as well as the context of study.
3. Results
There are four primary science teachers who taught the cause a topic like global warming. Next section will
describe each participant in term of teachers’ background, goal and teaching practice, classroom assignment and
teacher and students’ understanding subject matter knowledge.
Boonliang Chordnork and Chokchai Yuenyong / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 421 – 425 423
3.1 Results of case study 1

3.3.1 Teachers’ background
Bol is a teacher, who was 54 years old. She graduated the master degree of science curriculum and she has 28
science teachers’ years. She has science teacher experience about global warming of grade 6 students. Also she
works another task in her school, such as inventories officer, classroom research, and insurance quality education.
Thailand’ teachers have worked more than teaching.
3.1.2 Goal and teaching practice
Ms Bol described the goal of teaching the case of global warming. Both CoRe – Pretest and CoRe- Posttest is
similarly. For example, she said: To enhance the students understanding the cause of global warming, which was
produced by human. If student finished learning, she believes the student can use in everyday life. In CoRe- pretest,
she uses formal teaching strategy. For instance, she said: using inquiry cycle: 5Es in science teaching, because
science teaching need follow step by step.
3.1.3 Classroom assignment
Ms Bol has worry about the learning environment and she said a reason: there are many students, who cannot
write the answer when she asked. Also, they like wrote the data from the text book to note book. There are many
students had problem of writing Thai language.
3.1.4 Teacher and students’ understanding subject matter knowledge
Ms Bol described the case of global warming: the problem of global warming produce by human being.
Traditional, cultural and growing of technology influenced on global warming. She thought student should
understand that the cause of global warming. In contract, there are difficulties of cons Constructing the willingness
of the cause of global warming and the consequence influenced on human.
After workshop, The last point highlight Bol understanding of the CoRe emphasis. She needs plan to prepare
the lesson plan and conduction to teaching. The CoRe reflect to her thinking.
3.2 Results of case study 2

Ket is 54 years old and she graduated in master degree of biology education. There are 28 years of experience
science teachers.
3.2.2 Goal and teaching practice
She had defined the goal for teaching to enhance the students’ understanding the cause of global warming,
which was produced by human being. She used the news and experimental about greenhouse production.
The teachers’ believes the student constructing science meaning by the teacher tell. The classroom desire the
example and situations of the cause of global warming were produced by human activities.
3.2.4 Teacher and students’ understanding subject master knowledge
The teacher The students’ understanding the global warming was produce by gas greenhouse.
3.3 Result of case study 3

Her name is Pic. She is 47 years old and she graduated bachelor degree of teaching primary education. Also, she
has science experience 25 years old.
3.3.2 She defined the goal of teaching to enhance the students’ understanding the cause of global warming, which
was produced by human and believes that the formal teaching strategy (science teaching is step by step). After work
shop she said that sometime science teaching should use the news and experimental.
Teaching is not focus on telling but it focus on examining students act and how to learn.
3.3.4 Teacher and students’ understanding subject master knowledge
The students tell about the climate change and the dissolution of poles of the earth ice it’s still comes to don't
arrive at our house.
424 Boonliang Chordnork and Chokchai Yuenyong / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 421 – 425
3.4 Result of case study 4

3.4.1 Teachers’ background: Rean is 49 years old and he graduated bachelor degree of science education.
3.4.2 Goal and teaching practice: Rean defined the definition of global warming.
3.4.3 Classroom assignment: The teacher should use situation in everyday life connect to science learning.
3.4.4 Teacher and students’ understanding subject master knowledge: The consequence of global warming
influenced on the world. May be it do not affect on the student in overflow.
Table 1. CoRe for Ms Bol, Ms Ket, Ms Pic and Mr Reang s’ instruction on the cause of global warming
CoRe 1 CoRe 2
Big ideas Concept of the cause Concept of the cause
of global warming of global warming
1.What do you intend the To enhance the student understanding the cause of To enhance the students’ understanding the cause of
students to learn about this global warming (B&R). global warming, which was produced by human (B, P
idea? The problem of global warming (K) &K).
To enhance students’ understanding the produce of The definition of Global warming and inquiry the
CO2 (P). cause of global warming (R).
2.Why it is important for To protection or reduction global warming (B). Using for everyday life (B&K).
students to know this? Using for everyday life (K). Climate change is the knowledge that the students
Reduction CO2 to reduce global warming (P). should know (P).
Finding approach for reduction (R). Relate to nowadays of global warming such as green
house gases, motor combustion and burning forest
(R).
3.What else do you know The consequence of global warming (B, R &K). Climate change of solar system (B).
about this idea The process of production CO2 (P). Aniyo Laniya effect (K).
(that you do not intend Greenhouse effect and acid rain (P).
students to know yet)? Ozone layer and acid rain (R).
4.What are the The parents’ action in community (B). Constructing the willingness of the cause of global
difficulties/limitations Lacking the way of protection (K). warming and the consequence influenced on human
connected with teaching this The students believed that they were not get the (B&R).
ideas? consequence of global warming (P). Poor climate change background (P).
Lacking activities in learning (R). Poor the example and situations of the cause of global
warming were produced by human activities (K).
5.What is your knowledge The problem of global warming (B). The parents and students in community do not
about students’ thinking, which Conservation of natural resources (P). attractive the global warming problem (B).
influences your teaching of The situation in everyday life (K&R). Learners’ view of the global warming and greenhouse
this idea? gases reduction activities (K).
Learners tell about the climate change and the
dissolution of poles of the earth ice it’s still comes to
don't arrive at our house (P).
The consequence of global warming influenced on
the world. May be it do not affect on the student in
overflow (R).
6. Are there any other factors The time of teaching and learning (B). Traditional, cultural and growing of technology (B).
that influence your teaching of The parents were sponsor (K). Teacher lakes subject matter knowledge and
these ideas? Prior knowledge of gas s’ property (P). questioning (K).
The parents’ action in community such as burning Poor climate change background and misconception
forest, charcoal burning(R). about charcoal burning (P). Poor teaching approach
(R).
7.What are your teaching Using inquiry cycle: 5Es (B,K&P) Using the movie and Clip VDO on internet (B).
procedures (and particular Discussion about the situation and news of global News analysis and experimental of CO2 process
reasons for using these to warming (R). (K&P).
engage with this idea) ? Using actually situation in everyday life such as
sitting in the car, lying down in cloth bag. After that
analogy between outside and inside of the car (R).
8.Specific ways for multiple choice achievement test (B,P &R). Open-end questionnaires ,concept mapping and
ascertaining students’ Using the questionnaires rating scale and questioning multiple choice test (B&P).
understanding or confusion (K). Writing the short answer, interviews and science
around this idea (Include likely project (K).
range of responses). Observation and document analysis of the result of
experimental(R).
Notes: B, Ms Bol; K, Ms Ket; P, Ms Pic; R, Mr Reang.

4
Boonliang Chordnork and Chokchai Yuenyong / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 421 – 425 425
In many aspects, the CoRe post-test of the four primary science teachers show similarities. The aims of
teaching global warming emphasis on knowing definitions of the cause of global warming and being able to
understanding. There is also making understanding of the specific ways for ascertaining students’ understanding
which is authentic assessment. In the other hand, there are noticeable differences in aspects’ PCK such as knowing
of the curriculum, making the students’ conception, and teaching approach. The three aspects’ PCK of CoRe post-
test differed CoRe pre-test. In CoRe post-test, Ms Ket and Ms Pic identifies conceptual issues with regard to the
importance of the teaching approach and her consideration of the teaching practice which have used the news
analysis and experimental of CO2 process. The situation in the news were occurred in the local area that is
significant on socio-cultural. Flooding may occur in local area .Also, Ms Bol, she focused on medial instructional
assignment which has engaged the student learning related to the difficulties or limitations connected with teaching.
They said that “The VDO help to enhance the willingness of the production global warming and easy make students
‘understanding of the cause of global warming”. Although, the participants understanding of teaching approach,
knowing of the curriculum, and the knowledge of the students’ conception have had problematic. There were
considered the factors that influence their teaching in width such as traditional, cultural and growing of technology
and poor teaching approach. However, the students’ degree of willingness to act and the conception of the cause of
global warming were did not considered. The primary science teachers should develop their misconception
regarding local environmental issues (Groves & Pugh, 1999; Hamilton et al., 2009).
The finding of the primary science teachers’ view of using PCK have improved in aspects of teaching
practice, class assignment (it means conduction of media instructional and teaching approach), and making
understanding subject matter. They changed CoRe pre-test to CoRe post test. However, the teachers’ professional
development should consider the process and approach for examining the teacher and students’ misconceptions.
Future research needs to constructing the CoRe which best promote or solve misconception of the cause of global
warming.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank you the Institute for the promotion of Science Teaching and Technology (IPST)
where is scholarships’ sponsor for this inquiry.
References
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Macmillan.
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Technology, 8(1), 75-81.
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Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand knowledge growth in teaching. Education research, 15(2), 4-44.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge of teaching: Foundations of one new reform. Harvard Education review, 57(1), 1-22.
Van Driel, J.H., Verloop, N., & De Vos, W. (1998). Developing science teachers, pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 35(6), 673-695.
ScienceDirect
Designing a learning model using the STAD technique with a

suggestion system to decrease learners' weakness
Pensri Amornsinlaphachai *
Department of Computer Education, Faculty of Science andTechnology, Nakhonratchasima Rajabhat University, Thailand
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to synthesize a learning model using the Student Teams - Achievement Divisions (STAD)
technique with a suggestion system according to learners' capability to decrease learners' weakness. The research and
development methodology is utilized in this study; however only the phase of designing model is presented here. The
methodology consists of 6 steps as follows: 1) Studying and analyzing the related principles and theories, 2) Investigating the
context of instructional design and learning environments, 3) Synthesizing a framework of the learning model, 4) Designing a
learning model based on the framework, 5) Evaluating the learning model by 6 experts and 6) Improving the model. Several
learning theories and principles such as constructivist theory, Bloom's taxonomy theory and the principle about media symbol
system are used in this work. Two results are shown as follows. Firstly, the learning model comprises of 5 modules that are (1)
Test Module, (2) Evaluation module, (3) Suggestion module, (4) Community module and (5) Knowledge bank module.
Secondly, the results of the assessment from 6 experts are revealed that the model conforms to learning principles and theories
and the experts accept to the usability of the model in a high level at 70.27 % overall. To conclude, the model derived from the
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Student Teams - Achievement Divisions, Constructivist , multiple intelligence, evaluation model,
suggestion system based on learners' competency;
1. Introduction
Currently, most of learning environments in the real world still focus on knowledge transmission instead of
knowledge construction; whereas several educators encourage learners to build their own knowledge (Spiro et al.,
1991; Mayer, 1996; Driscoll, 2000; Atherton, 2009; Amornsin laphachai et al., 2012). This conforms to Thai
National Education Act 1999 and Amendment Act (No. 2) 2002 stating that the education will be based on the
principle that all learners are capable of learning and developing themselves and the students are considered as the
most important. To promote this concept, the internet technology and several learning theories can be used to
advocate learners' community concentrating on interaction of learners and knowledge construction by learners. The
social network originated from the internet technology can be used in education as a medium among learners,
teachers and other experts while multimedia technology (Mayer, 2005) is utilized for designing learning
environment. To build learners' knowledge, constructivist theory (Vygotsky, 1978; Spiro et al., 1991) can be
* Corresponding Asst.Prof.Dr.Pensri Amornsinlaphachai. Tel.: +668-6100-3876

E-mail address: kokkoy@hotmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.235
432 Pensri Amornsinlaphachai / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 431 – 435
employed while an evaluation model (Kirkpatrick et al., 2006) can be applied to learner's assessment; moreover
several theories (Bloom, 1956; Gardner, 1999) help to classify learners according to learners' competency.
The theory of multiple intelligence (Gardner, 1999) indicates that all people have different kinds of intelligences
that are learners always have some weakness in their studying; however it is possible to decrease these weakness;
and thus the swiftly developed technology and learning theories can be combined together to develop web-based
learning environment to enhance capability of learners. From these reasons, the researchers aware of the need to
design and develop a learning model using the STAD technique (Stevens et al., 1995) with a suggestion system to
decrease learners' weakness. This model is based on multiple learning theories and principles as well as the internet
and multimedia technologies.
2. The Purposes of Research
Two main purposes of this study are as follows.

2.1 To design a learning model using the STAD technique with a suggestion system to decrease learners'
weakness.
2.2 To evaluate the designed model.
3. The Scope of Research
This section will explain about the scope of research consisting of the target group, the scope of content and the
research variable as the following details.
3.1 Target group
The target group utilized in the phase of designing model composes of 6 experts in 3 aspects that are (1) learning
content, (2) design based on theories and (3) media and technology.
3.2 Scope of Content
The content employed in this research is a part of the subject of 414365 Computer Network Management at
Nakhonratchasima Rajabhat University. The topics of content are IP address, Protocols, Subnet and Supernet.
3.3 Research variable
The research variable studied in this work is a learning model using the STAD technique with a suggestion
system to decrease learners' weakness.
4. The Research Instruments
The instruments used in the study are as follows.

4.1 The opinionative of instructional context in the course of Computer Network Management is utilized to
study the opinion of lecturers and students about learning context. The questions in the opinionative are
open-ended questions.
4.2 The record form of document analysis comprising of 3 aspects of principles and theories that are (1)
psychology of learning , (2) science of teaching and (3) principles of media and technology.
4.3 The assessment forms to confirm the quality of the designed model and the usability of the model. The
assessment form to confirm the quality of the designed model is created by using the principle of evaluation
in web-based learning (Khan et al., 1997) and the principle of assessment in learning environment. Open-
ended questions are used in this form. For the assessment form to confirm the usability of the model, the
percentage of the appropriation of usability must be defined for each questions.
Pensri Amornsinlaphachai / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 431 – 435 433
5. Data Collection and Analysis

The data are collected and analyzed as follows.
5.1 The conditions of learning and teaching collected by the opinionative of instructional context is analyzed by
summarizing interpretation.
5.2 The review of literatures are recorded and analyzed by describing and summarizing interpretation. The result
from document analysis is used to synthesize a framework of the learning model.
5.3 The designed model derived from the framework is assessed by the experts. The result is analyzed by
summarizing interpretation. Three aspects of assessment are (1) learning content, (2) design based on
theories and principles and (3) media and technology. For the usability of the model, the average of
percentage is calculated for the appropriation of usability.
6. Results
The results of the study in the phase of designing a learning model using the STAD technique with a suggestion
system to decrease learners' weakness are as follows.
6.1 The framework of the learning model
The learning model framework based on several major principles and theories consists of five modules that are
(1) Test Module, (2) Evaluation module, (3) Suggestion module, (4) Community module and (5) Knowledge bank
module as shown in Figure 1.
From Figure 1, five modules in the framework are the elements of the learning model. These modules have
details as follows.
1. Test Module
Questions in the Test module are classified into 2 dimensions. In the first dimension, the questions are
classified according to the learning level of Bloom’s Taxonomy theory. For the second dimension, the questions are
categorized in accordance with the type of intelligence in multiple intelligence theory.
2. Suggestion Module
The function of the Suggestion module is automatic analyzing the result derived from the Test module to
advice learning resources suitable for learners to fix learners’ weakness. In addition, the module will suggest how to
group students.
3. Community Module
Two genres of community in the Community module are social network and face-to-face meeting. The social
network includes both synchronous and asynchronous communications. Learners of each group in community
compose of weak learners and strong learners according to the type of intelligence. The learners’ classification
corresponds to the STAD technique.
4. Knowledge Bank Module
Learning resources are kept in the Knowledge bank module whose design is rooted in various theories. The
elements in the resources are based on the design principles of multimedia presentation (Sweller, 1988) by
organizing information (Mayer, 1996) because information processing employing audio, visual and animation can
get more effectiveness than the processing by lecturing.
5. Evaluation Module
The function of the evaluation module is assessing reaction, learning achievement and behaviour of learners
according to Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model.
6.2 The results from experts evaluation
From evaluating the quality of the models by several experts, many issues are exposed as follows. Firstly, the
model conforms to learning principles and theories utilized as the fundamental of synthesizing the model. Secondly,
technologies used in the model are up-to-date, well-known and favourable; furthermore the theories used as the
434 Pensri Amornsinlaphachai / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 431 – 435
fundamental of designing the model point to the suitability of media using. Thirdly, the scope of learning content is
general standard for the subject of computer network; thus this work can be used extensively. Thus it is proper to
use the model to develop a learning environment. For the usability of the model, the experts accept the model in a
high level at 70.27 % overall. To sum up, there is high feasibility to decrease learners' weakness by using the model
from this study.

Figure1. Learning model framework
7. Summary and Concluding Remarks

Many major theoretical bases are used in designing the framework of the learning model. These are multiple
intelligence, Bloom's Taxonomy, STAD, social constructivist, Cognitive load, mental model, SOI, Kirkpatrick's
Pensri Amornsinlaphachai / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 431 – 435 435
evaluation model, media symbol system and information processing. The model rooted in the framework comprises
of five modules that are Test Module, Evaluation module, Suggestion module, Community module and Knowledge
bank module. The results derived from experts’ evaluation are disclosed that the model is appropriate to 3 aspects
that are (1) learning content, (2) design based on theories and (3) media and technology. Moreover the experts
accept to the usability of the model in a high level.
For the future work, the learning model will be developed as a web-based learning environment; then this
learning environment will be evaluated by experts for internal validation and tested with students studying in
computer field in the Faculty of Science and Technology at NakhonRatchasima Rajabhat University for external
validation (Deejring et al., 2012); besides the learning environment will be tested with students of other institutes to
insist on the generalization of application.
Acknowledgements
The publication of this work was supported by Nakhonratchasima Rajabhat University, Thailand.
References
Amornsinlaphachai, P. and Deejring, K. (2012). "Developing the Model of Web-Based Learning Environment Enhancing Problem-Solving for
Higher Education Students." American Journal of Scientific Research 52(2012): 21-32.
Atherton, J. S. (2009). Learning and Teaching; Constructivism in learning. August 2009.
Bloom, B. A. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objective Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York, David Mc Kay Company Inc.
Deejring, K. and Chaijaroen, S. (2012). "The constructivist learning environments model enhancing cognitive flexibility for higher education:
validation phase." Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46(2012): 3764 - 3770.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction, Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed. Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, New York: Basic Books: 292 + x pages.
Khan, B. H. and Vega, R. (1997). Factors to consider when evaluating a web-based instruction course: A survey. Web-Based Instruction.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Educational Technology Publications: 375-380.
Kirkpatrick, D. L. and Kirkpatrick, J. D. (2006). Evaluating Training Programs (3rd ed.), San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Mayer, R. E. (1996). "Learning strategies for making sense out of expository text : The SOI model for guiding three cognitive processes in
knowledge construction." Educational Psychology Review 8: 357-371.
Mayer, R. E. (2005). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning, New York: Cambridge University press.
Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., et al. (1991). "Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced
knowledge acquisition." Educational Technology 31(5): 25-33.
Stevens, R. J. and Slavin, R. E. (1995). "The cooperative elementary school: Effects on students' achievement, attitudes, and social relations."
American Educational Research Journal 32: 321-351.
Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning." Cognitive Science 12: 257-285.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference on Educational Sciences 2013-WCES 2013

DETERMINATION OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS MOTIVATION IN EFL
CLASSROOM
Güliz Özütürka, Çiğdem Hürsenb

a
School of Foreign Languages,Department of Modern Languages,Cyprus International University
Haspolat, Cyprus
b
Near East University, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology
Nicosia, Cyprus
Abstract
This study investigates Turkish university students’ English language learning motivation and it seeks to find out the general
belief about motivation during language learning process and whether it is crucial on second language acquisition. In addition,
questionnaire with a 5 Like scale is ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree were used to collect data and demographic
features of the participants. The results show that there is a significant difference in students’ gender and level in EFL
classrooms.
Keywords: motivation;gender; level; second language acquisition, integrative motivation
1. Introduction
In education life and daily life everyone needs external or internal support. It sometimes our teachers who are
helping or motivating us at school, but when we got home it is our parents and siblings. Motivation is very essential
factor in every area and also in second language learning. Moreover, in some researches we can see that positive
attitude and motivation go together because it is not easy process to measure and define motivation or whether it
helps successful second language learning or the success in second language learning enhancing learners’
motivation. Furthermore, the classroom environment is another important factor in learning a foreign language.
( Walberg & Haertel, 1981; Fraser, 1986; 1991; 1998; 2002; 2007; Chua, Wong & Chen, 2009).
Many researchers found that the most of the studies are done round the classroom environment because it has a great
impulse in students’ and teachers’ learning/teaching a foreign language and motivation (Fraser, 1991; 1998; 2002;
2007). So, teachers are looking ways to find the right motive to make their students’ interest in second language
acquisition higher during learning-teaching process.
1.1 What is Motivation in Second Language Learning?
The term motivation in a second language learning is seen according to Gardner (1985) as “refering to the extent to
which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction
Corresponding Author: Güliz Özütürka, Tel: +23 444747825
Email: Güliz Özütürka @gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.159
8 Güliz Özütürk and Çiğdem Hürsen / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 7 – 12
experienced in this activity (p.10)”. On the other hand, there are different explanation for motivation: 1. The reason
or reasons of one’s actions and behavior 2.Enthusiasm: Hence, motivation is an abstract term and it is difficult to
define it. The term “motivated” learner means who is willing and eager to learn something in order to progress.
Moreover, the traditional stance in social psychology, someone’s attitudes towards a second language influences that
person’s responses to the target language (Brown, 1987; Ozuturk, 2012). According to Gardner’s motivation theory
is the relationship between motivation and orientation. Gardner called this “goal”. In the early work of Gardner and
Lambert (1972), motivation was seen to be divided into two very general orientations: integrative and instrumental.
Instrumental motivation: refers to a desire to learn a language because it would fulfil certain utilitarian goals. For
example, getting a job, passing an examination, etc (Brown, 2007; Rifai, 2010; Daskalovska, Gudeva & Ivanovska,
2012; Ozuturk, 2012).
Integrative motivation: refers to a desire to learn a language in order to communicate with people of another
culture who speak it; the desire is also there to identify closely with the target language group. Garder and Lambert’s
(1959) defines it as the ‘willingness’ to be liked valued members of that language community. For example,
Nakanishi (2002) stated that many students are forced to learn a foreign language by their families and instructors.
Moreover, willingness in second language acquisition is very essential both language learning and motivation
(MacIntyre & Blackie, 2012).
Willingness in second language learning is an important issue because whenever students feel stress or anxious
that’s when EFL students do not want to participate or attend language classrooms (Ozuturk, 2012). Dornyei (2001)
also mentioned that motivational intensity, attitude, aptitude and willingness to a target language have a great impact
on learning a foreign language. Dornyei (2003) stated that the factors of learning language might be because of sex,
grade, willingness to communicate (WTC), and anxiety; perceive communication competence and frequency of
communication. Besides, Dornyei also mentioned the attitude/motivation towards the target language. Later, he
mentioned that these variables have been widely studied among adult learners, most often at the university level.
Therefore, language teachers should encounter language learners’ ethnic background while teaching a foreign
language as well because at universities there are foreign students. Hereby, Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) stated
that every language learners are different and they have different characteristic. This is called socio- educational
model. As a result, language teachers should create motivational environment or conditions in EFL classrooms.
1.2 How should language teachers create motivational conditions in EFL classrooms?
Language teachers cannot motivate language learners like a magician or download motivation into their heads.
There are many ways and conditions to this. Some of these conditions are given below:
a. Appropriate teacher behavior and good teacher- student relation
b. A nice and supportive language classroom atmosphere
c. An adherent learner group characterized by appropriate group norms
Firstly, appropriate teacher behavior and good teacher-student relation occurs when a teacher motivates, facilitates,
and influence students in a good way. According to Dornyei (2001) teachers’ behavior is a powerful “motivational
tool”. It is also important for teachers to engage EFL students to be active in language activities or tasks. Therefore,
language teachers should assure that they show mutual trust and respect to their students. At that time, this mutual
trust and respect will lead them to have enthusiasm (Alison, 1993). Enthusiastic teachers’ characters’ show that they
are verbally and non-verbally giving good feedback. Their attitudes are positive toward their students and they want
to have good relationship in or outside the classroom.
Secondly, nice and supportive language classroom atmospheres do not have tensed and de-motivated students
(MacIntyre, 1999; Young, 1999). Students should not be overestimated, mocked, and ridiculed in the classrooms.
Güliz Özütürk and Çiğdem Hürsen / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 7 – 12 9
To be motivated to learn a second language, teachers should demonstrate a steady encouragement and give positive
feedback. Lastly, an adherent learner group characterized by appropriate group norms associated with a cooperative
learner group. So, it is very essential for those students to spend some time with each other and try to learn
interaction.
When we look at the literature, we see that there is no sufficient study about Turkish university students. English
Language Learning motivation in EFL classrooms. Therefore, the aim of this study is to find Law, Classroom
Teaching, Guidance and Psychological Counselling Departments’ students’ English language learning motivation in
EFL classrooms. Besides, in order to achieve the objectives of this research, we sought to find answers for the
questions below:
1. How is Turkish university students’ general belief for English Language Learning motivation in EFL
classrooms?
2. Is there a significant difference between Turkish university students’ gender and the belief for English
Language Learning motivation in EFL classrooms?
3. Is there a significant difference between Turkish university students’ levels and the belief for English
Language Learning motivation?
2. Methodology
Participants
This study carried out with 172 students from Cyprus International University in 2012-2013 fall semester. The
participants of this research were first and second year Turkish university students whom took (Foreign Language I
and II ) from Department of Modern Languages. Students’ departments’ varied according to thier English level. The
first year students were from Law (n=37) 21,5%, Classroom Teaching (n=10) 5,81%, Guidance and Psychological
Counselling (n=40) 23,25%. The second year students were from Guidance and Psychological Councelling (n=62)
36,04% and Classroom Teaching (n= 23) 13,37%. These participants are randomly chosen if they were volunteer.
Moreover, the aim was to get valid results from the participants (n=78) 45,3% of students who attended to this study
were male and (n=94) 54,7% of them were female.
Data collection instruments and application
The questionnaire which has been developed and carried out by researchers (2013) and applied to Law, Classroom
Teaching, Guidance and Counselling students and aimed to measure the university students’ motivation in English
language learning in EFL classrooms. During the process of questionnaire development, after having done the
literature review there were 30 students, whom had picked randomly, were asked to write a composition about the
research topic. Then, these composition had taken into consideration before the researchers had prepared their
questioonaire pool by revising the literature review. After that, process the reseachers have received experts’
opinions. There were 5 experts from English Language Learning and 10 experts from Education departments. In
addition, the qustionnaire was finalized referring to the experts’ opinion. According to the expers’ opinions, the final
version of the survey is given and it is asked to reviese 10 students’ distorting the meaning of the statements. The
questionnaire has two parts, the first part is issued in order to get information about university students’
demographic features, the second phart involves 30 questions in order to clarify the students’ motivation in English
language learning. Second part is formed which refers 1 point to Strongly Disagree to 5 points to Strongly Agree.
The Cronbanch alpha result of this study is obtained as (0.834).
Data analysis
All the data collected with this research are analyzed by using SPSS 20 packet programme. For the analysis of the
data; percentage, mean, standart deviation, and T-Test analysis were performed. The results of the analysis are
interpreted with the values obtained in the 0,05 significance level.
3. Results
3.1. The general belief of Turkish students’ English language learning motivation in EFL classrooms
The general belief for English language learning motivation average score determined as (M= 4, 01, SD=.667).
The general result of this study shows that Turkish university students’ English language learning motivation is very
high. This means that the textbooks, materials, presentations of the topics, the class language, course activities,
course level, course organization and teachers’ behaviour and attitudes are sufficient during English language
learning process.
3.2. The relationship between Turkish students’ English language learning motivation and gender variable
In order to understand the relationship between Turkish students’ beliefs about English language learning
motivation and gender variable, T-Test is performed and the result is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. The relationship between Turkish univerisity students’ English Language Learning motivation and gender
variable
Gender N M SD T P Explanation
Belief for P<0.05
Female 94 4,16 .727
English significant
language 40,623 .000
learning Male 78 3,82 .538
motivation
As it seen in Table 1, female students’ belief for English language learning motivation score is (M=4.16,
SD=.727) and it is higher than male students’ scores (M=3.82, SD= .538). Moreover, the results show that there is a
significant difference between female and male students motivation in English language learning environment
(t=40.623, P<0.05). But the significant difference is in favour of female students.
3.3. The relationship between Turkish university students’ English language learning motivation and
students’ level variable
In order to understand the relationship between Turkish university students’ belief for English language
learning motivation and level variable, T-Test is performed and the result is shown in Table 2.
Table 2.The relationship between Turkish univeristy students’ belief for English Language Learning motivation
and students’ level variable
Level N M SD T P Explanation
Belief for P<0.05
1st year 87 4.08 .802
English significant
language 39.081 .000
learning 2nd year 85 3.93 .486
motivation
In Table 2, 1st year students’ belief for English Language Learning motivation score is (M= 4.08, SD= .802)
and 2nd year students’ belief for English Language Learning motivation score found as (M= 3.93, SD=. 486).
Güliz Özütürk and Çiğdem Hürsen / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 7 – 12 11
According to the results, there is a meaningful difference between 1st year students’ and 2nd year students’ English
Language Learning motivation. But the significant difference is in favour of the 1st year students.
4. Discussion & Conclusion
The general belief for Law, Classroom Teaching, Guidance and Counselling departments’ students’ English
language learning motivation in EFL classrooms was found to be very high because Turkish univeristy students
believe that they want to attent EFL classrooms, to submit their projects on the scheduled day, to do the projects
without any mistakes, and they believe that they love attending English language courses. Moreover, students love
activities during teaching process, taking responsibilities in their learning, taking immediate feedback from the
language instructors, and looking various sources in deep to learn more unknown vocabularies. In addition, they
believe that it is very crucail for language learners to have a good relationship between teacher and students. So,
they think this will help them to improve thier attitudes and motivation as well. On the other, teachers have tasks in
this case to help their students to possess higher motivation as well.
There are several ways for language teachers to make their students to possess higher motivation in EFL
classrooms. First, teachers should try and maximize eye contact, to make sure students are seated at a comfortable
distance from each other, language learning environment and organization of changing partners or changing groups
(Walberg & Haertel, 1981; Fraser, 1986; 1991;1998; 2002; 2007; Chua, 2009). Second, it is very important for
language teachers to pay more attention on error correction, role play, using realia, flash cards, stories and songs in
teaching. Thirdly, using visual material such as cassette player, video, computer (slide shows) and the use of first
language (L1) in the EFL classroom is essential and effective for language learners at the same time.
Finally, studies which will be held in the future, would be more about ages, and departmental factors of
language learning motivation because it seems like there is no sufficient information about these factors on language
learning motivation in EFL classrooms. In addition, university instutions should do in-service training dor their
language teachers. The reason for this is that teachers and students have a very strong boundaries. In order to find
the most powerful interaction between student –teacher or teacher-student, the reseachers should do more research
about this issue. As a result, the researchers should do research about other departments’ students’ language learning
motivation in order to compare it to whole universities.
Reference
Alison, J. (1993). Not Bothered?Motivating Reluctant Language Learners in Key Stage. London: CILT.
Brown, H.D. (1987). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. (2nd ed). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Brown, H.D. (2007). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.(5th ed). New York: Pearson Education.
Chua, S.L., Wong,A.F.L., & Chen, D.T. (2009). Associations between Chinese Language classroom environments
and students’ motivation to learn the language. Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental
Psychology,9, 53-64
Daskalovska, N., Gudeva, L.K., & Ivanovska, B. (2012). Learner motivation and interest. Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 46, 1187-1191.
Dornyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow:Longman.
Dornyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: Advanced in theory.
Research and applications. A Journal of Research in Language Studies, 53, 3-32.
Dornyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in Second Language Research: construction, administration and processing.
London/Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Fraser, B.J. (1986). Classroom environment. London: Croom Helm.
Fraser, B.J. (1991). Two decades of classroom environment research. In B. J. Fraser, & H. J. Walberg (Eds.).
Educational environments: Evaluation, antecedents and consequences. New York: Pergamon.Fraser, B.J.
(1998). Science learning environments: Assessment, effects and determinants. In B. J. Fraser, & K. G.
Tobin (Eds.). International handbook of science education (pp. 527-564). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
Fraser, B.J. (2002). Learning environments research: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. In S. C. Goh, & M. S. Khine
(Eds.). Studies in educational learning environment: An international perspective (pp. 1-25). Singapore:
World Scientific.
Fraser, B.J. (2007). Classroom learning environments. In S. K. Abell, & N. G. Lederman (Eds.). Handbook of
research on science education (pp. 103-124). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gardner,R.C., & Lambert, W. E(1959). Motivational variables in second language acquisition. Canadian
journal of Psychology.
Gardner, R.C., & MacIntyre, P.D. (1993). A student’s contributions to second language learning. Part II:
Affective variables. Language Teaching. Cambridge Journals, 26, 1-11.
Gardner, R.C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning, the role of attitudes and motivation.
London: Edward Arnold
Haertel, G.D., Walberg, H.J., & Haertel, E.H. (1981). Social-psychological environments and learning: A
quantitative synthesis. British Educational Research Journal, 7(1), 27- 36.
MacIntyre, P.D. (1999). Language anxiety: A review of the research for language Teachers. In Young,
D.J.(ed.).Affect in foreign language and second language learning. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill
MacIntyre, P.D., & Blackie, R.A. (2012). Action control, motivated strategies, and integrative motivation as
predictors of language learning affect and the intention to continue learning French. Elsevier Science, 40,
533-543.
Nakanishi, T. (2002). Critical Literature Review on Motivation. Journal of Language and Linguistics, 1(3), 1475-
8989.
Rifai, N.A. (2010). Attitude, Motivation, and Difficulties Involved in Learning the English Language and Factors
That Affect Motivation in Learning It. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 5216-5227.
Ozuturk, G. (2012). “To what extent are postgraduate international students at Sunderland University intrinsically
motivated in learning English?” and “Is there a difference between male and female students in terms of
their intrinsic motivation?”. University of Sunderland, Department of Lifelong Learning TESOL,
(Published MA dissertation). Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 424-430.
Young, D.J. (1999). Affect in foreign language learning and second language learning. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
ScienceDirect
Development of English Reading Comprehension by

Using Concept Maps

a* b
Phatchara Phantharakphong , Suteera Pothitha
a
Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand
b
Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand
Abstract
Reading is the single most important fundamental skill a person can acquire. However, in Thailand, English language
learning, especially in reading skill, seems to be the big problem to students because most of them find English reading difficult
and lack of motivation in doing so. As a result, the purpose of this study were to study the development of English reading
comprehension by using concept maps, and to study the students’ attitudes towards learning English reading comprehension by
using concept maps. This study conducted through the use of scores from concept map retelling based on the redeveloped rubrics
and comprehension test. The interview was also conducted. The results showed that the percentage of retelling and
comprehension test were 81.25 percent and 86.50 percent respectively. Student stated that concept maps helped them understand
English reading better. This could be concluded that the use of concept maps could enhance the students’ English reading
comprehension.
Selection and peer
Selection and/or reviewunder
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Language learning, teaching methods, secondary level, reading difficulty
1. Introduction
Today English is important in ESL/EFL countries because it is a world language. People around the world use
English language to communicate to each other. All four fundamental skills are used: listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. All are important, including reading skill. Reading is important for a variety of reasons. For example, it
is a vital skill in finding a good job, enriches thoughts, widens visions, and enhances knowledge. However, one of
the fundamental problems many English language teachers face with is enhancing ESL/EFL learners’ reading ability
and maintain their interest in reading. Most ESL/EFL learners have certain difficulties while reading English
because they are not aware of the effective ways of reading and understanding a text, which might cause resistance
* Corresponding Author: Phantharakphong, Phatchara. Tel.: +66-897-126-577

E-mail address: phatph@kku.ac.th
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.247
498 Phatchara Phantharakphong and Suteera Pothitha / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 497 – 501
and affect their attitudes towards reading in English (Mede, 2010). In Thailand, one of EFL countries, English
language learning, especially reading skill, seems to be the big problem to the students. The main reason is most of
them find English difficult and lack of motivation in doing so. These problems cause Thai students have negative
attitudes towards learning English and believe that learning English is very difficult for them. Sloat, et al. (2007)
stated that failure to learn reading during primary level might cause a student to be lacking in the ability to read well.
Actually, the students were required to practice grasping the text information so that they would improve their skills
of reading for meaning. Thus, teachers need to get students to practice reading for meaning.
Reading comprehension refers to the ability to understand information presented in written form. While this
process usually entails understanding textbook assignment, reading comprehension skills also may affect one’s
interpretation of direction on examination, homework and completion of job applications or questionnaires. Many
students still have problems with their reading comprehension because they are unable to accurately understand
written materials. That is, they cannot interpret what they read and make the connection between what they read and
what they have already known.
According to the research, concept mapping appears to be an effective way to teach and learn about new
information and overarch concepts. The arguments for concept mapping include the importance of connecting new
information to prior knowledge and experience (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Cromley & Azevedo, 2007; Jonassen, et al.,
1999; O’Donnell, et al., 2002), the efficacy of building visual-verbal representations of knowledge (Novak &
Gowin, 1984; Jonassen, et al., 1999; Plotnik, 1997) and that these representations are more effective for knowledge
retention than using traditional text (McCagg & Dansereau, 1991; Jonassen, et al., 1999). Plotnik (1997) described
purposes of concept mapping and stated that the main advantages of concept mapping are the use of visual symbols
because they are easily recognized, easy to scan for a specific word or general idea and it also allows for more
holistic understanding of a concept. Therefore, to solve the students’ problems, concept maps were used as a study
technique to promote their reading comprehension and help them understand reading as a process (Anderson, 1978).
The purposes of the present study were to study the development of English reading comprehension by using
concept maps, and to study the students’ attitudes towards learning English reading comprehension by using concept
maps.
2. Method
The population of this study was 18 students in 10th grade of Demonstration school of Khon kaen University
(Suksasart) in the second semester, academic year 2010. Fifteen samples were drawn by simple random sampling
method. This study was conducted through the use of percentage of scores from concept map explaining and
retelling based on the assessment rubric adapted from the Regent of the University of Minnesota and Barbara
Martinson (2004) and reading comprehension tests. Moreover, the individual interview was administered with 3 of
the following themes:
1) Does your English reading comprehension skill improve? If yes, how? If no, give reasons;
2) Do you think the concept map help you understand English reading better? Why or why not?; and
3) Are there any questions or suggestions?
The obtained data from the tests was analyzed by average scores and percentage. The interview results were
analyzed by content analysis.
3. Findings
3.1 Results of concept map retelling and reading comprehension tests

Distribution of students’ statistical values of retelling tests is given in Table 1. It has been found out that the
percentage of the scores in retelling tests was higher from article no.1 (70.26%) to article no.6 (90.00%) continually.
With the total percentage of retelling tests, it was 81.25 percent which was in the high level.
Phatchara Phantharakphong and Suteera Pothitha / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 497 – 501 499
Table 1. Distribution of students’ statistical values of retelling tests
Articles Percentage of Level

Retelling Tests
No.1 70.26 Moderate
No.2 73.00 Moderate
No.3 79.00 Moderate
No.4 87.00 High
No.5 87.00 High
No.6 90.00 High
Total 81.04 High
When considering comprehension tests, the distribution of students’ statistical values is given in Table 2. It was
showed that the percentage of comprehension tests from article no.1 (82.00%) to article no.6 (91.00%) was higher
gradually, and it was all in high level. The total percentage of comprehension tests was 86.50 percent considered as
in high level as well.
Table 2. Distribution of students’ statistical values of comprehension tests
Articles Percentage of Level

Comprehension Tests
No.1 82.00 High
No.2 84.00 High
No.3 85.00 High
No.4 88.00 High
No.5 89.00 High
No.6 91.00 High
Total 86.50 High
3.2 Results from the Interviews

With three interviewed questions, it has been found that most students agreed that after learning English reading
by using concept maps, their English comprehension skill improve. They gave reasons that due to using concept
maps in reading, they could get main ideas and relations of the sentences, paragraphs and different parts of the text.
They also use previous knowledge while reading the texts. Besides, they suggested that with 6 lesson plans, it was
too short. They wanted to learn more. They felt that they could do it better if they had a chance to learn and practice
more. In addition, beside concept maps, they wanted to read various texts and learn other strategies or techniques
that could help them better in reading.
English Reading Comprehension of students:

The result of students showed that, with the retelling and comprehension tests, at last the students were in high
level in both tests (90% and 91% respectively). In other words, concept maps could improve English reading
comprehension of students which was related to the study of Flood and Lapp (1988) stating that students’ practice in
constructing their own maps from different texts could help enhance their ‘metacognitive skills’ leading to
successful reading. Also, the students’ abilities in constructing a variety of concept maps could help visualize the
ideas of other texts in network (Sinatra, et al., 1984). With the study of effective strategies of teaching reading,
500 Phatchara Phantharakphong and Suteera Pothitha / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 497 – 501
Askov (1991) pointed out that an effective teacher should help students be efficient at self-learning. Therefore,
students needed study skills which they could apply while reading inside and outside of class. He also explained that
the ‘mapping’ technique is a study skill that helped students see relationships between the message since they
required learners to think through while constructing the maps. In addition, the study of Thai students learning
English reading through the use of concept maps of Kaewkongmuang (2001) and Pongkaew (2002) showed that the
concept map training or the semantic mapping technique could improve their students’ reading comprehension
because they could understand the text more easily through the concept map.
Considering the relationship between retelling and reading comprehension, the study of Stoicovy (2004) stated
that oral retelling of reading or listening text was produced based on the students’ increased comprehension and
recall of discourse. When students reconstruct text, they were learning language complexity by accepting ideas of
the text which allowed students to pick up a sense of story structure leading to students’ schema activating. As a
result, it allowed comprehending, learning, and remembering the ideas in the stories and texts (Gambrell, et al.,
1991; Lipson & Wixson, 1997; Brown & Cambourne, 1987; Morrow, 1985; Anderson, 2000).
With the data from the interview, it was found that students entirely answered the interviewed questions that
their reading comprehension was better since they had learned concept map constructing. They felt that they could
find the relationships among words, sentences, and paragraphs leading them understand the texts, especially main
ideas of texts. Besides, they wanted to learn and practice reading with concept map more. They thought that the
duration of each class was not enough. Sometimes they wanted more time to think, practice, and understand the
texts in case they were quite difficult or not related to what they had known or experienced. Moreover, after they
were familiar with using concept map in reading, they would like to learn other reading techniques to enhance their
reading comprehension.
Suggestions for learning experience management in reading comprehension were that the teacher should have
the orientation about the concept map before learning with the way to construct concept maps with clear teaching
methods. At first, to make the students familiar with concept map, the teacher should make students work as a group
or in pair, and then individual. Moreover, the teacher should provide students a little bit more difficult texts in each
class, so the texts would challenge them to use their abilities to think and practice with the support from the teacher.
In conclusion, there have been relationship between reading comprehension and concept maps and they could be
able to apply in learning management to enhance students’ English reading integrally and creatively.
References
Anderson, J. R. (2000). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
Anderson, T. H. (1978). Study skills and learning strategies. In H. F. O'Neil, Jr. & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.),
Cognitive and Affective Learning Strategies (pp. 77-97). New York: Academic Press.
Askov, E.N. (1991). Teaching Study Skills. In Bernard L. Hayes (Eds.), Effective Strategies for Teaching Reading
(pp.84-101). Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon.
Brown, H., & Cambourne, B. (1987). Read and retell: A strategy for the whole language/natural learning
classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Cromley, J., & Azevedo, R. (2007). Testing and refining the direct and inferential mediation model of reading
comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 311-325.
Flood, J. L., & Lapp, D. (1988). Conceptual mapping strategies for understanding information texts. The Reading
Teacher, 41, 780-783.
Gambrell, L., Koskinen, P. S., & Kapinus, B. A. (1991). Retellling and the reading comprehension of proficient and
less-proficient readers. Journal of Educational Research, 84, 356-362.
Jonassen, D., Peck, K., & Wilson, B. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kaewkongmuang, K. (2001). Effects of the Semantic Training on the M5 Students’ English Reading Comprehension
and Retraining Concepts. Master thesis in Education, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University.
Lipson, M.Y. & Wixson, K. K. (2003). Assessment and Instruction of Reading and Writing Disability: An
Interactive Approach, 3rd Ed. NY: Allyn & Bacon.
McCagg, E. C., & Dansereau, D. F. (1991). A convergent paradigm for examining knowledge mapping as a learning
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strategy. Journal of Educational Research, 84, 317–324.

Mede, E. (2010). The effects of instruction of graphic organizers in terms of students’ attitudes towards reading in
English. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 322-325.
Morrow, L.M. (1985). Retelling stories: A strategy for improving children’s comprehension, concept of story
structure and oral language complexity. Elementary School Journal, 85, 647-661.
Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
O’Donnell, A. M., Dansereau, D. F., & Hall, R. H. (2002). Knowledge maps as scaffolds for cognitive processing.
Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 71-86.
Plotnik, E. (1997). Concept mapping: A graphical system for understanding the relationship between concepts.
ERIC digest.. Retrieved from http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/concept.htm
Pongkaew, K. (2002). A comparision of Matthayom Suksa V students’ English reading ability and motivation
based on metacognitive strategy through semantic Mapping and the Teacher’s manual. Master of Education
degree in Secondary Education at Srinakharinwirot University.
Sinatra, R. C., Stahl-Gemake, J., & Berg, D. N. (1984). Improving reading comprehension of disabled readers
through semantic mapping. Reading Teacher, 38(1), 22-29.
Sloat, E.A., Beswick, J.F. & Willms, J.D. (2007). Using early literacy monitoring to prevent reading failure. Phi
Delta Kappan, 88, 523-530.
Stoicovy, C. (2004, April). Using retelling to scaffold English language learning for pacific island
students. TheReading Matrix, 4 (1). Retrieved May 5, 2010
from http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/stoicovy/
The Regent of the University of Minnesota and Barbara Martinson. (2004). Concept Map: Assessment Rubric. The
Digital Media Center (DMC), Office of Information Technology: The University of Minnesota.

ScienceDirect
Didactic Preconditions for Environmental Education in the

Macedonian Secondary Schools
Mile Srbinovskia*, Murtezan Ismailia & Vullnet Zenkia
a
SEEU, Institute for Environment and Health, Tetovo, 1200, The Republic of Macedonia
Abstract
The objective of this research is to determine the basic didactic preconditions for environmental education in secondary schools
in the Republic of Macedonia. This was done on the basis of subjective assessment of 972 students from 19 high schools in the
Republic of Macedonia. "Knowledge of the environmental education’s goals” (78.92%) and "students’ motivation during the
environmental education course" (78.34%) are on the highest level. On the other hand "students’ information about their
advancement in the field of environmental education" (51.84%) and "incorporation of the new knowledge in previous one"
(65.57%) are on the bottom. In general, didactic preconditions are achieved about 70% in 2002 and 66% in 2009. Almost all
didactic conditions are fulfilled on a higher level in the “old” secondary schools than in the “new” ones.
© 2013 The
Selection and Authors. Published
peer review under theby Elsevier Ltd.
responsibility of Open access
Prof. Dr. under
Servet CC BY-NC-ND license.
Bayram
© 2013 Theand/or
Selection Authors.Published
peer-review by Elsevier
under Ltd. All rights
responsibility reserved. World Education and Research Center.
of Academic
Keywords: Didactic preconditions, students, environmental education, high schools, Republic of Macedonia;
1. Introduction
Research findings in the field of environmental education in the Republic of Macedonia show that despite
reforms, challenges and shortcomings still remain in certain areas. These areas include the quality of teaching
programmes (Srbinovski, 2005c; Srbinovski et al., 2007, 2009; Srbinovski & Palmer, 2008; Srbinovski et al., 2010;
Abazi et al., 2008, 2009a), the National Strategy for Sustainable Development (Abazi et al., 2009b), textbooks
(Srbinovski, 2003b; Srbinovski, 2005c), the level of environmental awareness of students (Ismaili et al., 2009a and
2009b; Jonuzi, 2009; Srbinovski, 2003d, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2005a, 2005c, 2006, Srbinovski et al., 2011), the
environmental elements in the schools (Srbinovski, 2005c); the work methodology (Srbinovski, 2003a, 2003c,
2004b, 2004e; 2005b, 2005c), the classrooms and school environment (Srbinovski, 2004d, 2005c) etc.
The focus of our study is the didactic preconditions for environmental education in the new secondary schools in
the Republic of Macedonia. These preconditions include the motivation and preparedness of students to study
environmental content, their awareness of the goals of environmental education, the correspondence of the study
*
Corresponding Author name. Mile Srbinovski, Tel.: +389 44 356 114
E-mail address: m.srbinovski@seeu.edu.mk
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.173
Mile Srbinovski et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 88 – 94 89
materials with the students potential, the teachers role in their education, how informed the students are about their
progress and how they incorporate the new into the previous knowledge.
2. Methodology
Taking into account the current situation in the education sector, and bearing in mind the results of previous
research, we assume that: (i) the new secondary school curriculum does not fulfill the basic didactic preconditions,
(ii) the fulfillment of didactic preconditions is at a lower level than in the old secondary school curriculum. We
tested the hypothesis through the χ2 test, while we used the contingency coefficient (C) to calculate the correlation
between the old and new secondary school curricula.
We evaluated the basic didactic preconditions based on the students’ answers in a questionnaire (PU-1). The
questionnaire was drafted in 1999 when the old school curriculum was in place. In 2009, the questionnaire was filled
out by 972 students from the same 19 secondary schools as in 1999.
3. Results and discussion
Srbinovski M. (2005c) defined environmental education as ”a process of active learning in which individuals and
groups attain elementary knowledge, understanding, and skills for decisive, motivated, responsible, and collective
action to achieve and maintain the dynamic environmental balance”. Evidently, the definition constitutes numerous
elements which can also be found in other sources (Stapp et al, 1969; IUCN, 1970; Belgrade Chapter, 1975;
UNESCO, 1978; Lucas, 1980; Ramsey & Hungerford, 1989; Marcinkowski, Volk & Hungerford, 1990; NEEAC &
US-EPA, 1996; IEEP etc.). Hence, the ultimate goal of environmentally responsible behavior from students can only
be achieved if the aforementioned elements are fully integrated in the curriculum.
The environmentally responsible behavior is affected by numerous factors. The motivation of students to learn
about the environment is an important one. According to Vucenov (1982) the motivation is closely interlinked with
the understanding of the necessity as well as the purpose of educational material. This condition is a prerequisite for
an efficient learning process.
There is no objective way of gauging motivation, therefore we used the answers of the students for this end.
(Table 3).
Table 1. The students’ motivation to learn about the environment.
Very Motivated Not enough Unmotivated No Total

motivated enough motivated answer
1999 105 287 89 2 5 488

2009 115 250 90 26 3 484
Total 220 537 179 28 8 972
χ2 = 23.5769 C = 0.1545
90 Mile Srbinovski et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 88 – 94
Most of the students stated that they are motivated enough. On one hand, the value of χ2 in the tests indicates that
there is a significant margin of difference between students on the new and the old curricula. On the other hand the
contingency coefficient (C) indicates that there is a small correlation.
Table 4 shows the students understanding of the goals of environmental learning.
Table 2. Do the students understand the goals of environmental learning?
Yes Somewhat No No Total

answer
1999 330 137 18 3 488
2009 264 200 17 3 484
Total 594 337 35 6 972
χ2 = 19.1231 C= 0.1392
Most of the participants are of the opinion that they are completely aware of the goals of studying ecological
materials. The deducted value of χ2 shows that we can state with 99 percent of probability correctness that there
exists a statistically significant difference between students of the old and new high school curricula with respect to
their knowledge of the goals of studying environmental topics. Nevertheless, the value of the contingency
coefficient (C) shows that this is a weak correlation.
The next element which is regarded as the main precondition for successful studies is the readiness to study. In
other words, does the provided material intended to be learned is in accordance with the intellectual capabilities of
the student, how much effort and time does the student need to invest in order to learn the material, what level of
knowledge will the student gain etc. Results are given in Table 5.
Table 3. Is the curriculum in sync with the intellectual capabilities of students
Yes Somewhat No No Total

answer
1999 247 190 45 6 488
2009 220 222 40 2 484
Total 467 412 85 8 972
χ2 = 4.3406 C= 0.0670
According to 467 survey participants this didactical requirement is completely fulfilled. χ2 shows that there is no
statistically significant difference between students of the old and new secondary schools.
The next element of importance for learning environmental related topics is the “obstacle” that appears in the
study process. That is in fact the knowledge about the environment that students must learn. The topics that are very
difficult are not pedagogically justifiable because of the possibility of information loss and entropy (disorganization)
of the communication system between the text book and the student (Nickovic, 1982). On the other hand, the very
difficult obstacles cause disappointment and loss of hope in students about their capabilities and capacity. According
to pedagogical rules, this knowledge should be just a little bit more difficult than the students’ abilities. Only these
kinds of obstacles can cause intellectual mobility in the person who learns. Student’s opinions for the level of
difficulty of the environmental learning materials are shown in Table 6.
Table 4. The difficulty of environmental contents vis a vis the intellectual capabilities of the students.
Very More Same Easier Much No Total

difficult difficult easier answer
1999 12 54 226 127 53 16 488
2009 42 96 223 76 42 5 484
Total 54 150 449 203 95 21 972
χ2 = 42.4840 C= 0.2068
There are statistically significant differences in the evaluated difficulty of the environmental content between the
students of the new and the old high school curricula. The value of χ2 (42.48) for four degrees of freedom is higher
than the borderline value which is 9.488 (for 0, 05) and 13.277 (for 0.01). 150 students are of the opinion that the
environmental content is difficult for their intellectual capabilities. Students easily and quickly overcome the easy
obstacles, but the intellectual evolution on this topic stagnates.
The help and support of the lecturers, their instructions and praise are of great importance for successfully
mastering the learning material. This is particularly important in the process of independent studies of the students,
that is while students search by themselves for (alternative) solutions of the given tasks and problems. Here, we also
consider experimental teaching. During each study phase, students should be encouraged to think and they should
not be given any ready answers. They should be asked about their thoughts and the reasons behind their thinking,
what happens in the next step of the experiment and so on (Stamatovic, 1992). Table 7, shows the student’s views
about how much they are encouraged by their teachers in mastering environmental topics.
Table 5. How often do teachers help, and encourage their students in mastering environmental content
Year Nearly always Sometimes Almost never No answer Total

1999 269 161 50 8 488
2009 193 212 75 4 484
Total 462 373 125 12 972
χ2 = 24.4754 C= 0.1577
The biggest numbers of the respondents (462) answered that teachers almost always help and encourage them in
mastering their environmental studies. Students of the new high school curriculum do not receive help and support
as much often by their teachers. Previous studies by Srbinovski M. (2005) show that teachers value their
engagement in this area more than their students do. The value of χ2 shows a considerable statistical difference
between the two surveyed groups.
Next important part in mastering the learning material is the feedback. Through feedback, students learn how
much of what they learnt is correct or not, and how much of it is enough or not. The results of this didactic
precondition are shown in Table 8.
Table 6. How often do teachers inform their students of their progress in the area of environmental education?
Regularly Occasionally Never No answer Total

1999 145 232 100 11 488
2009 127 217 137 3 484
Total 272 449 237 14 972
χ2 = 7.5179 C= 0.0876
Around 28% of survey participants state that they are regularly informed about their progress in the area of
environmental education. On the other hand, teachers are of the opinion that this percentage is around 65%
(Srbinovski, 2005). Statistical difference between the opinions of the old and new high school curriculum students
regarding feedback about their progress exists just on a level of significance of about 0.05.
Another significant element for successfully mastering the educational material is the process of generalization.
This process is manifested through the capability of including the new material in the system of the previously
gained knowledge. Included here, are primarily the formation of general opinions and terms for environmental
items, deriving conclusions about processes through realizing their connectedness with regard to reason and
consequence etc.
Table 7. Students level of including new knowledge into old knowledge
Completely Partly included No inclusion No answer Total

included
1999 208 246 22 12 488
2009 167 261 55 1 484
Total 375 507 77 13 972
χ2 = 19.0192 C= 0.1395
Even though the contingency coefficient is low, there still exists a considerable statistical difference between
students of old and new schools in regard with the estimate of this didactic condition. Around 60% of students state
that they do not include the newly gained knowledge about environment into their old knowledge at all. In this
direction, teaching experience shows that in our schools, students often study less important facts and phenomena,
which are often memorized as isolated details. This type of unsystematic knowledge can not turn into valuable skills
and capabilities.
By converting the values into scores we got the following percentage values for the fulfillment of the basic
didactic conditions with respect to the realization of ecological content in high schools (Figure 1).
100 1999 2009

80
60
percentage
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
didactic conditions
Legend: 1 – Student’s motivation for studying ecology

2 – Knowledge of the environmental education’s goals
3 – Student’s readiness for studying ecology
4 – The level of difficulty of ecological material in comparison with students capabilitites
5 – Encouraging students in studying ecological material
6 – Informing students about their progress
7 – The incorporation of new knowledge into the existing one
Figure 1. Fulfillment of the basic didactic conditions for the realization of ecological study materials (in %).
Almost all of these conditions were fulfilled in the old schools. An exception of this is the “level of difficulty of
environmental material in comparison with student’s capabilities“. In general, the fulfillment of the investigated
didactic conditions in 1999 was around 70.23% and around 66.28% in 2009. This means that there is a decline of
about 4%. The biggest downfall (of around 8% and 7%) appears in the participant views about the following two
didactical conditions: “the incorporation of new knowledge into the existing one” and “encouragement of the
student for studying environmental material”.
4. Conclusion
According to the subjective opinion of the participant ”encouraging students in studying ecological material”
(78.34%). On the other hand, the conditions which are least fulfilled are: “informing students about their progress”
(51.84%) and ”the inclusion of new knowledge into the existing one” (65.57%). In general, the overall fulfillment of
didactic conditions in 1999 was around 70.23%, and around 66.28% in 2009, which means that there was a downfall
of about 4%. The biggest downfall (of around 8% and 7%) exists in the participant views about the following two
didactical conditions: “the incorporation of new knowledge into the existing one” and “encouragement of the
student for studying environmental material”.
Almost all of the conditions were fulfilled in old schools. An exception of this is the “level of difficulty of
ecological material in comparison with student’s capabilities“. There was a considerable difference between
students views about 6 didactic conditions, 5 of which were at the level of importance of 0.01 and 1 of which at a
level of importance of 0.05. The only condition for which there is no statistically significant difference is the third
one, namely: “student’s readiness for studying the environment
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ScienceDirect

Difficulties Of Students From The Faculty Of Science With Regard
To Understanding The Concepts Of Chemical Thermodynamics
Hafid Sokrat a, Soumia Tamani a, Mohammed Moutaabbid a,b and Mohamed Radid a,b*
a
ORDIPU Hassan II-Mohammedia University Faculty of Sciences Ben M'sik Casablanca Morroco
b
Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Materials Hassan II-Mohammedia University Faculty of Sciences Ben M'sik Casablanca Morroco
Abstract
The origin of this work on the learning of chemical thermodynamics at university is the recurrent finding associated with the
difficulty experienced by students, resulting in poor marks. The purpose of this study is to identify the difficult concepts in
thermodynamics, to identify possible causes of these difficulties, and to try to offer remedies for this problem. For this we
developed a three part questionnaire: - The general capabilities of the student. - The teaching conditions. - Difficulties of students
in terms of chemical thermodynamics. We undertook a survey of chemistry students in the Faculty of Science at Ben M’Sik
Casablanca. After analyzing the data we found that the difficulties encountered in association with chemical thermodynamics
may be due to several factors: - The nature of the concept studied in terms of the difficulty of understanding. Inadequate basic
knowledge, especially in mathematics. - The ability of low and middle level students with regard to the French language impedes
their ability to follow the explanations of the teacher. - Curriculum overload. - Lack of concentration during the course. - Lack of
motivation of students.
Selection
© 2013 The andAuthors.
peer review underby
Published theElsevier
responsibility of access
Ltd. Open Prof. Dr. Servet
under Bayram license.
CC BY-NC-ND
K
Selectiond and/or
d peer-review
’ diffi l iunderhresponsibility
i l h d Academic
of i hi Education
World l i and Research Center.
Keywords: student’s difficulties, chemical thermodynamics, teaching-learning
1. Introduction
Thermodynamics enjoys the reputation of being the most difficult part of the chemistry program at the
University. According to experts it is a subject that requires understanding and a conceptual training of the mind that
requires a great deal of thought. Thermodynamics is not a popular subject among students and chemists at the
University due to this perceived difficulty. It is very common to hear students say "It's not chemistry." Indeed, the
reasoning behind thermodynamics is based on ideas of physics and mathematics rather than chemistry, and yet, on
the macroscopic physics and pure (Wright, 1981).The learning of this subject requires a prior knowledge of general
mathematics and physics. Despite the importance of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics as the foundation for
chemistry, most students pass introductory courses with several misconceptions about these subjects (Banerjee,
1995; Beal, 1994; Cakmakci, Leach &Donelly, 2006; Carson and Watson, 1999; Carson and Watson, 2002; Fuchs,
1987; Granville, 1985; Johnstone, MacDonald & Webb, 1977; Ochs, 1996; Selepe and Bradley, 1997; Sozbilir,
2001; Sozbilir, 2002; Sozbilir, 2003a; Sozbilir& Bennett, 2006; Sozbilir& Bennett, 2007; Thomas, 1997). Physical
chemistry courses, where students tackle more advanced ideas of thermodynamics and kinetics, are perceived by
many students to be one of their most difficult courses (Sozbilir, 2004). Research on learning difficulties associated
with thermodynamics from elementary to undergraduate level is well documented. These studies have characterized
student conceptions of heat and temperature (e.g., Brook, Briggs, Bell & Driver, 1984; Erickson, 1979; 1980; 1985;
Grayson, Harrison &Treagust, 1995; Harrison, Grayson &Treagust, 1999; Lewis & Linn, 1994; Linn &Songer,
1991), energy (e.g., Duit, 1987; Goedhart&Kaper, 2002), phase changes (e.g., Azizoğlu, Alkan&Geban, 2006;
Osborne & Cosgrove, 1983), equilibrium (e.g., Banerjee, 1995; MacDonald, 1990; Thomas, 1997, Van
Driel&Gräber, 2002) and the second law of thermodynamics (e.g., Duit&Kesidou, 1988; Kesidou&Duit, 1993).
* Corresponding Author name. Hafid Sokrat Tel.: 00212-663-193-790

E-mail address: mradid@yahoo.fr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.223
Hafid Sokrat et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 368 – 372 369
Reviews covering students’ conceptual difficulties about several thermodynamic ideas such as heat and temperature
(Sozbilir, 2003b), chemical equilibrium (Van Driel&Gräber, 2002), chemical energetics and chemical
thermodynamics (Goedhart&Kaper, 2002) and entropy (Sozbilir, 2003a) suggest that students have significant
learning difficulties with regard to thermodynamics.
The origin of this work on the learning of chemical thermodynamics at university is the recurrent finding of the
difficulty experienced by students, resulting in poor marks. This study aims to investigate the difficult concepts in
thermodynamics and to identify possible causes of these difficulties, and to try to offer remedies for these
difficulties.
2. Research methodology.
In this research we try to provide some answers to a number of questions based on the difficulties faced by
students in the field of chemical thermodynamics. For this we developed a questionnaire consisting of 19 questions
divided into three categories:
- The general capabilities of the student.
- The teaching conditions.
- The difficulties of students in dealing with chemical thermodynamics.
2.1. Population and sample:
We conducted our survey with chemistry students in the Faculty of Science Ben M'sik. The population consisted of
two categories:
- Students in the first year of the degree program who took the thermochemistry course (31 students).
- Students in the final year of the degree program who took the thermochemistry course in S1 and the chemical
thermodynamics course in S5 (63 students).
2.2. Interpretation of the results:
After collecting the responses, the data have been examined and the frequency of
each response category was calculated.

3.1. General abilities of students:
The capabilities of most S1 students range between "average" and "inadequate". This was deemed to be the ability to
take notes (45.2%, 29.0%), to understand French (41.9%, 22.6%) to write in French (32.3%, 32.3%); and
mathematical reasoning ability (48.4%, 16.1%).
The characteristics of this sample show the very medium or low level of most students enrolling in the
faculty. They enroll only when they have no other choice or wish to become science learning fort the first time in
French. This is consistent with the fact that some teachers’ feel that the ability level of the students is the main cause
of their learning difficulties.
For students at the end of the cycle of license there is a slight improvement. Indeed we can say that most
students range between "moderate" and "good" in terms of their ability to take notes (47.6%, 27.0%), understand
French ( 46.0%, 38.1%) write in French (57.1%, 28.6%) and mathematical reasoning ability (44.4%, 30.2%).
3.2. Teaching Conditions:

A significant number of students (64.5% in S1 and 68.3% in S5) found that the contents of the courses were
appropriate to their knowledge levels.
42.9% of S1 students found that there was no consistency in the lectures, tutorials and practicals whereas this
percentage was 23.8% in S5.
The majority of students in S5 (76%) believe that there is consistency between the course and the evaluation of
knowledge, while for S1 students this percentage was 58%. Overall we can say that the poor performance of
students is not due to alack of coherence between the course and control.
- State of infrastructure, instructional materials, staffing, use of time ...
This question sheds light on the conditions under which education is delivered and with regard to which potential
370 Hafid Sokrat et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 368 – 372
problems should be solved. Unfortunately there was a high rate of non-response to these questions (about 30% in S1
and 20% in S5). One in three believe that the local conditions in terms of equipment, manpower and scheduling do
not help provide a good education..
Finally, most S1students are not satisfied with the teaching methods (48.4% unsatisfied and 29% dissatisfied),
while in terms of S5 students the dissatisfaction rate has declined but is still a source of worry (17.5% and 41.3%
unsatisfied/dissatisfied ).
Conclusion:
The student responses to the questions in this part reveal many very important points. These areas follows:
Students (especially S5) argue that there is consistency in the lectures, tutorials and practicals and between courses
and controls. On the other hand, one in three believes that the conditions (local, equipment, manpower and
scheduling) are not conducive to good learning, and most students are not satisfied with the teaching methods used.
3.3. Students' difficulties in chemical thermodynamics:

3.3. 1. S1Students:
64.5% of students at the beginning of the cycle find the thermochemistry studied in S1 to be difficult (rather difficult
for 41.9% and very difficult for 22.6%).
The difficulties arise primarily from program overload (74.2% of students), the current methods of teaching (about
60%) and finally the problem of the teaching language (French), lack of exercise time and the complexity of the
concepts (about 45%).
On the other hand, we asked students to classify some concepts in order of increasing difficulty numbering
them from 1 to 11 (one for easiest, 11 for most difficult). After processing the questionnaires, we gave each concept
a score in terms of difficulty (from 0 to number 1 to 10 for number 11) and calculated the total points for each
concept. The result is presented in Table 1:
Table 1. Points of difficulty for S1 students
Notion Spontaneity Standard Irreversible Chemical Phase Variance

state Transformation equilibrium Change
Points of 226 226 181 159 143 138
difficulty
Notion Temperature Stoichiometric Heat Entropy Enthalpy
Sufficient
Points of 128 128 127 118 89
difficulty
It follows from this ranking that spontaneity and standard state are the most difficult concepts for students,
followed by irreversibility and chemical equilibrium. These results match those found in the literature.
87.1% of S1 students experienced difficulties in thermochemistry, and only 10% of students feel they have a good
understanding of chemical thermodynamics.
These difficulties relate primarily to the understanding of the course, the methods of working, understanding the TD
concepts, and finally the amount of work.
The last item on the questionnaire was included to gauge the opinions of students with regard to means to improve
their understanding of the concepts of thermochemistry. The analysis shows that for students, reducing the course
content and an increase in hourly TD would contribute to an improvement in their level of understanding.
3.3. 1. S5Students:
53.9% of students at the end of the cycle found that chemical thermodynamics studied in S5 is difficult (rather
Hafid Sokrat et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 368 – 372 371
difficult for 33.3% and very difficult for 20.6%).
The difficulties arise primarily due to program overload (73% of respondents), the method of teaching and the lack
of time for exercises (about 40%) and lastly the lack of prerequisites, the method of teaching in tutorials and
complex concepts (about 45%). We note that French was no longer an obstacle for students.
On the other hand, we asked students to classify some concepts in order of increasing difficulty by numbering them
from 1 to 9 (1 for the easiest, 9 for the most difficult). After processing the questionnaires, we scored each concept
in terms of difficulty (from 0 for number 1 to 8 for number 9) and calculated the total points for each concept. The
result is presented in Table 2:
Table 2. Points of difficulty of S5 students
Notion Colligative State Chemical Partial Molar Real

Properties Reference Potential Quantities Solutions
Points of 342 234 227 191 191
difficulty
Notion Ideal Chaperon Phase Change Phase
Solutions Relationship Equilibrium
Points of 178 156 127 118
difficulty
It follows from this ranking that colligative properties is the most difficult concept for students, followed by the
reference state and chemical potential. On the other hand, students found the concept of phase equilibrium the
easiest. In terms of causes, we might mention the fact that the concept of colligative properties was encountered at
the end of the semester, which supports the hypothesis that the program is overloaded and this constitutes the main
reason for the difficulty encountered by students.
82.5% of S5 students experienced difficulties in dealing with chemical thermodynamics and only 4.8% of students
feel they have a good level of understanding of chemical thermodynamics. This leads us to ask questions about how
to overcome these difficulties.
These difficulties relate primarily to the amount of work, the work methods, the understanding of the course and
finally the understanding of statements in terms of the headings and corrections to the exercises.
The last item in the questionnaire was intended to gauge the opinions of students as a means of improving their
understanding of the concepts of chemical thermodynamics. The analysis shows that for students, reducing the
course content and increasing the TD contribution would lead to an improvement in their level of understanding.
4. Conclusion
The difficulties encountered in dealing with chemical thermodynamics may be due to several factors:
- The nature of the concept studied because his understanding is more or less difficult- Inadequate bases, especially
in mathematics.
- The low and middle level of the students in terms of their understanding of French impedes their ability to follow
the explanations of the teacher .
- The curriculum overload.
- Lack of concentration during the course.
- Lack of motivation on the part of the students.
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ScienceDirect
Educational assessment tools for an equitable supervision
Marie-Thérèse Salibaa
a
Holy Spirit University of Kalisk, Faculty of Sciences, B.P 446Jounieh, Lebanon
Abstract
To improve the evaluation system in higher education, I propose five supervisory tools that are compatible with an equitable
supervision, or more specifically, clinical supervision within higher education. I realized this method in one of my Masters course
with twenty students. In order to provide a justification for the development of this model, I reflect on the feedback upon
collecting the students’ views from the questionnaire distributed combining their reaction on this model. Hence, the reaction of
students and their enthusiasm to achieve better feedback will be viewed. Thus, this will consequently reflect my own feedback.
Nevertheless, student views on new developments are very important but can’t be seen as the entire justification.
Keywords: Evaluation, feedback, assessment, high education;
1. Introduction
One of the many vital tasks of the educational supervisor is evaluation; supervision and evaluation are
inseparable actions (Matthews & Crow, 2003).
Unfortunately, classroom observations are often done for the purpose of making summative judgments by
teachers. Therefore, assessments should be included in the routine reports submitted to the administration rather than
to collect data that can be used for professional growth and development.
To use data collected during teacher observations for evaluation, I propose five supervisory tools that are
compatible with a reasonable supervision within higher education. In this context, the supervisory tools suggested
might be the implementation of a:
• New assessment/strategy schedule
• Assessment of Group Work and Research to be writing
• Oral assessment on the above
• Laboratory Work assessment
• Reflect on the feedback

Corresponding Author: Marie-Thérèse Saliba.Tel: +961 9600966
marietheresesaliba@usek.edu.lb
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.215
322 Marie-Thérèse Saliba / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 321 – 327
2. Traditional methods of evaluation

At our University USEK1, the final mark awarded for a course in bachelor or Masters degree is a numerical score
of 100.
The evaluation criteria can vary from a course or program to another. They are listed on the course syllabus
distributed to students by the teacher at the beginning of the semester. Students can also consult these criteria in the
Student Booklet published by the academic unit of attachment on our university website.
My activities related to developing the quality of teaching and learning materials at the Faculty of Sciences and
Computer Engineering since 2000 were preparing and undertaking courses in: Electronics for Engineering students,
Mathematics for Agronomy, Architecture and Business students and Didactic for Masters students as well as
supervising thesis.
In general, the passing grade for a course is 70 or P/R (Pass/Repeat) for remedial courses. A score above 80 is
required for a Masters course. To provide students a critical and fair evaluation, each category of courses is treated
differently2.
2.1. Evaluation criteria for B.S and Masters students
For each course, evaluation of student work is done in accordance with the following schedule:
• Attendance and participation: 10%.
• Research works and / or projects (if any): 10 to 20%.
• Quizzes: 10 to 20%.
• Midterm: 20 to 30%.
• Final Exam: 35 to 40%.
Unfortunately, in mathematics and electronics courses for B.S students, the research works and projects are
minimized in advantage of continuous and summative exams3.
Since mathematics and electronics exams are mostly rigid and categorical, student is noted on every step he
makes during the resolution of the exercise and not only on his final result. Therefore, we test his capabilities for
scientific investigation and constructive mind rather than the memorization of theories and laws (Bachelard, 1975).
3. Problematic
My essay lies in the assessment in Masters courses. This field is poorly explored and remains a traditional built-in
evaluation system and criteria.
In our case, the important gravity of a Masters assessment is a "mark". For this, students may miss the teacher
feedback purpose; some of them may take a disoriented message from his mark because the feedback comments are
barely significant. They may concentrate only on the grades; they may rely more on memorizing than on any
constructive approach. In fact, poor feedback can cause further confusion and disengagement from the learner
(Elbra-Ramsay, 2011).
Our style does not evaluate properly the competence of students and their feedback due to the marking style
which barely shoes real competence. I believe that we cannot evaluate with a "standardized assessment", we must
establish "individualized assessments" throughout projects.
4. Assessment and feedback strategy proposed

In order to improve assessment to provide effective feedback to Masters learners, because:
1
USEK is the French name for the Holy Spirit University at Kaslik
2
Courses Marks and Alphabetical equivalents are available on the USEK website.
3
Note that, midterm and final exam must be presented anonymously and they are unified for all sections and branches in USEK.
Marie-Thérèse Saliba / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 321 – 327 323
• Assessment is at the heart of the student experience (S. Brown, Rust, & G.Gibbs, 1994)
• From our students’ point of view, assessment always defines the actual curriculum (Ramsden, 1992)
• Assessment defines what students regard as important, how they spend their time and how they come to
see themselves as students and then as graduates . . . If you want to change student learning then change
the methods of assessment (G. Brown, 1997).
Since our main focus is on representing a meaning for an assessment feedback, in purpose to overpass any
learning gap and enhance of self- monitoring, I suggest introducing five steps to allow effective feedback within
Masters Education:
• New assessment strategy/ schedule
• Group works and research/projects to be in writing
• Oral assessment on the above
• Laboratory activities
In the fifth step, I should reflect on the feedback upon collecting the students’ views from the questionnaire
distributed. The reaction of students will be viewed, their literature through their written and oral presentations, their
group work and their enthusiasm to achieve better feedback. Those steps will consequently reflect my own
feedback.
5. Implementation
5.1. New assessment strategy/ schedule:
To be compatible with this strategy and act upon it, I must change accordingly the assessment strategy for
Masters courses as follow:
• Attendance and participation: 10%.
• Group Work and Research projects in writing and in Oral presentation: 60%.
• Laboratory work: 30%
Here, quizzes and exams are omitted. This allows my students to have better time to schedule their work as may
be different from other institutional regulations; despite the fact that I may not have the authority to change other
institutional regulations. However, I am confident that the above weighted assessment could result in better
feedback by both students and myself; because it causes less anxiety on the part of the students and therefore their
work would be at ease, it would reflect better their capabilities and would improve future performance.
5.2. Assessment of Group Work and Research projects in writing
A learning environment by group work and research would increase continuity of content in a course, supports
the links between the different disciplines, make a break with the teaching and learning routines that fragmentize
courses in scattered subjects.
(Vellas, 2008) argued that all researches and collaborative work are designed to make the learner active so he
could better build and learn.
In this situation of a collaborative project and research, feedback must be written to encourage and develop
rationale and self- criticism for the students.
I adopt the study of (Rust, 2002) for marking and feedback in order to promote learning and facilitate
improvement4. Feedback should:
Be prompt, start off with a positive and encouraging comment, include a brief summary of my
view of the assignment, relate specifically to the learning outcomes and assessment criteria,
balance negative with positive comments, turn all criticism into positive suggestions, ask questions
which encourage reflection about the work, use informal, conversational language, explain all my
4
Adapted from an unpublished workshop handout of David Jaques;
comments, suggest follow-up work and references, suggest specific ways to improve the
assignment and to go about the next assignment, offer help with specific problems [...].
In this strategy, to get my assessment goal, feedback should be written in a clear language and punctuated in a
positive way. I should enlighten the learning outcomes and assessment criteria and explain my comments. In
general, my feedback should initiate follow-up in order to improve future assignments. Currently, this method is not
fully implemented because the work is based mostly on quizzes and midterm exams which reflect memory work
more than competence.
5.3. Oral assessment to be presented by Power point
To start an oral activity inside the class, I must indicate to the students what things they have to focus on during
their oral presentation. During their presentation, I should figure out their purpose, activate background knowledge
of the topic in order attend to the relevant parts. By training the students to present their work, I could help them
improve their language, their listening and their communication skills.
The other students, the listeners, will be able to concentrate, focus on the important information and summarize
what they have listened to. On the other hand, by acting as a jury in a thesis defense; asking specific explanations
and recommending some information on the topic, they will acquire skills that help them argue better and make
decisions.
5.3.1. Impact of oral presentation assessment

Being observed by their colleagues (Peer observation) would provide unthreatening way of addressing a problem.
It would extend curiosity that drives much of the best research into learning and stimulate critical reflection on oral
presentation performance. The observers are well used to give feedback to the oral assessment of their colleagues.
Nevertheless, oral assessment could be boring if it is long or hard to understand. The observers may not take
presentation seriously.
5.4. Laboratory work assessment
In a context of laboratory work assessment, the learner explores the situation of experience, considering solutions
by adopting a process of “trial and error”.
The implementation of laboratory work will be manifested in a collaborative learning. As a teacher, I organize
the teams so that the members are homogeneous, which places me in a good position to evaluate the work of each
member, to follow the schedule, plans, writing and presentation of the laboratory reports. This organization would
relieve me of formative assessments as the work is done by well-defined steps in a given period of time.
5.4.1. Impact of laboratory work assessment

In the situation of a laboratory work assessment, the learning environment plays a key role in the acquisition of
knowledge and expertise. As a teacher, I could initiate a cognitive challenge for students taking into consideration
several factors: the level of study, the time to complete their task, the technological equipment available... my
purpose as a teacher would be to test the students’ abilities to demonstrate:
• Performance in expressing their knowledge in activities;
• Knowledge of negotiating and defending their adopted solutions;
• Focusing on the functionality of their laboratory work by organizing and bypassing the difficulties that
emerge;
• Competence in unified group work;
This learning environment would relieve me as a teacher of many tasks to better focus on deepening procedures
and coordinating the group work. In this strategy, we should move from a paradigm where the situation is a teacher
centered and the student is merely a receiver. The student is an actor and responsible for his learning (Giardina,
Depover, & Marton, 1998).
6. Reflect on the feedback strategy
For almost 15 minutes, my 20 Masters students in DID680 course, have completed and have returned their
anonymous answer sheet (Table 1: Questionnaire and Comments)5. Although their projects and lab work are
conducted as groups, their responses on the questionnaire are individual.
According to students’ responses to questions 1, 2 and 8 (Use of feedback): 18/20 of students agree that feedback
prompt them to go back over material covered in the course. Therefore, I conclude that their feedback is helpful for
future understanding and progress.
According to students’ responses to questions 4, 5, 11and 17 (Coverage of syllabus):17/20 students assume that
the assessment system made them quite selective and strategic about what parts of courses they studied. Hence,
students get a clear picture about the syllabus and so they were able to select what is better regarding their
performance.
According to students’ responses to questions 3, 15 and 16 (Quantity and quality of feedback): the feedback
showed that 18/20students were satisfied with the way they received their grades on this assessment system.
According to students’ responses to questions 10, 14 and 18 (Appropriate assessment): the students’ answers
show that, unlike the old strategy, this method is based on comprehension rather than memorization.
According to students’ responses to question 24 (Overall Satisfaction): 20/20 students were satisfied; hence, I
conclude that my method of assessment gives accurate and appropriate feedback.
According to students’ responses to questions 7, 9 and 12 (Clear goals and standards): the statistics show that
students have clear idea about the goals and the standards of the course.
According to students’ responses to questions 20 and 21 (Deep Approach): most of my Masters students seek
deep understanding more than superficial ones.
Noting that, while reflecting on my feedback strategy, I have considered “agree” and “strongly agree” students as
“agree”. Regarding “neutral” students, I have assumed that either they didn’t understand the question or they didn’t
want to show their opinion.
According to students’ Comments: my students believe that this new way was very helpful because it led them to
research better and understand the course before coming to class. Information was diversified in that, every one
made his own research regarding the same subject. Most of them considered that the oral assessment improved their
self confidence and clarified new topics. In addition, they appreciated the oral assessment because they could
express their ideas in front of their colleagues and that could make them understand better what they are talking
about. Still others enjoyed the course because they were not frightened or stressed about exams and they had the
freedom to research and apply their knowledge in a relaxed atmosphere. Students start caring more about the notes
provided rather than their marks on the subject.
7. Conclusion and prospective

To use data collected during teacher observations for evaluation, I have proposed five supervisory tools within
higher education. By implementing this method, feedback from students showed that they are satisfied and relaxed;
they feel capable to select what parts of the course to study and comprehend rather than memorize it. Hence,
students get a coherent picture about the syllabus and so they were able to decide on what is better regarding their
performance.
For Oral Assessment, as an evaluator, I have received immediate reactions and responses. I realize that, oral
assessment is very time-consuming; in this strategy, clear assessment criteria are required so that students would be
fully aware of how the performance will be judged to increase reliability. They seemed ephemeral because there is
no record of the process itself to ensure its fairness.
5
The individual answer sheets could be find by contacting the author on: marietheresesaliba@usek.edu.lb
For the Research Assessment strategy, I assume that, although it may not be directly relevant, it can build
student’s sincerity and credibility and develop professional skills and significant analysis.
My main idea of Group Project Assessment strategy is that real-world problems capture students' interest and
provoke serious thinking to solve a problem. Students need to do much more than remember information; they need
to use thinking skills, they also have to learn to work as a team and contribute to a group effort. They must listen to
others and make their own ideas clear when speaking, be able to read a variety of material, write and express
themselves in various modes, and make efficient and impressive presentations.
For Lab Assessment strategy, I noticed that, from my students’ answers and their reaction in lab, using a student-
centered design promote student’s motivation; it engages them in active learning, encourages students’ creativity
and provides an avenue for student self-assessment and reflection. Usually this strategy is the most costly approach
by time consuming and by designing and executing lab work for both students and well trained teachers.
My prospective is to put into practice these tools in higher education for an equitable evaluation. This method
allows for transparent supervision where data collected by teachers is shared with other teachers openly and
explicitly in order to help them understand their performance better and determine their points of weakness and
those of strength. Then teachers, along with the coordinators, come up with an action plan to help them improve
their performance.
8. Tables
Table 1: Assessment Experience Questionnaire and Comments you would like to make
strongly disagree
strongly agree
disagree
neutral
agree
1 The feedback received prompts me to go back over what I had done in my work 0 0 2 11 7
2 I used the feedback I received to reflect over material covered in the course 0 0 4 9 7
3 The feedback received on my work is not clear 5 9 0 4 2
4 I had to study the entire syllabus to do well in the assessment 5 0 4 7 4
5 It was possible to be selective about what parts of course I should study due to the assessment system 0 2 2 13 4
6 I had to put the hours of study regularly every week 0 0 7 5 7
7 It was constantly easy to know the work expected 0 2 5 11 2
8 I paid vigilant attention to feedback on my work 0 0 0 0 20
9 The outcomes of the course made by the teacher are clear 0 0 0 0 20
10 The teacher was more interested in testing what I had memorized than what I understood 7 5 4 4 0
11 It was possible to choose topics I could afford not to study 0 0 9 7 4
12 The expectations in this course seemed not enlightened enough 9 5 0 5 0
13 I had to work consistently hard to meet the assessment requirements 2 2 5 9 2
14 Teacher always asked me questions just about facts 0 0 5 15 0
15 I didn’t understand some of the feedback on my work 9 11 0 0 0
16 The feedback received on my work came too late to be useful 15 5 0 0 0
17 I had to study every topic due to the assessment way 2 0 7 7 4
18 I needed a good memory to do well in the assessment 9 5 5 0 0
19 I usually memorize important facts which may come in useful later 2 2 2 9 5
20 I usually get started to understand what I am asked to study 0 7 0 7 5
21 I often question myself about facts that I heard in classes or read in books 0 0 5 9 5
22 I had to concentrate on memorizing a good deal of what we have to learn 0 9 5 9 0
23 I had to study things without having a chance to really understand them 13 7 0 0 0
24 Generally I was satisfied with the quality of this assessment 0 0 0 416
References
Bachelard, G. (1975). La formation de l’esprit scientifique (Contribution à une psychanalyse de la connaissance objective). In Vrin (Ed.). Paris.
Brown, G. (1997). Assessing Student Learning in Higher Education. In. London: Routledge.
Brown, S., Rust, C., & G.Gibbs. (1994). Strategies for Diversifying Assessment in Higher Education. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Staff and
Learning Development.
Elbra-Ramsay, C. (2011). Can Quality Marking be used to provide effective feedback within higher education? The Journal of Pedagogic
Development, University of Bedfordshire, Volume 1 Issue 2
Giardina, M., Depover, C., & Marton, P. (1998). Les environnements dàpprentissage multimédia: analyse et conception. Montréal.
Matthews, L., & Crow, G. (2003). Being and becoming a principal: Role conceptions for contemporary principals and assistant principals.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher Education.
Rust, C. (2002). The impact of assessment on student learning. Sage publications- London, 3(2), 145- 158.
Vellas, E. (2008). La mise en œuvre des pédagogies actives et constructivistes. Enjeux pédagogiques, n°10: p. 5.(Université de Genève. FPSE).
ScienceDirect
Educational means for the study of the geometry of architectural

forms
Diana Giureaa*, Cristian Gheorghe Dumitrescua, Alexandru Malaescua
a
Faculty of Architecture, Traian Lalescu 2A,Timisoara 300223,Romania
Abstract
This paper presents an exercise which aims to stimulate architect students’ creativity, raise awareness on architectures’ formal
possibilities based on geometric shapes and to illustrate how the theoretical knowledge can be practically applied on a certain
architectural program. As basic information for this exercise, the types and the features of the main structural geometric forms
are enumerated while student work exemplifies their use in a particular case.
©
2013 The Authors Published
Published by
by Elsevier
ElsevierLtd.
Ltd.Open
All rights reserved
Selection and peer
peer-review theresponsibility
under responsibility
of of Prof. Dr.World
Academic ServetEducation
Bayram.and Research Center.
Keywords: architecture, form, geometry, didactics, student work.
1. Introduction
By definition, the term “form” describes the shape and structure of an object. In architecture, from a formal point
of view, the shape of the designed object can be, on the one hand, a singular form with precise or accurate
indentifiable geometric features, and, on the other hand, can also come as a result from a spatial combination of
various shapes.
For an architecture student, the study of form and how he/she can operate with it must take place in the early
years of formation in order to raise awareness of the formal possibilities and to stimulate creativity. Taking into
consideration that there is an infinite number of shapes, the student will be presented a limited range of forms which
are often employed in the field of architecture. Thus, the starting point of the study will analyze each category,
underlining the constructive elements and the relation between them, criteria for classification and some ways of
using them in architectural practice. This part encompasses basic theoretical information that will be used in the
practical exercise called “Structural forms” carried out at the Faculty of Architecture in Timisoara in the second year
of study of the Bachelor programme. Throughout this exercise, the student observes and filters, in his own way, the
images he or she sees, makes intuitive connections and can cover all kinds of forms. He/she will try to solve the
structural dilemmas within each category of shapes and will also try not to control the form so that it fits the ideal
structure and function, attempting to find a free plastic expression of architecture.
*Corresponding Author: Giurea Diana. Tel.: +4-0746-699-276

E-mail address: diana.giurea@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.160
14 Diana Giurea et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 13 – 18
2. Structural geometric forms
In order to design complex objects, an architect must be able to operate with basic forms which automatically
implies that he/she has a minimum amount of knowledge about the basic geometric shapes and their characteristics.
There is an infinite number of shapes, but for this exercise only seven types are being studied: polyhedral forms, thin
curved slabs, ruled surfaces, suspended structures, pneumatic structures, helical surfaces and transformed or
composed forms. The reason why the study focuses only on these geometric forms is that they all have in common a
structural feature which can be used in generating architectural objects.
2.1. Polyhedral forms
The shape of the polyhedral forms is characterized by a multitude of straight surfaces and edges. Polyhedral
forms comprise the approximation of a curved surface with a polyhedron highlighted by surfaces and edges(Pottman
H.). These types of geometric forms can be classified using the following criteria:
• Geometrical – the basic form can be regular, semi-regular or irregular
• Position in space – the relation between the shape and a supporting plane
• Three-dimensional equipartition – using regular or semi-regular polyhedron
• Three-dimensional relation – with identical or different forms, through extraction or intersection, resulting
in complex shapes
• Structural – folded, tetrahedral, pyramidal and faceted structure
Thin, curved slabs
The structures made of thin, curved slabs are also known as membranes, fabrics, free-standing surfaces or shells.
Their thickness is insignificant; the enclosed volume is the same with the exterior shape. The architectural value of
these forms reside in the balance between scope, durability, aesthetic and economic aspects. In contrast with the
massive structures that rely on the quantity of the material, the membrane structures use the shape itself, which gives
fastness to the structure. Moreover, these types of structures imply a rational use of construction materials and are
lighter. The categories of curved slabs result from the type of the curvature and the surface generation method. The
curvature can be positive, void, negative or mixed while the generation method is revolution, cyclic, translation or
ruled.
2.2. Ruled surfaces
Ruled surfaces have two main elements: the generatrix and the directrices. The generatrix is a straight line that
generates the ruled surface and is placed on three directrices which are curved lines. Ruled surfaces can be divided
into two main categories: single – curved surfaces and wrapped surfaces.
The former can be unfolded onto a plan, without having superposed or torn parts. The latter are characterized by
the variation of their tangent plan. At any new position of the point on the generatrix, there is a new tangent plan to
the surface. Wrapped surfaces can also be classified into several subcategories according to the placement of the
straight line which generates them.
Suspended structures
Suspended structures use the tent principle. The component elements of these structures are steel cables,
supporting poles or frames and the roof covering which can be flexible, semi-rigid or rigid. Depending on the types
of elements used and the way they are combined, one can identify several formal categories of suspended structures
• Cables and rigid plane plates – with concrete or metal plates hanged by steel cables;
Diana Giurea et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 13 – 18 15
• Single-curved – usually with a cylindrical form;

• Network of cables disposed on two or more directions – having opposite curvatures and semi-rigid cover
made of plastic, supported on plane or curved contours, on cables, on arcs and cables or in three-
dimensional variants;
• Tensile canvases – supported or hanged by cables;
• Tensegrity – a rigid spatial structure.
Pneumatic structures
This type of structures include air amongst structural materials which becomes a supporting structural element
due to the difference in pressure levels between two adjacent environments, separated by a thin fabric, always being
subdued to tensile forces.
The pneumatic structure is composed of the membrane with steel cables and the base ring where the air-blowers
are fixed. When the compressed air is pushed inside, the membrane is inflated and the steel cables get tensile,
pulling the anchorages from the compressed ring. The air pressure supports the weight of the membrane and stiffens
it, making it rigid enough to support the suction forces created by winds. The interior is used both for extending the
membrane and for anchoring the cables. From a structural point of view, pneumatic structures can be (Figure 5):
• Simple – with a single alveoli;
• Double – with polygonal contours, covering a space with one or more spatial elements;
• Ribbed – using the rigid tubes concept.
Figure 1. Simple, double and ribbed structures (C. Dumitrescu)
2.3. Helical surfaces
Helical surfaces or coils are surfaces generated by a C curve which moves along a spiral axis. The helical surface
can be straight or inclined. The former is generated if the generatrix is contained in a perpendicular plan on the axis
and the latter when the plan is otherwise. There are two types of coils (Figure 1):
• With a cylindrical nucleus- generated by a line which is supported by a helix and is tangent to the cylinder
• Without a cylindrical nucleus – generated by a line which is supported by a helix and intersects the axis in a
constant angle
In architectural practice, the helical surfaces are widely used in the design of stairs, helicoidal ramps, furniture
items etc.
Figure 2 Coil with and without a cylindrical nucleus (C. Dumitrescu)

2.4. Transformed or composed forms
The conversion of the geometrical shapes presented above intends to obtain singular forms whose initial
characteristics can be easily identified or composed forms acquired with the juxtaposition of several basic shapes.
The first principle of transformation consists of choosing a basic geometric form and altering it using different
operations to the extent that its formal and structural characteristics are still recognizable. The operating methods
can be classified into (Figure 3):
• Proportion transformation – the modification of one or more dimensions, but keeping the original shape
• Extractions and/or additions -
• Geometrical transformations- using translation, rotation, rototranslation or homology
• Intersections – a basic volume is intersected by other volumes.
Figure 3. Proportion transformation, extractions, additions, geometrical transformation, intersections (C. Dumitrescu)
On the other hand, the second transformation principle operates in terms of addition with basic volumes which
have the same morphology. In this case, the relations established between them differ according to the way they
interact and to their spatial disposal.
3. “Structural forms” exercise
In architecture, didactics is a subject with a practical, applied feature which forms habits and competencies for
the future architects.
The Faculty of Architecture in Timisoara carries out, among the general training subjects, in the first years of
study, a “Study of Form” course and seminar – a second year subject which covers two semesters. The course aims
to train the student in building up his or her three-dimensional perception and to correctly relate to simple or
complex forms, both in 2D and 3D coordinates. The first exercise in the second semester called “Structural forms” is
used to apply a series of forms, studied in “Geometry of Architectural Forms” course during the first academic year,
on to an architectural function. This architectural programme is different every year. The students have to choose
four out of the seven formal categories enunciated above and have to apply them to their project. The choice they
have to make is conditioned by solving some issues:
• documenting the proposed architectural program;
• knowing the characteristics of the studied structural forms in details;
• fitting the requested architectural program which has certain dimensional and functional requirements into the
chosen structural form;
• outlining fixed, structural and variable elements which give the specific feature to the chosen form (in space
and time);
• outlining preferences towards certain categories of forms, meant to outline their creative personality and
form a personal architectural style.
This exercise is a reference point in the professional training of the architecture student who, in this way,
discovers the diversity of the architectural forms in direct relation to their structure. Later on, during the last years of
Diana Giurea et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 13 – 18 17
study or during the real projects, he/she will have this diversity at his/her disposal when dealing with complex
buildings.
The exercise consists of a hand drawing on paper having the dimensions 60x60cm on which the student
represents graphically four design solutions for the architectural programme using the above-mentioned formal
categories. The four proposals use the same contour which is highlighted in every horizontal and axonometric view.
Moreover, the paper is accompanied by a scale model having the pedestal of 30x30cm made of materials that are
easy to obtain, as it can be seen in the illustrative part of the present paper.
4. Student work
Several examples of student drawings from the past two years are presented in the illustrative part of the paper.
They present design solutions given by students to the requirements of the assignment, using the above mentioned
structural geometric forms. As it can be clearly seen, there are certain graphic requirements to outline the proposed
solutions.
5. Recommendations
In order to achieve high-quality design solutions and to assure the assimilation of a minimum amount of
information regarding the geometry of architectural forms , the following aspects should be taken into consideration:
• Given that this exercise should take place in the first years of formation, the representation of the paper
should use hand drawings. The reason for this requirement resides in the fact that before and during the
act of hand drawing, one visualizes and anticipates the outcome more easily than while working with
computers;
• The hand-drawn paper must be accompanied by a scale model of one of the four design solutions in
order to verify the correct use of the geometrical forms mentioned above;
• The guidance throughout the exercise must combine both solving functional and aesthetic problems
concerning the structural form and overall design of the students’ projects;
• Preliminary study of built examples that are relevant to the formal categories should be undertaken;
• The data for the architectural programme selected for design study should specify only the major
functional areas accompanied by a functional scheme so that the student could understand correctly the
relations between them.
6. Conclusions
The success of this proposed exercise can be evaluated in two stages: firstly, at the end of the exercise when the
outcome is presented and secondly, during his/her practice as an architect. When dealing with this exercise, architect
students acquire several skills:
• Ease in operating with the components of the architectural design: form-function-structure;
• Awareness regarding the possibilities in which the architectural forms adapt to the structural characteristics
enunciated above;
• Increased three-dimensional perception of forms acquired while working on the scale model;
• Acquirement of a basic technical language that will facilitate future collaboration with the structural
engineers.
References
Dumitrescu, C. ,(2008). Geometria formelor structurale. Timisoara: Politehnica Ed.

Pottmann, Helmut (2007). Architectural geometry (first edition). Bentley Institute Press.
Moussavi, F., &Lopez, D. (2009). The function of form. Actar and Harvard Graduate School of Design, 442-454, 478-482.
Itten, J., (1997). Design and Form, The Basic Course at the Bauhaus.London: Thames and Hudson.
Yavuz,A.,O., & Yıldırım, T. (2012). Utilization of digital-alghoritmic design tools in architectural basic design education. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, Volume 51, 307-310.
Lukas, J.. (2001). Geometry of visual space. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001, Pages 16274-16278,
(Chapter 2).
Arnheim , R. (1977). The Dynamics of Architectural Form. California: University of California press.
March, L., & Steadman P.(1971). The Geometry of Environment. London: RIBA Publications.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/form
ScienceDirect
Effect of Gender on Students’ Scientific Reasoning Ability : A Case

Study in Thailand
Chakkrapan Piraksaa, Niwat Srisawasdib*, Rekha Koulc
a,b
Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, 123 Mittraphap High-Way, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand
c
Science and Mathematics Education Centre (SMEC), Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth WA 6845, Australia
Abstract
As scientific literacy is currently considered the central goal for development of the 21st century citizens, scientific reasoning
ability is determined as an important factor for fostering student performance in science learning. Many science education
researchers have reported that gender influenced students’ understanding and their attitudes toward science. However, there are
not much investigation in the area of the interactions between gender and scientific reasoning ability. In order to gain more
understanding on issue, this study aims to examine the effect of gender on students’ scientific reasoning ability in a context of
Thailand. A total of 400 Grade 11 students from four co-educational schools in Northeastern region of Thailand participated in
the study. The widely used and pre-validated Lawson Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning (LCTSR) Lawson (2000) was
administered to investigate students’ scientific reasoning ability in six constructs namely (i) Conservation of Mass and Volume
(CMV), (ii) Proportional Thinking (PPT), (iii) Control of Variables (CV), (iv) Probabilistic Thinking (PBT), (v) Correlational
Thinking (CT), and (vi) Hypothetical-deductive Reasoning (HDR). The results indicated that the gender does not significantly
impact on students’ scientific reasoning ability for each construct. In addition, the lowest mean score for the students’ scientific
reasoning ability were HDR, CV, PPT, respectively, for both genders. The finding of this indicated that there is critical area for
improvement of students’ scientific reasoning ability. This also implied that instructional pedagogy in science classroom should
be more emphasized on the way of teaching that (i) how to reason casually based on hypothesis generation (ii) how to design
well fair science experiment, and (iii) how to determine correlation and conversation between target variables, in order to
enhance the development of students’ scientific reasoning ability.
Selectionand/or
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Scientific reasoning, Gender, Lawson Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning;
1. Introduction
Educational reform in the United States focus on the need for scientific literacy to prepare 21st century workforce
(Bybee & Fuchs, 2006; Dani, 2009). Scientific literacy is currently considered as a central goal and critical learning
outcome for science education standard in several countries(Bybee, 2008; Dahsah & Coll, 2007; Dani, 2009). In
*Corresponding Author: Niwat Srisawasdi. Tel.: +6-681-775-9559

E-mail address: niwsri@kku.ac.th
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.245
Chakkrapan Piraksa et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 486 – 491 487
addition, Lawson (2009) referred to scientific literacy as an instructional goal, typically includes students’
understanding of the nature of science and scientific reasoning. Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions
from principles and evidence to new conclusions(Lee & She, 2010; Piraksa, Phaprom, Artdej, & Srisawasdi, 2011).
Zimmerman (2005) argued that scientific reasoning includes the thinking skills involved in inquiry,
experimentation, evidence evaluation, inference, and argumentation. Scientific reasoning consists of an overall
pattern of reasoning typically includes the hypothetico-deductive and several sub-patterns, which can be
characterized as formal operational schema such as combinatorial proportions and correlations (Lawson, 2004;
Piajet, 1985). Lawson (2004) examined the reasoning patterns with the Hasler case study. The results showed that
scientific inquiry and scientific reasoning as a process that seeks causes for puzzling observations as follows: 1) the
identification of puzzling observations 2) the use of analogical reasoning to generate hypotheses typically include
the specific predictions based on the hypothesis and its planned test 3) planned test are conducted and data are
collected and analyzed. Also, Weld, Stier, and Birren (2011) reported that scientific reasoning as ability to define a
science question, plan a way to answer the question, analyzes data, and interpret results.
In addition, Moore and Rubbo (2012) demonstrated that differences in student populations are important for
comparison between normalized gains on concept inventories and the achievement on scientific reasoning. Lee and
She (2010) investigated the Dual Situated Learning Model (DSLM) in order to develop students’ conceptual change
and ability to reason scientifically. The results indicated that scientific reasoning plays an important role in the
process of conceptual change. The results of their study were clear that the critical point is how to enable the
instructional design to activate scientific reasoning which is required in teaching and learning science (Lee & She,
2010; Piraksa et al., 2011). Therefore, several educators indicated that relations between instructional methods and
development of scientific reasoning ability have been broadly studied and have showed that inquiry-based classroom
science instructions promote scientific reasoning ability (Bao et al., 2009; Lawson, 1994; Weld et al., 2011;
Zimmerman, 2007). In other words, Johnson and Lawson (1998) found that the effect of reasoning ability and prior
knowledge on biology in inquiry classes is higher than in expository classes. In addition, the integrative use of
computer-based laboratory environments as part of science instructions(Friedler, Nachmias, & Linn, 1990; Gunhaart
& Srisawasdi, 2012; Liao & She, 2009; She & Liao, 2009).
The current study aimed to find out answer to the question: Is there a gender difference with scientific reasoning
ability?
2. Literature review
2.1. Gender difference
In relation to the gender difference, some educators indicated that no significant difference in the scientific
reasoning between males and females (Al-Zoubi, El-shar'a, & Al-Salam, 2009; Dimitrov, 1999; Lappan, 2000;
Valamides, 1996). Al-Zoubi et al. (2009) found that there was no significant difference in the ability of scientific
reasoning with respect to gender based on Lawson’s test. Valamides (1996) investigated the substantial deficiencies
in the students’ reasoning ability which was related to proportional reasoning items. The results showed that no
difference was found, while others reported significant gender difference (Soyibo, 1999; Valanides, 1997; Yang,
2004; Young & Fraser, 1994). Spelke (2006) revealed that males and females showed somewhat different cognitive
profiles. Marcia and Steven (1983) investigated the role of aptitudes and experiences in gender differences in
scientific reasoning. The results showed that scientific reasoning task known to be solved by males more frequently
than females.Yang (2004) reported that males were found to be better than females in constructing and using
theories. Similarly, the study conducted by Valanides (1997) showed that males had significantly better performance
than females on probabilistic reasoning.
488 Chakkrapan Piraksa et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 486 – 491
3. Method
3.1. Research design
This research was conducted to explore the effect of gender on students’ scientific reasoning ability by using a
survey research.
3.2. Study participants
The participants in this study were 400 Grade 11 students from four co-educational schools in Northeastern
region of Thailand participated in the study. The study was administered to a group of 14 school students from 4
different schools size and study was carried out in the second semester of year 2011–2012. 400 grade 11 students
from various school size, participated in the study; 200 students (58 males, 142 females) were from small school
size, 65 students (30 males, 35 females) were from medium school size. 95 students (27 males, 68 females) were
from large school size, and 40 students (12 males, 28 females) were from extra-large school size.
3.3. Instrument
The Lawson Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning (LCTSR) (Lawson, 2000) was first developed in 1978 and
revised in 2000. The LCTSR consists of 12 two tier questions and thus 24 items. Each question has a second tier
question designed to measure student’s in-depth scientific understanding of the process. The concepts measured by
the instruments were: Conservation of Mass and Volume (CMV) (items 1, 2, 3 and 4), Proportional Thinking (PPT)
(items 5, 6, 7 and 8), Control of Variables (CV) (items 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14), Probabilistic Thinking (PBT)
(items 15,16,17 and 18), Correlational Thinking (CT) (items 19, 20), and Hypothetical-deductive Reasoning (HDR)
(items 21, 22, 23 and 24). The instrument had been established validity and reliability. For example, Lawson, Banks,
and Logvin (2007) demonstrated a posttest cronbach’s α was 0.79. She and Lee (2008) demonstrated cronbach’s α
was 0.71 for the pretest, 0.61 for the post-test, and 0.76 for the retention-test. Reliability of the test was found to be
0.71 by calculating internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha which is considered reasonable for use in the study.
Correct responses were awarded one point that be given for both correct answer.
3.4. Domain of scientific reasoning ability
Patterns of scientific reasoning as a domain of scientific reasoning ability includes (i) Conservation of Mass and
Volume (CMV), (ii) Proportional Thinking (PPT), (iii) Control of Variables (CV), (iv) Probabilistic Thinking
(PBT), (v) Correlational Thinking (CT), and (vi) Hypothetical-deductive Reasoning (HDR).
3.4.1. Conservation of Mass and Volume(CMV)

The Conservation of Mass and Volume as involves two objects of identical size, shape, and weight. Students are
asked about the relative weights of the pieces when the objects weigh the same by placing them on opposite ends of
a balance beam.
3.4.2. Proportional Thinking(PPT)

Proportional Thinking can be conceptualized in the following ways: identification of two extensive variables that
are applicable to a problem that recognition of the rate of intensive variables whose constancy determines the linear
function; and application of the given data and relationships to find an additional value for one extensive variable or
comparison of two values of the intensive variable computed from the data as a comparison problem.
3.4.3. Control of Variable(CV)

Control of Variables is defined as the process which includes controlling the dependent and independent
variables that affect the continuity of the situation while test in the hypothesis.
3.4.4. Probabilistic Thinking(PBT)

Probabilistic Thinking as a situation in which are interested in the fraction of the number of repetitions of a
particular process that produces a particular result when repeated under identical circumstances a large number of
times.
3.4.5. Correlational Thinking(CT)

Correlational Thinking as the thought patterns individuals use to determine the strength of mutual or reciprocal
relationships between variables such as relationships allow for the making of predictions during scientific
exploration.
3.4.6. Hypothetical-deductive Reasoning(HDR)

Hypothetical-deductive Reasoning as the characteristics of the reasoning process which yields developing and
organizing possible solutions for dealing with a problem in any step and domain of life.
3.5. Data collection and analysis
For investigating students’ scientific reasoning ability, the LCTSR was administered to the students at the physics
classroom. For analysis of students scientific reasoning ability significance of gender differences was analyzed using
mean, standard deviation, and paired t-test for comparisons between gender scores.
4. Results and discussions
The comparison of students’ scientific reasoning ability scores using mean, standard deviation, and t-test
independent discovered that students’ scores in scientific reasoning ability were no differences between males and
females (p<.05). The paired t-test for students’ scientific reasoning ability are display in Table 1.
Table 1. Paired t-test results for mean difference on LCTSR based on gender
Reasoning patterns Gender N Mean S.D. t

Conservation of Mass Males 127 0.879 0.578 1.408
1.408
and Volume (CMV) Females 273 0.787 0.612
Proportional Thinking Males 127 0.459 0.554 0.751
0.751
(PPT) Females 273 0.509 0.631
Control of Variables Males 127 0.465 0.386 0.595
0.595
(CV) Females 273 0.488 0.360
Probabilistic Thinking Males 127 0.677 0.585 0.809
0.809
(PBT) Females 273 0.625 0.587
Correlational Thinking Males 127 0.685 0.642 0.870
0.870
(CT) Female 273 0.625 0.625
Hypothetical-deductive Male 127 0.423 0.418 0.795
0.795
Reasoning (HDR) Female 273 0.388 0.391
The results showed that there were no differences between genders. The evidence is consistent with research
finding of Valamides (1996), Dimitrov (1999), and Al-Zoubi et al. (2009) that no differences were found among
males and females in the scientific reasoning ability. However, descriptive scores for specific scientific reasoning
patterns were generated as assessed by the LCTSR. Students within the observed population demonstrated
significant difficulties with PPT, CV, and HDR. Our result confirm the findings of Moore and Rubbo (2012) that
students had significant difficulties with CV, and HDR. Interestingly, scientific methods were necessary to develop
both CV and HDR. The students in this study showed low performance on PPT which could attribute to poor
490 Chakkrapan Piraksa et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 486 – 491
preparation in mathematics. Student’s difficulty with CV could be attributed to the fact that the teaching intervention
were lacked of emphasis on laboratory.
5. Conclusions and implementations
A Scientific reasoning has significant instructional implications for enhancing students’ scientific reasoning
ability (Zeineddin & Abd-El-Khalick, 2010). The results also revealed that there is no interaction between gender
and ability to reason scientifically, that is the scientific reasoning ability effect does not depend on gender. This
finding highlights the importance of the need for instructional design that is focused on supporting content
knowledge might not suffice to promote scientific reasoning ability among students. Therefore, devising curricula
that focus on promote students’ scientific reasoning, especially PPT, CV and HDR patterns. Moreover, it is
suggested that science instructions should be taught by inquiry-based methods(Johnson & Lawson, 1998; Lawson,
1995; Weld et al., 2011; Zimmerman, 2007), computer-based laboratories(Friedler et al., 1990; Gunhaart &
Srisawasdi, 2012; Liao & She, 2009; She & Liao, 2009) which foster students ’scientific reasoning ability as the
core of scientific literacy.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand, for a financial support
of contributing this present research. And Khon Kaen University for opportunities in conducting and presenting the
study.
References
Al-Zoubi, T., El-shar'a, I., & Al-Salam, M. K. (2009). The Scientific Reasoning Level of Students’ In the Faculty of Science In Al-Hussein Bin
Talal University and Its Affection of Gender, Teaching level, and Specialization. An-Najah University Journal for Research -
Humanities, 23(2), 401-437.
Bao, L., Cai, T., Koenig, K., Fang, K., Han, J., Wang, J., . . . Wu, N. (2009). Learning and Scientific Reasoning. Science, 323, 586-587.
Bybee, R. W. (2008). Scientific literacy, environmental issues, and PISA2006: The 2008 Paul F Brandwein. Journal of Science Education and
Technology, 17, 566-585.
Bybee, R. W., & Fuchs, B. (2006). Preparing the 21st century workforce: A new reform in science and technology education. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching, 43, 349-352.
Dahsah, C., & Coll, R. K. (2007). Thai grade 10 and 11 students understanding of stoichiometry and related concepts. International Journal of
Science and Mathematics Education, 1-27.
Dani, D. (2009). Scientific Literacy and Purposes for Teaching Science: A Case Study of Lebanese School Teachers. International Journal of
Environmental & Science Education, 4(3), 289-299.
Dimitrov, D. M. (1999). Gender differences in Science Achievement: Differential Effect of Ability, Response Format, and Stans of Learning
Outcomes. School Science and Mathematic, 99(8), 445-450.
Friedler, Y., Nachmias, R., & Linn, M. C. (1990). Learning scientific reasoning skills in microcomputer-based laboratories. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching, 27(2), 173-192. doi:10.1002/tea.3660270208
Gunhaart, A., & Srisawasdi, N. (2012). Effect of integrated compute-based laboratory environment on students' physics concepttual learning of
sound wave properties. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 5750 – 5755. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.510
Johnson, M. A., & Lawson, A. E. (1998). What are the Relative Effects of Reasoning Ability and Prior Knowledge on Biology Achievement in
Expository and Inquiry classes? . Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(1), 89-103.
Lappan, G. (2000). A Vision of Learning to teach for the 21st Century. School Science and Mathematic, 100(6), 319-325.
Lawson, A. E. (1994). Science Teaching and the Development of Thinking. Belmont, California, United States: Wadsworth Pub Co.
Lawson, A. E. (1995). Science Teaching and Development of Reasoning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Lawson, A. E. (2000). Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning. Arizona, United States: Arizona State University.
Lawson, A. E. (2004). The Nature and Development of Scientific Reasoning: A Synthetic View. International Journal of Science and
Mathematics Education, 2(3), 307-338. doi:10.1007/s10763-004-3224-2
Lawson, A. E. (2009). Basic Inferences of Scientific Reasoning, Argumentation, and Discovery. Science Education, 336-364.
doi:10.1002/sce.20357
Lee, C.-Q., & She, H.-C. (2010). Facilitating Students’ Conceptual Change and Scientific Reasoning Involving the Unit of Combustion. Research
Science Education, 40, 479-504.
Liao, Y.-W., & She, H.-C. (2009). Enhancing Eight Grade Students’ Scientific Conceptual Change and Scientific Reasoning through a Web-
based Learning Program. Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 228-240.
Marcia, L. C., & Steven, P. (1983). Male–female differences in predicting displaced volume: Strategy usage, aptitude relationships, and
experience influences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(1), 86-96.
Moore, J. C., & Rubbo, L. J. (2012). Scientific reasoning abilities of nonscience majors in physics-based courses. Physics education research,
8(010106), 1-8. doi:10.1103/PhysRevSTPER.8.010106
Piajet, J. (1985). The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual Development. Chicago and London: University
of Chicago Press.
Piraksa, C., Phaprom, P., Artdej, R., & Srisawasdi, N. (2011). Exploring Scientific Reasoning Ability in Thai University Students : A case Study
of Khon Kaen University, ThailandInternational Conference on Educational Research, held in Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen
University, Thailand,
She, H.-C., & Liao, Y.-W. (2009). Bridging Scientific Reasoning and Conceptual Change through Adaptive Web-Based Learning. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, 47(1), 91-119. doi:10.1002/tea.20309
Soyibo, K. (1999). Gender Differences in Caribbean Students' Performance on a Test of Errors in Biological Labeling. Research in Science and
Technological Education, 17(1), 75-82.
Spelke, E. S. (2006). Sex Differences in Intrinsic Aptitude for Mathematics and Science? Ameican Psychologycal Association, 60(9), 950-958.
doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.9.950
Valamides, N. C. (1996). Formal Reasoning and Science Teaching. School Science and Mathematic, 96(2), 99-107.
Valanides, N. (1997). Formal reasoning abilities and school achievement. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 23(2), 169-185.
Weld, J., Stier, M., & Birren, J. M. (2011). The Development of a Novel Measure of Scientific Reasoning Growth Among College Freshmen:
The Constructive Inquiry Science Reasoning Skills Test. Research and teaching, 40(4), 101-107.
Yang, F. (2004). Exploring high school students' use of theory and evidence in an everyday context : The role of scientific thinking in
environmental science decision-making Journal of Science Education, 26(11), 1345-1364. doi:10.1080/0950069042000205404
Young, D. J., & Fraser, B. J. (1994). Gender Differences in Caribbean Students' Performance on a Test of Errors in Biological Labeling. Journal
of Research in Science Teaching, 31(8), 857-871.
Zeineddin, A., & Abd-El-Khalick, F. (2010). Scientific Reasoning and Epistemological Commitments: Coordination of Theory and Evidence
Among College Science Students. Journal of research in science teaching, 47(9), 1064-1093. doi:10.1002/tea.20368
Zimmerman, C. (2005). The Development of Scientific Reasoning Skills: What Psychologist Contribute to an Understanding of Elementary
Science Learning Illinois, United States: Illinois State University.
Zimmerman, C. (2007). The development of scientiWc thinking skills in elementary and middle school. Developmental Review, 27, 172-223.
ScienceDirect
Effects of jigsaw technique on mathematics self-efficacy

perceptions of seventh grade primary school students
Sare ŞENGÜL a, Yasemin KATRANCI b*

a
MarmaraUniversity,Education Faculty Primary Department, İstanbul, Turkey
b
Kocaeli University, Education Faculty Primary Department,Kocaeli 41380 , Turkey
Abstract
Cooperative learning is based on the method of instruction that involves students working together in small groups to achieve a
specific joint goal. The jigsaw technique, which is one of the cooperative learning techniques where students can work in small
groups being responsible for each other’s learning and express themselves, is used in this study as well. The purpose of this study
is to investigate the effects of use of the jigsaw technique in the 7 th Grade “Transformation Geometry” subject on students’
mathematics self-efficacy. In line with this purpose, the “Transformation Geometry” subject was taught to 33 students studying
in the seventh grade at a primary school located in the Sakarya province of Turkey during four class hours in two stages, the first
stage being in jigsaw groups, and the second in main groups. The one-group pre-test-post-test experimental design is used in this
study that was conducted quantitatively. Data were collected using the “Mathematics Self-Efficacy Perception Scale”. Data
obtained were analyzed using statistical methods, and as a result, it was found that there were no significant differences between
the pre-test/post-test scores of students. This result shows that the jigsaw technique has no effects on students’ mathematics self-
efficacy perceptions.
Keywords: Jigsaw technique, mathematics self efficacy perception
1. Introduction
Today, students are not expected to memorize or store the information, but rather to know how to reach the
information and to have problem-solving skills. Various methods have been developed to improve this approach and
make learning more efficient (Tarım & Akdeniz, 2003). As one of these methods, cooperative learning is based on
cooperation, a concept that is as old as the human history.
In this context, cooperative learning is defined by Rozmajzl and Alexander (2000) as a method of instruction
involving small groups created by students with the skill to cooperate and varying levels of knowledge to achieve a
common goal; by Kaptan and Korkmaz (2002) as an interactive learning/teaching method where students study in
small mixed groups to achieve their common learning goals at maximum levels; by Açıkgöz (2007) as a process in
which students cooperate within small groups to learn by assisting each other’s learning; by Bilgin (2006) as a
process in which students study in small mixed groups and learn by assisting each other’s learning; by Gök (2006)
*
Corresponding Author name: Yasemin KATRANCI, Phone: +90 (507) 502 12 89
E-mail address: yaseminkatranci@gmail.com / yasemin.katranci@kocaeli.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.217
334 Sare Şengül and Yasemin Katranci / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 333 – 338
as a learning method involving students with varying performance levels to cooperate with each other to achieve a
common goal.
Considering all these definitions, the cooperative learning can be defined as a learning approach where students
join small mixed groups to achieve a common goal by assisting each other’s learning, actively participate in learning
activities, and increase their communication, self-confidence, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills (Doymuş,
Şimşek & Bayrakçeken, 2004).
Cooperative thinking is widely considered a single method and to have a single application technique. However,
there are many different cooperative learning techniques (Namlu, 1999; Açıkgöz, 2007). One of these techniques is
the jigsaw technique.
The Jigsaw Technique

The jigsaw technique, which was introduced by Aranson et al (1978) to improve peer cooperation and create
team solidarity among students through division of tasks (Sharan, 1980), involves each student in a group to assume
learning responsibility. Accordingly, students work in two different groups: main groups and jigsaw groups. First,
students come together in their main groups (Doymuş, 2008). The main groups are divided into pieces like a jigsaw
puzzle, and students join the jigsaw groups thus formed. These jigsaw groups consist of the group members from
different main groups that come together to study the same subject. After learning the subject in a jigsaw group,
students return to their main groups and share the information they learned with the members of their own main
group (Clarke, 1999).
In this study, the seventh grade transformation geometry subject (attainments: explains reflection, explains
rotation movement, draws by rotating the shapes around a point in the plane and at a specified angle) was studied
using the jigsaw technique, one of the cooperative learning techniques, and the effects of this technique on students’
mathematics self-efficacy perceptions were investigated. In this context, the following problems were identified and
answers were sought to the same in this study:
1. What are the mathematics self-efficacy perception scores of seventh grade primary school students prior to
application of the jigsaw technique?
2. What are the mathematics self-efficacy perception scores of seventh grade primary school students after
application of the jigsaw technique?
3. Is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test mathematics self-efficacy perception scores
of seventh grade primary school students to whom the jigsaw technique has been applied?
2. Method
2.1. Research Design
The one group pre-test/post-test experimental design is used in this study.
2.2. Working Group
The study was carried out with total of 33 students (16 female and 17 male) studying at a primary school located
in the Sakarya province of Turkey.
2.3. Data Collection Tools, Collecting Data and Data Analysis
The “Mathematics Self-Efficacy Perception Scale” (MSEPS) developed by Umay (2001) was used to measure
students’ mathematics self-efficacy perceptions in this study. The Likert-type scale consisted of 14 items, 8 of which
were positive (1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 13, 14) and 6 negative (3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12). The items of the scale were coded as Never
(1), Rarely (2), Sometimes (3), Most of the time (4), Always (5). The alpha reliability coefficient of the scale has
been calculated to be .88. Cronbach Alpha coefficient related to the inventory has been calculated to be .833 for the
data that has been obtained in this study.
Sare Şengül and Yasemin Katranci / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 333 – 338 335
The highest score value that could be obtained for this inventory was 70 and the lowest point was 14. The group
interval coefficient value was calculated by dividing the difference between the greatest value and the smallest value
of the progression of the measurement results by the determined number of groups in the study (Kan, 2009: 407).
Therefore, the average arithmetical reference interval, which was calculated as being related to the responses
provided by students, was calculated to be (5-1)/5=0.80 in the study.
As the first phase of data collection, students were subjected to a mathematics self-efficacy perception scale prior
to the application. Then, the process continued with teaching of the transformation geometry subject for 5-course
hours using the jigsaw technique. As the second phase of data collection, the mathematics self-efficacy perception
scale was reapplied after the teaching process.
Descriptive statistics methods and independent two samples t-test were applied for the analysis of data. For all of
the statistical decoding, .05 significouldce level was taken as the basis. The data were analyzed using the SPSS 15.0
software.
3. Findings and Comments
Findings relating to the problem of “What are the mathematics self-efficacy perception scores of seventh grade
primary school students prior to application of the jigsaw technique?” and their interpretations are provided below:
Table 1: Students’ mathematics self-efficacy perception scores prior to application of the jigsaw technique
Scale Items ss. Min. Max.

I believe I can effectively use mathematics in my daily life. 3,8788 1,05 1 5
I think mathematically while I am planning my day/time. 3,2424 1,35 1 5
I believe that mathematics is not a suitable engagement for me. 3,7576 1,03 1 5
I feel myself sufficient in solving mathematical problems. 3,0606 1,34 1 5
I can solve all kinds of mathematical problems, if I strive sufficiently. 4,4545 0,83 2 5
I always have the feeling that I take wrong steps while solving math problems. 2,9394 1,25 1 5
I get flurried when I encounter an unexpected situation while solving math problems. 2,7273 1,23 1 5
I can make small new discoveries while dealing with mathematical structures and theorems. 2,9394 1,27 1 5
I know what to do when I encounter a new situation in maths. 3,6061 1,09 1 5
I believe that it is impossible for me to have a command of mathematics as much as others do. 3,7879 1,08 1 5
I consider a large portion of the time I spend for solving a math problem a loss. 3,6364 1,59 1 5
I notice that I lose my self-confidence while studying mathematics. 3,6667 1,41 1 5
I can help other people with their problems relating to mathematics easily. 3,1818 1,18 1 5
I can offer solutions to all problems in life with a mathematical approach. 2,7273 1,07 1 5
Table 2: Percentage and frequency values related to average scores prior to study
Average Points Prior to Study

Between Between Between Between Between
1.00-1.80 points 1.81-2.60 points 2.61-3.40 points 3.41-4.20 points 4.21-5.00 points
f % f % f 5 f % f %
0 0 0 0 7 50 6 42,8 1 7,2
When the Table 1 and Table 2 are examined, it can be seen that all items of the scale has an average score of
2.61 and above. In this context, students responded with “sometimes” for the items 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 13 and 14, with
“most of the time” for the items 1, 3, 9, 10, 11 and 12, and with “always” for the item 5.
Table 3: Percentage and frequency values related to average scores of students
Average Points Prior to Study

1.00-1.80 points 1.81-2.60 points 2.61-3.40 points 3.41-4.20 points 4.21-5.00 points
f % f % f % f % f %
0 0 6 18,18 9 27,27 13 39,39 5 15,15
When the Table 3 is examined, it can be seen that none of the students responded with “never”. Most of the
students (39,39%) responded to the scale with “most of the time”.
Findings relating to the problem of “What are the mathematics self-efficacy perception scores of seventh grade
primary school students after application of the jigsaw technique?” and their interpretations are provided below:
Table 4: Students’ mathematics self-efficacy perception scores after application of the jigsaw technique

I believe I can effectively use mathematics in my daily life. 3,7273 1,04 1 5
I think mathematically while I am planning my day/time. 3,2121 1,11 1 5
I believe that mathematics is not a suitable engagement for me. 3,3333 1,36 1 5
I feel myself sufficient in solving mathematical problems. 3,4848 1,06 1 5
I can solve all kinds of mathematical problems, if I strive sufficiently. 4,0000 1,03 2 5
I always have the feeling that I take wrong steps while solving math problems. 2,8788 1,17 1 5
I get flurried when I encounter an unexpected situation while solving math problems. 2,9394 1,22 1 5
I can make small new discoveries while dealing with mathematical structures and theorems. 2,7576 1,15 1 5
I know what to do when I encounter a new situation in maths. 3,4545 1,23 1 5
I believe that it is impossible for me to have a command of mathematics as much as others do. 3,6061 1,41 1 5
I consider a large portion of the time I spend for solving a math problem a loss. 3,4545 1,44 1 5
I notice that I lose my self-confidence while studying mathematics. 3,3030 1,36 1 5
I can help other people with their problems relating to mathematics easily. 3,3030 1,19 1 5
I can offer solutions to all problems in life with a mathematical approach. 3,0606 1,27 1 5
Table 5: Percentage and frequency values related to average scores after study
Average Points of After Study

1.00-1.80 1.81-2.60 2.61-3.40 3.41-4.20 4.21-5.00
points points points points points
f % f % f % f % f %
0 0 0 0 9 64,2 5 35,8 0 0
When the Table 4 and Table 5 are examined, it can be seen that scores for the Item 9 are between 2.61 and 3.40,
while those of the Item 5 between 3.41 and 4.20. In this context, it is seen that students responded with “sometimes”
to the items 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13 and 14, and with “most of the time” to the items 1, 4, 5, 9 and 11.
Average Scores After Study

1.00-1.80 1.81-2.60 2.61-3.40 3.41-4.20 4.21-5.00
f % f % f % f % f %
1 3.03 4 12.12 12 36.36 11 33.33 5 15.15
When the Table 6 is examined, it can be seen that most of the students (36.36%) obtained a score between 2.61
and 3.40 after the application. In this context, it is seen that students responded with “sometimes” to the scale after
the application.
Findings relating to the problem of “Is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test
mathematics self-efficacy perception scores of seventh grade primary school students to whom the jigsaw technique
has been applied?” and their interpretations are provided below.
Table 7: Results of the dependent samples t-test of pre-test/post-test mathematics self-efficacy perception scores
N ss. df t p
Pre-test 33 47,6061
10,21 32 ,641 ,544
Post-test 33 46,5152
When the Table 7 is examined, it can be seen that there is no significant difference between the mathematics
self-efficacy perception pre-test/post-test scores of seventh grade primary school students, to whom the jigsaw
technique was applied . The average mathematics self-efficacy perception pre-test score
(=47,6061) is higher than the average post-test score (=46,5152).
4. Conclusion, Discussion and Implications
When the findings of the study are examined, it can be seen that the mathematics self-efficacy perceptions of
students prior to the application were significant and high. In their study, Çalışkan, Selçuk and Özcan (2010) studied
the effects of prospective Physics teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs on classroom levels and their academic
achievements. Harurluoğlu and Kaya (2009) aimed to determine the self-efficacy perceptions of prospective Biology
teachers towards biology teaching in their study (2009). Analysis of the data showed that self-efficacy perceptions
of prospective biology teachers towards biology teaching were high. This study has also shown that the mathematics
self-efficacy perceptions of students that participated in the study are high based on the pre-test scores, and this
result supports the aforementioned studies.
When the findings of the study obtained after the application are examined, it is seen that there is a drop in
students’ self-efficacy perceptions, and that the jigsaw technique did not have any effects on the mathematics self-
efficacy perceptions. When the literature relating to the cooperative learning is examined, it can be seen that the
effects of this method on students’ academic achievements and attitudes towards the course (Altıparmak &
Nakipoğlu, 2005; Avşar & Alkış, 2007; Karakoyun, 2010), and on the attitude and motivation (Aydın, 2009; Efe,
2011) were investigated. In this context, it is seen the effects of the cooperative learning on mathematics self-
efficacy perception were not investigated in the relevant literature. It is considered that this study is different from
others in this respect, and that it would provide contributions to the field. Similar studies can be conducted to
investigate the effects of cooperative learning on self-efficacy perception.
References
Açıkgöz, K. (2007). Active learning (9th Ed.). Kanyılmaz Publications: İzmir.

Altıparmak, M., & Nakipoğlu, M. (2005). Effect of cooperative learning method on the attitude and achievement in the high school biology
laboratories. Journal of Turkish Educational Sciences, 3 (1), 105-123.
Avşar, Z., & Alkış S. (2007). The Effect of cooperative learning “Jigsaw I” technique on student success in social studies course. Primary
Education-Online, 6(2), 197-203.
Aydın, F. (2009). Effects of cooperative learning method on the achievement, attitude and motivation at 10th grade geography course.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Gazi University Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara.
Bilgin, İ. (2006). Science and technology education, cooperative learning (Ed. Mehmet Bahar). Pegem A: Ankara.
Clarke, J. (1999). Pieces of the puzzle: the jigsaw method. In Handbook of Cooperative Learning Methods, ed. S. Sharan. Westport, CT: Preager.
Çalışkan, S., Selçuk, G. S., & Özcan, Ö. (2010). Self-efficacy beliefs of physics student teachers’ effects of gender, class level and academic
achievement. Kastamonu Education Journal. 18(2): 449-466.
Doymuş, K. (2008). Teaching chemical bonding through jigsaw cooperative learning. Research in Science & Technological Education, Vol. 26,
No. 1, 47–57.
Doymuş, K., Şimşek, Ü., & Bayrakçeken, S. (2004). Effect of cooperative learning on the academic achievement and attitude in science lesson.
Journal of Turkish Science Education, 1(2), 103-115.
Efe, M. (2011). The effects of cooperative learning method of students’ teams-achievement divisions and team assisted individualization
instructions on students’ attitudes, achievement and motivation at primary 7th grade ‘statistics and probability’ units on mathematics course.
Unpublished master thesis. Mustafa Kemal University Institute of Social Sciences, Hatay.
Gök, T. (2006). The effects of problem-solving strategies on students' achievement, achievement motivation and attitude in the cooperative
learning groups in physics teaching. Published doctoral dissertation. Dokuz Eylül University Institute of Social Sciences, İzmir.
Harurluoğlu, Y., & Kaya, E. (2009). Prospective biology teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs for teaching biology. Uludağ University Education
Faculty Journal. 22(2): 481-496.
Karakoyun, M. E. (2010). The effect of one of the collaborative learning techniques, jigsaw I, to academic success in the teaching of punctuation
to elementary education 5th grade students. Unpublished master thesis. Atatürk University Institute of Social Sciences, Erzurum.
Kan, A. (2009). Statistical procedures on measurement results. In the H. Atılgan (Ed.), Assessment and evaluation in education, 397-456. Ankara,
Turkey: Anı Publications.
Kaptan, F., & Korkmaz, H. (2002). The effects of cooperative problem-solving approach on creativity in science course. Journal of Qafqaz, 9,
143-150.
Namlu, A. G. (1999). Computer supported cooperation based learning. T.C. Journals of Anadolu University, No: 1145, Journals of Education
Faculty, No: 57, p. 15, 50-84, Eskişehir.
Rozmajzl M., & Bayer-Alexander, R. (2000). Music fundamentals, methods and materials for the elementary classroom teacher. Longman Inc.:
U.S.A.
Umay, A. (2001). The effect of the primary school mathematics teaching program on the mathematics self-efficacy of students. Journal of
Qafqaz University, 8.
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215-223.
ScienceDirect
Effects of jigsaw technique on seventh grade primary school

students’ attitude towards mathematics
Sare ŞENGÜL a, Yasemin KATRANCI b*

a
MarmaraUniversity,Education Faculty Primary Department, İstanbul, Turkey
b
Kocaeli University, Education Faculty Primary Department,Kocaeli 41380 , Turkey
Abstract
The jigsaw technique, which focuses on development of peer cooperation and teamwork through division of tasks among
students, takes place through each student’s assuming responsibility. Students were taught the 7 th Grade “Transformation
Geometry” subject using the jigsaw technique in this study. In this context, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effects
of learning the subject using the jigsaw technique on students’ attitude towards mathematics. In line with this purpose, the
“Transformation Geometry” subject was taught to 33 students studying in the seventh grade at a primary school located in the
Sakarya province of Turkey during four class hours in two stages, the first stage being in jigsaw groups, and the second in main
groups. The one-group pre-test-post-test experimental design is used in this study that was conducted quantitatively. Data were
collected using the “Your Opinions about Mathematics” scale. Data obtained were analyzed using statistical methods, and as a
result, it was found that there were no significant differences between the pre-test/post-test scores of students. Based on this result
it can be said that the jigsaw technique has no effects on improving students’ attitudes towards mathematics. It was seen that
there are no differences among the pre-test scores by sex, but that there is a significant difference based on the scores obtained
from the post-test.
Keywords: Jigsaw technique, attitude towards mathematics, transformation geometry
1. Introduction
Cooperative learning is a learning approach where students join small mixed groups to achieve a common goal
by assisting each other’s learning, actively participate in learning activities, and increase their communication, self-
confidence, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills (Açıkgöz, 2007; Bilgin, 2006; Doymuş, Şimşek &
Bayrakçeken, 2004). Cooperative thinking is usually considered a single method and to have a single application
technique. However, there are many different cooperative learning techniques (Namlu, 1999; Açıkgöz, 2007). One
of these techniques is the jigsaw technique. In this study, the “Transformation Geometry” subject was taught to
students using this technique.
*
Corresponding Author name: Yasemin KATRANCI, Phone: +90 (507) 502 12 89
E-mail address: yaseminkatranci@gmail.com / yasemin.katranci@kocaeli.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.218
The Jigsaw Technique

The jigsaw technique, which was introduced by Aranson et al (1978) to improve peer cooperation and create
team solidarity among students through division of tasks (Sharan, 1980), involves each student in a group to assume
learning responsibility. Accordingly, students work in two different groups: main groups and jigsaw groups. First,
students come together in their main groups (Doymuş, 2008). The main groups are divided into pieces like a jigsaw
puzzle, and students join the jigsaw groups thus formed. These jigsaw groups consist of the group members from
different main groups that come together to study the same subject. After learning the subject in a jigsaw group,
students return to their main groups and share the information they learned with the members of their own main
group (Clarke, 1999).
In this study, the seventh grade transformation geometry subject (attainments: explains reflection, explains
rotation movement, draws by rotating the shapes around a point in the plane and at a specified angle) was studied
using the jigsaw technique, one of the cooperative learning techniques, and the effects of this technique on students’
attitudes towards mathematics were investigated. In this context, the following problems were identified and
answers were sought to the same in this study:
1. What are the mathematics attitude scores of seventh grade primary school students prior to application of the
jigsaw technique?
2. What are the mathematics attitude scores of seventh grade primary school students after application of the
jigsaw technique?
3. Is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test mathematics attitude scores of seventh
grade primary school students to whom the jigsaw technique has been applied?
4. Do the pre-test mathematics attitude scores of seventh grade primary school students, to whom the jigsaw
technique has been applied, differ by sex?
5. Do the post-test mathematics attitude scores of seventh grade primary school students, to whom the jigsaw
technique has been applied, differ by sex?
2. Method
2.1. Research Design
The one group pre-test/post-test experimental design is used in this study.
2.2. Working Group
The study was carried out with total of 33 students (16 female and 17 male) studying at a primary school located
in the Sakarya province of Turkey.
The “Your Opinions about Mathematics Scale” was used to measure students’ attitudes towards mathematics.
The likert-type scale consisted of 20 items, 12 of which were positive (1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20) and 8
negative (2, 5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 15, 17). The items of the scale were coded as never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3),
frequently (4), always (5). The alpha reliability coefficient of the scale has been calculated to be .88. Cronbach
Alpha coefficient related to the inventory has been calculated to be .907 for the data that has been obtained from this
study.
The highest score value that could be obtained for this inventory was 100 and the lowest score was 20. The
group interval coefficient value was calculated by dividing the difference between the greatest value and the
smallest value of the progression of the measurement results by the determined number of groups in the study (Kan,
2009: 407). Therefore, the average arithmetical reference interval, which was calculated as being related to the
responses provided by students, was calculated to be (5-1)/5=0.80 in the study.
As the first phase of data collection, students were subjected to the “Your opinions about mathematics” scale
prior to the application. Then, the process continued with teaching of the transformation geometry subject for 5-
course hours using the jigsaw technique. As the second phase of data collection, the “Your opinions about
mathematics” scale was reapplied after the teaching process.
Descriptive statistics methods, paired sample t-test and independent two samples t-test were applied for the
analysis of data. For all of the statistical decoding, .05 significouldce level was taken as the basis. The data were
analyzed using the SPSS 15.0 software.
Findings relating to the first problem (“What are the mathematics attitude scores of seventh grade primary
school students prior to application of the jigsaw technique?”) and their interpretations are provided below:
Table 1: Mathematics attitude scores of students prior to application of the jigsaw technique

Math classes are enjoyable. 3,0606 1,09 1 5
I get bored in math classes. 3,2727 1,04 1 5
I am quite good at maths. 2,9394 1,27 1 5
I want to become a mathematics teacher. 1,3030 ,68 1 4
I do things irrelevant during math classes. 3,6364 1,11 1 5
I can understand the mathematics subjects. 3,4545 1,09 1 5
I am successful in things requiring mathematics knowledge. 3,1818 1,16 1 5
Math classes are enjoyable playtime for me. 2,6061 1,43 1 5
I would prefer to take another class I am interested in, instead of the maths. 3,4848 1,52 1 5
Mathematics knowledge will be to my advantage in the future. 4,2424 1,29 1 5
It is not necessary to know maths, except for specific basic knowledge. 3,9091 1,47 1 5
I hate maths assignments. 3,6970 1,19 1 5
Maths is a course I am good at. 2,9394 1,32 1 5
I can be successful, if I work in a field requiring maths. 3,0000 1,32 1 5
I cannot understand why we should learn mathematics. 3,7879 1,47 1 5
Mathematics forces people to think. 3,8182 1,07 1 5
I feel overwhelmed by maths classes. 3,3636 1,34 1 5
A person with good maths knowledge would understand other sciences easily. 4,0606 1,27 1 5
I can get higher scores in maths, if I study harder. 4,4848 ,97 1 5
Mathematics teachers are hardworking. 4,5758 ,83 1 5
Table 2: Percentage and frequency values related to average scores prior to study
Average Scores Prior to Study

1.00-1.80 1.81-2.60 2.61-3.40 3.41-4.20 4.21-5.00
f % f % f % f % f %
1 5 0 0 8 40 8 40 3 15
When the Table 1 and Table 2 are examined, it can be seen that most of the scale items have an average score of
2.61 and above. In this context, it is seen that students responded with “sometimes” to the items 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 13, 14
and 17, with “frequently” to the items 5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16 and 18, with “always” to the items 10, 19 and 20, and
with “never” to the item 4.
Average Scores Prior to Study

1.00-1.80 1.81-2.60 2.61-3.40 3.41-4.20 4.21-5.00
f % f % f % f % f %
1 3,03 4 12,12 9 27,27 15 45,45 4 12,12
When the Table 3 is examined, it can be seen that most of the students (45, 45%) obtained a score between 3.41
and 4.20. In this context, it is seen that most of the students responded with “frequently” to the scale.
Findings relating to the second problem (“What are the mathematics attitude scores of seventh grade primary
school students after application of the jigsaw technique?”) and their interpretations are provided below:
Table 4: Mathematics attitude scores of students after application of the jigsaw technique

Math classes are enjoyable. 3,2424 1,12 1 5
I get bored in math classes. 3,3636 ,89 2 5
I am quite good at maths. 3,1818 1,16 1 5
I want to become a mathematics teacher. 1,6061 ,83 1 4
I do things irrelevant during math classes. 3,8485 1,12 1 5
I can understand the mathematics subjects. 3,3333 ,92 1 5
I am successful in things requiring mathematics knowledge. 3,2424 1,2 1 5
Math classes are enjoyable playtime for me. 2,6061 1,19 1 5
I would prefer to take another class I am interested in, instead of the maths. 4,0303 1,05 1 5
Mathematics knowledge will be to my advantage in the future. 4,1515 1,00 2 5
It is not necessary to know maths, except for specific basic knowledge. 4,1515 1,12 1 5
I hate maths assignments. 3,5152 1,18 1 5
Maths is a course I am good at. 3,1818 1,29 1 5
I can be successful, if I work in a field requiring maths. 3,3939 1,2 1 5
I cannot understand why we should learn mathematics. 3,9091 1,35 1 5
Mathematics forces people to think. 3,8182 1,04 1 5
I feel overwhelmed by maths classes. 3,7576 1,12 1 5
A person with good maths knowledge would understand other sciences easily. 3,8485 1,12 1 5
I can get higher scores in maths, if I study harder. 4,4848 ,76 2 5
Mathematics teachers are hardworking. 4,5455 ,71 3 5
Table 5: Percentage and frequency values related to average scores after study

1.00-1.80 1.81-2.60 2.61-3.40 3.41-4.20 4.21-5.00
f % f % f % f % f %
1 5 0 0 8 40 9 45 2 10
When the Table 4 and Table 5 are examined, it can be seen that scores of 8 items of the scale ranged between
2.61 and 3.40, and scores of 9 items between 3.41 and 4.20. In this context, it is seen that, after the application,
students responded with “sometimes” to the items 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 13 and 14, and with “frequently” to the items 5, 9,
10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17 and 18.

1.00-1.80 1.81-2.60 2.61-3.40 3.41-4.20 4.21-5.00
Points points points points points
f % f % f % f % f %
0 0 1 3,03 12 36,36 15 45,45 5 15,15
When the Table 6 is examined, it can be seen that most of the students (45,45%) obtained a score between 3.41
and 4.20 after the application. In this context, students responded with “frequently” to the scale after the application
of the jigsaw technique.
Findings relating to the third problem (“Is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test
mathematics attitude scores of seventh grade primary school students to whom the jigsaw technique has been
applied?”) and their interpretations are provided below:
Table 7: Results of the dependent samples t-test of the pre-test/post-test mathematics attitude scores
N ss. df t p
Pre-test 33 68,8182
11,95 32 -1,150 ,259
Post-test 33 71,2121
When the Table 7 is examined, it can be seen that there is no significant difference between the mathematics
attitude pre-test/post-test scores of seventh grade primary school students, to whom the jigsaw technique was
applied . The average mathematics attitude pre-test score (=68,8182) is higher than the
average post-test score (=71,2121).
Findings relating to the fourth problem (“Do the pre-test mathematics attitude scores of seventh grade primary
school students, to whom the jigsaw technique has been applied, differ by sex?”) and their interpretations are
provided below:
Table 8: Distribution of mathematics attitude pre-test scores by sex
N ss. df t p
Female 16 70,8750 12,14
Pre-test 31 ,779 ,442
Male 17 66,8824 16,77
When the Table 8 is examined, it can be seen that the mathematics attitude pre-test scores of students, to whom
the jigsaw technique was applied, do not differ significantly by sex . Average mathematics
attitude pre-test score of females is found to be slightly higher.
Findings relating to the fifth problem (“Do the post-test mathematics attitude scores of seventh grade primary
school students, to whom the jigsaw technique has been applied, differ by sex?”) and their interpretations are
provided below:
Table 9: Distribution of mathematics attitude post-test scores by sex
N ss. df t p
Female 16 75,6250 10,53
Post-test 31 2,291 ,029
Male 17 67,0588 10,91
When the Table 9 is examined, it can be seen that the mathematics post-test scores of students, to whom the
jigsaw technique was applied, differ significantly by sex . Average mathematics attitude
post-test score of females is found to be higher.
When the findings of the study are examined, it can be seen that the attitudes of students towards mathematics
prior to the application of the jigsaw technique were significant and high. When the literature relating to the
cooperative learning is examined, it can be seen that the effects of this method on students’ academic achievements
and attitudes towards the course (Altıparmak & Nakipoğlu, 2005; Avşar & Alkış, 2007; Karakoyun, 2010), and on
the attitude and motivation (Aydın, 2009; Efe, 2011) were investigated. When the findings of the study obtained
after the application of the jigsaw technique are examined, it is seen that there is very slight change in students’
attitude towards mathematics.
In their study, Bilgin and Karaduman (2005) investigated the effects of cooperative learning on students’ attitude
towards the science course. They found that there was a significant difference in favour of the experimental group as
a result of the study they conducted with 55 students during 15 weeks. Hevedanlı and Akbayın (2006) investigated
the effects of cooperative learning on students’ attitude towards courses. They found that cooperative learning had
positive effects on improvement of students’ attitudes. On the other hand, Şimşek, Doymuş and Karaçöp (2009)
investigated the effects of jigsaw and cooperative learning techniques on democratic attitudes of higher education
students. According to the results of their study conducted with 116 students during 8 weeks, they found that there
were no significant differences between the classes based on both pre-test and post-test results of the democratic
attitude scale applied. No significant differences were found between the pre-test and post-test attitude scores in this
study either.
According to the findings of this study, the pre-test attitude scores do not differ by sex, while the post-test
attitude scores differ in favour of female students. In their study, Bilgin and Karaduman (2005) found significant
differences in favour of females based on the average post-test attitude scores of male and female students in the
experimental group. In this context, they have similarities with the results of this study.
References
Açıkgöz, K. (2007). Active learning (9th Ed.). Kanyılmaz Publications: İzmir.

Altıparmak, M., & Nakipoğlu, M. (2005). Effect of cooperative learning method on the attitude and achievement in the high school biology
laboratories. Journal of Turkish Educational Sciences, 3 (1), 105-123.
Avşar, Z., & Alkış S. (2007). The Effect of cooperative learning “Jigsaw I” technique on student success in social studies course. Primary
Aydın, F. (2009). Effects of cooperative learning method on the achievement, attitude and motivation at 10th grade geography course.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Gazi University Institute of Educational Sciences, Ankara.
Bilgin, İ. (2006). Science and technology education, cooperative learning (Ed. Mehmet Bahar). Pegem A: Ankara.
Bilgin, İ., & Karaduman, A. (2005). Investigating the effects of cooperative learning on 8 grade students’ attitudes toward science,. Primary
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ScienceDirect
E-learning from the perspective of right to education

Esra Cakmak a * ,Seher Merve YILMAZb
a
EC, Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul 34220, Turkey
b
SMY, Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul 34220, Turkey
Abstract
The object of this study is to examine whether Computer Education and Instructional Technologies (CEIT) students’ views
differentiate according to the mode of course delivery: face-to-face or e-learning. As a sample, four CEIT students getting
courses with e-learning and seven CEIT students getting courses with face-to-face mode are chosen. As a data collection tool
interview questions are prepared by researchers. Data is analyzed in two dimensions: students’ views about the process and result
of e-learning and face-to-face learning from the perspective of right to education. When students’ views are analyzed, it is
understood that e-learning mode has more disadvantages than advantages for both groups because of the lack of substructure.
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: E-learning, face-to-face learning, right to education, Computer Education and Instructional Technologies
(CEIT).
1. Introduction
In Turkey, right to education is assured by legislations. These legislations are Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (1948) (Article 26: Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made
generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit), Universal
Declaration of Child Rights (1959) (Principle 7: He shall be given an education which will promote his general
culture and enable him, on a basis of equal opportunity, to develop his abilities, his individual judgment, and his
sense of moral and social responsibility, and to become a useful member of society) and Turkish Constitution (1982)
(Article 42: No one shall be deprived of the right of learning and education). Nowadays the fact that traditional
educational constitutions are not sufficient to educate growing population therefore this result brings up alternative
education system to practice individuals’ right to education (Erdoğan, 2007). Education can be practiced students
and teachers are either face-to-face or not (Nizam, 2004). Since education can be defined as organizing the
knowledge and environment to occur learning. Environment is not only the place of education, but also methods,
instruments and materials used for transferring the knowledge and counseling the learners’ studies (Burma, 2008).
This situation brings about the concept of “distance education”. According to Wills (1993), the most basic definition
* Corresponding Author: Esra ÇAKMAK Tel.: +90-554-404-3780

E-mail address: ecakmak@yildiz.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.234
Esra Cakmak and Seher Merve Yilmaz / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 426 – 430 427
of distance education is using technologies (voice, video, data and output) to be bridge for the educational gap
especially when teacher and students are in different places physically.
2. Distance Education in Turkey

It is seen that distance education has been used since 1960s in Turkey when its history is examined. Firstly
Correspondence Learning Centre in Ministry of National Education in 1961 and Correspondence Higher Education
Centre in 1974 was founded. In 1983 Open Education Faculty in Anatolian University was founded and this faculty
has given teaching, searching and publishing service ever since. Besides in 1980s and 1990s in Ministry of National
Education, systems such as School Radio and TV School were implemented. Open High School giving Degree of
Secondary Education to the people who were out of the population of era because of the socio-economic situation of
Turkey at that time was founded in 1992. Open Elementary School giving Degree of Elementary Education was
founded in 1997-1998. Although distance education can be practiced via correspondence learning, video, CD-ROM,
fax, teleconference, e-learning is used mostly nowadays (Kuzu&Özdemir, 2002).
A lot of changes in learning habits occur with changing world, developing social media, developing technology
and “y” generation (Hançer, 2010). As a result of this situation the need of distance education has been growing day
by day. The reasons of being need in distance education are (Şen et all., 2010): to give education to larger mass, to
get benefit from experts in different places, to meet educational needs of students who cannot continue to school
because of their interests, capabilities, ages, occupations and geographic conditions, to repair the limitations of
traditional education by providing students learning opportunity with learning methods and speed according to their
own wish, to provide equality of opportunity in education.
Correspondingly the reasons of distance education mentioned above, Kaya (2002) defines distance education as
making solutions for opportunity inequality in education, providing lifelong learning whoever wants, contributing to
make real series of individual and social goals, getting benefits from educational technologies, being discipline
based on self-learning (cited in Nizam, 2004). Distance education is seen as education system of future. Since it
provides educational resources with the aid of technology to the people who cannot continue in formal education,
who are in different places, who have different demographic and cultural background (Girginer, 2002). Besides in
distance education, students can learn more permanently whenever they want without being in specific place, on
specific date and at specific time (Karadeniz & Oran, 2007). Therefore individuals can choose education proper for
their own needs with their own responsibility. Shortly distance education is an essential chance for people who are
deprived from right to education and want to get knowledge. One of the way students getting right to education is
using internet nowadays.
3. E-learning in Turkey
Education based on internet (distance education, e-learning) is essential for modern reconstruction for Turkey
that has young population. This kind of reconstruction means to provide education anytime and everywhere for both
individuals and governments (Gökdaş & Kayri, 2005). On these days e-learning infer learning on the internet
because computer and internet are parts of our lives (Baytak, 2010).
In Turkey, e-learning is generally used in universities such as Okan University, Istanbul University and Afyon
Kocatepe University. In the research with 125 students in Okan University, it is understood that 89% of students say
that they learn subject faster owing to distance education. 42% of them say that they regulate their own learning
speed more effectively, 38% of them say that they study more effectively for their individual academic plan, 52% of
them say that the contexts of courses are sufficient from the aspect of visual aids (Yıldırım, 2010).
There is another research which is applied with 97 students getting courses with e-learning system and 97
students getting courses with traditional education in the department of computer programming in Afyon Kocatepe
University. As a result, while the grade point average of e-learning group is 3,02, the grade point average of
traditional group is 2,43. Also while the rate of passing course of e-learning group is 71%, this rate of traditional
group is 58% (Deperlioğlu et all., 2010).
428 Esra Cakmak and Seher Merve Yilmaz / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 426 – 430
4. The Object of Research
The object of this study is to examine whether the opinions of the Computer Education and Instructional
Technologies (CEIT) students from Istanbul University differentiate according to mode of the course delivery (face
to face or e-learning mode) from the perspective of right to education.
5. Method
5.1. Participants
The universe of this study is CEIT students who have registered in either e-learning or face to face mode of
course delivery. Convenience sampling, one of the qualitative research approaches, is used in the study. As a
sample, four CEIT students who get courses with e-learning and seven CEIT students who get courses with face to
face mode are chosen from Istanbul University.
5.2. Procedure
One by one interview is chosen as a method. In one by one interview, interview form which is arranged by
researchers is used. As a data collection tool interview questions are prepared according to the object of the study.
Interview forms are semi-structured which means that these kinds of forms stand by the questions prepared already
but at the same time provide researchers to ask new questions to get deeper information (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008).
5.3. Data collection tools

As a data collection tool interview questions are prepared according to the object of the study. Questions are
appropriate for daily language, far from academic language, short and open-ended (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008).
Interviews with students who have registered in face to face mode are applied on the date of 05.01.2012 and
interviews with students who have registered in e-learning mode are applied on the date of 07.01.2012. Interviews
are recorded by using voice-recorder after getting permission from the students. Participants are given nickname
instead of their real name due to the research ethics.
5.4. Data analysis

Firstly, recorded interviews are written down. Since research will be appropriate for scientific ethics, participants
are given nicknames. Then data of both groups are analyzed separately according to two sub dimensions: firs one is
students’ opinions about the process of e-learning and face-to-face learning. Second one is students’ opinions about
the results of e-learning and face-to-face learning. These sub dimensions are categorized with descriptive analysis
method. Therefore themes are revealed for both dimensions.
6. Findings
6.1. Views of face-to-face learning students about e-learning in the perspective of right to education
6.1.1. E-learning in the educational process and right to education

When interviews with seven CEIT students getting courses with face-to-face mode are analyzed, all of seven
students stress that the advantages of e-learning are more than disadvantages in the process. These advantages are: to
participate courses because they wish not obligation, no compulsory attendance, to be far away from the classroom
complexity, to be free in terms of place and time, to be low cost, to provide education to more people, to be free of
stress and to make time-saving.
Students mention that there are disadvantages of e-learning as well. These disadvantages are aligned as: students
cannot give attention to the courses thoroughly, cannot communicate with teachers personally and cannot make
applications in laboratory.
Esra Cakmak and Seher Merve Yilmaz / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 426 – 430 429
6.1.2. E-learning as a result of education and right to education

Four of seven students emphasize that the assessments aren’t applied properly, assessment methods are wrong,
and this situations are injustice for them. Aydın, one of the participants, supports with these sentences: “One of my
friends says that his friend participates his exam instead of him. Doing things like that is so easy in e-learning exam.
University give right to education to student but how is its quality? I think the quality of e-learning is low. As if
students getting courses with e-learning had just degree”. Berk, one of the other participants, argues the opposite
thought : “Tests assessing our knowledge are the same with face-to-face learning students’ tests. The most important
thing is to improve yourself. For this reason when I evaluate e-learning in the perspective right to education, I find it
positive”.
6.2. Views of e-learning students about e-learning in the perspective of right to education
6.2.1. E-learning in the educational process and right to education
Four students getting courses with e-learning align the advantages of e-learning in the educational process such
as: not to be away from social activities, to able to both work and study, not to have attendance obligatory.
Students mention that there are disadvantages of e-learning, too. They align the disadvantages as: to have less
courses, to skip applications, to be taught courses fast, not to have student environment, not to have education
personally, to have unqualified courses. Remzi, one of participants says that “I don’t believe that every student
follow the course videos. E-learning is seen as a group in Messenger. So at least on one day of a week we should
have courses in school. This day may be weekend, because e-learning students work on weekdays”. Ceyda, other
participant states her hesitations with these sentences: “Now I am in first class and I don’t think that my courses
aren’t so intense. But we will have courses about database. How much can we understand this course or how will be
this course taught? I don’t know how this course will be taught without application. I have hesitations on this issue”.
6.2.2. E-learning as a result of education and right to education

Students imply that when they evaluate e-learning as a result of education, they state that being qualify person is
depend on themselves. Hasan, one of e-learning students supports this situation with these sentences: “There are
many disadvantages of e-learning but we cannot say it is worse than face-to-face learning. If it was so, every people
getting education with face-to-face learning was on important positions. Finally people will be successful in every
condition if they really want. Ceyda expresses her feelings: “In fact e-learning education is given to us as an
opportunity but its disadvantages are so much. To transfer these disadvantages into advantages is on our hands”.
7. Conclusion
Many researchers advocate that e-learning is the new generations’ learning way. However when the views of
students analyzed, it is understood that especially in the process of e-learning there are more disadvantages than
advantages in the perspective of right to education . While e-learning is evaluated by students in terms of result of
education, the only disadvantage is “the quality”. The interesting thing is that student cannot say positive things
about e-learning’s result. It can be said that this study is a kind of proof of Report of Turkey Board of Informatics
(2002). According to this report it is not said that Turkey can keep step with developments about distance education.
The basic reason of this situation is implied that the lack of quality and standardization, not to be able to
institutionalization and not to be able to be widespread.
In this study, according to both groups of students e-learning courses are unqualified. Similarly, in the result of
Project of Distance Education in Selçuk University (SUZEP) conducted by Gülnar (2003) it is seen that the
frequency of following education on internet is fairly low. The students’ excuse about not to follow education on
430 Esra Cakmak and Seher Merve Yilmaz / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 426 – 430
internet is that they don’t find them beneficial. The reason of why students don’t find courses beneficial can be
because of the lack of substructure.
This study is limited with seven CEIT students in Istanbul University. For getting deeper information about e-
learning from the perspective of right to education, more researches can be applied with more students in different
universities. Of course e-learning is a chance for students deprived from right to education. However this chance can
be applied in a proper way both in the process and result. To develop this chance and substructure of e-learning
more researches should be made. In this regard interviews with academicians, experts and students can be applied
and gotten their proposals.
References
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Yamamato., U. Demiray, M. Kesim (Eds), Türkiye’de e-öğrenme: gelişmeler ve uygulamalar. Ankara: Cem Web Ofset.
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ScienceDirect
Emerging of Academic Information Search System with Ontology-

Based Approach
Norasykin Mohd Zaid a 1, Sim Kim Lau b
a
Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai 81310, Malaysia
b
School of Information Systems and Technology, Faculty of Informatics, University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2500, Australia
Abstract
This paper describes the comparison of ontology development tools for development of academic information search system that
assists inexperienced research students at a local university in Malaysia to search for academic resources in the local language
context (Bahasa Malaysia). The cohort of inexperienced research students faces two main problems when using current system
comprises of keyword search. Firstly the language barrier-limiting students’ capabilities to conduct keyword search in foreign
language (such as English). Secondly limited research experience in querying often results in obtaining irrelevant search results.
The proposed semantic search system aims to apply ontology-based search to overcome the above two problems. The paper
presents the first phase of system development; ontology design and ontology development tool.
© 2013
© 2013 The
TheAuthors.
Ltd.Open
All access
rights under
reserved.
Selectionand/or
peer-review under the responsibility
responsibility of Prof.
of Academic Dr.
World Servet Bayram
Education and Research Center.
Keywords: First keywords, second keywords, third keywords, forth keywords
1. Introduction
Information and knowledge are increasingly becoming shareable and searchable resources, particularly in the
current digitized world. Since 1996, the World Wide Web (WWW) has become a primary source for information
offering online resources that are available 24/7. Traditionally library is an important source of information,
particularly as academic resources and has become important source of reference for academic researchers. Library
classification system has migrated from Dewey Decimal Classification System (DDC) to a new digitized format
such as Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC) system that can be accessed through the web. The OPAC system is
based on known-item search (Antelman et al., 2006).
Furthermore, keyword search and Boolean operators can also be used to facilitate the search process.
Undoubtedly digital library provides an improved source of information access that include digital document
creation and storage, documents classification and data indexing, documents searching and retrieving, distribution,
administration and access control (Garza-Salazar et al., 2003). However human interpretation is still required when
records matching the search criteria (such as keywords) are returned to determine its relevance and usefulness. For
example, in searching for a programming textbook, which we do not know the exact title, we tend to type the word
programming in the search box. When search results are returned, we scroll down the list of titles to look for the one
that we search for. This is commonly encountered by students who are inexperienced in literature search. The
motivation of this paper is to propose the development of an ontology-based information retrieval system to assist
1
Corresponding Author: Norasykin Mohd Zaid. Tel.: +60-10-406-1060
E-mail address: norasykin@utm.my
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.180
Norasykin Mohd Zaid and Sim Kim Lau / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 132 – 138 133
inexperienced research students at a local university in Malaysia to search for academic resources in the local
language context (Bahasa Malaysia). The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses ontology
design and development of ontology. Section 3 discusses ontology development tools and follows by conclusion in
Section 4.
2. Ontology
Ontologies have been known as a database of terms that justified a domain to be used and shared in a global area
(Borst, 1997). Ontology becomes a model of real word to represent a domain of knowledge. This new technology
has been used in the Semantic Web although the original word of ontology is being borrowed from the philosophy
discipline, which defines the concepts of things. Thomas (1993) explains the real definition of ontology is a
systematic account of existence, however in computer science, ontology is a representation of precise specification
to form a concept. Thus, ontology is described as formal specification of terms in the define domain and identifying
any relations existing in between the terms. Ontology enables people or machines to retrieve the desired information
with an understanding of the meaning of terms used in the domain and share common vocabularies used in the same
domain (Wang et al., 2008a). Therefore, the use of ontology is about using, reusing and sharing domain knowledge
of terms concept. Many ontology classes have been developed recently and are kept in a database to be used or
referred to by others as knowledge/resource sources. Ontologies are not only used in the field of Semantic Web but
also in many others fields such as artificial intelligence, software engineering, biomedical informatics, library
science, and information architecture.
There are two types of ontologies according to two dimensions of perception: the amount and type of structure of
the conceptualisation and the subject of the conceptualisation. The first dimension, according to Heijst et al. (1995),
includes: (i) terminological ontologies, (ii) information ontologies, and (iii) knowledge modelling ontologies;
whereas the second dimension includes: (i) domain ontologies, (ii) generic ontologies, (iii) representation
ontologies, and (iv) application ontologies. The first dimension with terminological ontologies is referred to as
ontology that defines the terms to represent knowledge in the domain of discourse, such as medical or biological
domains. Information ontologies are defined as records structure of a database, which is a flat structure, unlike the
knowledge modeling ontologies, which have a richer structure of database, such as involving distinction and
decision-making processes. To refer to the second dimension of ontologies, domain ontologies refer to specific
particular area while generic ontologies refer to domain ontologies across many areas. Representation ontologies are
supposed to be naturally present in general contrast to application ontologies, which are specifically designed to the
particular application such as the Marine Metadata Interoperability Project (MMI) (https://marinemetadata.org/).
2.1. Ontology design
Holsapple and Joshi (2002) present five approaches to ontological design: (1) inspiration, (2) induction, (3)
deduction, (4) synthesis, and (5) collaboration. Inspirational approach starts the design idea by collecting individual
personal views and creativity to construct the domain context. Inductive approach is based on the observation and
analysing of current or specific domains to apply to particular domains. Deductive approach adopts some general
principles to construct a new domain while the synthetic approach applies some potential characterisation from the
existing ontologies. With the collaborative approach, the approach relies on human participation, which involves
individual reflection and viewpoints to get along with the collaborative process.
2.2. Ontology development
How these ontologies can be developed depends on how or what method is being used. Uschold and Gruninger
(1996) conclude that there are five steps in the process of ontologies development: (i) identify purpose and scope,
(ii) building the ontology, (iii) evaluation, (iv) documentation, and (v) guidelines for each phase. In the second step
of building ontology, it includes: (a) ontology capture, (b) ontology coding, and (c) integrating existing ontologies
(Uschold and Gruninger, 1996). The first step in building the ontology is by considering when there is a clear idea
134 Norasykin Mohd Zaid and Sim Kim Lau / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 132 – 138
on what ontology is going to build, and then the domain of the ontology can be set with purpose and scope of the
domain identified earlier. This idea can then be extended to the second step of developing domain ontology by
providing information of ontology capture, coding and with attention to consider using an existing ontology. The
third step is important to identify whether the ontology is in a good form of classification and relationship in its
domain to bring effectiveness of knowledge sharing. In the forth step, the idea of having documentation is to allow
knowledge sharing by preparing the problems faced in existing ontology with the important assumption together
with the concepts definition based on type and ontology purpose. In the last step, the initial guidelines are provided
which consists of clarity, coherence and extensibility.
Some other methodologies for building ontology have also been discussed by Fernandez-Lopez et al. (1997); and
Corcho et al. (2003a). Corcho et al. (2003a) have review and compare the main methodologies for building ontology
such as METHONTOLOGY (Fernandez-Lopez et al., 1997) and On-To-Knowledge methodology (Steffen et al.,
2001). Fernandez-Lopez et al. (1997) propose the ontology development process to start with planning, specifying,
knowledge acquisition, conceptualising, formalising, integrating, implementing, evaluating, documenting and
maintaining the process. This methodology is used in most ontology development processes (Lopez et al., 1999; and
Brusa et al., 2008) and has also been extended to allow collaborative edition of ontologies at the knowledge level
(Arpírez et al., 2001). On-To-Knowledge methodology takes into consideration the process of ontology
development from the early stage of setting up the project until the final level of the application which consists of:
feasibility study, ontology kickoff, refinement, evaluation and maintenance (Steffen et al., 2001).
Other than ontology methodology, there are currently many tools available to develop ontology. Some of them
are: OilEd (Bechhofer et al., 2001), OntoEdit (Sure et al., 2002), WebODE (Corcho et al., 2003b), WebOnto
(Domingue, 1998), Protégé (Rubin et al., 2007; Tudorache et al., 2008; Corcho et al., 2003b; and Corcho and
Gómez-Pérez, 2004), OntoSaurus (Swartout et al., 1997), Ontolingua (Thomas, 1993; and Farquhar et al., 1997b),
KAON (Bozsak et al., 2002) and SymOntoX (Missikoff and Taglino, 2003). For example, OntoSaurus (Swartout et
al., 1997) presents ontology browsers and editors to support a collaborative vision of ontology development.
Farquhar et al. (1997a) develop tools to allow ontology sharing and at the same time provide services to publish,
browse, create and ontologies editing stored on their Ontolingua server.
Table 1 Ontology Development Tools
Ontology Main Features Ontology Strength Weakness

Development Development Process
Tools
1. OilEd Ontology editor for IOilEd knowledge Allow users to exploit No support for
building ontologies model is based on the full power of an versioning or for
using Ontology description logics. expressive web ontology working with multiple
Interchange language ontologies.
Language (OIL). (OIL/DAML+OIL).
The reasoning support
Reasoning is used to provided (FaCT) is
support the design and incomplete for OIL
maintenance of extended with concrete
ontologies. data-types and
individuals, and does
not include additional
services such as
explanation.
2. OntoEdit Ontology editor Methodology-guided Ontology development No support on built-in
development of with the help of inference engine,
ontologies. inferencing. DBMS, collaborative
working and ontology
Extensibility through library.
plug-in structure.
3. WebODE Integrated Provides a default Extensibility via plug-in. No support on
technological form-based web user ontology library.
support for many interface to create Graph view.
activities of the ontologies according
ontology lifecycle, to the knowledge Multi-user.
technological model
support for ontology aforementioned. Merging.
development
methodologies,
ontology
interoperability.
4. WebOnto A tool for Provides direct Incorporates the No support on

collaboratively manipulation interface sketching and extensibility and
browsing and editing using graphical synchronous merging.
ontologies, which representations to communication tools.
uses a Java client to present ontology
alleviate the constructs. Provides a direct
interface problems manipulation interface
generated by HTML. using graphical
representations to
present ontology
constructs.
5. Protégé An open-source tool Protégé knowledge Protégé 2000 provides Does not provide real
that allows model is frame-based. ontology editing support for multiple
developers to create functionality on different users. There is no
and to manage levels. It is possible to support for multiple
terminologies and query the ontology. changes on the same
ontologies. Plug-ins are provided for component. Users are
querying based on F- not notified about
Logic, merging and changes made by
annotation of the others.
ontologies with
WordNet. The tool does not
allow two classes or
attributes with the
same name.
6. OntoSaurus Ontology browser. Linking domain Share knowledge across Use HTML for the
specific terms to an systems; use object- client interface that
existing ontology and oriented Common-Lisp- generates interface
extending it. based as a web server design problems.
and data knowledge can It does not support
be browsed and edited ontology development
on any platform. from scratch.
7. Ontolingua Provides a suite of Enables renaming of No support for graph
ontology authoring non-logical symbols view and extensibility.
tools and a library of from multiple
modular re-useable component ontologies
ontologies. and that disambiguate
symbol references during
input and output.
8. KOAN Builds on available Includes a multi- Provides objects No support on graph
resources and lingual Ontology representing various view and merging.
provides tools for the Engineering and pieces of ontology, such
engineering, Evolution as Concept, Relation,
discovery, Environment Instance, Objects for
management, and (OntoMatSOEP) that creating and applying
presentation of allows the manual changes to ontology
ontologies and development and entities as well as objects
metadata. maintenance of providing query
ontologies. facilities.
9. SymOntoX Ontology Support collaborative
management system and distributed ontology
that is capable of authoring activities.
developing and
managing several
ontologies (business
and enterprise).
10. Retrievalware 8.0 Is an enterprise Combines Convera's Uses a semantic network
search engine proven enterprise to expand queries for
emphasising natural search and more complete recall.
language processing categorisation
and semantic capabilities with a Profiling feature filters
networks. new dynamic content to enable real-
classification time monitoring of

methodology to help information in live data
organisations sources.
automate knowledge
management and
discovery processes.
3. Ontology design and development tool
The ontology-based search system is developed based on an ontology-based mind-map. The mind-map is
developed from the academic programme profile of the faculty in this case study. The Education Faculty aims to
produce future teachers with knowledge and experiences related to the teaching profession. Thus, research topics are
often conducted on issues related to teaching and learning based on specialised and professional subjects offered at
the faculty. The mind-map is developed by considering the relationship between major components of teaching and
learning as specialised subject offering, for example mathematics, physics, chemistry, living skills, sports science,
Islamic studies, computer science and Teaching Language as a Second Language (TESL).
The mind-map is organised in a hierarchical structure to be translated to an ontology structure. The mind-map is
developed using the inductive approach of ontology design (Holsapple and Joshi, 2002). With an inductive
approach, the researcher observes, examines and analyses the sample domain of interest to develop the required
ontology.
To prepare for mind-map development, the author examines the research and teaching areas in the faculty. Five
main categories of teaching and learning that match the faculty profile are identified: teaching, learning, field of
study, education level and others. For each main category, subcategories are prepared to show relevant topic areas in
each category. For example, the teaching main category consists of the following subcategories: pedagogy, educator,
skill, style, course or subject, theory and tool. To illustrate the subcategory of pedagogy relates to research
conducted on a thesis, which investigates how the teaching pedagogy is applied. The same rationale applies for the
learning category. In the case of field of study category, it reflects the course or subject offered in the faculty. These
include mathematics, physics, chemistry, living skills, sports science, Islamic studies, computer science and TESL.
The same category is also included as subcategories of teaching and learning. These examples of cross-categories
options enable users to select the same keyword, but under a different structure of category-subcategory, to give a
variety of combinations to enable users to choose from different perspectives.
As explained, the proposed ontology development is based on inductive approach, which is based on the
observation and analysing of current or specific domains to apply to particular domains. The prototype development
is based on existing library records in the database system of Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
The thesis records obtained for the prototype development was derived from the database system in 2008. Thus
using the inductive approach the subcategories created in the prototype system are based on existing structure of the
database system. It is worth noting that the subcategories structure can be changed whenever a new structure of
categories and subcategories is needed or requires modification.
Another unique characteristic found in this university is that the thesis can be written in the native language of
Bahasa Malaysia or the English language. As a non-English speaking country, this university conducts most of the
courses in the Bahasa Malaysia language. However, courses can be taught in the English language, particularly for
students who are enrolled in English teaching courses such as TESL or international student. These students write
their thesis in English; therefore it is desirable for the search system to be able to conduct searches for thesis records
regardless of language.
Protégé 3.4.4 is used to develop the ontology classes and subclasses. Protégé is a tool to help users in the
construction of a small to large knowledge repository. Protégé represents the concepts and relationships as mind-
map or concept map features, using an easy to use graphical representation and it allows users to have direct
manipulation such as content controlling and editing. This way, the knowledge browsing and editing process can
become simple and flexible.
4. Conclusion
Ontology enables relationships between keywords and terms to be defined. Ontology allows desired information
to be retrieved by sharing common vocabularies with an understanding of meaning of terms in the domain. The
ontology design is based on an ontology-based mind-map, which reflect to the real database system of selected
domain. Protégé 3.4.4 is used as the ontology development tool to develop the ontology classes and subclasses based
on the designed mind-map.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and University of Wollongong for their support in
making this research possible. This research was supported by Malaysian government (Ministry of Higher
Education) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM).
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ScienceDirect
English as a second language: variations and pedagogical

implications
María Luisa Carrió-Pastor a *, Francisco Alonso-Almeida b
a
Departamento de Lingüística Aplicada, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, Valencia 46022, Spain
b
Departamento de Filología Moderna, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, C/ Pérez del Toro, 1 E35003 Las Palmas, Spain
Abstract
In this paper, English texts written by Spanish learners with B2 level of proficiency, following the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), were contrasted with texts written by native English speakers in order to detect
the most common writing changes (variations) motivated by the mother tongue of the writers. Our objective was to determine the
causes of these variations in language production and to explain the pedagogical implications that could be derived from our
findings. The results showed that there are differences in the texts produced by writers with different linguistic and cultural
antecedents, although their language proficiency was high enough to not produce grammatical errors. The grammatical items
analysed in the texts produced by native and non-native writers to look for language variation were articles, the passive voice,
tenses, relative clauses, and certainty and uncertainty expressions. Most of the variations found were caused by the interference
of the mother tongue, as a consequence, most of the pedagogical implications focused on avoiding these variations.
Selectionand/or
Selection and peer review under
peer-review underthe responsibility
responsibility of Prof. Dr.
of Academic Servet
World Bayram and Research Center.
Education
Keywords: Cultural influences, mother tongue, variation, second language;
1. Introduction
Variation in this paper refers to the different manifestations in the language that are not mistakes or errors (Ellis
1997). It should be noticed that there are differences in the discourse produced by writers with different linguistic
and cultural backgrounds, although they share the knowledge of the specialist content and academic forms of
expressing their thoughts. Variations arise when writers differ in their choice of grammatical structures, lexical units
or text features to express ideas. Language variations are not incorrect expressions of language; however, as their
name implies, they are structures whose use varies depending on the linguistic background of the writer. In this way,
variation can be significantly reduced if the writer is very familiar with the typical lexis, structures and organization
of a specific genre.
As regards effective communication, it is clearly undesirable if such variations lead to alternative interpretations
of the message. Of course, language variation will reflect nuances of expression, which may predominate in
language communities throughout the world, where certain terms and forms may be more commonly used than
others, but this variation should not distort facts or ideas. Language variation is of interest to linguists and teachers
as it is important not only to monitor these changes, but also to establish their causes and understand the
implications for the future development of the language. Moreover, given the dominant role of English in the
* Corresponding Author name: María Luisa Carrio-Pastor. Tel.: +34-963877530

E-mail address: lcarrio@idm.upv.es
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.225
378 María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Francisco Alonso-Almeida / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 377 – 381
dissemination of academic research and knowledge, it is also of interest to consider how the trends in language
variation will impact on expressing and communicating scientific knowledge.
The interest of a group of researchers in variation, from the point of view of discourse analysis, has been centred
mainly on rhetorical aspects, on analysing how genres vary across linguistic disciplinary lines and on investigating
variation across communities (Samraj and Monk, 2008; Durrant, 2009; Charles, 2007; Ozturk, 2007; Hinkel, 2009;
Schleef, 2009). The interests of yet another group have been the identification of variation in text features when their
writers come from different cultural backgrounds (de Haan and van Esch, 2005; Moreno and Suárez, 2008). The
main aim of these analyses is to describe, on the one hand, differences in discourse patterns that sometimes operate
as a barrier to effective communication and, on the other hand, that variations exist when speakers with different
linguistic backgrounds communicate in a second language.
Nevertheless, the results of the research on variation have rarely been applied to second language teaching
(Hinkel, 2009; Carrio Pastor, 2010). Researchers on second language teaching should take into account both the
cultural influences of the mother tongue of its users, and the fact that this creates different ways to express the same
discourse or more specifically, the same genre. Nowadays, most international writers communicate in English as a
second language (L2) and frequently they cannot avoid the use of the structures that are more common in their
mother tongue (L1).
Hinkel (1999, 2002, 2005, 2009) explains in her research that the use of some expressions in English is greatly
influenced by the cultural conceptions of the writer. The cognitive aspects of second language production should be
observed in language acquisition, thus making teachers and instructors conscious of this fact so that they can apply
the findings of language variations to the teaching of a second language.
The objectives of this paper are, in the first place, to determine the causes of the variations we find when English
is used as a second language and, in the second place, to explain the pedagogical implications of language variations
in second language teaching.
2. Methodology
The full corpora of this study consist of twenty papers written by native English speakers (henceforth corpus A)
and twenty papers written by Spanish non-native English speakers (henceforth corpus B). Each corpus is composed
of 160,345 running words.
In the first stage of this study, corpus A was compiled from papers published in international engineering
journals, which offered a broad spectrum of topics from the subject domain of engineering. The main authors were
native English speakers (NES) and they, moreover, work in an institution located in a country where English was the
mother tongue.
Corpus B contains papers written by non-native English speakers (NNES) for publication in international
journals, but they were still in the revision process so that there was no manipulation of language production through
third party editing at this stage. Those with a B2 level were chosen, as it was considered that grammatical aspects
had been acquired but there were further linguistic and idiomatic aspects that could lead to variation in the use of
language. The author or authors had to be native Spanish speakers and be affiliated to an institution in a country
where Spanish was spoken as an L1. These papers were not published yet by an international journal, although the
authors had later asked for a language revision to be submitted to an international journal for publication.
In the second stage of this study, data was analysed with the Wordsmith Tools suite of programmes (Scott, 2009).
Computerised searches included the following: (a) the passive voice (any copula verb + past participle), (b) verb
tenses, (c) relative clauses introduced by that, wh- and zero relativizers, and (d) certainty and uncertainty devices
(perhaps, maybe, likely, may, might). Later, comparisons were drawn between the occurrences found after the
analysis of the corpus of NNES and the corpus of NES in order to determine the variation in the occurrences found.
After identifying all the occurrences of the English corpora, we contrasted the results with the certainty/uncertainty
expressions found in the Spanish corpus in order to check our initial hypothesis that assertiveness is considered a
trait of Spanish researchers. Finally, the texts used were subjected to further readings by Spanish linguistic
informants in order to determine whether variation in language use had influenced their comprehension or if the
categories found could lead to discourse misunderstanding.
María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Francisco Alonso-Almeida / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 377 – 381 379
3. Results
The results obtained after the analysis of the corpora written in English can be observed in the following tables.
Table 1 shows the results that follow from the comparison of the use of the article:
Table 1. Article: occurrences and percentages
Articules Non-native English speakers Native English speakers Total occurrences (%)
(NNES) (%) (NES) (%)
A 1,982 (46.23%) 2,305 (53.77%) 4,287 (100.00%)
An 421 (48.51%) 447 (51.49%) 868 (100.00%)
The 8,420 (48.88%) 8,804 (55.22%) 17,224 (100.00%)
The results show that there is no variation in the use of the article in English by non-native and native writers of
English. In this sense, non-native writers can differentiate the use of definite and indefinite articles in English as the
average number and percentages are similar. Table 2 shows the results of the use of the passive voice by both groups
of writers:
Table 2. Passive voice: occurrences and percentages
Passive Occurrences Occurrences Total occurrences (%)

Voice NNES (%) NES (%)
124 (43.51%) 161 (56.49%) 285 (100.00%)
The results found in the use of the passive voice by native and non-native writers show that the frequency of use
of the passive voice in NES outnumbers its use in NNES in about 13 points. This variation of the passive voice in
the Spanish texts seems to reflect the author's stance towards the information given. In this context, the use of the
passive voice is an interpersonal strategy to convey impersonality in Spanish. Impersonal constructions in scientific
writing are a means to detach oneself from one's assertions, and information presented this way is said to be more
objective. A pragmatic implication of impersonality in language is the protection of the writer's public self-image,
since the author cannot be held responsible for the claims.
In Table 3 we offer the use of verb tenses in the corpus A and B under survey:
Table 3. Verb tenses: occurrences and percentages
Verb Occurrences Occurrences Total occurrences

Tenses NNES (%) NES (%) (%)
Present simple 767 (51.86%) 712 (48.14%) 1,479 (100.00%)
Past simple 672 (53.88%) 575 (46.12%) 1,247 (100.00%)
Future 126 (64.95%) 68 (35.05%) 194 (100.00%)
Present continuous 12 (63.16%) 7 (36.84%) 19 (100.00%)
Present perfect 10 (41.67%) 14 (58.33%) 24 (100.00%)
Past continuous 1 (25.00%) 3 (75.00%) 4 (100.00%)
Past perfect 1 (25.00%) 3 (75.00%) 4 (100.00%)
Table 3 reveals the presence of variation in the use of the future tense and the present continuous tense in the
compilations. The variation detected may be caused by the influence of the mother tongue of the writers, as the
future tense is frequently used in Spanish to show possibility and probability concerning the realization and
actualization of an event. The use of the present continuous in Spanish is not so restrictive as in English, since
contexts of usage in the former language go beyond describing ongoing or future actions. The low occurrences
found in the use of the past continuous tense and the past perfect tense argue for not including them in the list of
variation factors in the output of NNES with respect to the production of NES.
In Table 4, it can be seen the occurrences found in relative pronouns. We do not detail the occurrences found, as
we considered more important to detect an overuse or an underuse of relative clauses in our corpora.
380 María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Francisco Alonso-Almeida / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 377 – 381
Table 4. Relative clauses: occurrences and percentages
Relative clauses Occurrences Occurrences Total occurrences (%)

NNES (%) NES (%)
Total 341 (38.97%) 534 (61.03%) 875 (100.00%)
It can be seen in Table 4 that NES used almost 22% more relative clauses than NNES. This variation may be
caused by the different uses of relative clauses in Spanish; there are fewer relative pronouns. This shortage in
relative clauses in NNES can be explained in the preference of Spanish speakers to use other discoursal strategies,
such as the use of personal pronouns or the lexical repetition of the object being referred to previously in the text.
In table 5, the modal verbs ‘might’, ‘must’ and ‘may’ are included in the results of the analysis of certainty and
uncertainty devices in corpus A and B. These modal verbs are considered as factors that are likely to cause variation
in the light of the results obtained in our analysis of the verbal tenses. Following Larsen-Freeman (1999), the
expressions of certainty and uncertainty we include in this study are: absolutely, surely, definitely, unquestionably,
certainly, positively, possibly, perhaps, probably, almost certainly, etc. Some of these stance adverbs are also
considered as evidentials (cf. Downing, 2002 and Alonso-Almeida, forthcoming), although we do not make that
distinction here for limitations of space.
Table 5. Certainty/uncertainty expressions: occurrences and percentages
Certainty expressions Occurrences NNES (%) Occurrences NES (%) Total (%)
Uncertainty expressions 244 (49.29%) 251 (50.71%) 495 (100.00%)
Certainty expressions 163 (68.20%) 76 (31.80%) 239 (100.00%)
Might 3 (23.07%) 10 (76.93%) 13 (100.00%)
Must 53 (62.35%) 32 (37.65%) 85 (100.00%)
May 46 (38.98%) 72 (60.02%) 118 (100.00%)
It can be observed in Table 5 that Spanish writers used more certainty expressions than NES. In the same line as
before, this may represent the influence of L1 on L2. Spanish writers tend to use assertive expressions when they
express in their mother tongue and this fact is clearly reflected in the results. It can also be noticed that NNES used
almost 25% more the modal verb ‘must’ in the corpus used in this study. This may arise from the direct translation
of epistemic periphrastic deber + de, which the NNES interpret as 'must' rather than 'may' or even 'might', as pointed
out in Carrió Pastor (forthcoming). On the contrary, NES used ‘might’ almost 55% more than NNES and ‘may’ was
used almost 20% more by the native writers of English.
The variations found after the analysis of the corpus showed that non-native speakers use a wide range of
patterns, which are not always idiomatic, and so represent language variation. The main reason for this is that the
linguistic and the cultural background of the speakers of a lingua franca plays an important role in language
production.
4. Conclusions
A number of aspects were taken into account when designing the initial objectives of this research. One was that
language production differs between users in numerous subtle and idiosyncratic ways. Every speaker processes
reality in his/her own way, and the transmission of this reality is, in turn, bound by a degree of subjectivity. Writers
may conceptualise the same idea but how that idea is communicated might differ depending on factors such as
culture, social status, academic background, family education, mother tongue, genre, self-esteem, and so on. This is
true for writers writing in their L1 and is even more evident in L2 writing as Hinkel (1999, 2002, 2005, 2009) has
pointed out in her research. In the results shown in this research it can be observed that most of the causes of
variation were the influence of the mother tongue. Non-native writers of English prefer the use of the form ‘will’ of
future to refer to future facts as they consider the implications of the future simple tense in Spanish, i.e. future events
that are going to happen in the future. In the same way, they prefer the use of the modal verb ‘must’, used to show
assertiveness in the results section. On the contrary, native English writers prefer the use of the modal verb ‘may’
and ‘may’ to express the results or discuss their findings, following the traditional way of expressing findings in
María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Francisco Alonso-Almeida / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 377 – 381 381
academic English.
Teachers should be aware therefore, that writing in English as an international language can show considerable
variations in use depending on the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of its writers. In this sense, tasks that guide
students to be conscious of the cross-cultural implications of communicating in an L2 may be considered necessary.
Second language learners should be aware of the implications of communicating in an international language. They
should be conscious not only of the variations produced by their mother tongue, but also of the variations that they
can come across when reading texts produced by writers with different linguistic backgrounds. Students should be
able to produce and understand international English and this fact implies that they should be conscious of language
variations.
Although discourses are socially constructed, the influence of societal factors seems to be subtler in writing after
the results shown in this study. Nevertheless, it may be assumed that English undergoes change and is subjected to
all kind of influences, nowadays not least due to its massive use in international communication. As a consequence,
language variation undoubtedly questions the fixed characteristics of certain specific use of English.
It seems clear, after the results shown, that second language writers change some parts of discourse, even in static
genres such as scientific writing. The traditional analysis of variation has focused on rhetoric and linguistic elements
but we propose further criteria in any analysis of variation, which take into account their causes. This study focused
on the variations produced by Spanish writers and their pedagogical implications, although we propose to apply also
this research to the production of writers from different linguistic backgrounds to more fully assess the impact of
variations in English writing.
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Hinkel, E. (2002). Second language writer’s text: Linguistic and rhetorical features. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate.
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language teaching and learning (pp. 615-628). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate.
Hinkel, E. (2009). The effects of essay topics on modal verb uses in L1 and L2 academic writing. Journal of Pragmatics, 41, 667-683.
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Academic Purposes, 7, 15-26.
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for Specific Purposes, 26, 25-38.
Samraj, B. and Monk, L. (2008). The statement of purpose in graduate program applications: Genre structure and disciplinary variation. English
for Specific Purposes, 27, 193-211.
Scott, M. (2009). Wordsmith Tools version 5. Liverpool: Lexical Analysis Software.
Schleef, E. (2009). A cross-cultural investigation of German and American academic style. Journal of Pragmatics, 41, 1104-1124.
ScienceDirect
Environmental Education: A Propose of High School

Stélio João Rodriguesa*
a
Departament the education, University Anhanguera, Jaraguá do Sul –Santa Catarina - Brazil
Abstract
The educative practices had been determined by actions developed about the environmental questions. in the
perspective of learning to learn, and by implications in the continued formation of High School’s teachers with
emphasis in an Environmental Education that provided changes of procedures in the utilization of the environmental
resources so that these can continue generating life. The analysed data point that:: the course plans of the subjects do
not present, didactic aspects for the development of the Environmental Education; the theoretical and practical
procedures constructed, applied and evaluated for teachers of High School contribute significantly for the educative
process.
Keywords: Continued formation, Inquiry-action, Education Environmental, interdisciplinary, motivation.
1. Introduction
The Stockholm Conference (Dias, 2002), during which was determined that the contents of Environmental
Education (EE) would address the education issue as a practice of making society more organized, conscious, able
to manage the resources of nature, so to enable its sustainability.
Capra (1982), Gadotti (2000), Rodrigues (2001) describe that: the educational structure also presents a
Cartesian view of the environment; teachers receive fragmented knowledge during their academic learning process;
there are difficulties of dialogue and exchanges experiences performed in classroom between teachers; the economic
time which the world passes, requiring excessive workload of teachers who work up to three periods and in different
schools are some of the factors that, in educational process, turn it difficult to develop a proposal of Environmental
Education in their work process. Considering that the problems about environmental issues affect all levels of
education, with shortcomings mainly in high school, developed the following research problem: How can the on
going training helps high school teachers build their educational proposals contemplating Environmental Education?
Environmental Education is considered a continuous and permanent process which is a dimension of integral
education of all citizens, oriented so that the process of knowledge acquisition, development of habits, skills and
attitudes and values formation, harmonize to relations between men, and between them with the rest of society and
Corresponding Author:

#!! ""! "

doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.199
232 Stélio João Rodrigues / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 231 – 234
nature, to with them provide the reorientation of economic, social and cultural processes by making sustainable
development. (Ministry of Science and Technology, 2007:12).
The investigative field on this research develops in the on going training of High School teachers. The object of
research addresses the continuing education of teachers with emphasis on Environmental Education, an
interdisciplinary approach within the dialogic pedagogy. The reason for this choice is justified by the important role
that teachers play on education system as agents in this transformation process. Considering the above, we define
the theme of this research: The continuing education of high school teachers and Environmental Education (a
dynamic research-action in Jaragua do Sul, Santa Catarina, Brazil).
We propose the following objectives: To establish a diagnosis about the level of development of environmental
education in High School Education of the municipality of Jaragua do Sul ; Develop an on going training program
with methodological support of research-action in a school of the municipality, which contributes with the
transformation of teaching in environmental education at the region; evaluate the impact of the on going training
program in short and medium term. To promote research we organized scientific questions: what theoretical and
methodological procedures are needed for a group of teachers to develop changes in attitudes to the environment?
How to develop continuing education of a group of high school teachers that includes environmental education?
According to defined objectives and established scientific questions, we performed: the selection and analysis of
the literature about the organization and development of educational process for teachers in Environmental
Education, in dialectical pedagogy, continuous training of teachers, action research, inter disciplinarily, science,
technology and society, values; analysis of disciplines programs of Secondary Education on schools in the city of
Jaragua do Sul to rank the need and didactic methodological aspects that can contribute to the development of
environmental education; verification of which theoretical concepts on Environmental Education are used by
teachers in classroom; the development of theoretical and methodological procedures to help teachers of high school
courses in environmental perspective; the application of this procedures on continuous training of teachers in a
research action dynamic; evaluation of impacts on the continuous training developed program.
The continuing education is necessary because it allows to know better the things we already know, and know
others which are not known yet. Studying is a revolutionary attitude. There is no teaching without research or
research without teaching. Freire writes (1987:32), while teaching, keep looking. Teaching wondered why because I
inquire and inquire myself. I search for verify, verifying, intervene intervening, teach and teach myself. I search for
know what I still do not know and communicate or announce the news.
Methodology
The methodological procedures used in this research looking for: analyse the high schools disciplines programs
of the city of Jaragua do Sul, SC, to raise the methodological didactic aspects, which may contribute to develop
environmental education; verify the theoretical contributions related to Environmental Education used by high
school teachers in their classrooms; elaborate theoretical and methodological procedures to collaborate on
environmental perspective of high school teachers; apply these procedures in continuing education in a research -
action dynamic; evaluate the proposal of continuing education with teachers. The diagnosis process was developed
in six secondary schools in the city of Jaragua do Sul - SC - Brazil. The proposal was applied to the High School,
"Abdon Batista" in the city of Jaragua do Sul / SC - Brazil, which attends on three periods (morning, afternoon and
evening), along with 750 high school students, relying on a framework of 35 teachers.
Stélio João Rodrigues / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 231 – 234 233
Results
As the work developed by teachers in meetings and according to his assessment, presents the proposal
constructed by teachers in a process of action research, which were delineated the elements of this proposal
(objectives, contents, methodology, evaluation) and implemented in school and curriculum planning. The teachers
of this investigation undertook to build, organize and disseminate content related to environmental education in their
activities inside and outside the classroom, because these teachers believe that with this, society can be benefit
finding solutions, alternatives and, through mechanisms for community participation, acting in pursuit of their
interests. The methodology of teacher training stuck up, also, to discussion of attitudes, values and beliefs that will
improve the relations between human and environment. This research showed that the human is the subject of
education and is able to change.
Despite a strong emphasis on the subject, shows a mediator trend, since within the context of environmental
education, we address the multiple relations subject-subject, subject-environment, subject-environment-subject,
subject-object. The work done at the state school Abdon Batista, are based on the awareness of teachers, so that they
are dynamic, agile and dialectics enabling a transformative action. The framework of this research and its
methodology were defined by the historical experiences of the teachers, by their qualities and capabilities to
transform reality.
Conclusion
With the results based on the analysis and reflections on organization and direction of the process of continuing
education for teachers and the proposal modelling, and in accordance with the objectives, we conclude that
continuous education could build a pedagogical proposal for Environmental Education in High School, as evidenced
in High School Abdon Batista case, because teachers, constituted as an interdisciplinary group, held regular
meetings, trying to maintain motivation through developed activities, mobilized the construction and
implementation of the educational project itself, which implied participation of educational community and its
surroundings, using for this the dialogical method and transformative capacity of action research.
The diagnosis made it possible to detect on disciplines programs of High Schools at Jaraguá do Sul, the lack of
content structure and of a proposal that contributes to Environmental Education practice. The planning of schools
does not take into account the construction of a vision about the environment that is consistent with reality to take
actions that help sustainability, valuing the environment and its cultural and social characteristics, analysing the
transformed environments to choose actions that favour a better live.
References
Boof, Leonardo.(2009). Identidade e complexidade. Available from: http:/www.dhnet.org.br/desejos textos/galaxy. html. Accessed on
03/01/2010
Capra, Fritjof.(1982). O Ponto de Mutação. São Paulo: Cultrix.
Carr, W. e Kemmis, S.(1989). Becoming Critical: Education, knowledge and action research, Brighton, UK:Falmer Press.
Dias, G.F. (2002). Educação ambiental: princípios e práticas. São Paulo: Gaia.
Freire, Paulo.(1987) Pedagogia do Oprimido. 17ª ed. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra.
______ .(1990) Educação e Mudança. 16ªed. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra.
______. (1992).Educação como Prática da Liberdade. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra.
Gadotti, Moacir.(2000). Perspectivas atuais da educação. Porto Alegre: Artes Médicas.
Maturana, Humberto.(1999). Emoções e linguagem na educação e na política. Belo Horizonte: UFMG.
______. (2002). A ontologia da realidade. Belo Horizonte: UFGM.
234 Stélio João Rodrigues / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 231 – 234
Ministério de ciência y tecnologia y médio ambiente.(2007) Estratégia ambiental nacional 2007-2010. Anexo único de la resolución n.
40/2007. Ed. Academia. Ciudad de La Habana.
Rodrigues, Stélio João. (2001). A vida como bem maior: um desafio para a educação ambiental. Universidad de Havana, Cuba.
(Master's thesis)
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference on Educational Sciences -WCES 2013
Evaluation of School Activities for Developing the Desired

Characteristics based on Sufficiency Economy Philosophy :
A Project Report
Angkana Tungkasamita *, Ladda Silanoib, Teerachai Nethanomsakc ,
Pattamaporn Pimthong d
a
Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen and 40002, Thailand
b
cFaculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen and 40002, Thailand
d
Abstract
For the last 4 decades, the philosophy of Sufficient Economy has become the country’s new approach to drive strategies and
policies in all fields of development for Thailand. Based on rationality and knowledge about the Sufficient Economy Philosophy,
the philosophy is taking steps into the school curriculum and various school activities at all levels. A goal has been set for
schoolchildren completing basic education to have better knowledge and understanding about this philosophy and be able to
apply it in their daily life. This study presents an evaluation of school activities in a project which aims to develop student’s
desirable characteristics based on the Sufficient Economy Philosophy using a model of Context-Input-Process-Product (CIPP).
The project recruited school administrators, teachers, students, and parents in Northeastern region of Thailand as participants for
this study. Multiple sources of data have been obtained by in-depth interview, focus group discussion, and questionnaire. Both
quantitative and qualitative methods were used to analyze the obtained data classified into four aspects such as context, basic
factor, process, and product. Results indicated that the participants perceived all aspects in a high level and they responded
positive perceptions toward the activities.
Selection
Authors. under
Dr. Servet Bayram
BY-NC-ND license.
© 2013 The
Selection Authors.
and/or Published
under Elsevier Ltd. of
AllAcademic
rights reserved.
World Education and Research Center.
Keywords: Sufficiency Economy Philosophy, Evaluation of School Activities, Desired Characteristics;
1. Introduction
Thailand’s development policies in the past four decades focused mainly on economic growth based on
capitalism or liberal economics. It was then believed that by increasing the volumes of goods production and
service, the increase in employment and the resulting benefits from economic growth would eventually bring a
brighter life to the majority of people in the country, thereby wiping out poverty from the society. However, as
recent history has proved it, such is not the case. The opening of Thai society to free trade and great influx of
* Corresponding name:Angkana Tungkasamit. Tel.: +6-681-053-8760

E-mail address: tangka@kku.ac.th
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.255
542 Angkana Tungkasamit et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 541 – 546
foreign cultural influence without providing the people with adequate immunity had resulted in appalling rates of
change in people’s value system, beliefs, ways of living and interrelationship among Thai people. They have grown
used to materialism and wouldn’t hesitate to indulge themselves in consumerism. They have become more selfish
and seem to lose their sense of public service. The traditional regard for human dignity has been in the decline
while the disregard for morality in living one’s daily life seems to be the social norm. And worst of all is the
disregard for traditional culture and wisdom. Today there were very few people who care enough to transmit these
to the younger generations (Ladda Silanoi & et al., 2009). The decline in morality and sense of responsibility
among the people has become so dangerously prominent that recently issued educational policies have tried to alert
the public to the worsening of social values and moral standards. The Department of Curriculum and Instruction of
the Ministry of Education has taken the lead by asking schools and concerned people to incorporate the philosophy
of Sufficiency Economy that His Majesty the King has been promoting at various times and places as an alternative
way of life in order to remedy the situation. The essence of the philosophy is to recommend a middle way that is
based on sufficiency – to be reasonably moderate of one’s own needs and to be perceptive of changes in the world –
as a way of life for Thai people to have a sustainable development centering on the people’s well-being while at the
same time able to maintain our Thai national identity. The philosophy also stresses the need for Thai people to be
self-reliant, to be able to keep pace with changes, to be able to apply knowledge and technology suitably and to be
flexible towards changes while at the same time maintaining one’s moral and ethical values and honesty (Office of
the Board of National Education, 2002). Therefore suffice it to say that the Sufficiency Economy is a philosophy
that recommends a way for people of all levels, i.e. the family, the community and the state to live a life of
sufficiency as well as for the people who are involved in the economic and social development to be aware of the
changes and act in the proper middle way accordingly.
The current core curriculum of Basic Education of 2008 emphasizes the desirable characteristics of the future
Thai citizens which include the 8 essential points of one’s love for country, religion and the monarchy; to be honest;
to be well-disciplined; to love for learning; to live a sufficient life; to work hard; to be proud of one’s being a Thai
and to be of public-minded. The schools are also allowed freedom to add any other needed desirable characteristics
to be in line with their own emphases and school contexts and basing on the philosophy of Sufficiency
Economy(Office of the Board of National Basic Education, 2009).
The present research team members have studied thoroughly the philosophy of sufficiency economy and decided
to take part in the spreading of its tenets in order to help develop desirable characteristics in the young learners and
to elevate the level of teaching professional standard and in accordance with the philosophy of sufficiency economy.
The research study employed Stufflebeam’s CIPP Evaluation Model for data collection on the context, input,
process and product aspects of learning institutions. The collected data would be used as a guide to preparing
learning activities for the development of the desirable characteristics of the young learners.
2. The Sample Group
The sample group consisted of 3 school administrators, 40 teachers, 260 parents and 260 students in the upper
northeastern region of Thailand who willingly participated in the study and were selected through a multi-stage
sampling during the first semester of 2012.
3. Research Design
The study followed the CIPP Model for data collection including: Context, Input, Process, and Product The
research design are presented in Figure 1 as follows:
Angkana Tungkasamit et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 541 – 546 543
Context evaluation
Input evaluation Process evaluation

Students parents
Learning activity.
The extra curricular.
Project The evaluation Product
The participation evaluation
Administrators, Other
teachers supporting
information information
information
feedback
Figure 1. Research Design
Research Instruments
The instruments used in the study comprised of the following tools:
The tool for collecting quantitative data was a questionnaire on the assessment of learning activities that had been
arranged for the development of desirable characteristics of students in accordance with the philosophy of
sufficiency economy
The tool for collecting qualitative data which included ;
An in-depth interview form for using with the school administrators on subject of the assessment of learning
activities that had been arranged for developing desirable characteristics of their students;
A manual for conversing with the teacher groups on the subject of the assessment of learning activities that had
been arranged for the development of desirable characteristics of their students;
A manual for conversing with the student groups on the subject of the assessment of learning activities that had
been arranged for the development of their desirable characteristics;
A manual for conversing with the parent groups on the subject of the assessment of learning activities that had
been arranged for the development of desirable characteristics in their children
4. Methods of Analyzing and Verifying the Collected Data

An analysis of qualitative data from in-depth interviews, group conversations and a reflection session, in
accordance with the prescribed evaluation framework , was done through interpretation and a conclusion was made
basing on the form of logical induction, the meaning, the relationship and the effects of the phenomena. A content
analysis was also made by relying on the experience of team members which was regarded as an important tool for
the study
An analysis of quantitative data from the questionnaire and assessment forms was done by means of using
descriptive statistics of frequency, arithmetic mean, percentage and standard deviation in accordance with the nature
of sample groups and variables under study and by using a computer SPSS program
The collected data were analyzed in 3 steps as follows:
The primary analysis step in which the researchers started to do the analysis of the data immediately after the
collection of field data was completed to find the flaws in the method of data collection, to consider the richness of
the collected data and to assure that nothing was missing
The detailed analysis was made after each of the research steps was finished in order to establish conclusions for
writing reports and feedback for concerned parties
The concluding analysis was made after every step of the study was completed. The researchers once more made
a total analysis of the collected data in order to assess the developmental activities as a whole for making a
conclusion and a discussion of the results of the study
5. Result of the study
The data collected from responses to the questionnaire in-depth interviews and group discussions were analyzed
in accordance with the CIPP Model. The findings are reported as follows;
5.1. On the Context of Arranging Learning Activities for the Development of Desirable Characteristics
The context aspect, consisted of the preciseness of policy in activity management, and the spent budget in
activity management, the building and site, the learning sources using in activity management, the school
environmental condition was appropriate with activity management and community and parent participation in
activity management. Every division’ opinion was congruent in “High,” level and the school administrators,
teachers, students and parents, at in-depth interview sessions, all gave the same information that all the schools had a
plan to arrange learning activities for the development of desirable characteristics in their students in accordance
with the philosophy of efficiency economy, but lack of funds to support the plan had forced the schools to ask their
communities to take part in their plans. The schools had adequate venues and learning resources for the purpose and
more were in the process of development. School learning environment was fitting enough for the development
plan. Parents and community took part in the activities because the development of desirable characteristics
according to the philosophy of sufficiency economy depended not only on the school but also the community and
homes.
5.2. On the Input Aspect
The input aspect consisted of the administrators’ support, the teachers’ readiness, the students’ readiness before
implementation, the support from parents/community, and the support from other work units were in “High,” level
and the school administrators, teachers, students and parents, at in-depth interview sessions, all opined that the
school administrators played the greatest role in the development activities. If the school administrators
comprehended the need for the developmental plan, realized its significance and made a clear and workable
planning for the arrangement of learning activities for the development of desirable characteristics, it would help
hasten movements towards a greater development of the scheme. This was also true of teachers’ readiness for
taking part in the plan. If teachers recognized the need for developing the desirable characteristics in their students
and act in accordance with the philosophy of sufficiency economy, they would become a major force for converting
Angkana Tungkasamit et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 541 – 546 545
policies into actual classroom practice. Regarding student readiness for the development plan, it was recognized
that the majority of present generation of students have a problem of over-spending and possess little public-
mindedness. If they were allowed an opportunity to be trained in the learning activities they would be able to
develop the desired characteristics. On the matter of winning support from parents and community, it was found
that parents and community were willing to provide support if they were asked to. The support from school’s upper
authority offices could be limited, but the problem could be solved by asking for assistance from other related
offices such as local administrative organizations or private shop or company owners including learning resources in
the community which could be made good use of.
5.3. On the Process
The process Aspect consisted of the learning activity management for developing the desirable characteristic
based on Sufficiency Economy Philosophy, the extra curricular management in school, the evaluation of activity
management, the participation of parents/community, were in “High,” level and the school administrators, teachers,
students and parents, at in-dept interview sessions, all opined that there were various forms of arrangements for the
development of desirable characteristics of the students such as learning activities which integrated several basic
education and supplementary courses and in the student development activities like public services and participation
in other school and community development projects. Also when coming to school the students participated in the
school’s way of life in which they can observe the administrator and teachers’ behavior as a good model. The
students were assessed in each of the courses they attained by means of observing their conduct. Any misconduct
found could be corrected instantaneously. Some schools even had started their research projects for the
development of desirable characteristics in their students
5.4. On the Product
The product Aspect, consisted of the school had changes in environment and lifestyle in school as relevant to the
Sufficiency Economy Philosophy. The administrators had knowledge and comprehension, and behaved themselves
based on the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy. The students had knowledge and comprehension, and behaved
themselves based on the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy, had desirable characteristics. The parents and
community . The students had knowledge and had knowledge and comprehension, and behaved themselves based
on the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy, in “High,” level and the school administrators, teachers, students and
parents, at in-dept interview sessions, all opined that the schools had embarked on a scheme to alter school
environment and way of life to be in line with the philosophy of sufficiency economy. The campuses had become
cleaner and orderly, information plates were put up to provide the students with the philosophy of sufficiency
economy, and learning resources in the school such as agricultural gardens, fish ponds, mushroom sheds, were set
up for the students to visit and to learn from them. Furthermore, the administrators have behaved themselves in
accordance with the philosophy of sufficiency economy, i.e. no alcoholic drinking, no cigarette smoking, be
economical but not luxurious spending, and not getting involved with any form of vices. The teachers also behaved
in the same way of their superiors’. The students had also developed themselves in the desired characteristics such
as learning how to manage their spending economically and rationally, to learn how to earn and save their money.
They also take part in activities to save school and community’s environment. On the aspect of social service, they
formed groups for working to keep village streets clean, and on the aspect of cultural participation, they participated
in religious activities in the monasteries, etc. These student activities had, in turn, made the community and parents
comprehend and realize the meaning and usefulness of the philosophy of sufficiency economy.
5.5. On the Difficulties and Solutions
As it was in the first year of implementing the philosophy in schools, there were problems concerning the
knowledge about it and the proper conduct in the way of desirable characteristics. Many teachers, students and
parents had not yet understood its purposes and therefore could not conduct themselves in accordance with the
philosophy. There was also problems stemming from in adequate supply of funds for its promotion for which
efforts were made to mobilize community support for the plans.
6. Suggestions
Schools should have prescribe a clear action plan for the arrangement of learning activities aiming at developing
desirable characteristics in their students in accordance with the philosophy of sufficiency economy.
School administrators are the ones who play the most significant role in the arrangement of learning activities for
the development of desirable characteristics. Therefore, they should be a visionary with a clear knowledge and
understanding of the philosophy and to act a good example to their students.
The teachers should be the ones to be transformed because they are the important educational resource for the
transmission of knowledge and for instilling desirable beliefs and values in their students. It is therefore necessary
for schools to help their teachers to learn and understand the philosophy of sufficiency economy so that, after the
learning, they can properly serve as an example to their students, the parents and people in the community.
There should be attempts to build up good environment and learning resources in schools and community that
facilitate the development of desirable characteristics in the learners in accordance with the philosophy of
sufficiency economy.
There should be activities concerning the philosophy that allow participation of parents and people in the
community.
Teachers should operate on a clear development plan and a workable scheme for evaluating their students’
performance. Applying new educational innovation to their instruction and using new research methodologies for
the purpose of developing desirable characteristics in their students in accordance with the philosophy of sufficiency
economy would no doubt result in a desirable outcome.
Acknowledgements
This research was granted a general fund for the promotion of research works of Khon Kaen University in the
2011 budget year to which the research team wishes to thank its generous support.
Also without the experts’ full cooperation in their response to the questionnaire the study team wouldn’t be able
to carry its task to a successful completion. The team wishes also to thank the school administrators, teachers,
parents and students from the schools that participated in the study for their laborious participation in the project.
References
Office of the Board of Basic Education (2009). Core Curriculum Basic Education, 2008. Bangkok: Agricultural Cooperative Group of Thailand.
Office of the National Board for Social and Economic Development (2009). The 10th National Plan for Social Economic Development.
Bangkok: Office of the Prime Minister.
Office of the National Board of Education (2002). National Education Plan for 2002 – 2016. Bangkok: Prigwan Graphic Printing Shop.
Silanoi, Ladda, Nethanomsak, Teerachai & Tungkasamit, Angkana . (2009). A Hanbook for Developing Sufficiency Economy Learning Strand.
Khon Kaen: The Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University.
Stufflebeam, Daniel L., and Antony J.)1985 .(“Shinkfield”, Systemic Evaluation. Boston: Kluwep- Nijhoff.
Stufflebeam, Daniel L . Shinkfield, Anthony J. (2007 ).Evaluation theory, models, and applications. )1st ed .(San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.
Wallapha Ariratana. (2006). Development of learning Model for Critical Thinking based on Substances under the 2001 Basic Education
Curriculum. Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University.
ScienceDirect
Examining Grade 9 Students’Conceptions of The Nature Of Science

Rungnapa Sangsa-arda,Kongsak Thathongb and Suriya Chapooc
a
PhD candidate, Science Education Program, Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
b
Associate Professor Dr.Science Education Program, Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
c
PhD candidate, Science Education Program, Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand
Abstract
The aim of this research was to examine Grade 9 students’ understanding of the nature of science (NoS). There were 37
female and 34 male students participating in this research, all of which were from an education-extended school in the
Chaiyaphum Primary Educational Service Area Office 3, Thailand. The students’ conception of the nature of science was
examined using an open-ended questionnaire about the nature of science adapted from the one used in Lederman et al. (2002)
VNOS-C, and an interview record form. Twenty percent of the students were randomly selected for an interview to probe deeper
into their understanding. The data from the questionnaires and interviews were analyzed base on an interpretive paradigm.
Research findings indicated that the majority of the students had little awareness, and held naïve views, of all aspects of the
nature of science. These findings indicated that the students’ understanding of the nature of science was inadequate and
fragmented. An improvement of the students’ understanding of the nature of science is thus necessary.
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Keywords:Grade 9 student, Nature of Science (NoS)
1. Introduction
Teaching and learning about the Nature of Science (NoS) has long been a major goal of science educator. The
understanding of the NoS is a significant and primary component of scientific literacy (Lederman, 1992; Abd-El-
Khalick&BouJaoud, 1997; IPST, 2002; NRC, 1996; Bybee, 1997). An understanding of the NoS is important if
individuals are going to make responsible personal decisions and become effective local and global citizens.
To understand the characteristics of scientific knowledge and how it is obtained, citizens need to be able to appraise
claims and apply scientific knowledge that may affect their everyday decisions about things such as health, diet,
choosing energy resources and to reach informed views on matters of public policy regarding these areas (Bell &
Lederman, 2003). Research also indicates that the knowledge of the NoS, understanding of the structure of scientific
knowledge and the forms of argumentation used by scientists assists students in learning science content (Songer&
Linn, 1991; McComas& Olson, 1998). Understanding of the nature of science enables any person to find out
knowledge for themselves and then apply such knowledge to become an informed citizen. At the same time,
understanding of the nature of science can help people realize values of science, limitations of science, and impacts
of science and technology on society (Lederman, 1992).
Corresponding Author name. Rungnapa Sangsa-ard Tel.: +66-86-136-1991

E-mail address: rungnapa90@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.226
Rungnapa Sangsa-ard et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 382 – 388 383
Teaching and learning about NoS in Thailand has been emphasized since 1975 by presenting in high school
curriculum, specified objectives including the notion that students have an understanding of importance of theory as
a fundamental idea in science, the use of scientific methodology for troubleshooting, and have a positive attitude
towards science. In the present basic educational curriculum B.E. 2551 (A.D.2008), the study of the NoS is more
emphasized and appears in the science study objective as “science instructional management in educational
institutes shall aim to understand natural boundary and science limitation”. Based on the background described in
the previous section, it was decided that the purpose of this study would be to examine Grade 9 students’ current
understandings of the nature of science.
The research question of this study was what is Grade 9 students’ current understandings of the NoS?
2. The significance of the Nature of Science

Understanding the NoS supports the development of scientific literacy and this has been discussed earlier.
The main reform efforts in science education have included much discourse about the importance of enhancing
students’ conceptions of NoS.
Clough and Olson (2012) asserted that effective NoS instruction helped students to understand science
content. They argued that firstly, understanding the NoS helped students to understand and work from the
assumptions that underlie scientific knowledge; Secondly, that understanding the NoS raised students’ interest in
science and science classes thus improving motivation to learn the science content. Thirdly, by teachers explicitly
addressing the NoS the construction and reconstruction of science ideas was made clear, and helped students
understand that some of the ideas they held were once held by scientists.
Emphasizing the investigative nature of science and science as a way of knowing suggests that curriculum
is giving some influence to helping students understand the NoS. To elicit students’ understanding of the NoS, many
researchers used different methods and instruments for evaluating students’ understanding of the NoS. Nevertheless,
they have persistently shown that students hold inadequate understanding of the NoS.
3.Methodology
The study involved examining Grade 9 students’ understanding of the NoS.This study was designed for
collecting and analyzing data in order to answer what is Grade 9 students’ current understanding of the NoS?
Quantitative research was used to investigate the students’ understanding of NoS.
3.1 Participants
Participants were 71 Thai Grade 9 students who enrolled in the first semester of the academic year 2012.
Grade 9 students were seeking in Ban Wangtakhe school of the Chaiyaphum Primary Educational Service Area
Office 3, under the Office of the Basic Commission, in the Northeast region of Thailand.
3.2 Data Collection and Instruments

Questionnaires and interviews were chosen to be the appropriate data collecting techniques. Questionnaires
were used to examine the students’ understanding of seven NoS aspects. The first instrument was in this study was
the Views of the Nature of Science questionnaire (VNOS-C) (Lederman et al., 2002). It was administered to assess
the participants’ understanding of NoS. The VNOS-C consists of ten open-ended questions that help identify
understandings of the tentative, empirical, creative, subjective, theoretical, cultural, and social nature of science.
The VNOS-C has been reported as a reliable and valid measure of students’ understanding of NoS aspects
(Lederman et al., 2002). These methods were selected because the nature of open-ended question allows students to
answer in their own words. The questionnaire was adapted and sent to three Thai science educator experts for
validation.
The second instrument was an interview. In this study, in order to investigate students’ understanding of
the NoS, the researcher applied question items from open-ended questionnaire instruments developed by the View
of Nature of Science Questionnaire (VNOS) developed by Lederman et al. (2002). The interview question items
from this source were applied and translated into Thai. The interview schedule was reviewed and suggestions for
improvement of the content validity were made by three Thai science educator experts. Twenty percent of the
participants were randomly selected for interviews to further probe their understandings by the researcher in the first
semester of academic year 2012.
384 Rungnapa Sangsa-ard et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 382 – 388
3.3 Data Analysis

The questionnaires and accordingly interview transcripts of the 14 interviewed participants were analyzed
and compared for the purpose of establishing the validity of the open-ended NoS questionnaire.This analysis
revealed that the profiles of participants’ NoS views as obtained from the NoS questionnaires were trustworthy to
participants’ views as revealed and detailed during individual indebt interviews.
The researcher was coding the VNOS-C surveys and classify coded the responses and compared analyses.
The researcher read each response carefully and interpreted it into three groups. Terms used to describe participant
understanding of the NoS were informed, intermediate, and naïve. Descriptions of the terms are:
1) Informed understanding of aspects of the NoS is defined as aligning with descriptions of specific aspects
contained within Science for All Americans (AAAS, 1990) and the National Science Education Standards (NRC,
1996).
2) Intermediate is used by the researcher to describe an understanding of a specific aspect of the NoS which
has elements of both informed and naïve understanding. It is used to represent understanding aspects of the NoS
which are neither naïve nor informed. The term is often used in reference to religious or philosophical belief systems
which are a combination of different, and at times contradictory, beliefs or practices. Intermediate describes the
participant holding to both informed and naïve beliefs, views, and understandings of a specific aspect of the NoS
simultaneously.
3) Naïve understanding is defined as not aligning with these descriptions.
4. Results
The results of this study are presented in three sections. First, the characteristics of participants are reported
and discussed. Second, the level of students’ understanding of NoS from VNOS-C questionnaire are reported in
Table 1. Finally, the outcomes in NoS understanding that resulted from the VNOS-C questionnaire and semi-
structured interviews are reported.
4.1 Participant Characteristics

The participants in this study included 71 Thai Grade 9 students in Ban Wangtakhe school of the
Chaiyaphum Primary Educational Service Area Office 3, under the Office of the Basic Commission, Thailand.
The participants were thirty seven female (52.11%) and thirty four male (47.89 %). Twelve students (seven female
and five male) were classified according to achievement history in science as high achievers, thirty five students
(nineteen female and sixteen male) as mid-level achievers, and twenty four students (eleven female and thirteen
male) as a low achievers. All of participants are Buddhist. And fourteen (20 %) of participants was randomly
selected for interview to probe their understanding.
4.2 Participants’ understanding of NoS from VNOS-C questionnaire

The following table (Table 1) summarizes the grade 9 students’ understandings of NoS from the VNOS –C
questionnaire by classifying the target aspects of the NoS in to one of three levels. These three levels were naïve,
intermediate, and informed.
Table 1 Level of grade 9 students’ understandings of NoS
Item VNOS-C Questionnaire statement Aspect of NoS Level of understanding

Naïve Intermediate Informed
1 What, in your view, is science? What makes science (or a scientific Empirical 46 25 -
discipline such as physics, biology, etc.) different from other disciplines of 64.78 % 35.22 %
inquiry (e.g., religion, philosophy)?
2 What is an experiment? Empirical 51 20 -
71.83 % 28.1 %
Item VNOS-C Questionnaire statement Aspect of NoS Level of understanding
Naïve Intermediate Informed
3 Does the development of scientific knowledge require experiments? Empirical 43 28 -
a) If yes, explain why. Give an example to defend your position. 60.56 % 39.44 %
b) If no, explain why. Give an example to defend your position.
4 Science textbooks often represent the atom as a central nucleus composed Tentative 46 25 -
of protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons (neutral particles) Inferential 64.78 % 35.22 %
with electrons (negatively charged particles) orbiting the nucleus. How Creative and
certain are scientists about the structure of the atom? What specific Imaginative
evidence do you think scientists used to determine what an atom looks Distinction
like? between
scientific theory
and law
5 Is there a difference between a scientific theory and a scientific law? Distinction 71 - -
Illustrate your answer with an example. between 100 %
scientific theory
and law
6 After scientists have developed a scientific theory (e.g., atomic theory, Tentative 71 - -
evolution theory), does the theory ever change? Distinction 100 %
a) If you believe that scientific theories do not change, explain why. between
Defend your answer with examples. scientific theory
b) If you believe that scientific theories do change: Explain why theories and law
change. Explain why we bother to learn scientific theories. Defend your
answer with examples.
7 Science textbooks often define a species as a group of organisms that share Observation and 71 - -
similar characteristics and can interbreed with one another to produce Inferential 100 %
fertile offspring. How certain are scientists about their characterization of
what a species is? What specific evidence do you think scientists used to
determine what a species is?
8 Scientists perform experiments /investigations when trying to find answers Creative and 34 37 -
to the questions they put forth. Do scientists use their creativity and Imaginative 47.89 % 52.11 %
imagination during their investigations?
a) If yes, then at which stages of the investigations do you believe
scientists use their imagination and creativity: planning and design, data
collection, after data collection? Please explain why scientists use
imagination and creativity. Provide examples if appropriate.
b) If you believe that scientists do not use imagination and creativity,
please explain why. Provide examples if appropriate.
9 It is believed that about 65 million years ago the dinosaurs became extinct. Theory-laden 71 - -
Of the hypothesis formulated by scientists to explain the extinction, two 100
enjoy wide support. The first, formulated by one group of scientists,
suggests that a huge meteorite hit the earth 65 million years ago and led to
a series of events that caused the extinction. The second hypothesis,
formulated by another group of scientists, suggests that massive and violent
volcanic eruptions were responsible for the extinction. How are these
different conclusions possible if scientists in both groups have access to
and use the same set of data to derive their conclusions?
10 Some claim that science is infused with social and cultural values. That is, Social & 40 31 -
science reflects the social and political values, philosophical assumptions, Cultural 56.33 % 43.67 %
and intellectual norms of the culture in which it is practiced. Others claim
that science is universal. That is, science transcends national and cultural
boundaries and is not affected by social, political, and philosophical values,
and intellectual norms of the culture in which it is practiced.
a) If you believe that science reflects social and cultural values, explain
why. Defend your answer with examples.
b) If you believe that science is universal, explain why. Defend your
answer with examples
4.3 students’ understanding of NoS from semi- structured interviews.

This section presents the profiles of the participants initial views of the NoS from the follow-up semi-
structured interviews. The participants’ views for each item of the NoS are presented separately. These aspects
include empirical, tentative, distinction between a scientific law and theory, observation and inferential, creative and
imaginative, theory-laden, and social and cultural.
Table 2 Example of student conceptions about the Nature of Science

The item of Aspect of NoS Example of student conceptions about the Nature of Science
VNOS-C
Questionnaire Naïve Intermediate Informed
1 Empirical Science uses a scientific method Science was the study of the -
in order to investigate the answers natural phenomena and all of
and different from other types of scientific knowledge can be
knowledge such as philosophy tested.
and religion.
2 Empirical The experiment was the best way The experiment was a process in -
to test the hypotheses and the order to draw a conclusion by
experiment required the scientific testing a hypothesis and an
method. experiment involves the variables
such as dependent variables,
independent variables and a
controlled variables.
3 Empirical Scientist have to design an All of scientific knowledge -
experiment to get scientific data, cannot testable.
scientific knowledge and to test
hypotheses.
4 Tentative Scientists can see atomic Scientists cannot see atomic -
Inferential structure from high-powered structure directly. They drawn
Creative and microscopes. I believe they are a conclusion by the result of
Imaginative very certain. experimental and use creative and
Distinction between imaginative for construct models
scientific theory and of atoms that demonstrate
law understanding of atomic
structure.
5 Distinction between Theories are potentially - -
scientific theory and developed to become laws.
law
6 Tentative Scientific theories and scientific - -
Distinction between law do not change because
scientific theory and scientists take long time
law to discover the various theories
and tested to ensure that is true
before published
7 Observation and The scientific knowledge in - -
Inferential textbooks is reliable and scientists
can test what a species is because
they can see DNA from high-
powered microscopes.
8 Creative and Scientist did not use creativity Scientist may be used creativity -
Imaginative and imagination during their and imagination only in limited
investigations because may be areas, for instance developing
the result of an experiment was experiments.
incorrect.
9 Theory-laden Both of conclusions were not - -
difference because nobody can
not seen the dinosaurs.
10 Social & Cultural I think scientific knowledge is Science is influenced by cultures -
universal and has the same and society because science is
meaning in everywhere and is not human endeavour. So, many
influenced by cultures and society factors such as religion, politics,
and the economy influence the
creation and development of
scientific knowledge.
5. Discussion and Implications

These research findings indicated that grade 9 students’ understanding of NoS were inadequate.
The majority of participant held naïve views and intermediate but nobody held informed views in all items of the
questionnaire.
A high inadequate of understanding the NoS in this study were distinction between a scientific law and
theory, Observation and inferential, and Theory-laden. The majority of participants understood scientific theories
are less stable than law. (Bell, Lederman, & Abd-El-Khalick, 2000; Buaraphan, 2009; Chamrat, 2009). In term of
tentative most of them not clearly saw theories as inferential in nature and scientific law as generalizations. They
also decribed scientific theories change as a result of new evidence and advances in technology. (Mathins & Bell,
2007; McComas, 1996). In terms of observation and inferential, the participants often presented that they believed
scientific knowledge in science textbooks and still believed in scientist’s answer or scientist’s idea because they
thought when scientists developed knowledge the use both observation and inference (Abd-El-Khalick, 2004 ;
Lederman, Lederman, Kim & Ko, 2012).In addition, they thought technology in nowadays is very modern and
scientists develop an accurately scientific knowledge. In theory-laden aspect, they misunderstood the questions
because the answers of the participants were irrelevant of the question in the questionnaire. Many research of NoS
shown students believed that scientist reach different conclusions because they have different data and evidence.
The participants not understood about scientists’ backgrounds, personal views, and biases toward the data
potentially played important role in their interpretation of the data (Abd-El-Khalick & BouJaoude, 1997;Brickhouse,
1990; Dogan & Abd-El-Khalick, 2008; Gallagher, 1991;Haidar, 1999; Mathins & Bell, 2007; Murcia &
Schibeci,1999).For the role of creative and imaginative, this finding shown the majority of participants held
intermediate views they explain scientists used imaginative in some of step when they developed scientific
knowledge and did experiments. (Lederman, Lederman, Kim & Ko, 2012). The last aspect of NoS, most of
participant not mentioned social and cultural influences on science. They believed the scientific enterprise unrelated
public. However, some of participants revealed the scientific enterprise and scientific knowledge can be affected
by social and cultural. (Buaraphan, 2009; Mathins & Bell, 2007)
These results indicated that grade 9 students’ understanding of NoS inadequate. In addition, the results of
this study shown evidence that implicit NoS instruction was ineffective. From this study, I recommend the teacher
use explicit and reflective NoS instruction to improve students’ understanding of NoS. Furthermore, teachers have
to know their students’ ideas about NoS because they can plan instruction to improve their students’ understanding
of NoS. (Abd-El-Khalick, 2002).
References
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ScienceDirect
Examining Innovation Needs of Primary Schools: Teachers’ Perceptions

Yüksel Gündüza * Aydın Balyer b
a
Dr. Artvin Çoruh University, Educational Faculty, Artvin Turkey.
b
Dr. Yıldız Technical University, School of Foreign Languages, Davutpasa Campus, Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
Education is an essential element for a country as it helps a nation move forward. In this process, when educational system does
not function properly, it needs innovation. Main purpose of this study is to determine innovation needs of primary schools
according to teachers’ views. This study employed a survey method. Participants were 172 teachers chosen randomly from
primary schools in İstanbul. The data were collected with “Determining Needs of Innovation Scale” developed by the
researchers. Cornbrash Alpha of the scale was .82. The data were analyzed with arithmetic means, t-test and one-way ANOVA.
Results reveal that teachers feel innovation need at “moderate” level in all sub dimensions.
Keywords: Primary school, teachers, innovation, and innovation need
1. Introduction
Education is one of the basic elements of a nation as it plays important roles in people’s lives. In this regard,
when educational system does not work or meet basic requirements of any society, it must be reformed (Erdoğan,
1995; Fagerlind & Saga, 1989). Therefore, administrators must keep up with the latest developments, innovations
and adapt them into its structure. However, it should be done within a plan.
As far as the Turkish educational system is concerned, no matter what their political beliefs and views are, it is
considered that educational innovation is inevitable for the system. However, they may sometimes fall behind real
needs of the system (Ekinci, 1996). For that reason, many reform, innovation and change initiatives do not meet real
life problems. Indeed, they should eliminate problems encountered in the system and find solutions to them.
These movements are mostly derived from either external or internal forces. However, one thing is clear that
educational field requires some changes in some fields like school administration, training administrators and
teachers, educational technology, educational finance, program and instruction and human relations and democracy
(Başaran, 1993; Bursalıoğlu, 1987; Hesapçıoğlu, 1994; Kaya, 1979; Varış, 1988).
As the world is changing rapidly, educational institutions cannot be indifferent to this movement. However,
educational organizations are considered that they are clumsy and traditional organizations. By looking at this point
of view, reforms and innovation initiatives are inevitable for these organizations. This study mainly sought the
answer to the following questions: According to teachers’ views, what is the level of innovation need at primary
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.181
140 Yüksel Gündüz and Aydın Balyer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 139 – 143
schools? What are teachers’ views concerning innovation needs of primary schools? Are there any significant
differences between their views concerning gender and professional experience?
2. Methodology
This research employed a survey method which is used to reach a decision on the population which consists
many in number. In this method, it is possible to get a group or a sample which is considered to represent the general
population (Karasar, 2004).
2.1 Population and Sampling
Population of this study is the teachers who work in Bağcılar and Esenler townships in 2010-2011 academic
year. The sampling comprised of 172 teachers chosen randomly with unbiased sampling.
2.2 Data collection Instrument
The data were collected with a scale developed by the researches themselves. The scale had two parts. In the
first part, demographic variables were collected and in the second part there were items 25 items concerning
innovation needs of primary schools. Responses were indicated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from Not at all (1)
to Very much (5). As a result of reliability and validity process, it was piloted on 90 teachers. Cronbach Alpha was
found as 0.88. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was employed to obtain evident related to construct validity of
the scale. Before the factor analysis process, z values (between -3 and +3) and distances were checked. In the data
set, as values of 5 participants were not in the limits, they were considered as extreme edges and removed from the
data set. Therefore, analysis processes were carried on with 172 participants. It was commenced with 43 items.
According to the analysis made here, factor load value was accepted as 0.30 and the items that had values below it
were removed from the scale. Higher values in one item and lower values in other factors were taken into
consideration secondly and items that presented higher factor loads in multi factor structure was accepted as
overlapping items. In order to test data collecting structure for EFA considering sampling size, another criterion is
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Test (KMO) results. For these data, the KMO results are calculated as 0.77, (p< 0.01). KMO
values between .50 and .70 are mediocre, .70 and .80 are good, .80 and .90 are great and over .90 are superb
(Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999, p. 224). The data were considered as appropriate for factor analysis according to the
analysis.
Bartlett’s (1954) spherical test is a notoriously sensitive test of the hypothesis that the correlations in a
correlation matrix are zero. The test is available in SPSS factor but because of its sensitivity and dependence on
sampling size, it is likely to be significant with samples of substantial size even if correlations are very low.
Therefore, use of the test is recommended only if there are fewer than, say, five cases per variable (Tabachnick &
Fidell; 2007, p. 614). For these data, Bartlett’s tests are highly significant for EFA (χ2= 1452, 452; p<0.01).
As a result of the analysis, it was discovered that there are 5 factors of which Eigen value is higher than 1. It
was understood that these 5 factors explained 53 % of total variance variance and variance of the scale. For factor
design of the scale, principal component analysis and factor rotation, maximum varimax was chosen as orthogonal
rotation.
As a result of this process, it was discovered that the scale had 25 items below 5 factors. Factor loads of the
items in factor 1 are between 0.57 and 0,77; in the second between 0,52- 0,78, in the third between 0,69-0,78; in the
fourth between 0,41-0,84 and finally in the fifth factor between 0,52 -0,73. Consequently, it can be concluded that
construct validity was proved. For reliability of the data collected with the scale Cronbach Alpha Reliability
Coefficient was found as 0,82 for the whole scale. Apart from that Cronbach value was calculated for all sub
dimensions. According to that, it is 0,81 for the first factor (Innovation Need Toward School Administration); 0,75
for the second (Innovation Need Toward Human Relations); it is 0,76 for the third (Innovation Need Toward
Programs); it is 0,71 for the 4th (Innovation Need Toward Educational Technology) and it is 0,66 for the fifth sub
Yüksel Gündüz and Aydın Balyer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 139 – 143 141
dimension (Innovation Needs Towards Training Teachers and Students). Generally, reliability coefficients around
0.90 are considered “excellent,” values around 0.80 “very good,” and values around 0.70 “adequate “(Kline, 2011,
p.70).
2.3 Data Analysis
As independent variables are composed of two categories and the distribution is normal, t-test was used. Since
independent variable is separated in more than two categories, One-Way ANOVA analysis was administered for the
scale and sub scales. Variant analysis complementary calculations (post-hoc-LSD) were employed since significant
differences had been discovered in F test. All results in this study significance level was accepted as .05. Moreover,
significant results at .01 and .001 levels were presented in tables. In all the data analysis process, SPSS 15.0 for
Windows was used.
3 Findings
In this part, findings regarding examining innovation needs of primary schools are presented. According to
that, arithmetic means and standard deviation distributions of teachers have been presented Table 1:
Table 1: Innovation Needs of Primary Schools

Item How well are they done at your school? N St.
Deviation
1 Physical maintenance and repairs of school building 172 3,07 1,103
2 Usage of school incomes appropriate4 for purposes 172 2,87 1,104
3 Transparency of expenses 172 2,90 1,056
4 Tracing if students who are at school age are enrolled to school 172 2,63 0,979
5 Examining the reasons of student absenteeism 172 2,81 1,082
6 Working on the reasons students who cannot attend to school although
172 2,37 0,931
they have to
7 Explaining their opinions freely even if they are different from their
172 2,45 1,022
administrators’
8 Teachers’ participation in decisions related to their fields 172 2,54 0,888
9 Students’ freedom to explain their opinions 172 2,57 0,925
10 Staff freedom to explain their opinions 172 2,39 0,820
11 Staff freedom on setting up a union or being a member of it 172 2,25 0,957
12 Reaching educational goals as a result of educational facilities 172 2,81 0,802
13 Competency of student assessment processes 172 3,15 1,078
14 Educational settings to realize educational goals 172 2,72 0,962
15 Compatibility of the curriculum according to student level 172 2,72 0,986
16 Letting the teachers do something for their career advancement 172 2,28 0,908
17 How well is your school equipped for practices 172 2,48 0,791
18 How satisfactory is the equipment 172 2,55 0,804
19 How adequate is the equipment 172 2,54 0,826
20 How satisfactory are the text books 172 2,37 0,831
21 Orienting beginning teachers 172 2,67 0,794
22 Informing teachers about their rights 172 2,33 0,795
23 Organizing in service trainings 172 2,44 0,669
24 Following student achievement and assessment 172 2,70 0,763
25 Guiding students in accordance with their abilities 172 2,20 0,867
142 Yüksel Gündüz and Aydın Balyer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 139 – 143
When teachers’ views are evaluated, it can be seen that they think that primary schools need innovation at “high
level” especially in guiding students in accordance with their abilities (=2,20), staff freedom on setting up a union
or being a member of it ( =2,25) and letting the teachers do something for their career advancement (=2,28).
Furthermore, teachers evaluate that primary schools need innovation at low level in following student achievement
and assessment (=3,15), physical maintenance and repairing of school building (=3,07) and transparency of
expenses (=2,90). As far as the results are evaluated in terms of subscales, while teachers feel innovation need at
moderate level in school administration (=2,77) and in programs (=2,85), they need it at low level in human
relations (=2,44), educational technology (=2,44) and training teachers and students (=2,46). When gender and
professional experience are considered, there is no significant difference among the views of teachers (p> 0,05).
According to One Way ANOVA results, there is significant difference among teachers’ views in school
administration sub dimension [F(3/171)= 2,82 p< .05]. In order to find out the source of the difference post hoc (LSD)
test was done and results reveal that the means of those who have 0-5 years professional experience (=17,88) are
higher than those who have 6-10 experience (=16,04), 11-15 years (=15,31) and 16 years and more. The means
revealed significant difference in human relations sub dimension [ F(3/171)= 2,64 p< .05]. As a result of post hoc
(LSD) test employed to determine the source, means of teachers who have 0-5 years professional experience
(=12,89) are higher than those who have experience between 6-10 years (=11,56) and those with 11-15 years
experience (=11,00). On the other hand there is no significant difference among the views of teachers who have 16
years and more experience (p>0,05).
4 Discussion
As soon as teachers’ perceptions are considered, it is clear that primary schools need innovation at “high level”
especially in guiding students in accordance with their abilities, staff freedom on setting up a union or being a
member of it and letting the teachers do something for their career advancement. On the other hand, teachers
consider that primary schools are in need of innovation at low level in following student achievement and
assessment, physical maintenance and repairing of school building and transparency of expenses. This may be
commented that teachers are not more related to physical conditions.
Moreover, while teachers need innovation in school administration and programs at moderate level, they need
innovation at low level in human relations, educational technology, training teachers and students. In this respect,
there is no significant difference among the teachers’ perceptions concerning gender and professional experience.
This means that no matter your gender and your experience are teachers are aware of the need of innovation at their
schools.
It is seen that those with 0-5 years professional experience feel innovation need more than those with 6-10, 11-15
years and 16 years and more experience. The novices come to school with higher expectations and they feel that
need more. This can be commented that as they get more experienced they can determine the needs better with
increasing repertoire. The means revealed significant difference in human relations sub dimension. According to
these results, younger ones care innovation need in human relation less comparing the experienced ones. It is normal
that as they get older respect needs can increase.
5. Conclusion
Primary schools are basic institutions in our educational system as they provide knowledge and behaviors for
children. However, they may not sometimes function as expected and they need to make some innovation to catch
up with the latest developments. Therefore, this study was conducted to discover these innovation needs. Results of
this research reveal that while teachers feel innovation need at some periods in their professional lives, they may
perceive this need at different levels. In general, the teachers consider that primary schools need innovation at
moderate level. This may mean that primary school administrators should renew their school systems with the latest
developments. The results reveal that as far as the experience gets higher opinions get more negatively. According
Yüksel Gündüz and Aydın Balyer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 139 – 143 143
to these results, it is recommended that school administrators should follow the latest developments and renew their
routines to move their schools forward.
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Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. (5th ed.), Pearson Education. Inc.
Varış, F. (1994). Eğitimde program geliştirme, teori ve teknikler. (4. Basım), Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Yayınları.
ScienceDirect
Formation of Collaborative Skills of Adolescents Who Have

Functional Disorders
Olga Urtane, Svetlana Usca, Velta Lubkina
Personality Socialization research institute of Rezekne Higher Educational Institution, Rezekne, LV4600,Latvia
Abstract
One of the main prerequisites of successful social development is collaborative skills. Study focuses on adolescents with
functional disorders, whose collaborative skills are underdeveloped. There has been raised the issue on how to promote the
development of those skills within boarding school educational process, applying a project method to encourage adolescents with
functional disorders to use the obtained knowledge and skills in practice, to understand the significance of process, to take an
active role in problem-solving process, and gain to positive experience of cooperation. The research was conducted in Latvia, in
two boarding schools. Results have been processed in SPSS and AQUAD 6 environment. It is concluded that the usage of the
project method while working with adolescents with functional disorders provides an individual and differentiated approach and
the opportunity to work at all cognitive levels and to participate in problem-solving and decision-making processes thus
promoting active living position and developing collaborative skills in boarding school conditions.
Keywords: adolescents with functional disorders, collaborative skills, project method.
1. Introduction
Education policy focuses on development of each individual's personality, so that he/she could realize self-
actualization in specific cultural environment and be ready for continuous self-development (Valbis, 2005; Ramsey,
2004; Guskey, 2002). In contemporary knowledge and multicultural environment it is continually essential to have
ability to respond different situations, to evaluate them and find the ways how to enhance cooperation between
communication partners by learning and using the acquired technologies in order to develop cultural environment.
The dominating hope, that the new generation will be able to adapt and operate in a rapidly changing life, it affects
work of educational institutions. This also applies to special education which is obtained by adolescents with
different types of functional disorders.
"Education Law" (1998), "Children's Rights Protection Law" (1998), "The General Education Law" (1999) and
other laws and regulations provide Latvian students who have disabilities with the opportunity to obtain education
Corresponding Author: Olga Urtane , Tel: +23 544747839

Email: urtane@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.221
Olga Urtane et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 356 – 361 357
taking into consideration their needs. There are offered two opportunities - to obtain education in special schools and
integration in comprehensive educational institutions (Usca, 2012).
In Latvia there has been increasingly emphasized the reorientation of the knowledge reproduction need to
develop students collaborative skills which are essential for a successful collaboration in society, because even
excellent knowledge does not benefit if a person cannot take part in the exchange of ideas and information (Denny,
2002). The need to develop collaborative skills is required by the socio-economic situation and demands of common
labour market.
Education in boarding-schools is obtained according to a specially developed curriculum taking into
consideration the needs of students who have functional disorders. After leaving boarding school it is possible to
continue education in other schools. There is provided a regular expert advice, all teachers are well-trained to work
with disabled students and in all subjects and extracurricular activities teachers focus on correction work. Despite
the favourable conditions for correction of disabilities, there is a problem in boarding schools: students are in a kind
of isolation, detached from the real life, therefore they lose motivation to acquire the necessary cooperation and life
skills; they are away from their families and their parents do not take part in children’s daily life (Usca, 2012 ).
The research focuses on adolescents with functional disorders which are not related to inherited intellectual
disabilities. These students usually have lack of learning motivation, poorly developed or semi-developed learning
abilities and skills, and inability to work independently; they do not have interest in self-development (Reed, 2004;
Shilova, 2005; Borodulina, 2004; Felsenfeld et al., 1994). As a result, if a student does not receive professional
assistance in time, the primary disorder causes secondary disorders, and as well intellectual and social disturbances
(Trofimova, Dubanova, Trofimova, & Pushkina, 2006; Borodulina, 2004). These teenagers mostly come from social
risk families. During their studies students spend most of their time in school, where they learn and live in a
boarding house and their everyday life is pedagogically organized. In this situation there is no need for self-reliance
to make a decision, and that is why there appears inability (later - unwillingness) to take personal responsibility for
the events of everyday life. Life in boarding school limits as well the range of communication partners; therefore
adolescents have poorly developed collaboration skills and lack of tolerance. This creates a threat to their ability to
act independently and socialize in future (Usca, 2012).
The issue of the research is how to enhance the development of collaborative skills for adolescents with
functional disorders in boarding school’s pedagogical process?
2. Methodology
Social development of each person depends on economic, political and social development of society, the
character of social actions to be implemented, an interaction system, acquisition of social experience and its active
usage that is put into effect through communication and collaboration (Dushkov, 1999).
The authors believe that one of the main prerequisites for successful social development is collaborative skills.
This skill gives individuals the chance to use their own experience while setting goals, to learn from each other
concerning the choice of means, and it helps to develop the awareness that they can express their opinion and can be
accepted while acting in the group. It is the way how to learn to take care of each other, to be responsible for the
group's overall performance, to form human and emotional relationships with others. In a cooperative activity there
appears an interest and the ability to take responsibility for themselves and others (Rean, Bordovskaya, & Rozum,
2008). Cooperation is also a form of gaining experience, the development of self improvement by acquiring new
knowledge and skills (Spona, 2006), and as a result there is a formation of mutual influence and mutual
understanding (Maslo, 1995).
Basing on personal observations, the authors conclude that adolescents with functional disorders have
underdeveloped or even undeveloped collaboration skills. There are several reasons: a negative previous sample, a
negative experience of previous cooperation, type of disorders, a lack of cognitive activity or even intellectual
passivity, inability to comply with the principles of causality and inadequate assessment of own actions and the
work of others.
In order to develop collaborative skills it is necessary to involve adolescents with functional disorders in the
learning development process, when there are created situations where active application of knowledge is favoured.
While learning to apply knowledge in a meaningful, significant way, students become active participants and
358 Olga Urtane et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 356 – 361
promoters of their own learning process (Steiner et al, 1999). Learning or finding the sense takes place in a social
context, therefore a social interaction has a key role in education (Vygotsky, 1999), because working together,
students can achieve more than doing the task alone (Fisher, 2005). It is necessary to develop a set of learning
techniques, which focuses on disabled adolescents. There should be set targets and tasks which would encourage to
apply critical approach and make teenagers assess and work together to solve problem tasks, leading each other
through learning process instead of simply reproducing the information or knowledge (Koppenhaver, 2006).
Expertly organized project work opens the opportunity to implement this set of individual techniques; distinguishing
pupils' individual learning trajectories, there appears the necessity to develop them into diverse relationships with
other communication partners (Simons & Masschelein, 2009). It is also an orientation to the nearest development
zone of an adolescent with functional disorders (Vygotsky, 1999), so that a student can focus on overcoming
difficulties and lessen his intellectual passivity (Shilova, 2005).
The project method is one of the interactive teaching methods which plays a significant role in the process of
reaching education goals and it promotes the organization of self-directed learning in special education. Using this
method there is ensured synergy between learning in lessons and extra-curricular activities. Researches (Mahoney et
al., 2003; Moriana et al., 2006; Carrol & Purdie, 2007; Caldwell & Smith, 2005; Pimapunsri et al., 2010; Kaufman
& Gabler, 2004) demonstrate that the project work enhances obvious improvement in students’ study achievements
and interpersonal communication , the formation of critical thinking and the development of personal and social
maturity, socialization, learning motivation, development of self-regulation, which also includes self-control,
implementing different strategies while setting and achieving goals. As a result there is a reduction of the gap
between the areas of knowledge gained in school and real life. Moreover, it is obvious that there is a positive impact
of collaborative skills on learning results that are usually not achieved by the traditional frontal teaching methods.
(Cianciolo et.al, 2001).
When working with adolescents with functional disorders the main goal of the project method is to encourage
students to use the acquired knowledge and skills in practice while realizing teaching and learning interaction
(Prudnikova, 2012), to understand the importance of the process, to learn to take an active position in mutual
cooperation while solving problems, and to gain a positive experience of cooperation.
Implementing the project method, there is an interaction where the attention is paid to social and cultural
relations which affect each individual in learning process (Выготский, 1999; Newman, Griffith, & Cole, 1986;
Wertsch, 1985; Garleja, 2006).
Participants involved in this process have common goals to achieve, unity of action, mutual responsibility and
accountability for their performance. As a result, adolescents with functional disorders become active participants of
the learning process- they learn to solve problems and make decisions, develop collaboration skills with interaction
partners, learn to assess the results of their own learning and the work of others, and act at all cognitive levels.
3. Results
The aim of the research is to find out how the project method enhances the development of collaboration skills of
adolescents with functional disorders.
The research was conducted in two special boarding schools of Latvia. The choice was made taking into
consideration the following factors: firstly, in both boarding- schools there are adolescents with functional disorders
which are not inherited intellectual disabilities, but in one case - language disorders, in another case - mental
disorders; secondly, students from social risk families (Usca, 2012); thirdly, the schools are located in the same
region thus having cultural similarities; fourthly, a small distance between the chosen schools makes the research
process much easier.
58 adolescents with functional disorders, 33 pedagogues and one psychologist were involved in the research.
In the first stage there was analysed adolescents’ with disabilities and teachers' attitude towards various types of
learning activities in study organization process. 83 respondents were interviewed. The results demonstrate that in
34 cases, respondents prefer individual work (25 adolescents with functional disorders and 9 teachers), in 15 cases
the preference is given to frontal work. For other types of work, such as group work, pair work, project work, there
is given less support. The authors believe that individual and frontal work provides learning process,
individualization and differentiation, but does enhance the development of collaborative skills.
The second phase of the research was done to find out how students and teachers assess the opportunity to
acquire collaboration skills in boarding school conditions, therefore there was conducted a survey. 32 teachers and
50 adolescents with functional disorders were interviewed. The obtained results demonstrate that more than a half of
adolescents with functional disorders feel that they are able to listen, to ask for advice, to cooperate with others and
accept different opinions of others.
The contingent of the surveyed adolescents with functional disorders is specific and it is influenced by their
individual character and life in boarding school because their everyday life is pedagogically organized and there is
no need to solve problems independently and make responsible decisions. In the result - they are unable to assess
themselves adequately, and there is increased self-assessment of communication and working skills. This is contrary
to the teachers’ opinion. Only 12.5% (4 cases) of teachers approved students' collaboration skills, but 31.3% (10
cases) have given a negative assessment.
Whereas any assessment has the moment of subjectivity, the authors admit that an objective assessment could
be the average result of students' and teachers' ratings. This demonstrates that the average rate is not high and there
is need to seek appropriate ways and means to enhance the development of disabled adolescents’ collaboration
skills.
In addition, Pearson correlation demonstrates that there is a close correlation between the mentioned skills: there
is maximally significant correlation between the ability to listen and the ability to accept the viewpoints of others (r
= 0.493 **, p = 0.000),the ability to listen and the ability to ask for advice (r = 0.888 ** p = 0.000), the ability to
listen and the ability to work together (r = 0 459, p = 0.001), the ability to accept different opinions and the ability to
ask for advice (r = 0.561, p = 0.000). Consequently – developing one ability, there will be promoted the
development of correlated abilities.
In the third stage of the research there was established a group of eight adolescents with functional disorders.
The project method was applied in the work with students with functional disorders. It opened the opportunity to
provide a more personalized and differentiated approach taking into consideration the disabled adolescents’ needs
and synthesize it with a practical application of the gained knowledge while solving problems and making decisions.
It provided the room for teenagers to teach and learn from each other. Mutual assistance, cooperation or even
positive spirit of competition led to higher results.
Within a three- year period there was organized an actively developing learning process. Adolescents were
regularly and purposefully involved in various projects organized both in boarding school and outside, by attracting
new collaboration partners. Whereas adolescents with functional disorders have cognitive and communication
disorders (Borodulina, 2004, Trofimova et al., 2006) the implementation of the project method in pedagogical
process had three phases:
- in the first phase a teacher participated as an equal participant of the project, carried out his/her duties; he/she
analyzed students' work, as well as allowed to be analyzed; by his/her own example demonstrated how and
what action had to be taken;
- in the second phase a teacher was an active observer, ready to provide the necessary support as a consultant
and advisor, sometimes even in the cases when the student had not realized the error yet;
- in the third phase of the project participants planned the actions independently and took responsibility for the
results. They could turn to the teacher as a consultant, but it was their own initiative.
In order to determine the changes, there was done an analysis on questionnaires and creative works of
adolescents with functional disorders to acquire the necessary data. Attention was paid to the assessment of skills
and tolerance, because in the authors’ opinion, without the ability to accept different opinions, the cooperation in
different contexts is under the risk.
The questioning of adolescents with functional disorders and experts who were involved in the research process
was done at the beginning and at the end of the research. At the beginning of the research there was done the
assessment of collaboration skills of adolescents with functional disorders, but teachers’ and adolescents’
assessments were statistically different (p = 0.001) in tolerance assessment. There are statistically significant
differences in cooperation skill assessment (p = 0.049). In both cases, adolescents’ self-assessment (Mean Rank
18.69 and 16.06) is higher than teachers’ assessment (Mean Rank 9.41 and 10.72). At the end of the research
statistically significant differences were no longer observed. It demonstrates that adolescents with functional
disorders, when faced with real life situations where it is necessary to collaborate in decision-making process, begin
to assess their skills more adequately.
360 Olga Urtane et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 356 – 361
Analysing the development dynamics, there have been found significant differences between the measurements
in collaboration (p = 0.000) and highly significant differences in tolerance (p = 0.007). Adolescents with functional
disorders have improved their collaboration skills and the ability to accept different opinions.
The analysis of students' creative work in AQUAD 6 environment proves that frequency of the use of denotative
multiple code "tolerance" that includes the ability to accept other opinions has increased from 1 to 7 times at the end
of the research, while the frequency of the use of collaboration denotative multiple code "Coop" has increased from
9 times at the beginning of the research up to 34 times at the end of the research. This demonstrates that the results
are valid and suggests that regular and purposeful use of the project method enhance the development of disabled
adolescents’ collaboration skills.
4.Conclusions
1. The development of adolescents’ with functional disorders collaborative skills is affected by the definite
disorder, a cognitive activity, parents’ sample, previous cooperation experience, and other factors.
2. Working with adolescents with functional disorders in boarding schools there are mainly used individual and
frontal work methods. It provides the acquisition of knowledge, individualization and differentiation, but does
not develop collaboration skills.
3. Adolescents’ with functional disorders assessed their cooperation skills and the results are contrary to the
teacher's assessment. Any assessment has the moment of subjectivity. An objective assessment could be the
average result of students 'and teachers' ratings. The results demonstrate that it is not high.
4. In the analysis of collaboration skills there is a correlation between the ability to listen and the ability to accept
the viewpoints of others (r = 0.493 **, p = 0.000),the ability to listen and the ability to ask for advice (r = 0.888
** p = 0.000), the ability to listen and the ability to work together (r = 0 459, p = 0.001), the ability to accept
different viewpoints and the ability to ask for advice (r = 0.561, p = 0.000).
5. In order to develop disabled adolescents’ collaborative skills, they should be involved in the learning process
when there are created situations where an active application of knowledge is favoured. Such situations may be
created using the project method.
6. The project method provides the implementation of socio-cultural interaction. When working with adolescents
with disabilities there is provided an individual and differentiated approach. It gives the opportunity to work at
all cognitive levels and participate in problem-solving and decision-making process, promoting the development
of collaborative skills in boarding school conditions. This is demonstrated by data analysis in SPSS program,
presenting the measurements of significant differences at the beginning and at the end of cooperation (p = 0.000)
and highly significant differences in the ability to accept different viewpoints (p = 0.007), and increased
incidence of multiple codes, analysing a creative work in AQUAD 6 environment.
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by the European Social Fund within the project „Support for Doctoral Studies at
Rezekne Higher Education Institution”. Nr. 2009/0161/1DP/1.1.2.1.2/09/IPIA/VIAA/007
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ScienceDirect
5th World Conference Educational Sciences WCES- 2013
Generating teacher development models from context-specific

predicaments of new teachers in induction period
Mustafa Öztürk*
Hacettepe University School of Foreign Languages, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
Abstract
This paper presents conceptual review of literature about early experiences of teachers passing through different pathways and
comprehensive model taking its root from common distresses induction period. What emerged in the review is clustered around
three themes: (a) work-related problems including workload, instructional challenges, and classroom management; (b) problems
related to new teacher psychology like social status and identity challenges, isolation and loneliness, and need for professional
support; and (c) problems related to school context and teaching society pertaining to the relationships with students, parents,
colleagues, supervisors, and administrative staff. In this regard, an inquiry-oriented teacher education program, which asserts a
hand-in-hand engagement of training faculties and school settings in all procedures, can be adopted and implemented. A well-
designed training put forwards an inclusive model covering both pre-service and in-service as well as novice years.
Keywords:training crosses, education / learning languages of languages, of speciality French, approaches by task, TICE.
Introduction
Every teacher remember their first school day, when they enter the classroom without any supervisor, yet
merely students and herself feeling compelled to become better suited to her new-fangled setting with a bunch of
theoretical knowledge waving goodbye to her frantically. New teachers should expect that teaching starts as a
stressful, exhausting full-time job that requires energy and commitment, and should be tolerant to experience certain
amount of anxiety during the early years, due to numerous roles and responsibilities to take on (Howard, 2006). The
first-year anxiety can appear in different variations in different individuals. The first year is defined as especially
lonely and challenging time by many new teachers, because of “false expectations, shattered dreams, and serious
attacks on one’s competence and self-worth” (Rogers & Babinski, 2002, p. 1) or low starting pay, large class sizes,
etc. For many others, in the beginning year at a new school can be an extremely complicated experience. As a first-
* Corresponding Author : Mustafa Öztürk Tel.: +903122978085

E-mail address: mustafaozturk@hacettepe.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.195
Mustafa Öztürk / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 206 – 211 207
year teacher, it is probable to make mistakes, some of which will be small ones like poorly-worded questions on a
quiz or a misspelled word on a handout. They are unavoidable part of learning process, but some other mistakes
could be serious and threaten their career (Thompson, 2007). Beyond question is that new teachers enter their new
teaching environment with their habits and past experiences, and these habits and lifestyles can cause or ease
possible adaptation difficulties. None the less, the teaching community around, the workplace, even the school is
very important factors for their adaptation level. Taking reference from these, an all-inclusive program both in pre-
service and in-service education as well as in novice teacher training is thought to be key to practice shock. A strong
and coherent teacher education model covering all the stages from initial pre-service education to induction into
fully qualified teaching should be designed and sequenced carefully.
1. Common induction distresses
After a deep survey of literature attributed to new teacher development, it is realized that the concerns novice
teachers keep during their induction process, the problems they encounter frequently, and the challenges they are
supposed to overcome are mostly common and organized around three themes of predicaments: (1) teaching work-
related, (2) new teacher psychology-related, and (3) teaching society-related.
1.1. Teaching work-related with problems
Work-related concerns of the novice teachers are discussed as workload, instructional, and classroom
management challenges. One of the biggest and even the most difficult tasks they face as new teachers generates the
workload challenges or lacking of spare time. Novice teachers often feel inability in learning how to manage all the
duties successfully and express hopelessness in carrying out all the work that is assigned. Therefore, overwhelming
workload is asserted in many papers or books as the basic predicament (Britt, 1997; Uhlenbeck et al., 2002;
Walsdorf & Lynn, 2002; Gilbert, 2005; McCann et al., 2005; Smith & Sela, 2005; Holmes, 2006; Thompson, 2007).
In relation to classroom practice, some instructional challenges that new teacher might meet can be listed as:
how to diversify instruction to improve education for all students, how to create and maximize opportunities for
students to learn, how to conduct the best use of personal strength, etc. (Athanases & Achinstein, 2003). Concerns
consistently included among new teachers are curricular planning and instruction, students’ academic and emotional
growth, resources and instructional materials, student assessment and technology assistance (Lundeen, 2004).
Instructional challenges compose the core of teaching profession. They across in dimensions like before-class
challenges, in-class challenges, and after-class challenges (Öztürk & Yıldırım, 2012).
The literature of teacher development highlights management issue (Öztürk, 2008) as a central or major
concern of new teachers. As the third domain of teaching work, classroom management pertains to everything a
teacher can organize the time, the space and the students in such way that effective instructions can take place
everyday (Howard, 2006). Some perceive it as “the monster in first-year teachers’ nightmares” (p. 37) or as “herding
mosquitoes” being “the single most difficult challenge for a beginning teacher” (p. 94). It is denoted to be a frequent
source of problems and the number one or one of the top reasons for new teachers’ leaving the profession (Brock &
Grady, 2006). In the beginning teachers can feel that an inability to manage a class is a sign of weakness, so they are
often afraid to ask for help. Diverse and hard students and the novices’ lack of confidence in ability to teach
different ethnic, racial, linguistic, socio-economic groups result in lowered expectations and limited practice.
1.2. New teacher psychology-related with problems
Social status and teacher identity are two important issues among the psychological concerns of beginning
teachers. Teacher identity is perceived both as a social challenge and power in building social relationships. A
beginning teacher’s construction of a teacher identity relates both social and ethical concerns (Agee, 2004).
However, it starts quite hard for many novice teachers to construct their “teacher identity” in the early years.
Developing a “self” as a teacher is challenging and a variety of questions arise in the minds such as how they are
supposed to act in a certain situation; how the real teachers do it; how they react to management challenges; if they
are overreacting; if they are insisting on unreasonable standards; if they are being too ignorant, etc. (McCann et al.,
208 Mustafa Öztürk / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 206 – 211
2005). The teaching they learned at the university is often overshadowed by feelings of isolation in terms of ideals,
as they tend to sacrifice ideals for more traditional practices in the school context they are assigned to. It is believed
that, over time, their focus shift significantly from “self as a teacher” to “teacher of children” (Lundeen, 2004).
Watkins (2005) states that the novices all share the need for support and to be belong, whether they come to the
classroom as a second career or directly from a teacher education program. While need guidance and clear
expectations, they must also find freedom and empowerment to determine how they meet these expectations.
Professional support, both before and after the teaching starts, is an important phenomenon for the new teacher
development, because professionally, all the novices need frequent feedback, support, guidance, and positive
reinforcement in the early years.
1.3. Teaching society-related problems
Studies show that teaching society-related concerns take attention in the perceptions of novices in large scale,
as well. As the induction period progresses, the number of identified classroom management or discipline problems
fall sharply, problems with adult relationships out number classroom management concerns nearly three-to-one
(Lundeen, 2004). This is good exemplary to show the significance of social worries of novice teacher, because
“teaching is about building relationship” (Howard, 2006, p. 76) and it requires a range of skills to organize, deploy
skills such as communication and negotiation, sometimes in a highly pressured environment (Holmes, 2006).
Each school and each school district has unique entity, which comes forth through members’ interactions with
each other and the school community (Brock & Grady, 2006). The big difference “between urban schools, rural
schools, impoverished schools, well-to-do schools, small schools and overcrowded schools” (Jarvis & Algozzine,
2006, p. 3) clarifies that environment does affect them and their way of teaching. Cultural diversity they might
encounter can be barrier between children, school and the new teacher, or social conflict and intolerance in the
classroom. In order to “break down cultural barriers”, supportive team spirit needed (McBee,1998, p. 56).
Teaching profession, problems and their solutions are often specific to particular school context or district.
Therefore, beside learning the self, for the new teachers, learning the world, learning about children, understanding
the students’ insights, more importantly learning the school in terms of curriculum, routines, subject matter, and
environments, as a teacher (Grinberg, 2002) is necessary.
2. Discussion of a comprehensive teacher education model
The literature revealed that pre-service teacher education should adequately respond to needs and concerns of
novices in the early years. Covering strategies to be used in classroom without ‘real-life’ examples does not seem to
supply a deep understanding or enactment, as the programs are usually perceived as and criticized for being too
theoretical, having little connection to practice, and offering unrelated or ineffective courses for further processes.
All these result from the discrepancy between the teacher’s expectations out of pre-service training and the
outcomes of the actual teaching experience. Teaching profession, comprehensive and well-grounded in-service
education programs as a professional support to novices are a vital need. However, “induction is not an isolated
program, but rather the first phase of a career-long professional development plan” (Brock & Grady, 2006, p. 113).
The aim is, to address the concerns of teachers in the beginning stages of professional development. After the
induction phase ends, teacher’s need for professional development continues.
Strong and coherent model is displayed in Figure 1, which reflects comprehensive program adopting an
interactional feature between all the stages of teacher education and emphasizing the themes emerged in the
literature under novice teacher frustrations. The model is represented by certain codes and Table 1 presents what
each code in the model stands for.
The model proposes an intersecting training between pre-service and in-service development. In the model,
there appear two circles representing pre-service and in-service stages as unified under an inclusive globe which is
supplied from both sides equally. The midpoint of the globe is named as novice teacher training, as it is supposed to
have central place which is interconnected with and influenced by both pre-service and in-service training stages.
Though it seems to be spherical representation, the model also reflects linear fashion which is visible like an axis of
equator in the middle of the globe. The only difference is linearity starts from two ends and meets in the centre.
To start with the first stage from left to right, P corresponds to pre-service circle, during which six essential
components of an efficient training are emphasized in the model: (1) decision making; (2) relationship building; (3)
management; (4) effective teaching; (5) problem solving; and (6) assessment. These aspects are determined in line
with the themes that emerged in novice teacher studies. When the arrows representing components in this initial
training follow their path towards the other end of the globe, the second stage starts in the meantime. A stands for
teaching internship under two segments: (1) first round practice teaching, which provides the candidate teachers
with the opportunity to teach in real classroom as practice (2) preliminary mentoring program, which ensures
working with a supervisor teacher under the scope of preliminary needs of beginning teachers. Both of the
components in teaching internship lead, some way to fresh start to in-service training as candidate teachers start to
perform teaching. That is the reason for locating B at the other end of the in-service circle.
P1 I1
P2 I2
N1 N2
A1 D1
P3 I3
P A B N C D I
P4 I4
A2 D2
N3 N4
P5 I5
P6 I6
Figure 1.Teacher Education Model
Table 1.Representation Codesof Teacher Education Model
Codes Stages Components

P1 Decision Making
P2 Relationship Building
Initial PRESET P3 Management
P
(Pre-service Teacher Education) P4 Effective Teaching
P5 Problem Solving
P6 Assessment
A1 First Round Practice Teaching
A Preparatory Teaching Internship
A2 Preliminary Mentoring Program
B Fresh Start to INSET (In-service Teacher Training)
N1 On-site Orientation
NTT (Novice Teacher Training)
N N2 Socialization Program
210 Mustafa Öztürk / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 206 – 211
N3 Administrative Support
N4 Field-based Guidance
C Closing PRESET (Pre-service Teacher Education)
Induction into NQT D1 On-site Practice Teaching
D
(Newly Qualified Teaching) D2 School-based Mentoring Program
I1 Negotiating a Teaching Identity
I2 Relationship Building
Induction into FQT I3 Corresponding through Peer Network
I
(Fully Qualified Teaching) I4 Conducting Cooperative Research
I5 Professional Development Links
I6 Reflection in Action
Following the direction of B, next stage N, which means NTT (Novice Teacher Training), comes into sight. It
is purposefully placed in the middle of the model as it is thought to be influenced by both sides – pre-service and in-
service circles (see the arrows coming from both ends of the globe). Four essential modules are suggested during
NTT program: (1) on-site orientation; (2) socialization program; (3) administrative support; (4) field-based
guidance, respectively. These modules are proposed in the program as they emerged as themes among the studies
related to novice teacher development. Considering the bidirectional arrows in the centre of the figure, it is visible
that there is direct, mutual link between first round practice teaching, on-site orientation as well as preliminary
mentoring program and socialization program. Such a link is also seen both between on-site practice teaching, field-
based guidance, between school-based mentoring program and administrative support.
When NTT program comes to finale point, next stage D starts as the induction into newly-qualified teaching
period, which is located at the other end of the pre-service circle. Following the direction of D, the stage I starts.
Looking from the other end of the globe, I as the in-service years is represented by six segments: (1) negotiating a
teaching identity; (2) relationship building; (3) corresponding through peer network; (4) conducting cooperative
research; (5) professional development links; (6) reflection in action. All of them being among the themes reviewed
in relation to common distresses of novices have a direct impact on novice teacher development and lead the way to
induction into fully-qualified teaching period. The arrows coming from in-service circle towards N are supposed to
be series of feedback taking its root from on-site experiences and instructional practices in-service years. They also
appear to base for both novice teacher development and further development of other in-service teachers.
4. Conclusion
In accordance with the literature pointing at new teacher development, most frequently encountered concerns
of novice teachers in their instructional practices and experiences outside class compiled around three themes:
predicaments related to teaching work, new teacher psychology and teaching society. Emerging from all these
predicaments, comprehensive teacher education model is supposed solution to common practice shock and assist
three interconnected phases of teacher education: pre-service, novice and in-service teacher education. An inquiry-
oriented teacher education program affirming a responsive connection of teacher training faculties at higher
education institutions and workplace settings is claimed to be employed and put into action.
References
Agee, J. (2004). Negotiating a teaching identity: An African American teacher’s struggle to teach in test-driven contexts. Teachers College
Record, 106 (4), 747-774.
Athanases, S. Z., & Achinstein, B. (2003). Focusing new teachers on individual and low performing students: The centrality of formative
assessment in the mentor’s repertoire of practice. Teachers College Record, 105 (8), 1486-1520.
Britt, P. M. (1997). Perceptions of beginning teachers: Novice teachers reflect upon their beginning experiences. Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association, Memphis, TN.
Brock, B. B., & Grady, M. L. (2006) Developing a teacher induction plan: A guide for school leaders. California, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks.
Gilbert, L. (2005). What helps beginning teachers? Educational Leadership, 36-39.
Grinberg, J. G. A. (2002). “I had never been exposed to teaching like that”: Progressive teacher education at Bank Street during 1930s. Teachers
College Record, 104 (7), 1422-1460.
Holmes, E. (2006) The newly qualified teacher’s handbook. London and New York, RoutledgeFalmer.
Howard, L. F. (2006) Ready for Anything: Supporting new teachers for success. Englewood, CO, ALP: Advanced Learning Press.
Jarvis, S., & Algozzine, B. (2006) Everything I need to know about teaching: They forgot to tell me! California, Corwin Press: Thousands Oaks.
Lundeen, C.A. (2004) Teacher development: The struggle of beginning teachers in creating moral (caring) classroom environments. Early
Childhood Development and Care, 174 (6), 549-564.
McBee, R. H. (1988). Readying teachers for real classrooms. Educational Leadership, February, 56-58.
McCann, T.M., Johannessen, L.R., & Ricca, B. (2005). Responding to new: An in-depth study of novice high school teachers suggests key
strategies to address their most pressing challenges. Educational Leadership, May, 30-34.
Öztürk, M. (2008). Induction into teaching: Adaptation challenges of novice teachers (Unpublished master’s thesis). Middle East Technical
University, Ankara, Turkey.
Öztürk, M., & Yıldırım, A. (2012) EFL instructors’ induction: Early practices of language teachers teaching at tertiary level. Turkish Onine
Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, 3 (2), 1-17.
Rogers, D. L., & Babinski, L. M. (2002). From isolation to conversation: Supporting new teachers’ development. Albany, USA: State university
of New York Press.
Smith, K., & Sela, O. (2005). Action research as a bridge between pre-service teacher education and in-service professional development for
students and teacher educators. European Journal of Teacher Education, 28 (3), 293-310.
Thompson, J. G. (2007). The first-year teacher’s survival guide: Ready-to-use strategies, tool, and activities for meeting the challenges of each
school day. (2nd ed.) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Wang, J., & Odell, S. J. (2002). Mentored learning to teach and standards-based teaching reform: A critical review. Review of Educational
Research, 7(3), 481–546.
Uhlenbeck, A. M., Verloop, N., & Beijaard, D. (2002). Requirements for an assessment procedure for beginning teachers: Implications from
recent theories on teaching and assessment. Teachers College Record, 104 (2), 242-272.
Walsdorf, K.L., & Lynn, S.K. (2002). The early years: Mediating the organizational environment. The Clearing House, 75 (4), 190-194.
Watkins, P. (2005). The principal’s role in attracting, retaining, and developing new teachers. The Clearing House, 79 (2), 83-87.
ScienceDirect
Geometrical Approaches to Algebraicly Difficult Problems

Yusuf Tayfun Tepedeldirena, Erdoğan Mehmet Özkana
a
Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Art and Science, Department of Mathematics, Davutpasa 34210,Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
The Math education for every level is of great importance. When you are faced with a problem, your approach may not be clear
in the beginning. Your problem solving style directs you and makes you do whatever you have learned till now. Sometimes you
are not able to solve the given problem through your experiences. You should have some alternative ways to solve particular
problems. Some problems may come with two different solutions namely algebraic and geometrical. Your past experiences and
knowledge determines your solutions. In this study we develop geometrical approaches to algebraicly solvable problems. These
problems are difficult to solve algebraicly. We try to make the learners use geometrical approaches and simplify the solutions.
This is important for our education system. The students take the university entrance exams to enroll a university. Students
compete with the time for these exams. This made us to develop much more simplified methods to some particular problems. The
solutions will be disused briefly.
Keywords: Simplifications, The Expected Background, Geometrical approach, Algebraic approach
1. Introduction
When you teach math you often realize that some of your students use algebraic approaches to a given
mathematical problem while the others use graphs or geometrical figures. The second approach is not seen very
often. The students used for our study mainly show algebraic tendency to a given problem. When you think of it,
you may ask yourself whether this can be changed or not, using a certain method. In this study we will see that this
can be achieved by directing students using e certain geometrical approach. While we were doing this we used the
students having a certain level of math maturity.
2. Methodology
Before starting our study, we tried to gather the students that have almost the same level of mathematical
background. These students were attending the second class of engineering (Aerospace, Electronically, Industrial
Corresponding Author: Yusuf Tayfun Tepedeldirena, Tel: +23 444747839
Email: Yusuf Tayfun Tepedeldirena @gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.189
178 Yusuf Tayfun Tepedeldiren and Erdoğan Mehmet Özkan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 177 – 179
and Computer) in a university in Istanbul. These students had taken an exam before starting their education.
According to this exam their insufficiencies about math were determined by us. After doing this, Some of the
students were given a short term course to eliminate these insufficiencies. After taking another exam, these students
reached nearly t e same level of math maturity. The number of students for this study were determined as 120.
According to after course exam these students have the ability of solving a math problem using both algebraic and
geometrical approaches. We asked some questions to these students . These questions can be solved either
algebraically or geometrically. The students still had the tendency of using algebraic approach.
In the second part of our study, we asked the students to prove the Pythagorean theorem in any method. One
fourth of the students applied the regular method without adding any self method (They did not add any individual
information) The proof is not geometrical. The other one fourth tried to prove the theorem using vectors. This
approach is geometrical. But it is seen the affect of linear algebra since they had just taken the course of vectors in
the contend of linear algebra. The rest tried to prove the theorem in any sense but it is not considered as a correct
answer.
In order to direct the students to use a geometrical approach we asked them to draw a table given below
A b c a2 b2 c2
1 1 1.4 1 1 1.96
1 2 2.3 1 4 5.23
Table1. Numerical approach the Pythagorean theorem
After doing this table students had a fairly good information about the theorem. This is a kind of geometrical
approach for this theorem. In this sense a relation had been established between an algebraic approach and
geometrical approach. When using a table like this it means you are using a kind of geometrical approach.
When we direct them for proving the summation formula of 1+2+3+….+n=(n).(n+1)/2, we used a table given
below
n a: Summation a-n n2-a
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 3 1 1
3 6 3 3
4 10 6 6
5 15 10 10
Table2. Numerical Approach to summation formula
We see again in this table we used a geometrical approach for the summation formula. The student could realize
the equality of a-n and n2-a. Using this information the student will get the desired result.
3. Conclusion
In this study we mainly focused on the geometrical approach for proving some of the theorems. We don’t give
any information how we are successful for using this method. We just gave some samples about it. This subject is
open to be developed. The background of students allowed us to direct the students for reaching the desired result.
But is it always possible? Can the students always be directed for using geometrical approach? If it is so, what will
Yusuf Tayfun Tepedeldiren and Erdoğan Mehmet Özkan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 177 – 179 179
we gain in return for it?
References
McCarthy J,.(1967). “A Basis For A Mathematical Theory of Computation”,Corrected Version of Western Joint Computer Conference,10:30-69.
Tepedeldiren Y.T,Özkan E.M.,Ünal H,.(2011) “Geometrical and Algebraic Approach to Multiple Representations”,Procedia Social and
Behavioral Sciences,15:72-75
ScienceDirect
Governance and Funding of Higher Education – International

Trends and Best Practices
Sándor Gyula Nagya *, Gergely Kovátsb, András Olivér Némethc
a
Corvinus University of Budapest, Fővám tér 8., Budapest 1092,Hungary
b
c
Abstract
The aim of our research was to overview and analyse the best practices of higher education funding (mostly in the EU, with a
highlight to Central and Eastern Europe) and to make proposals for Hungary in designing its own system of funding focusing on
quality, sustainability and the possible inclusion of private (entrepreneurial) contribution. During the research we unfolded the
international trends and the Hungarian practice of governance and funding of higher education with concrete examples from
Germany (Martin Luther University in Halle-Wittenberg), Great Britain (University of Manchester), France (Lille Institute of
Political Studies), and from Central and Eastern Europe with special focus on Poland (Jagiellonian University in Krakow) and
Slovenia (University of Ljubljana). This paper provides a brief summary of the general trends in financing higher education, and
we highlight a few funding solutions that could be used by the CEE countries as well.†
Keywords: Higher education, funding, international trends, best practices;
1. Introduction
Funding higher education has been a hot topic for a couple of decades. The reason for this is the mass fiction of
higher education, which is a process still unfinished. Increasing heterogeneity of students’ needs resulted in the a
growing number and a wider variety of educational programmes and a more differentiated higher education sector
with many new institutions (colleges, polytechnics, for-profit institutions etc.). As the complexity of the sector is
growing the role of government changes: the task is to guide a complex ecosystem made up of many different agents
with many different interests instead of the direct control of homogeneous institutions. The autonomy of institutions
(Estermann – Nokkala, 2009; Jongbloed et al., 2010; Estermann et al., 2011) and the means of their control also
changes: the emphasis shifts from direct regulations (government) to indirect incentive mechanisms and different
monitoring and reporting practices (governance) (Jongbloed et al., 2010). Funding can be considered as one of the
most important incentive mechanisms.
In funding, two major general trends can be observed. First, sources of funding have become more
diversified (Estermann – Pruvot, 2011). Tuition fees and third stream incomes become more and more important,
* Corresponding Author name. Tel.: +36-1-4825352

E-mail address: sandorgyula.nagy@uni-corvinus.hu
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.190
Sándor Gyula Nagy et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 180 – 184 181
although there is a great difference among countries (as it can be seen in the decreasing proportion of state funds,
see OECD, 2011). Second, the way how state funds are allocated among institutions has also changed. On the one
hand, to increase the sensitivity of institutions to the needs of customers, part of the funds are allocated to students
or enterprises in the form of state subsidised loans or favourable taxation regulations. On the other hand, there are
some changes in the allocation mechanisms of direct institutional support as well. The following general trends can
be observed (OECD, 2008; Jongbloed et al., 2010; Halász, 2011): a separate funding of teaching and research is
used; formula funding has become more widespread; outputs play a more important role in formulas; state funds are
allocated as block grants, that is, institutions have significant freedom in how they spend these resources; and
finally, the significance of performance contracts grows.
This is, however, a general picture stemming from the literature. The mixture of funding elements varies
from country to country. In the next section therefore we turn our attention to some specific features of Central and
Eastern Europe, and then describe some current funding mechanisms and innovative practices that could be used in
this region as well.
2. Financing higher education in Central and Eastern Europe
The general trends highlighted in the previous section are basically valid in the Central and Eastern
European (CEE) region as well, although the development of the funding system and the adaptation of new trends
are somewhat delayed compared to the more developed countries. There are some common features of the CEE
countries that may result in this. These features may also explain why there is a lack of funding in higher education
and why there is a need to reform the financing mechanisms.
The mass fiction of higher education has been faster in this region, which suddenly increased the costs of
the system. The governments dealing with the post-transition challenges were not able to meet this need for an
increased funding. The society’s attitudes regarding the role of state (highly influenced by the socialist past of the
countries) have constrained the involvement of the students and their families into bearing the costs. Because the
provision of free higher education is expected by a large share of citizens, most countries have moved towards a
dual higher education system (a part of the students don’t pay any tuition fees, while the others pay the majority or
the whole of the costs of their education) instead of a general tuition fee system (basically all students pay, but only
a part of the costs), when shifting financial burdens to the students became inevitable. The ability to raise money
from the business sector is also constrained. This is partly because of the financial situation of the sector and partly
because the private R&D activity is really weak in these countries compared to Western Europe. There is a room for
development in the incentive mechanisms as well.
The statistics show that higher education spending is lower in the CEE countries than in Western Europe,
not just in absolute terms, but compared to the GDP as well. This means that the per-student expenditures in the
CEE countries are on average the 40 to 50 percent of those in Western Europe (counted on purchasing power
parity). This leads to serious differences in quality and competitiveness. Table 1 provides some further data. The
most important thing is not that expenditures in the six CEE countries are below the OECD average, but the fact that
the difference between the halves of Europe comes not from the teaching expenditures, but from the money spent on
research.
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182 Sándor Gyula Nagy et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 180 – 184
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Table 1. The expenditures of higher education institutions as a per cent of GDP, 2008
Of which
Teaching Other services Research Total
Public Private
Czech Republic 1.0 0 0.2 1.2 0.9 0.2
Estonia … … … 1.3 1.1 0.2
Poland 1.3 0 0.2 1.5 1.0 0.4
Hungary 0.6 0.1 0.2 0.9 0.9 …
Slovakia 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.9 0.7 0.2
Slovenia 0.9 0 0.2 1.1 1.0 0.2
Austria 0.9 0 0.4 1.3 1.2 0.1
United Kingdom 0.6 0.1 0.5 1.2 0.6 0.6
France 0.9 0.1 0.4 1.4 1.2 0.2
Netherlands 1.0 0 0.5 1.5 1.1 0.4
Germany 0.7 0.1 0.5 1.2 1.0 0.2
Sweden 0.8 0 0.8 1.6 1.4 0.2
OECD average 1.1 0.1 0.4 1.5 1.0 0.5
Source: OECD (2011), pp. 231 and 276
On the one hand this has a significant influence on quality, because the quality of teaching can highly
depend on the research activity of the university staff. On the other hand, this is in connection with fundraising as
well, as it is mainly the research in which the business sector can be interested. Therefore, providing incentives for
the private sector to co-operate with universities (or donate them) could ease the financial problems of the higher
education sector and lead to increasing quality as well.
In the last section we bring examples from Germany, the United Kingdom and France about raising private
funding and pursuing quality objectives in funding the higher education system.
3. Western European best practices
Most of the universities in Germany are financed by the regions (Bundeslaender) with some exception of
federal funding. Four models of university-financing can be differentiated in Germany:
• a combination of base funding and performance-based allocation in every year,
• a multi-annual base funding combined with formula-based allocation,
• a base funding (calculated yearly) combined with formula-based allocation,
• and a multi-annual base funding.
The weight of performance-based financing is between 5-20% of the total budget of the universities with
increasing trends in the last years and with significant divergences among regions. Sachsen-Anhalt, the region that
we have examined, has turned to a model based on indicators which try to measure the academic achievements and
distributes some of the regional budget of higher education following these indicators (model 3). Such indicators
usually reflect the achievements in teaching, research, equality and internationalization, but there are certain
differences in the details among the regions. However, in the case of every university the regional government
negotiates with the institutions to arrange the financial framework of its functioning.
The higher education institutions are allowed to raise private sources in financing their activity. These
private funds (Drittmittel) mostly come from (research or educational) co-operations with enterprises, private
donations, and EU or national grants. The Martin Luther University in Halle-Wittenberg has a strong incentive
system for such co-operations: if a faculty or department is able to draw private funding, the university gives extra
money to the organizational unit involved from the central budget of the institution.
A similar incentive mechanism was functioning on national level in the United Kingdom at the time of the
research (in 2011). The HEFCE (Higher Education Funding Council for England) started the “matched funding
Sándor Gyula Nagy et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 180 – 184 183
scheme”, an incentive programmed between 2008 and 2011. The main objective of it was to highlight the
importance of philanthropy to private persons and enterprises and to help the universities themselves in increasing
their capacities and capabilities of fundraising. (HEFCE 2012a)
Three categories were set up by the HEFCE depending on the fundraising ability of the institutions. The
state gave extra money to supplement the private donations or funds given to the university. Universities with low or
no capacity of fundraising belonged to the first category; in their case after every £1 the state gave another £1. In the
second category the state provided £1 after every £2; and in the third £1 after every £3. (HEFCE 2008)
Even with this support programmed the private funding and donation altogether was below 5% of the total
budget of higher education in the UK (however nearly 30% comes from the students paying for the education and
16.2% from research contracts). (HEFCE 2012b) This is partially a result of increasing the maximum tuition fee to
£9000 per year in 2010, which was accompanied by an increase in the amount of the student loan provided by the
government. (White Paper 2011) This will probably result that even in the short run the whole higher education
system will be financed by tuition fees (funded partially by low-interest rate government loans) instead of direct
government support to universities. And that will make the competition and the autonomous financial management
of the universities much stronger than before.
In France the main trend in higher education financing is the so-called “contractualization”, which means
that the relation between the state and the university is regulated by four-year framework contracts. The system
named Sympa introduced in 2009 is focusing more on financing research and development activities of the
institutions, but the weight of the performance-based financing is still just 20%. 60% comes after the number of
students and 20% based on the publication activity of the researchers and professors. The IDEX (Initiatives
d’Excellence) is much more forward-looking. The universities have to combine their efforts to build a center of
excellence and to apply for funding from the programmed. The IDEX has a fund of €7.7 billion given by the French
state in March 2010 (LOI n° 2010-237 du 9 mars 2010 de finances rectificative pour 2010) from which it can spend
the interest earned every year.
The inclusion of private funding to the higher education system has just started in France. The universities
can establish a “university fund” or a “partnership fund” with legal personality (it has a minimum of €150.000),
which can include private enterprises. The state tries to give incentive to private persons to donate university funds
with a 66% tax credit (up to 20% of their income) and to enterprises with a 60% tax credit from the corporate tax
(up to 0.5% of their turnover). Furthermore some enterprises are establishing own grants for students to help
covering their tuition fees fully or partially. In France a so-called registration fee exists as well, which is a fee of
€170-350 per semester depending on the level of education (BA, MA, PhD) and the university. However, this type
of income is minimal in the budget of the French universities.
We think that the aforementioned incentive mechanisms could bring more resources from the business
sector to the universities in the CEE countries as well. Of course, there are some funding models in these countries
as well that could be followed by others. For example, a general tuition fee system (like in Bulgaria) could lead to a
fairer division of burdens among the students than the dual systems used in several countries. Regarding the
allocation of public funding, we deem the formula-based approaches (like in Poland) favorable, because they are
transparent, there’s a link between performance and funding, and quality indicators can also be involved in the
formulas.
184 Sándor Gyula Nagy et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 180 – 184
References
Estermann, T. – Nokkala, T. (2009): University Autonomy in Europe I. European University Association, Brussels.
Estermann, T., – Nokkala, T. – Steinel, M. (2011): University Autonomy in Europe II. The Scorecard. European University Association, Brussels.
Estermann, T. – Pruvot, E. B. (2011): Financially Sustainable Universities II. European universities diversifying income streams. European
University Association, Brussels.
Halász, G. (2012): Finanszírozási reformok a felsőoktatásban: nemzetközi összehasonlító elemzés (Funding reforms in higher education:
international comparative analysis). In: HEFCE (2008): Circular letter 11/2008, 12 May 2008
http://www.hefce.ac.uk/pubs/circlets/2008/cl11_08/ (downloaded on 23/02/2012.)
HEFCE (2012a): Matched funding scheme for voluntary giving 2008 to 2011. http://www.hefce.ac.uk/finance/fundinghe/vol/ (downloaded on
23/02/2012.)
HEFCE (2012b): Reform of research funding by the Higher Education Funding Council for England http://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/reform/
(downloaded on 22/02/2012)
IDEX (2012): IDEX call of application http://www.agence-nationale-recherche.fr/investissementsdavenir/documents/ANR-AAP-IDEX-2010.pdf
(downloaded on 22/02/2012)
Jongbloed, B. – de Boer, H. – Enders, J. – File, J. (2010): Progress in higher education reform across Europe – Funding Reform. Centre for
Higher Education Policy Studies, Twente.
LOI n° 2010-237 du 9 mars 2010 de finances rectificative pour 2010 (French low on the financing of IDEX from 9 of March, 2010)
Temesi, J. (ed.): (2012): Felsőoktatás-finanszírozás: nemzetközi trendek és hazai gyakorlatok. (Funding higher education: international trends and
Hungarian practices). Aula Kiadó, Budapest.
OECD (2008): Tertiary Education for the Knowledge Society. OECD Thematic Review of Tertiary Education. OECD, Paris.
OECD (2011): Education at a Glance 2011 – OECD Indicators. OECD, Paris.
White Paper (2011): Students at the Heart of the System http://c561635.r35.cf2.rackcdn.com/11-944-WP-students-at-heart.pdf (downloaded on
21/02/2012)
ScienceDirect
How Reflective Are EFL Instructors in Turkey?

Eda Gözüyeşil a *, Buket Aslandağ Soylu a
a
Nigde University, School of Foreign Languages, Nigde 51100, Turkey
Abstract
Reflective practice is based on reflection that encourages instructors to make well-grounded decisions by looking at particular
situations from different perspectives and trying to find the most appropriate solutions and implementing necessary changes in
their action in order to ensure better learning outcomes of their learners. Through reflection, instructors reach newfound clarity,
on which they base changes in action and future improvement. The aim of this research is to assess the reflective thinking skills
of EFL instructors and to determine their reflective thinking skills in terms of demographic variables such as gender and
graduation degree. The research was carried out with descriptive survey method. Reflective Thinking Inventory, which was
developed by Akbari, Behzadpoor and Dadvand (2010), was mailed to 112 EFL instructors working at universities. Regarding
the instructors’ demographical characteristics, the data was analyzed by means of frequency technique. In the analysis between
the instructors’ reflective thinking skills and their demographical characteristics, medium was interpreted by the use of Kruskal
Wallis H and t-test. Based on the results, some recommendations were made for the instructors.
Selection
Authors. under
by Elsevier ofunder
BY-NC-ND license.
© 2013 The
Selection Authors.
and/or Published
Keywords: Reflective thinking; instructors; English as a foreign language, reflection;
1. Introduction
In today’s world one of the most challenging dilemmas in the complicated nature of education is the never ending
work of teachers. Teachers should be everywhere -intentionally or not-in the micro world of the classroom in order
to provide students with a well-organized learning atmosphere. Furthermore, teachers who are inquiring, thinking
critically, and making convenient decisions on time are accepted as an increasing necessity while trying to overcome
difficulties in learning. In this respect, reflecting teaching, which can be seen as a guide for successful teachers,
presents opportunities to teachers to have high-quality classroom practice in historical, cultural, social and political
contexts.
In the last decade, considerable attention has been paid to promote professional development in all domains. With
this in mind, reflective teaching gives teachers not only time to think carefully about their own teaching behaviours
but also opportunities to view other experienced professionals in action. As Cruickshank and Applegate stated
(1981) teachers find themselves engaged in a meaningful process of inquiry which leads them toward renewed self-
esteem and interest in teaching. As a result, teachers become more reflective about teaching and interested in self-
improvement. Reflective teaching is an opportunity for meaning teacher growth.
As it comes to the origin of reflective teaching, Pollard et. al. (2008, 14) emphasized that the concept of reflective
teaching stems from Dewey who contrasted “routine action” with “reflective action”. According to Dewey whilst
*Corresponding name: Eda Gözüyeşil. Tel.: +09-388-225-2001

E-mail address: egozuyesil@nigde.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.162
24 Eda Gözüyeşil and Buket Aslandağ Soylu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 23 – 27
routine action is guided by factors such as tradition, habit and authority, reflective action involves a willingness to
engage in constant self-appraisal and development, flexibility, social awareness.
Reflective teaching, which provides the dynamic basis for teacher action, is applied in a cyclical or spiraling
process, in which teachers monitor, evaluate and revise their own practice continuously. Teachers act as researchers
of their own practice and develop the curriculum through practical enquiry. As well as their own practice, they
should have a deep understanding of the knowledge of students, school, curriculum and pedagogy. In this while,
teaching journals, students’ feedback, recording lessons and collaboration among colloquies become indispensible
for reflective teachers. By investigating both learning and teaching through various activities, teachers should
construct educational predispositions and assumptions in a productive atmosphere.
The fact that reflection has been influenced by different philosophies and motivations in its genesis makes an exact
definition of the term problematic. Different attempts have been made to define the concept of reflective practice by
either its components or the processes it entails. Van Manen (1977), for example, viewed reflection as comprising of
three elements of technical rationality, practical reflection, and critical reflection, while Valli (1990) adds moral
reflection to the list. Korthagen (2001), on the other hand, regards reflection as consisting of organized, rational,
language-based decision making processes that also include non-rational, gestalt type operations. In another classi-
fication, Jay and Johnson (2002) regard reflective practice as consisting of three crucial steps of description,
comparison, and criticism. The descriptive stage is devoted to problem setting, during which the teacher determines
which aspect of the classroom or his/her practice should form the core of his/her reflective attention. The second
stage, i.e., comparison, is the phase during which the teacher starts ‘‘thinking about the matter for reflection from a
number of different frameworks’’ (p.78). It is during the comparative stage that the practitioner tries to make sense
of other people’s viewpoints, or develops a new frame of reference (Schon, 1983), which will enable him/her to
comprehend viewpoints which may run counter to the ones he/she holds. This ability to detach oneself from the
limits of one’s experience will enable us to ‘‘discover meaning we might otherwise miss’’ (Jay and Johnson, 2002:
78). The ultimate result will be a more comprehensive understanding of the teaching context and its complexity. The
last stage of reflection is what is termed as the critical stage. At this stage, the reflective practitioner evaluates
different choices and alternatives and integrates the newly-acquired information with what he/she already knows. It
is, in fact, the decision making stage resulting from careful analysis of the situation and deliberation. This last stage
will form the basis for the formulation of alternative ways of teaching or approaching the problem on the part of the
teacher.
2. Method
This study is built with a structure where quantitative analysis method is used. Selected by random sampling
method in academic year of 2011-2012, the investigated statistical population of this study is 112 EFL instructors
working at universities, 72 of whom are females and 40 of whom are males. While 49 instructors have a BA/BS
degree and 49 have a MA/MS degree, only 14 of the instructors have a PhD degree.
2.1. Data Collection Instrument
In order to evaluate reflective thinking skills of the EFL instructors, 5-point Likert-type scale developed by Akbari,
Behzadpoor and Dadvand (2010) was used in this study. The scale includes 29 items and is divided into six
components:
1. Critical: It refers to the socio-political aspects of pedagogy and reflections upon those.
2. Cognitive: It is concerned with teachers’ attempts aimed at professional development.
3. Metacognitive: It deals with teachers and their reflections on their own beliefs and personality.
4. Affective: It deals with a teacher’s reflecting on his/her students, how they are learning and how learners respond
or behave emotionally in their classes.
5. Practical: It deals with the tools and the actual practice of reflection.
6. Moral: It checks for teachers’ reflecting on moral issues.
Eda Gözüyeşil and Buket Aslandağ Soylu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 23 – 27 25
As the result of the factor analysis made in order to determine the structural validity of the scale, the factor loads
of scale items were found to vary between 0.60-0.72, Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) value was found to be 0.73, and
the internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach alpha) calculated for the reliability of the study was found to be 0.84.
2.2. Analysis of Data
The data obtained in this study was analyzed using t-test, Kruskal Wallis H, and comparisons in terms of gender,
and types of degree were made. For the examination of the data, “descriptive analysis” method was used.
3. Findings and Discussion

The reflective thinking skills of EFL instructors were assessed by comparing the mean scores of the participants.
The means and standard deviations of six elements of reflective thinking skills of EFL instructors participating in
this study are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Means and standart deviations for each components of reflective teaching scale
Components m sd
Critical 16,26 3,55
Cognitive 14,75 2,77
Metacognitive 12,57 1,76
Affective 12,10 1,95
Practical 13,59 2,78
Moral 11,44 2,14
As shown in Table 1, the scores of critical element (M=16.26, SD=3.55) are higher than the scores of the
cognitive element (M=14.75, SD=2.77) and of the practical element (M=13.59, SD=2.78). The lowest scores belong
to the moral element (M=11.44, SD=2.14). These results show that considering the standard deviations, the
instructors participating in this study have higher skills in cognitive element, which is concerned with their attempts
aimed at professional development such as conducting small-scale classroom research projects (action research),
attending conferences and workshops related to their field of study, and reading the professional literature (Farrell,
2004; Richards and Farrell, 2005).
Table 2 shows the results of independent sample t-test between the means of the EFL instructors’ reflective
thinking skills in terms of their gender.
Table 2. The results of independent sample t-test between the EFL instructors’ reflective teaching skills and their gender
Components Gender N M sd df t p
Critical female 67 16,01 3,25 101 -,964 ,337
male 36 16,72 4,06
Cognitive female 72 14,49 2,58 108 -1,405 ,163
male 38 15,26 3,06
Metacognitive female 70 12,76 1,72 106 1,478 ,142
male 38 12,24 1,79
Affective female 72 12,03 1,97 110 -,511 ,610
male 40 12,23 1,93
Practical female 71 13,46 2,83 109 -,653 ,515
male 40 13,83 2,72
Moral female 71 11,21 2,11 108 -1,497 ,137
male 39 11,85 2,16
H0: There is not a significant difference between the means of EFL instructors’ reflective thinking skills in terms of
their gender.
26 Eda Gözüyeşil and Buket Aslandağ Soylu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 23 – 27
Inspection of Q-Q Plots revealed that the data were normally distributed for both males and females and that there
was homogeneity of variance as assessed by Levene's Test for Equality of Variances. Therefore, an independent t-
test was run on the data as well as 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the mean difference. As shown in Table 2, it
was found that there was not a significant difference in terms of gender as the p-values for all the elements were
greater than .05. These results show that gender difference does not have an effect on the reflective thinking skills of
the EFL instructors who participated in this study, so the null hypothesis was not rejected.
Table 3 shows the results of Kruskal Wallis H test to evaluate the reflective thinking skills of the EFL instructors
who participated in the study in terms of types of their degree (BA/BS, MA/MS and PhD).
Table 3. The results of Kruskal Wallis H test between the EFL instructors’ reflective teaching skills and their degree
degree N Mean df x2 p
rank
Critical BA/BS 46 49.96 2 1.813 .404
MA/MS 43 56.33
PhD 14 45.43
Total
Cognitive BA/BS 49 53.67 2 19.737 .000*
MA/MS 47 47.21
PhD 14 89.71
Total 110
Metacognitive BA/BS 48 48.96 2 2.824 .244
MA/MS 46 58.52
PhD 14 60.29
Total 108
Affective BA/BS 49 51.52 2 3.741 .154
MA/MS 49 57.62
PhD 14 70.00
Total 112
Practical BA/BS 49 51.30 2 11.719 .003*
MA/MS 48 52.84
PhD 14 83.29
Total 111
Moral BA/BS 49 54.40 2 .745 .689
MA/MS 48 54.71
PhD 13 62.58
Total 110
H0: There is not a significant difference between the mean ranks of EFL instructors’ reflective thinking skills in
terms of their graduation degree.
Inspection of Q-Q Plots revealed that as the data were not normally distributed, Kruskal Wallis H was employed to
compare the scores of the instructors’ reflective teaching skills between the types of their degree. As seen in Table
3, the results indicated that rejecting the null hypothesis, there was a significant difference between the mean ranks
of the instructors’ cognitive reflections (x2=19.737, p.000<.05) in terms of their degree. This showed that the
instructors with a PhD degree reflect more on their actual course of pedagogical practice (89.71). Additionally the
results showed a significant difference between the mean ranks of the instructors’ practical reflections (x2=11.719,
p=.003<.05) in terms of their degree. This also showed that the instructors with a PhD degree deal with the tools and
the actual practice of reflection more (83.29).
4. Conclusion
Teachers entering the profession may find their initial teaching efforts stressful, but with experience they acquire
a repertoire of teaching strategies that they draw on throughout their teaching. How can teachers move beyond the
Eda Gözüyeşil and Buket Aslandağ Soylu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 23 – 27 27
level of automatic or routinised responses to classroom situations and achieve a higher level of awareness of how
they teach, of the kinds of decisions they make as they teach, and of the value and consequences of particular
instructional decisions? One way of doing this is through observing and reflecting on one’s own teaching, and using
observation and reflection as a way of bringing about change. This approach to teaching can be described as
“Reflective Teaching’’.
To sum up, the present study highlights the importance of reflective thinking skills for EFL instructors.
Certainly, the notion of reflection on practice is reasonable and desirable, and in the light of our findings, EFL
instructors tend to approach positively to reflective teaching that is an efficient way in creating an effective and
appropriate teaching environment. EFL instructors with a PhD degree are also more aware of the necessity of a
continuing professional development. Lastly, it is obvious that the increase in the experience also brings about the
increase in the value given to the reflectiveness. However, reflective teaching suggests that experience alone is
insufficient for professional growth, but that experience coupled with reflection can be a powerful impetus for
teacher development.
References
Akbari, R., Behzadpoor, F. and Dadvand, B. (2010) Development of English Language Teaching Reflection Inventory, System, 38, pp. 211-227.
Cruickshank, D. R., Applegate, J. H. (1981). Reflective Teaching as a Strategy for Teacher Growth, Educational Leadership, 53-54.
Farrell, T. (2004). Reflective Practice in Action: 80 Reflection Breaks for Busy Teachers. Corwin Press, California.
Jay,J.K.,Johnson,K.L.(2002).Capturing complexity :a typology of reflective practice for teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education 18,
73e85.
Korthagen, F.A.J.,(2001). Linking Practice and Theory: The Pedagogy of Realistic Teacher Education. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.
Pollard, A., Anderson, J., Maddock, M., Swaffield, S., Warin,J and Warwick, P. (2008) Reflective Teaching. London, Continuum.
Richards, J.C., Farrell, T.(2005). Professional Development for Language Teachers. Cambridge University Press, New York
Schon, D.A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. Basic Books Inc., New York.
Valli,L.(1990). Moral imperatives in reflective teacher education programs.In:Clift,R.T.,Houston,W.R.,Pugach,M.(Eds.),Encouraging Reflective
Practice: An Examination of Issues and Exemplars. Teachers College Press, New York, pp.39e56.
Van Manen,M.(1977). Linking ways of knowing with ways of being practical.Curriculum Inquiry 6,205e228.
ScienceDirect
Identification of Dual-Exceptional Learners

Anies Al-Hroub a
a
American University of Beirut, Department of Education, P.O Box 11-0236, Beirut, Lebanon
Abstract
This research paper presents evidence that an apparent contradiction between giftedness and learning difficulties can be resolved
because 'gifted children with learning difficulties' have a characteristic profile of cognitive attributes. An extensive process using
mixed methods was conducted by a multi-disciplinary team to identify a sample of 30 students (16 girls and 14 boys) who
revealed dual-exceptionalities of ‘mathematical giftedness’ and ‘learning difficulties’ (in the fifth and sixth grades, ages 10 years
to 11 years and 11 months, in three public primary schools in Amman, Jordan. A multi-dimensional evaluation involving eight
criteria (e.g. teacher nomination, parents and teachers interviews, and documentary evidence) and a combination of psychometric
(i.e. WISC-III-Jordan, Perceptual Skills Tests, and a diagnostic Arabic Literacy Language Skills Test) and dynamic mathematics
assessment was used. In the WISC-III-Jordan test, a significant verbal-performance discrepancy was shown, in addition to the
characteristic patterns of strengths and weaknesses in the subtests profile and factors of five cognitive classification systems and
models. Visual perceptual skills, including visual short-term memory, were found to be significantly stronger than auditory
perceptual skills in the MG/LD sample.
p p y y
Keywords: Dual-Excptionalilty; Gifted With Learning Difficulties; Identification; Teacher Nomination; Psychometric And
Dynamic Assessment. © 2013 The Authors.Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
During the last four decades, increasing attention has been given to the pressing question of “dual-exceptional”
children, or more able students who also have learning difficulties (LDs). According to Baum (1989) and Brody and
Mills (1997), these dual-exceptional children who remain unrecognized can be classified into at least three
subgroups: the first subgroup comprises students with hidden LDs, which includes students who are identified as
gifted yet exhibit difficulties in school or, as Baum (1989) described them, “gifted students who have subtle LDs”
(p. 1). This group is easily identified as gifted; however, the gap between what is expected and their actual
performance is often wide (Fetzer, 2000). The second subgroup consists of students with hidden giftedness, which
includes students whose LDs are severe enough that they have been identified as having LDs, but whose high
abilities have never been addressed or recognized. They are first noticed for what they cannot do, rather than for the
talent they also demonstrate (Brody & Mills; Little, 2001). The third subgroup is composed of students with hidden
giftedness and LDs and “perhaps the largest group of non-served and unidentified students” (Brody & Mills, 1997,
p.2) are those whose high abilities and LDs mask each other (Baum, 1989; Brody & Mills, 1997). These students sit
in regular classrooms, are not considered as qualifying for services provided for students who are gifted or have
LDs, and are regarded as possessing average abilities (Brody & Mills, 1997).
In the field of exceptional and dual-exceptional children, identification is always related to definitions.
Accordingly, nebulousness about the definitions of giftedness and learning difficulties generates problems in
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.169
64 Anies Al-Hroub / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 63 – 73
identifying gifted children with LDs. The major difficulty in identifying those students is that there are too many
gifted children with LDs who fail to meet the qualification requirements for either gifted programs or special needs
services. For example, research has shown that teachers are much more likely to refer gifted students who do not
have LDs, than gifted students who do possess LDs, for placement in gifted and talented programs (Minner, 1990).
This is because students with LDs who are gifted rarely show consistently high academic achievement; they usually
go unrecognized as being gifted and eligible for special programs (Baum, 1989; Beckley, 1998; Brody & Mills,
1997; Ruban & Reis, 2005).
Some educators (e.g. Al-Hroub, 2010; Brody & Mills, 1997; Fetzer, 2000) have suggested a flexible,
multidimensional approach to identification, which they argue is necessary to determine areas of strength and
weakness. This approach includes an individual test of intelligence, academic tests to determine the discrepancy
between potential and performance, a test of creativity to assess abilities that may not emerge from cognitive ability
measures, and dynamic assessment in addition to teachers’ and parents’ reports (Thomson, 2001). Recently, Al-
Hroub (2010) has proposed a comprehensive model for identifying gifted students with LDs, which includes teacher
and parent nomination, behavioral observation, an individual intelligence test, measures of cognitive processing,
perceptual skills and literacy tests, and a dynamic assessment. The proposed identification system also suggests
assessing the student’s level of functioning in the regular classroom environment, using curriculum-based
assessment, and conducting interviews with students to assess their perceptions and attitudes toward academic work.
Baum and Owen (2004) report that in order to recognize the potential for gifted behavior in students with LDs,
educators should generally approach the identification process in two ways: (a) a priori identification, entailing
collection and analysis of test data and interview information about students; and (b) dynamic identification,
involving the use of activities purposely designed to elicit creative responses and signal possible areas of student
talent. In order to recognize gifted students with LDs, there are four defining characteristics that should be
considered (Al-Hroub, 2008; Brody & Mills, 1997), including evidence of an outstanding talent or ability, evidence
of an aptitude achievementent discrepancy, evidence of verbal-performance IQ discrepancy, and evidence of a
processing deficit.
2. The Case of Mathematically Gifted with Learning Difficulties
Some mathematically gifted students do not necessarily demonstrate outstanding academic achievement, display
enthusiasm toward school mathematics programs, or obtain top grades in mathematics. There are many possible
reasons that these students may not be doing well, but often it is, at least in part, because of a mismatch between the
needs of the student and the mathematically gifted programs provided for them. Many students refuse, or are unable,
to conform to the expectations of programs (Miller, 1990), which can be a result of their specific LDs.
According to Krutetskii’s (1976) concept, mathematically gifted students may show an outstanding talent in
mathematics accompanied by deficits in other areas. An instance of early mathematical giftedness was described in
1964 by psychologists in the German Democratic Republic. S. Reiner’s parents first paid attention to his abilities
when he was 5 years old. After one year at school, he went directly into the second grade. According to the
experimenters, although Reiner showed remarkable skills in arithmetic and problem-solving, he had considerable
difficulty in studying language and spelling (Krutetskii, 1976). Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), the remarkable
Florentine artist, architect, engineer, and mathematician is another case of dyslexic genius. An example of his
“mirror writing,” a distinctive symptom of LDs, may be seen in his notebooks exhibited at the British Museum in
London (Aaron, Joshi, & Ocker, 2004).
A “controlled comparison” study of the performance of dyslexics in mathematics was carried out by Steeves
(1983). Her subjects were 54 dyslexic students between the ages of 10 and 14 years, and 54 suitably matched
controls. The researcher divided them into four groups, namely, (a) dyslexic high (DH), that is dyslexics with a high
score on the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices; (b) dyslexic average (DA), namely dyslexics with an average
score on the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices; (c) non-dyslexics in a mathematics class for those of high ability
(NH); and (d) non-dyslexics in a mathematics class for those of average ability (NA). The DH group was found on
testing to be at the same level as the NH group in the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices; in a mathematics school
test, however, they scored less well than the NH group and were on a level with the NA group, whereas in the
Wechsler Memory Test they had lower scores than both of the non-dyslexic groups. The DA group was on a level
Anies Al-Hroub / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 63 – 73 65
with the NA group in the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices, but below them in the other two tests, and was
particularly weak in the Wechsler Memory Test.
In a study that was carried out at the University of Aston, Joffe (1981) gave a test of computation to 102
students aged between 8 and 17. Half of them were dyslexics, and the other half formed a control group. All of the
subjects had been found to be average or above in intellectual ability in standardized tests. The results showed that
10% of the dyslexics scored very highly, whereas 60% scored well below expectation. A study carried out in the
U.K. by Lewis, Hitch, and Walker (1994) on a population of over a one thousand 9 to10-year-olds, explored the
incidence of arithmetic difficulties within the general population. The results showed that 3.9% of the sample had
reading difficulties only, 2.3% had arithmetic and reading difficulties, and 1.3% had arithmetic difficulties only.
Significant success in using multi-dimensional assessment was experienced in a previous research study that was
conducted on five mathematically gifted children with learning difficulties in the UK (Al-Hroub, 2010). This
previous research used multi-dimensional assessment, which combined psychometric (including the WISC-III-UK,
the Dyslexia Screening Test, and the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability) and dynamic mathematics assessments,
and without which any approach to assessing the students would have remained inadequate.
3. Research Aim and Questions
The issue addressed by the current research is whether multidimensional assessment can be an efficient approach
to identifying mathematical giftedness and LDs in the same students. A multiple-case-study approach was used to
dealing with the following three research questions: (1) What is the efficacy of using specific multiple measures to
identify mathematically gifted students with learning difficulties? (2) To what extent are Arabic language and
mathematics teachers able to identify MG/LD students? (3) What are the parents’ and teachers’ contributions to
identifying the unusual behavioural patterns that these students? (4) What is the special academic and perceptual
behavior of mathematically gifted children with learning difficulties? and (5) What is the nature of the relationship
between students’ mathematical abilities and their learning difficulties (LDs)?
The rationale for using a multidimensional approach was perceived as follows: (a) the Jordanian version of the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IIIUK) is a good means of identifying cognitive strengths and
weaknesses; (b) Verbal, Performance or Full-Scale scores, or Verbal-Performance discrepancies tend to obscure the
subtly distinctive patterns that characterize and identify the various gifted/LDs groups; (c) a dynamic assessment
approach can provide a means of assessing potential development of dyslexic and underserved gifted students, and
of determining the discrepancy between potential and performance (Al-Hroub, 2010; Haywood & Lidz, 2007;
Kanevsky, 2000; Kirschenbaum, 1998); and (d) important information can be obtained from parents and teachers
about the academic and social activities of the children, which may not be demonstrated when using standardized
tests.
4. Method
4.1 Participants
The identification process was conducted by a multi-disciplinary team of two diagnosticians to identify a sample
of 30 students (16 girls and 14 boys) who revealed dual-exceptionalities of ‘mathematical giftedness’ and ‘learning
difficulties’ in the fifth and sixth grades, aged 10 years to 11 years and 11 months, at three public primary schools in
Amman, Jordan. The participants were chosen from Grades 5 and 6 so as to avoid earlier years, as students who
have specific learning difficulties or high ability in mathematics are difficult to recognize or identify in the earlier
years of schooling. All the students were from relatively middle-class backgrounds and Arabic was the first
language and the one spoken at home. In the process of selecting the 30 cases, 52 students were nominated by their
classroom teachers and evaluated in the study; 22 students were excluded from the research because assessment
showed that they were not mathematically gifted with specific learning difficulties (MG/LDs).
4.2 Data Collection
A combination of eight techniques for identification was used, which some being used to identify giftedness and
others, to identify LDs. Each student was evaluated formally and informally for approximately 12-15 hours over 7-9
sessions. The formal and informal assessments were conducted in the following order: (1) documentary evidence,
(2) teacher’s nomination, (3) observation, (4) teacher and parent interviews, (5) the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC-III-Jordan, 1996), (6) the Group of Perceptual Skills Tests (Waqfi & Kilani, 1998), (7) the
diagnostic Arabic Literacy Language Skills Test (Waqfi, 1997), and (8) dynamic assessment involving a
mathematics achievement test. Most of the assessments were carried out in the counsellors’ rooms and, if not there,
in a learning resource room or the library.
5. Results
5.1 Teacher Nomination

By comparing the number of students who were nominated by their teachers as ‘dual-exceptional’ learners
(population = 52 students), with the number of students who were identified through psychological and dynamic
assessment (sample = 30 students), it appears that 57.6% of teachers’ nominations were accurate, whereas 42.4%
were incorrect. There can be found in this study, therefore, a wide variation between teacher judgments and
objective measures. Also, Arabic language and mathematics teachers showed a broad inter-individual variance in the
accuracy of their nomination. Consequently, the accuracy of the three primary schools’ nominations varied between
33.3% and 80%.
52 Parents’ and Teachers’ Identification

The outcomes of the interviews stressed the essential contribution of parents in providing information about the
familial, physical, psychological, and educational histories of the students. Further, they were the chief source of
information about the unusual behavioral patterns of their dual-exceptional children. Teachers were found to be less
able to identify these behavioral patterns, but more capable than parents of identifying students' learning difficulties
and/or even their mathematical giftedness. According to the parents, about three-quarters of their dual-exceptional
children tended to have unusual behavioral patterns, such as withdrawal, anger, hostility, being overly affectionate
or overly sensitive, while teachers reported that only one-quarter of students had these patterns. Also, while more
than one-third (37.9 per cent) were reported by parents to show emotional tension, fear, irritation or lack of
confidence, teachers reported that the percentage was less than one-third (30 per cent). However, parents reported,
like teachers, that girls tended to show these behavioral patterns more than boys.
On the other hand, while teachers reported that the 30 identified students were suspected of having learning
difficulties togehter with their high mathematical abilities, parents identified those children according to five
subgroups: (a) about half of the students (15 out of 29) were identified as mathematically gifted but without their
learning difficulties being recognized; (b) 2 out of 29 students were not identified as mathematically gifted without
their learning difficulties were recognized; (c) around one-third (10 out of 29) of the students were neither
recognized as mathematically gifted nor as having learning difficulties; (d) 2 out of 29 students were recognized as
mathematically gifted with learning difficulties; (e) the reports of two parents indicated that their children with
misdiagnosed with some other problems or disorders (e.g. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD],
emotional problems, or slow learning).
5.3 Analysis of the WISC-III-Jordan Cognitive Factors

Table 1 reports means and standard deviations of Verbal, Performance and Full-Scale IQ Indices scores for the
present dual-exceptional learners sample and also the Average-IQ group. The results show that there were
significant differences for the three IQ Indices scores as follows: Verbal Scale IQ [t (50) = 9.49, p < .01],
Performance Scale IQ [t (50) = 6.85, p < .01], and Full Scale IQ [t (50) = 11.04, p < .01]. In general, the data in
Table 1 show that the composite IQ scores, Verbal, Performance and Full Scale, of the Average-IQ group were
generally lower than the dual-exceptional sample.
Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations of WISC-III-Jordan Scaled Indices Scores for MG/LDs Sample and Average-IQ/LD Group
Average-IQ
Dual-Exceptional
WISC-III-Jordan Group Independent sample t-tests
Group (n = 30)
(n = 22)
IQ Indices Mean SD Mean SD df = 50
Verbal-Scale IQ 126.77 5.91 107.60 9.22 9.14 **
Performance-Scale 114.03 6.56 99.64 8.76 6.78 **
IQ
Full-Scale IQ 122.57 3.17 104.32 8.29 11.04 **
* Significant at level p < .05 ** Significant at level p < .01
Table 2 presents the WISC-III-Jordan scatter/range indices for the dual-exceptional sample and the Average
group. The analysis of the subtest scatter/range indices results indicates that the mean VIQ-PIQ discrepancy of 12.73
points for the dual-exceptional sample is more than one and a half times the value of 7.95 points for Average-IQ
students, but it is not significantly greater than the Average-IQ mean [t (50) = 1.72, p = .092].
Table 2. Comparisons between WISC-III-Jordan Scatter Indices for MG/LDs Sample and Average-IQ/LDs Group
Dual-Exceptional
Average-IQ Independent sample t tests
WISC-III-Jordan Sample
Group (n = 22) (df = 50)
Scatter Indices (n = 30)
Mean Difference SD Mean Difference SD
(VIQ-PIQ)
Discrepancy 12.73 11.04 7.95 8.06 1.72
(Regardless of
direction)
(VC-PO)
8.63 10.90 5.91 8.70 .967
Discrepancy
Verbal Scaled Score
4.40 1.73 4.50 1.90 -.20
Ranges
Performance Scaled
Score 5.57 2.27 5.45 1.82 .19
Ranges
Full-IQ Scale 7.70 1.84 6.68 1.59 2.09*
5.4 Auditory and Visual Perceptual Skills

Table 3 shows the average score for each paired factor for the 30 students. The results showed that apart from the
Auditory Word Span - Auditory Digit and Auditory Analysis Skills - Visual Analysis Skills, there are significant
mean differences for the dual-exceptional sample in all of the other seven paired tests and skills.
5.5 The Arabic Language Basic Skills

Table 4 presents the grade average delays, standard deviations and Mann-Whitney U-Test results of the girls
and boys in the Arabic Language Basic Skills tests. The results reported in Table 4 show that the girls and boys in
the sample had a delay in all of the six subtests and the three language areas of the scale. The findings also showed
that there were statistically significant differences between the two groups in their literacy language delay, with the
boys showing consistently greater delays. It is noticeable that boys tended to show greater delay than girls in all of
the literacy language subtests and areas. The least difference in mean delay was found in the Listening
Comprehension Vocabularies test (only significant at the .05 level) and this was the area of mean delay for both
genders.
Table 3. Paired Factors for the Visual and Auditory Perceptual Skills for the Dual-Exceptional Sample
Dual-Exceptional (n = 30)
1. 1.
Skills versus Skills Paired Factors Paired Sample t test
Mean SD
(df = 29)
Difference
Auditory
Discrimination -
11.90 11.51 5.67 **
Auditory Analysis
Skills
1. Auditory
Auditory vs. Auditory Word Span - Auditory 3.43 10.97 1.71
Tests and/or Skills Digit Span
1. Auditory
Short-Term Memory –
Auditory - 8.10 8.16 - 5.44 **
Discrimination /
Analysis Skills
Visual Motor
Integration - Visual 6.13 7.14 4.70 **
Analysis Skills
Visual vs. Visual Tests
1. Visual
and/or Skills
Short-Term Memory –
- 3.50 7.58 - 2.53 *
Visual Integration /
Analysis Skills
Auditory Analysis
Skills – Visual - 3.57 10.28 - 1.90
Analysis Skills
Auditory vs. Visual
1. Auditory
Tests and/or Skills
Discrimination –
2.20 5.49 2.19 *
Visual Motor
Integration
Auditory Short-Term
Memory – Visual - 5.28 10.16 - 2.85 **
Short-Term Memory
1. 1. 1. Auditory
Perceptual Skills -
- 3.57 5.96 - 3.28 **
Visual Perceptual
Skills
Table 4. Comparisons of the Mean Grade Delay in the Arabic Language Basic Skills Tests for Boys and Girls
Literacy
Mean Mann-
Language Mean
Gender N Grade SD Whitney Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
Tests and Rank
Delay U
Areas
Girls 16 1.19 .95 11.69
1.
51.0 -2.61 .009 **
1. 14 2.50 1.47 19.86
Boys
Vocabula 1.
ry
Tests
Recogniti 1.
on
1.
30 1.83 1.21
1.
1.
Total
Girls 16 1.06 .96 11.34
1.
45.5 -2.85 .004 **
1. 14 2.42 1.21 20.25
Boys
1.
1.
Reading
Different 1.
Vocabula
ry 1.
30 1.73 1.08
1.
1.
Total
Girls 16 1.44 .85 11.19
1.
43.0 -2.95 .003 **
1. 14 2.86 1.28 20.43
Boys
1.
1.
Reading
Similar 1.
Vocabula
ry 1.
30 2.13 1.07
1.
1.
Total
Girls 16 1.56 .93 10.28
1.
28.5 -3.59 .000 **
1. 14 3.21 1.14 21.46
Boys
1.
1.
Reading
Compreh 1.
ension
Passages 1.
30 2.37 1.07
1.
1.
Total
Girls 16 .69 1.42 12.13
1.
1.
58.0 -2.31 .021 *
1. 14 1.79 1.49 19.36
Listening
Compreh Boys
ension 1.
Vocabula
ries 1. 30 1.23 1.43
1.
1.
1.
Total
Girls 16 1.06 .73 10.81
1.
37.0 -3.36 .001 **
1. 14 2.21 .83 20.86
Boys
1.
1.
Listening
Compreh 1.
ension
Passages 1.
30 1.63 .76
1.
1.
Total
Girls 16 1.06 1.21 11.16
1.
42.5 -2.94 .003 **
1. 14 2.86 1.55 20.46
Boys
Spelling 1.
Passage
& 1.
Dictation
1.
30 1.93 1.41
1.
1.
Total
Girls 16 1.31 .64 10.06
1.
Areas 25.0 -3.64 .000 **
1. 14 2.75 1.10 21.71
Boys
1. 1.
Reading 1.
Ability
1.
30 2.02 .90
1.
1.
Total
Girls 16 .88 .96 11.31
1. 1.
45.0 -2.83 .005 **
Listening 1. 14 2.00 1.02 20.29
Ability
Boys
1.
1.
1.
30 1.43 .97
1.
1.
Total
5.6 Mathematical Giftedness

The findings in Table 5 show the mean and standard deviation values of the dynamic mathematics tests for the
dual-exceptional sample. There was a statistically significant difference, as measured on the scale of Dynamic
Mathematics Assessment, between pre-test and post-test [t (29) = 25.24, p < .01]. The findings also show a large
Cohen’s effect size (d = 5.06), and stet correlation (r =0.93), which indicate that the difference has high practical
significance. Given the relatively brief instruction provided, the impressive degree of learning evidenced by this
result indicates that this group of students were indeed highly capable of learning novel mathematical problem-
solving, and responded very effectively to the instruction provided.
Table 5. Comparison of the Dynamic Mathematics Pre- and Post-Test Scores for the Dual-Exceptional Sample
Dynamic Effect Size

Paired t test
Mathematics Min Max M SD
(df = 29) Cohen’s d r
Tests
Mathematics
8.00 14.00 10.55 1.49
Pre-test
Mathematics
15.0 20.0 17.63 1.30
Post-test
Mathematical
Learning 4.50 10.50 7.08 1.54 25.24 ** 5.06 0.93
Progress
* Significant at level p < .05, ** Significant at level p < .01, M = Mean, r = Correlation
5. Conclusion and Discussion
The findings revealed that using multiple sources of data was essential in order to strengthen the conclusions.
Although no single source was able solely to identify the ‘mathematically gifted students with learning difficulties’,
each single source complemented the others, and it was helpful to use all of the sources together. For example, it
was not possible to screen or identify ‘dual-exceptional’ children without considering teacher nominations as the
first element of the identification process. Furthermore, the findings regarding the mathematical achievements in
terms of the dynamic interaction between the students and their opportunity to learn added valid results to the
psycho-educational assessment involving the WISC-III-Jordan and other learning difficulties tests.
More specifically, parents provided important information about the behavioural characteristics of their
children. They were found to be better able to identify these behavioural characteristics than teachers. On the other
hand, parents were found less able than teachers to identify learning difficulties and/or mathematical giftedness in
their children. According to parent interviews, MG/LD students can be categorised into the following five
subgroups: (a) mathematically gifted with hidden LDs; (b) LD students with hidden mathematical giftedness; (c)
students with hidden mathematical giftedness and LDs (d) students with recognized mathematical giftedness and
LDs; (e) students who are misdiagnosed as slow learners or ADHD students.
The analysis of the cognitive and perceptual characteristics of the dual-exceptional students in the WISC-III-
Jordan and the Group of Perceptual Skills Tests (Waqfi & Kilani, 1998) bears certain similarities to, and differences
from, those previously cited in the literature. Some such similarities and differences support findings from previous
work, but in other cases the claims made by earlier studies are not supported by the findings resulting from the
research into this particular sample. However, many of the differences are not surprising as the present sample
represents the mathematically gifted with learning difficulties, and not those students who are gifted in all areas. For
example, there was a clear tendency for Verbal IQ (VIQ) to be higher than Performance IQ (PIQ) among most
MG/LDs. This supports the proposal that gifted children (e.g. the MG/LDs sample) tend to have VIQ > PIQ
(Kaufman, 1994), but it contradicts the PIQ > VIQ as an indicator of LDs. These findings are also of interest in the
context of the relationship between dyspraxia and dyslexia. Relatively low VIQ has been considered an indicator of
dyslexia and relatively low PIQ of dyspraxia (Weschler, 1991). However, the findings do not support Silverman’s
(1983) contention that a 7-point scatter between highest and lowest subset scores in a WISC-R may be a good
indicator of the existence of LDs in gifted pupils.
In addition, the MG/LD students showed high verbal and visual abilities across the WISC-III-Jordan and
perceptual skills subtests. These results suggest that such students on average possess harmonic mathematical
abilities according to Krutetskii’s (1976) classification of mathematically gifted students. Presmeg (1986) and
Straker (1982) reported that the harmonic type of mathematically gifted student is most likely to possess
mathematical aptitude.
We can conclude from the finding of the current research that the MG/LD sample demonstrates weaker Auditory
Short-Term Memory than Visual Short-Term Memory. This finding supports the suggestion that short-term memory
is the key factor in dyslexic students or students with learning difficulties. In addition, the results confirm to the
substantial evidence that both phonological processing (Auditory Perceptual Skills) and short-term memory are
important factors to be considered in relation to students with learning difficulties (Singleton, 2000). It is now well-
established that phonological processing ability is very closely related to reading development. In general, it is
argued (a) that phonological processes underpin the development of a phonological decoding strategy in reading,
and (b) that working memory plays a significant role in this strategy, enabling constituent sounds and/or
phonological codes to be held in short-term store until they can be recognized as a word and its meaning accessed in
long-term memory (Singleton, 2000).
Finally, the current research suggests that this method of dynamic mathematics assessment may provide a clearer
diagnosis of each student’s expected competence. The results demonstrated that dynamic measures are better
predictors of pre-test and post-test mathematical improvement than either IQ or the initial static scores. However, it
is important to note that in line with Vygotsky’s theory, dynamic assessment methods should not be viewed as being
in direct opposition to individually based static techniques such as IQ testing. In contrast, the current research
suggests that researchers should be able not only to modify the administration of the standardized assessment of
mathematics (e.g. The Diagnostic Scale of Mathematics Basic Skills), but also to benefit from standardized concrete
hints, cues or gradual prompts in order to apply unstandardized mediation, and adapt the tasks to a hands-on,
interactive pre-test–intervention–post-test format for unidentified exceptional children.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article.
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ScienceDirect
Identifiying and Comparing the Degree of Difficulties Biology

Subjects By Adjusting It is Reasons in Elemantary and Secondary
Education
Taner Ozcan*, Sami Ozgur, Aybuke Kat, Sukran Elgun
Biology Education, Necatibey Faculty of Education, Balikesir University, 10100, Balikesir, TURKEY
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine elementary school eighth grade students’ and secondary school 12 th grade
students’ perceptions of having difficulties with respect to understanding Biology subjects, and whether they still had difficulties
in this hardly learnt subjects when they came to high school after the elementary school. The results revealed that “Controller and
Organizer Systems”, a biology subject in elementary school and “Photosyntesis”, a biology subject at secondary school in
Turkey were more difficult to understand than other biology subjects for the participants in our study.
Keywords: Biology, Biology subjects, degree of understanding, degree of difficulties, elementary school, secondary school.
1. Introduction
Recent developments in science and technology (especially in genetics, bio-technology, molecular biology etc.)
have improved so much that they have changed our lives to a great extent. Developments in biology have
particularly emphasized the significance of biology. Consequently, academic programs of the biology course are
arranged in a way that will support the objective to train biology literate individuals who are aware of themselves
and surroundings, and who know the nature of science and biology, and can analyze the problems they encounter.
(Ministry of National Education) Regarding the main objective of the biology course, researches have been carried
out that reveal the necessity of literate biology students. (Baran et. al, 2002; Tuan et al, 2005).
Developed countries see biology training and learning as a cultural necessity, and they have conducted studies to
improve the quality of biology training. These studies aimed to update science programs permanently, and to
establish programs intended towards needs. (Hurd,1998; Ayas, 1995). To conclude, science and biology have a great
role in education (Baran et al, 2002).
As well as the importance of science and biology in education, biology has a great role in our daily lives, too.
Though we are so close to biology, it is a difficult course for many students (Steak, 1995; Yeşilyurt and Gül, 2008).
When the effect of biology on our lives is considered, linking biology to tangible experiences will ensure effective
and permanent learning. The students must be outside the traditional model, that is, they must be active. Laboratory
studies will enable the students to be active. Furthermore, through such studies requiring activities (field studies,
* Corresponding Author Taner OZCAN. Tel.: +90 (266) 241 27 62

E-mail address: ozcant@balikesir.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.177
114 Taner Ozcan et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 113 – 122
travel-observation etc.) students will learn the subject better, realize their mistakes, correct their errors about the
concept, and enjoy the lesson more (Uzun and Sağlam, 2005; Uzun and Sağlam, 2003; Sinan and Karagöz, 2010).
Latin concepts take place in course books. This causes learning difficulties. When these are replaced by Turkish
ones, learning will be easy and permanent (Kete and Acar, 2007).
In previous studies, difficulties in learning biology were studied and the reasons were revealed (Lazarowitz et. al.
1992; Tekkaya et. al. 2000; Güneş and Güneş, 2005). It was seen that their success in biology course was affected
by their attitudes towards biology. (Mutlu, 2006; Üredi and Üredi, 2005). The factors affecting attitudes towards
biology were also investigated, and analyzed depending on factors such as gender, teacher, school administrators,
school, class, location of the primary school the students graduated from and their general academic success etc.
(Ekici and Hevedanlı, 2010; Prokop et. al, 2007; Uitto et. al. 2006; Üredi and Üredi, 2005; Yeşilyurt and Gül,
2008).
The reasons for learning difficulties in biology subjects need to be identified through comprehensive studies, and
recommendations should be presented. Thus, research depending on a specific variant may not give satisfactory
results.
In our study, we aim to deal with the biology subjects in primary and secondary education in terms of learning
difficulties, and to compare the learning difficulties in corresponding biology subjects in primary schools and
secondary schools with their reasons.
2. Material and Method
2.1. Target Population and Sample
As for primary schools’ target population, the study covers eighth grade students in the city centers of Bursa and
Balıkesir, and their towns. As for secondary schools’ target population, the study covers the 12th grade students in
Balıkesir city.
As for primary schools’ sample, the study covers one randomly chosen primary school in Balıkesir city centre,
two randomly chosen primary schools in Balıkesir, Gönen town, and three randomly chosen primary schools in
Bursa city centre. As for secondary schools’ sample, the study covers four high schools in Balıkesir city.
2.2. Data Collection
In order to identify learning difficulties for the primary school second stagers and secondary school last grade
students, grading scales were prepared by the conductors of this study. For this purpose, primary education program
was studied; unit and subject titles were identified. In the scale ,there were 60 items, and two open-ended questions
that aimed to identify the reasons of the degrees of difficulty. Concerning the secondary education, unit and subject
titles found in 9th, 10th and 11th grade classes biology courses were identified. A survey covering the 26 items and
two open-ended questions elected to be applied to 12th graders was prepared. In order to identify the biology
subjects’ degrees of difficulty, the primary school and secondary school students were asked to give 1-10 points to
the items mentioned above. (1 for the easiest, and 10 for the most difficult).
2.3. Data Analysis
Difficulty index = Nk / Nt x Nm

Nk: Total amount of the points given to subjects
Nt:Total number of students
Nm: Total number of subject titles
Taner Ozcan et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 113 – 122 115
First Analysis:
To identify the biology subjects’ degrees of difficulty in general, the scores of 200 students were summed and
divided into the number of students X total number of subject titles. Learning difficulties depending on gender
differences were analyzed using formulas below.
Total amount of the points given to subject titles by the females

Difficulty index =
Number of females x number of subject titles
Total amount of the points given to subject titles by the males

Difficulty index =
Number of males x number of subject titles
Second Analysis:
The schools were analyzed separately. The units of each school were summed separately; the total scores of
subject titles were divided into the multiplication of the number of students and total number of subject titles.
Biology difficulty degree of each school was found, and schools were compared in this way.
Third Analysis:
Analysis was based on units. Points of all units were summed, and divided into the number of students to find the
difficulty degree of each unit.
Sum of points to any unit by students

Difficulty index =
Number of students x number of subject titles for any unit
Fourth Analysis:
A Unit by unit analysis was carried out. The scores of all units were summed, and divided into the number of
participants..
Sum of points to any unit by students

Difficulty index =
Number of students x number of matters for any unit
Fifth Analysis:
Open-ended questions were analyzed in charts.

3. Findings
Findings obtained are given separately regarding primary education and secondary education.
3.1. Findings regarding Elementary Education
Table 1. Biology Subjects’ Degrees of Difficulty in General and Depending on Gender
Biology Subjects’ Degrees of Difficulty

General 4.54
Females 4.03
Males 5.06
It is seen that females is under the general average and males learn more difficulty the biology concepts (Table
1).
Table 2. School analysis (Degrees of Difficulty regarding Primary Schools)
School Name Degree of Difficulty

School 1 5.18
School 2 4.5
School 3 2.47
School 4 8.7
School 5 4.35
School 6 3.15
As shown in Table 2, Biology concepts are more difficult according to students in School 4.
Table 3. Unit analysis (Degrees of Difficulty depending on the Subjects)
Unit No Unit Title Degree of Difficulty

1 Let’s Solve the Body Puzzle 6.8
2 Let’s Travel Around and Learn About the World of Living Beings 2.60
3 Let’s Solve the Body Puzzle 5.1
4 Let’s Travel Around and Learn About the World of Living Beings 6.3
5 Reproduction, Growth and Development in Living Beings 4.5
6 Systems in Our Body 6.0
7 Human and the Environment 9.13
8 Cell Division and Heredity 7.5
9 Living Beings and Energy Relationships 4.5
Human and the Environment is the most difficult unit for learning. Moreover, Cell Division and Heredity, Let’s
Solve the Body Puzzle and Let’s Travel Around and Learn about the World of Living Beings units are the other
difficult units for learning.
Table 4. Subjects analysis (Subjects’ Degrees of Difficulty)
Subjects Degree of Difficulty

Support and Motion 7.14
Breath Taking – Giving 4.42
Circulation of Blood Throughout the Body 5.35
Let’s Do Exercise 8.42
Let’s Learn About the Things in Our Environment 3.57
The Environment We Live In 4.92
Nutrition and Balanced Diet 4.71
Food Digestion 7.07
Discharge of Harmful Materials 7.57
Harms of Smoking and Alcohol 2.37

Classification of Living Beings and the World of Living Beings 7.42
The Environment We Live In (Different Living Areas) 3.06
The Effects of Humans on the Environment 4.92
The Cell 9.14
Reproduction, Growth and Development in Humans 3.42
Reproduction, Growth and Development in Animals 4.14
Reproduction, Growth and Development in Plants 3.0
Circulation System 6.71
Respiratory System 7.78
Digestive System 3.5
Excretory System 5.57
Controller and Organizer Systems 9.31
Sense Organs 7.21
Ecosystems 8.71
Mitosis 8.07
Heredity 7.0
Meiosis 6.85
DNA and The Genetic Code 7.57
Adaptation and Evolution 5.35
Energy Flow in The Nutrition Band 5.14
Substance Cycles 8.42
Recycling 3.92
Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Sources 4.14
The most difficult subjects is Controller and Organize Systems (9.31). And The Cell, Let’s Do Exercise and
Substance Cycles subjects are the other difficult subjects respectively (Table 4).
Table 5: The Reasons for Easy Learning
The Reasons for Easy Learning Number of Frequency

Students
The subjects are easy. 51 25.5
I have studied the subject. 2 1
I have interest. I am curious. 34 17
I like biology course. 4 2
Our teacher taught the subject well. The instruction was clear and understandable. 16 8
Visual materials were used. 15 7.5
I can understand. 6 3
We made the researches given at the end of the subject. 1 0.5
The intangible concept was conceptualized. 2 1
I studied at home first. Then went to school and listened to the lesson. 9 4.5
I revised the subject after the teacher had told. 10 5
We performed activities. 3 1.5
The subject is related to the daily life. 18 9
The subjects are easy as they are oral. 6 3
We revised the subjects in class. 5 2.5
I was able to focus on the subject. 1 0.5
They were the subjects we had learned before. 8 4
I understood the last subjects. 2 1
We told the subject. 1 0.5
I solved tests after lesson. I did homework. 2 1
They don’t require much knowledge. 1 0.5
I listened to lesson well. 3 1.5
The subjects are suitable for memorizing. 1 0.5
The subjects are interrelated. 1 0.5
Latin expressions helped me understand the subject better. 1 0.5
In Table 5 show the reasons why some subjects learn easier than the others. “The subjects are easy”, “I have interest.
I am curious” and “The subject is related to the daily life” are some of the reasons.
Table 6: The Reasons for Difficult Learning
The Reasons for Difficult Learning Number of Students Frequency

The teacher did not attend the lesson 1 0.5
Problems arising from the teacher The teacher passed the subject quickly 2 1
The teacher did not instructed well 11 5.5
I do not study the subject before the lesson. 1 0.5
I do not repeat the subject 9 4.5
I do not listen to subject. 3 1,5
I have no interest. 15 7.5
I do not understand. 17 8.5
Problems arising from the student I have not been in the lesson. 5 2.5
I do not study. 1 0.5
I didn’t deal with the subjects in prior classes. 5 2.5
I suppose to understand but i am confusing. 2 1
The subject requires knowing a lot of 3 1.5
information.
The subject is too complicated, detailed, difficult. 44 22
Problems arising from the subject Mathematical subjects are very difficult. 3 1.5
The subject requires memorizing. 5 2.5
The subjects are difficult as they are new. 1 0.5
No visual materials were used. 2 1
Problem arising the other reasons No connection to daily life was made. 1 0.5
We didn’t do any experiments. 2 1
Students learn some subjects difficultly; it is shown that the reasons why some subjects are not learned easily.
And it is seen from table 6, problems arising from the subject are very important.
3.2. Findings regarding Secondary Education
Table 7: Biology Subjects’ Degrees of Difficulty in General and Depending on Gender
Biology Subjects’ Degrees of Difficulty

General 4.44
Females 3.98
Males 4.81
It is seen that females is under the general average and males learn more difficulty the biology concepts (Table 7).
Table 8: Degrees of Difficulty regarding Secondary Schools
School Name Degree of Difficulty

School 1 4.29
School 2 5.22
School 3 4.65
School 4 3.87
It is shown from Table 8, Biology concepts are more difficult according to students in school 2.
Table 9: Degrees of Difficulty Depending on the Subject
Unit Degree of Difficulty

6
1 The Cell, Organism and Metabolism 3.91

9th Grade 2 Classification of Living Beings and Biological Variety 6.25
3 Conscious Human-A Liveable Environment 2.10
4 Energy Transformation in Living Beings 9.5
10th Grade 5 Cell Division and Reproduction 6.54
6 Ecosystem Ecology 3.96
7 Plants Biology 4.63
11th Grade 8 Heredity, Genetic Engineering and Bio-Technology 6.75
9 Community and Population Ecology 5.75
Energy Transformation in Living Beings is the most difficult unit for learning. And Heredity, Genetic
Engineering and Bio-Technology, Cell Division and Reproduction and Classification of Living Beings and
Biological Variety units are the other difficult units for learning.
Table 10: Subjects’ Degrees of Difficulty
Subjects Degree of Difficulty

1 The Cell 2.88
th
9 Grade 2 Comparison of Cells and Nuclear Organization 3.68
3 Classification of Living Beings 7.12
4 The World of Living Beings 7.4
5 Biological Variety and Preservation of Species 3.36
6 Environmental Problems 2.20
7 Atatürk’s Views on Nature and Environment 2.16
10th Grade 8 Respiration in Living Beings: Energy Release 9.40
9 Photosynthesis: Energy Bonding 9.68
10 Chemosynthesis 8.72
11 Mitosis and Asexual Reproduction 5.28
12 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 6.24
13 The Structure and Significance of the Ecosystem 3.72
14 Energy Flow and Substance Cycles in the Ecosystem 5.64
15 Structure of Plants 3.8

16 Transmission in Plants 3.8
17 Nutrition, Growth and Motion in Plants 3.08
11th Grade 18 Sexual Reproduction in Plants 3.8
19 Germination in Plants 4.48
20 Mendel Genetics 6.36
21 Modern Genetics 6.48
22 The Structure and Replication of DNA 5.88
23 Bio-technology and Genetic Engineering 7.36
24 Community Ecology 4.32
25 Population Ecology 4.88
26 Biomes 5.84
According to students, photosynthesis is the most difficult subject which is in energy transformation in living
beings unit. In addition, the second difficult subject is respiration in living beings: energy release (Table 10).
Because of these subjects are too complicated and microscopic events, students do not easily learn those subjects.
Table 11: The Reasons for Easy Learning
Number of Students Frequency (%)

They are related to the daily life 50 21.2
They include little information, they don’t 45 19.1
depend on memorizing, they are interpretable
I like the subjects 10 4.2
7
I learnt easily because I studied and revised the 12 5.1

subjects
The reasons for easy I find them enjoyable and interesting 50 21.2
learning The teacher told the subject well 15 6.3
The subjects are visually rich (tangible) 13 5.5
The subjects are revised again and again since 18 7.6
primary education
I like biology 8 3.4
Table 12: The Reasons for Difficult Learning
Number of Students Frequency (%)

Inter-conceptual relationships cannot be 10 4.2
formed.
Connection to daily life is difficult. 12 5.1
It covers foreign (Latin) concepts. 15 6.3
It depends on memorizing 60 25.5
No visual materials are formed (intangible 11 4.6
concepts cannot be made tangible)
The subject is long, complicated and includes 85 36.1
The reasons for difficult too many details
learning The subject is not interesting (the student is not 25 10.6
interests in the subject)
I did not study 10 4.2
Classroom context is insufficient. 2 0.8
The subject is not suitable for the development 5 2.1
level of the student
Why are some subjects learnt easily or difficulty? The answer of this question is given in Table 11 and Table 12.
If subjects are enjoyable or interesting or related to daily life, they are learnt easily. On the other and, if the subjects
are long, complicated, includes many details, and depend on memorizing, these subjects are learnt difficulty.
Table 13: Degrees of Comparison of the Common Subjects in Primary and Secondary Education
Primary Education Secondary Education

The Cell 9.14 2.88
Classification of the Living Beings 7.42 7.12
Environmental Problems 4.92 2.20
Mitosis and Asexual Reproduction 8.07 5.28
Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 6.85 6.24
Ecosystems 8.71 3.72
Substance Cycles 8.42 5.64
Nutrition, growth and motion in plants 3.0 3.08
Mendel Genetics 7.0 6.36
DNA’s structure and the genetic code 7.57 5.88
When corresponding subjects in primary and secondary education are compared, it is seen that learning
difficulties of some subjects deals with in primary education such as the classification of living beings, mitosis and
meiosis, substance cycles, Mendel genetics, DNA’s structure and the genetic code, continued in secondary
education, too (Table 13).
Biology subjects’ degrees of difficulty in general are 4.54 in primary education, and 4.44 in secondary education.
In education, degree of difficulty for the females is above the general average with 4.03. In secondary education, the
value is 3.98. As for the males, degree of difficulty is below the overall average. It is 5.06 in (primary education)
and 4.81 in secondary education. According to these results, it is observed that biology subjects are generally learn
difficultly in primary and secondary education (Table and Table 7). Males were found to have more difficulty while
females learned more easily as they studied more and had more interest in biology course.
Regarding the primary education, the participants have difficulty in learning are support and motion, let’s do
exercise, discharge of harmful substances, classification of living beings and the world of living beings, the cell,
circulation system, respiratory system, controller and organizer system, sense organs, ecosystems, mitosis, heredity,
meiosis, DNA and the genetic code, substance cycles (Table 4). Main reasons for difficult learning of these subjects:
There are 56 students (28%) blaming the problems arising from the subject (subjects are too complicated, detailed,
difficult, mathematical and require memorizing); 44 students (22%) blaming the problems arising from themselves
(I didn’t attend the lesson, I didn’t study, I couldn’t understand); 14 students (7%) blaming the problems arising
from the teacher (The teacher didn’t attend the lesson, didn’t instruct well, passed the subject quickly); and 18
students (9%) telling that they have no interest in biology course. A small portion of the group added that no visual
materials were used; no experiments were made; the subjects were not related to daily life, and the subjects were
new to them.
Regarding the secondary education, the subjects students have difficulty in learning are classification of living
beings, the world of living beings, respiration in living beings, photo-synthesis, chemo-synthesis, mitosis and
asexual reproduction, meiosis and sexual reproduction, energy flow and substance cycles in ecosystem, Mendel
genetics, modern genetics, DNA’s structure and replication, bio-technology and genetic engineering, biomes (Table
10). Reasons for difficult learning of these subjects: There are 10 students (4.2%) stating that no inter-conceptual
relations were formed; 12 students (5.1%) stating that the subjects were not related to daily life; 15 students (6.3%)
stating that there were Latin expressions; 60 students (25.5%) stating that the subjects required memorizing; 11
students (4.6%) stating that no visual materials were used; 85 students (36.1%) stating that the subjects were too
long and detailed; 25 students (10.6%) stating that they had no interest in the subject.
When subjects are learnt with difficulty in primary school, they are also learnt with difficulty in high school, and
meaningful learning of the new information is made more difficult. Environmental problems, the cell and
ecosystems subjects were found to be learnt more easily in secondary education compared to primary education. The
reasons for this are that students’ readiness is higher in secondary education, and that the subjects are easy and
understandable (Table 13).
According to Ausebel’s learning principle, new concepts, information and principles should be related to
previous knowledge. Generalization should be made, and knowledge should be structured in mind through piling up
the knowledge. Otherwise learning cannot be meaningful and permanent (Ergün and Özdaş, 1997).
Güneş et. al. (2005) found that, the genetics and cell division subjects are learnt difficultly and caused learning
difficulties in further stages, as well. In our study, we revealed that, subjects in secondary education were learnt
easily once they were related to the less comprehensive subjects of the primary education in a particular hierarchy
and order.
The cell division is a microscopic subject. Unless the expressions seen in this subject (titrate, chromosome,
chromatid) are related to daily life, the subject is learnt more difficultly (Taşçı and Soran, 2008). In our study, we
found that the use of materials and relation of the subject to the daily life could foster the learning of the subject.
Moreover, giving information the students might benefit from in their lives increases the level of interest in the
course.
Maraş and Akman (2009) revealed in their study that the use of laboratory and a computer aided instruction
fostered learning more than the traditional education method. Sinan and Karadeniz (2010) concluded at the end of
the activity studies they conducted that students were able to see their mistakes about the subject during the activity,
and they both learned correctly and enjoyed themselves. In our study, we detected that the subjects were based on
memorizing and hindered learning. Activities should be arranged to prevent this, and education should be released
from the traditional method. Lastly, subjects should be made interesting. Forming a bond among the complicated
and long subjects through mind maps can also help the students learn the subjects more easily.
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ScienceDirect
Identifying the students’ corrective textual actions towards teachers

feedback
Hakan Ülper, Gökhan Çetinkaya
a
Department of Turkish Language Education, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur, 15100, Turkey
b
aDepartment of Turkish Language Education, Niğde University, Niğde, 51100, Turkey
Abstract
The aim of present research, to analyze deal of requirements that middle and high school students” fulfillments towards the
teachers’ feedback comparatively. Research was carried out two groups randomly determined one from middle and other from
high school. These groups were asked to produce a short essay in text type. After these texts were collected and evaluated by
researchers. Feedback was projected by making explanations on the paper. In the research carried out by Ülper (2012), It is
indicated that teachers give feedback according to content formation, coherence, word usage, language use, mechanical
properties, paper order, holistic quality and text type category. This framework was based on feedback upon students’ texts. In
the middle stage, the texts were given back to the students and they were asked to rewrite the texts by making adjustments based
on that feedbacks. In the last stage, all texts were collected and it was identified that the students’ overwrites relating to which
feedback categories.According to the result of our study, it has been evidently revealed that students require assistance when
correcting. Besides, the students performed a higher rate of acceptable corrections for topic requiring less cognitive effort such as
paper layout, mechanic properties.
Keywords:Writing process, feedback, feedback typ
1. Introduction
Written text production is formed as a result of an iterative process of three phases with the inclusion of
planning, writing out and reviewing (Flower& Hayes, 1981). The criteria of whether or not someone generating a
text, who has conducted content planning, fit for the purpose of writing and translated his or her thoughts into
writing according to this plan, has generated a text with communication value, depends on the extent to which she
has addressed the textuality criteria (coherency, consistency, purposefulness etc.) of the text she has generated. In
this respect, it is a necessity for the text generated by each text generator (as a draft) to be reviewed carefully in
terms of textuality criteria and corrected. In this process, students require assistance in order and able to perform the
reviewing procedure in a sound manner and create more quality texts (Hamzadayı&Çetinkaya, 2011). Goldstein
(2004) states that students are able to generate more quality texts by receiving feedback. In this context, teachers can
present students oral and written feedback in the classroom setting. Raimes (1983) perceives this case to be one of
Corresponding Author: Hakan Ülper Tel: +23 444747838

Email: hülper@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.198
228 Hakan Ülper and Gökhan Çetinkaya / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 227 – 230
the primary responsibilities of the teacher. Due to classrooms being crowded, sometimes teachers collect students,
texts, evaluate them, provide students collectively feedback through markings and explanations on the paper. In this
stage, it is expected that students take the marking and explanations on the students, papers into consideration and
perform the required corrections. However, similar studies in the literature (see Straub, 1997; Ferris, 1995) indicate
that students sometimes fail to fulfill the requirements of this feedback. There are no studies conducted in Turkey on
this subject. In this respect, the purpose of the study is examine the extent that students in the middle of school and
high school fulfill the requirements of teacher feedback.
2. Methodology
2.1. Set of participants
The study was conducted on two randomly determined groups, one of them is a middle school and the other one
from a high school. The number of students from the middle school is 52. Among these students, 23 are girls and 29
are boys. The age range of students is 13-14. The number of students from the high school is 59. Among these
students 29 are girls and 30 are boys. The age range of these students is 17-18.
2.2. Process steps
These groups were requested to generate short essays and subsequently these essays were collected and
evaluated by the researchers and feedback was provided with explanations on the papers. In the study conducted by
Ülper (2012) it is stated that teachers provide feedback according to the categories of content formation,
consistency, word use, linguistic performance, mechanical property, paper layout, and text type. Accordingly, in the
context of content formation feedback was provided regarding title, introduction, main idea, redundant information
(repetition, omitting), imperfect information (addition), creativity, developing,enhancing the topic (exemplifying,
detailing), and forming the conclusion. In the context of consistency, feedback was provided with regards to
organization of the text (planning logical order), connections between sections of the text, connections within
sections of the text, topic unity continuity, and status of coherency. In the context of word use, feedback was
presented with regards to relevant word phrase selection, the use of Turkish words, and vocabulary use. In the
context of the expression category, feedback was provided on ambiguity and formal properties. In the context of
mechanical properties, feedback was provided in terms of spelling, punctuation, and dividing into paragraphs. In the
context of paper layout, feedback shall be provided with regards to handwriting and correct use of the paper. This
framework was taken as a basis in feedback to be presented in student texts. In the subsequent phase, the texts was
redistributed to the students and they were requested to rewrite the texts on a new piece of paper with corrections in
line with this feedback.
2.3. Data analysis
2.4. In the final stage, all papers were collected from the students and the feedback categories, which they made
corrections accordingly, were determined and analyzed according to percentage and frequency distribution.
3. Findings
Examples of feedback provided to texts generated by middle school and high school. Students are present in (1)
Table (2). All of the feedback has been presented in the form of explanations in writing. Some of the feedback
provided are follows: Add a title that clarifies and sets the boundaries topic of the text, develop the introduction
section by clearly introducing the topic, develop the development section by providing examples and paraphrasing,
rewrite the conclusion section by briefly summarizing the topic, there is ambiguity in the underlined sentences,
replace the circled word with a suitable word, the second paragraph has been separated from an incorrect point,
correct the punctuation in the marked section, take care regarding paper layout and handwriting.
Hakan Ülper and Gökhan Çetinkaya / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 227 – 230 229
Table 1.High school students’ textual actions
HIGH SCHOOL
Feedback Category
Corrective Textual Actions
Mechanic Properties
Use of Language
Paper Layout
Consistency
Text Type
Content
Words
Total
Feedback number 56 18 23 34 64 47 0 242
Number of corrective attempts 50 12 22 30 62 47 0 223
Corrective attempt percentage 89% 67% 96% 88% 97% 100% 0 92%
Number of inadequate corrections 38 6 6 10 6 5 0 71
Percentage of inadequate corrections 76% 50% 27% 33% 10% 11% 0 32%
Number of acceptable corrections 12 6 16 20 56 42 0 152
Percentage of acceptable corrections 24% 50% 73% 67% 90% 89% 0 68%
A total of 242 feedbacks were presented to high school students included in the study and students took 92% of
this feedback into consideration and attempted corrections. While students took all feedback concerning paper
layout into consideration, they only took 67% of feedback concerning consistency into consideration. Together with
this, while they were able to make acceptable corrections to only 24% of feedback concerning content, they were
able to make 90% acceptable corrections concerning mechanical properties. In total they were able to perform
approximately 68% acceptable corrections.
Table 2. Middle school students’ textual actions
MİDDLE SCHOOL
Feedback Category
Corrective Textual Actions

Use of Language
Paper Layout
Consistency
Properties
Text Type
Mechanic
Content
Words
Total
Feedback number 52 98 80 112 163 52 0 557
Number of corrective attempts 36 56 62 98 134 52 0 438
Corrective attempt percentage %69 %57 %78 %88 %82 %100 0 %79
Number of inadequate corrections 32 43 22 48 68 16 0 229
Percentage of inadequate corrections %89 %77 %35 %49 %51 %31 0 %52
Number of acceptable corrections 4 13 40 50 66 36 0 209
Percentage of acceptable corrections %11 %23 %65 %51 %49 %69 0 %48
230 Hakan Ülper and Gökhan Çetinkaya / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 227 – 230
A total of 557 feedbacks were presented to the middle school students included in the study and students took
79% of this feedback into consideration and attempted corrections. While students took all feedback concerning
paper layout into consideration, they only took 57% of feedback concerning consistency into consideration.
Together with this, while they were able to make acceptable corrections to only 11% of feedback concerning
content, they were able to make 90% acceptable corrections concerning mechanical properties. In total they were
able to perform approximately 48% acceptable corrections.
4. Conclusion
One of the striking results revealed as a result of the study is concerning the number of presented feedback.
While a total of 242 feedbacks were provided concerning texts generated by high school students, a total of 557
feedbacks were provided concerning texts generated by middle schools students. The low rate of feedback provided
for texts generated by high school students, in one respect indicates that texts generated by high school students
have better quality. Furthermore, with a correction attempt rate of 92%, high school students have made more
correction attempts compared to middle school students, who have a correction attempt rate of 79%. This indicates
that high school students are more willing to generate quality texts compared to middle school students. Another
striking rate is the rate of acceptable corrections. While this rate was 68% for high school students, it was 48% for
middle school students. Accordingly, high school students appear to be more adequate with regards to the correction
of the mistakes in the texts they have generated. In one aspect, this case explains why the texts generated by high
school students are more quality than the ones generated by middle school students. So much so that, the students
reviewing and correcting the texts they have generated in the writing process are of utmost significance. In order to
perform this correction procedure, students are expected to have competency at certain level. In case students are
unable to notice the defective aspects of the texts they have generated on their own, teachers are expected to assist
students. By drawing attention to the defective aspects of student texts, teachers expect students to perform
corrections; however, it would appear that students demonstrate deficiencies with regards to correcting. According
to the results of the study conducted by Straub (1997) and Ferris (1995), the existence of a similar circumstance is
striking. According to the results of these studies, students do not perform the corrections on paper required by
feedback of their teachers and in this respect it appears that teacher feedback has small impact on students. This
arouses a question in mind concerning another aspect of the problem. This is whether or not students are really
competent enough to perform this correction procedure.
According to the result of our study, it has been evidently revealed that particularly middle school students
require assistance when correcting. The fact that students perform higher rate of acceptable corrections for topic
requiring less cognitive effort such as paper layout, mechanic properties and perform acceptable corrections at a
lower rate for topics requiring more cognitive effort and textualization knowledge such as consistency and content,
provides clues with regards to the source of this problem. Students have need to form adequate background
information concerning textualization, consistency and convert this background information to skill. It is evident
that plenty of exercises need to be performed in a planned manner in order to achieve this.
References
Goldstein, L. M. (2004). Questions and answers aboutteacher written commentary and student revision: Teachers and students working
together.Journal of Second Language Writing,13, 63-80.
Ferris, D. R. (1995). Student reactions to teacher response in multiple-draft composition clasrooms. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 33-53.
Flower, L.,& Hayes, J., R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and Communitation,32, 365-387.
Hamzadayı, E.,&Çetinkaya, G. (2011).Yazılıanlatımıdüzenlemedeakrandönütleri: dönüttürleri,öğrencialgıları. AİBU EğitimFakültesiDergisi,
11(1), 147-165.
Raimes, (1983). Techniques in teaching writing. OUP: New York.
Straub, R. (1997). Students’ reactions to teacher comments: An exploratory study. Research in the Teaching of English, 31 (1), 91-119.
Ülper, H. (2012). Properties of the feedback provided by teachers to draft texts. Education and Science, 37 (165), 212-136.
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference on Educational Sciences 2013
In-Service Science Teachers’ Ideas about the Phases of the Moon

and Brightest Star
Ayberk Bostan Sarıoğlana*,Hüseyin Küçüközerb
a
Balıkesir University, Balıkesir University Necatibey Edcation Faculty, Primary Science Education Department, Balıkesir and 10100, Turkey
b
Balıkesir University, Balıkesir University Necatibey Edcation Faculty Physics Education Department, Balıkesir and 10100, Turkey
Abstract
In this study, 32 science teachers’ ideas were studied to determine the phases of the moon and brightest star. Teachers’ ideas were
grouped under ‘right answer’, ‘misconceptions’ and ‘no response’ categories. About the phases of the moon, correct answer rate
was very low and majority of teachers’ responses were misconceptions. None of the teachers could give correct answer about the
brightest star at night in the summer. For these two concepts, a variety of misconceptions were encountered, more detailed
conclusions were reached in the end of semi-structured interviews that were conducted with teachers who hold misconceptions.
Keywords:In-service science teachers, phases of the moon, brightest star, misconception
1. Introduction
In recent years in constructivist learning theory that widely accepted in education system, students’ ideas
before education are quite important. These ideas generally defined as misconceptions in the literature often
contradict with scientific ideas. Since misconceptions appear as a learning disability in learning process (Helm &
Novak, 1983), it is important to determine misconceptions that students have and ensure the exchange of these
misconceptions with scientific facts. In the process of conceptual change, teachers have the most important tasks
because they are those who plan and apply teaching intended for conceptual change. For this reason the teachers
should be aware of the most common misconceptions about the subject and question possible causes about origins
of these misconceptions (Kikas, 2004). However it has been determined that besides teachers’ lack of enough
information to find out and correct misconceptions of students, they have a variety of misconceptions as well.
(Gooday & Wilson, 1996; Taylor & Coll; Trumper, 1996; cited in Kikas, 2004).
1.1 Purpose and importance of research
Purpose of this research is to find out ideas of science teachers about the causes of the phases of the moon
and the brightest star notions. Teachers must have appropriate cognitive structures related to these notions in order
to teach them. The number of studies which aim to uncover the teachers’ ideas on the concepts of astronomy is very
*Corresponding name:AyberkBostanSarıoğlan. Tel.: +90-266-241-2762

E-mail address: abostan@balikesir.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.203
Ayberk Bostan Sarıoğlan and Hüseyin Küçüközer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 250 – 255 251
few. Parker and Heywood (1998) have a study intended to uncover teachers’ ideas on the concept of phases of the
moon. To the best of our knowledge there is not a study carried out to discover teachers’ ideas about the brightest
star visible in the sky at night. Whereas it is quite important to reveal teachers’ ideas because if teachers have some
misconceptions, besides they can not correct their misconceptions, they also cause new misconceptions (Küçüközer
&Bostan, 2010). So the studies made to reveal teachers’ ideas about various notions are important.
2. Method
Method of this study has been determined as screening research which is one of descriptive research designs.
32 science and technology teachers (ST) serving in randomly determined 13 primary schools in Balıkesir city center
form the sample of study. The teachers took part in this sample were asked the questions: “Image of moon shapes
are seen within an interval of couple of nights. What is the reason of the change of moon’s image? Explain your
answer briefly” and “Which is the brightest star when we look at the sky with naked eye in the cloudless air at
night? Explain your answer briefly. “Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of 10 randomly
chosen teachers as well. The purpose of a semi-structured interview is to find out the teachers’ ideas about the
question with more details. Teachers’ answers have been collected under 3 categories which consist of “Right
answer”, “Misconception” and “No answer”. Frequency counts of teachers’ answers have been made and this
frequency counts have been converted into table.
3. Findings
3.1. Phases of Moon
Any night A few nights later that night
Findings obtained from the question: “The images of moon shapes are seen in the sky with an interval of a couple of
nights. Explain your answer briefly” are summarized below.
Table 3.1.1. Table of ST response grades and frequencies about the cause of phases of the moon
Response Grades n (%)
Scientific correct response 11 (34.4)

Misconception 17 (53.1)
No answer 4 (12.5)
252 Ayberk Bostan Sarıoğlan and Hüseyin Küçüközer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 250 – 255
%34.4 of science and technology teachers gave the correct answer about the question of moon phases that
moon rotates around the earth and consequently moon phases occur. For this question, answers given by %53.1 of
teachers are kinds of misconception and they show varieties inside. %12.5 of answers given by science and
technology teachers has been put into the “No Answer” category. In the table 3.2.2 misconceptions that science and
technology teachers have about the phases of moon and encounter frequency are given.
Table 3.1.2. Table of ST misconceptions about cause of phases of the moon
Misconceptions n (%)
1- Rotating of the moon around the earth while the revolving of the
6 (35.3)
earth in its orbit
2-Rotating of the moon around the earth while revolving in its orbit 5 (29.4)
3-Shadow of the earth 3 (17.6)
4- Clouds cover the moon 2 (11.8)
5- Rotating of the moon with the earth around the sun 1 (5.9)
For this question science and technology teachers often had the misconception that while moon rotates
around the earth meanwhile the earth revolves in its orbit and as a result moon phases occur. While correct answer is
that rotate of moon around the earth form moon phases, the answer that the earth revolves in its orbit is a
misconception. A section of interview made with a science and technology teacher who has this misconception is as
shown below:
G: What are the causes of the phases of the moon?

Ö14: Moon rotates around meanwhile the earth revolves in its orbit. As a consequence of these two motions moon’s
visible shape changes.
G: Can you explain your answer a bit?
Ö14: For the formation of phases of the moon rays of light from sun should come to the moon. While moon rotates
around the earth and earth revolves in its orbit, sun rays come to different parts of the moon and enables formation
of phases of moon.
%17.6 of science and technology teachers has the misconception that as a result of the earth’s changeover
between sun and moon, moon phases occur. Ideas of the science and technology teachers who have this
misconception are as shown below:
G: What do you think about the causes of the phases of the moon?
Ö22: The earth positions between sun and moon change and moves continuously .The earth rotates both in its orbit
and around the sun. During its motions, the earth passes in front of moon or withdraws and the moon appears in
different shapes. When the earth withdraws from the sun and moon, full moon phase appears. Earth’s shadow causes
that.
Science and technology teachers also have misconceptions that are less common compared to misconception
mentioned above about the moon phases. %11.8 of science and technology teachers have the misconception that
clouds cover the moon as a result moon phases occur and %5.9 of science and technology teachers have the
misconception that the moon rotates around the sun with the earth and as a result moon phases occur.
3.2. The Brightest Star
Findings obtained from the question: “Which is the brightest star when we look at cloudless sky with naked
eye at a summer night? Explain your answers briefly are explained.
Table 3.2.1.ST response grade and frequency table about the brightest star in the sky at night
Response Grades n (%)
Correct Answer 0 (0)

Misconception 26 (81.2)
No Answer 6 (18.8)
In this question Sirius, the brightest star, this is mostly visible from southern hemisphere but seen from
northern hemisphere only in winters. Arcturus and Vega, the brightest stars, which are visible from northern
hemisphere, have been accepted as right answers. As seen in table 3.2.1 none of answers that science and technology
teachers gave about the brightest star is not included in correct answer grade. The most common response is in grade
of misconception and %81.2 of science and technology teachers had this type of response. %18.8 of science and
technology teachers’ responses are in the grade of “No Answer”. Misconceptions of science and technology teachers
about the brightest star in the sky at night are shown in the table 3.2.2.
Table 3.2.2.ST misconceptions about the brightest star in the sky at night
Misconceptions n (%)
1- Polestar 12 (46.2)
2- Venus 8 (30.8)
3- Comet 3 (11.5)
4- Big dipper 2 (7.7)
5- Shooting Star 1 (3.8)
A lot of misconceptions have been encountered about the brightest star visible in the sky at night with naked
eye. The most common misconception is “Polestar” response and %46.2 of science and technology teachers had this
254 Ayberk Bostan Sarıoğlan and Hüseyin Küçüközer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 250 – 255
kind of response. A section of interview made with science and technology teacher who gave the answer “Polestar”
is shown below.
G: Which is the brightest star when we look at cloudless sky at night?
Ö12: Polestar.
G: Why is polestar the brightest star? Can you explain your answer?
Ö12: Polestar positions in the North Pole and it is the brightest star. We can find our direction by looking at the
polestar.
%30.8 of teachers gave the answer “Venus” which is another misconception. The other misconceptions, about the
brightest star that science and technology teachers have, are “Comet”, “Big dipper” and “Shooting Star”.
Result and Discussion
According to the findings obtained from this study, most of the ideas of the science and technology teachers
about the moon phases and brightest star are misconceptions. About the notion of cause of the phases of moon,
Bisard (1994) and the other high school and university students, (Trumper, 2000; Trumper, 2001), Trundle, Atwood
and Christopher (2002), Küçüközer (2007), Küçüközer (2008) have encountered the misconception that as a result
of the earth’s changing position between sun and moon, moon phases occur in the study which was made with
university students. The misconception that clouds cover the moon as a result moon phases occur had been
encountered in the studies, at the level of primary (Baxter, 1989; Sharp, 1996 and Dunlop, 2000) and university
(Küçüközer, 2008 ) education. Küçüközer (2007) had frequently encountered the most common misconception that
polestar is the brightest star in the sky at night in his study made with university students in the period of pre and
post education. Küçüközer (2007) encountered the other common misconception that Venus and Comet are the
brightest stars in the sky at night in his study. According to the result of this study, the teachers may have
misconceptions similar to misconceptions that their students have. In this situation teachers may not be successful in
teaching to determine students’ misconceptions and change them with scientific facts. The teachers may even be the
sources of misconceptions that students have in some cases. When it has been determined in the studies that
misconceptions may have a variety of resources, Helm (1980) and Ivowi (1984) have noted that one of them is
inaccuracy in the descriptions of teachers.
Suggestions
Studies just investigating teachers’ misconceptions are not enough and studies on how to remove those
misconceptions as well. Many conceptual change studies conducted for the students have been carried out but it is
an unstudied area how to remove teachers’ misconceptions. In-service training activities may be organized to
remove teachers’ misconceptions. How to organize in-service training activities, how to run these activities, by
whom the courses should be given are the topics to be investigated.
References
Baxter, J. (1989). Children’s understanding of familiar astronomical events. International Journal of Science Education, 11, 502-513.
Bisard, W., Aron, R., Francek, M., & Nelson, B. (1994). Assessing selected physical science and earth science misconceptions of middle school
through university pre-service teachers. Journal of College Science Teaching, 24, 38-42.
Dunlop, J. (2000). How children observe the universe. Electronic Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia, 17 (2), 194-206.
Helm, H. (1980).Misconceptions in physics amongst South African students. Physics Education, 15, 92-98.
Helm, H., & Novak, J. D. (1983).Proceedings of the international seminar on misconceptions in science and mathematics conference, June 1983.
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, Department of Education.
Ivowi, U. (1984). Misconceptions in physics amongst Nigerian secondary school students. Physics Education, 19, 279-285.
Kikas, E. (2004). Teachers’ conceptions and misconceptions concerning three natural phenomena. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41
(5), 432-448.
Küçüközer, H. (2007). Prospective science teachers’ conceptions about astronomical subjects. Science Education International, 18 (1), 113-130.
Küçüközer, H. (2008). The effects of 3D computer modelling on conceptual change about seasons and phases of the moon. Physics Education, 43
(6), 632-636.
Küçüközer, H., & Bostan, A. (2010).Fen veteknolojiöğretmenlerininevreninmerkezikavramınailişkingörüşleri.XVII. Ulusal Astronomi Kongresi,
(31 Ağustos-4 Eylül 2010), Adana.
Sharp, J. (1996). Children’s astronomical beliefs: a preliminary study of year 6 children in South-West England. International Journal of Science
Education, 18 (6), 685-712.
Trumper, R. (2000).University students’ conceptions of basic astronomy concepts. Physics Education, 35 (1),9-15.
Trumper, R. (2001).A cross-college age study of science and nonscience students’ conceptions of basic astronomy concepts in preservice training
for high-school teachers. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 10 (2), 189-195.
Trundle, K.C., Atwood, R.K & Christopher, J.E. (2002).Preservice elementary teachers’ conceptions of moon phases before and after instruction.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39 (7), 633-658.
ScienceDirect
Investigation of the Relations Between Objectives of Turkish

Primary School Curriculums and Multiculturalism
Ilker Cirik a *
a
Ass.Prof.Dr., Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Sisli, Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
The aim of this study is to investigate the relations between objectives of Turkish primary school (1-8 grades) curriculums and
multiculturalism. The research sample consists of 15 different lessons’ curriculums which use in primary schools. The data was
collected with documental analysis of qualitative analyses method and presented by using frequencies and percentages. Findings
showed that relation rates between objectives of curriculums and multiculturalism are quite low. In the light of findings some
recommendations presented for researchers, teachers and decision makers, who work in the curriculum development department
in the Turkish Ministry of National Education.
Keywords: Multicultural Education, Curriculum, Objectives; © 2013 The Authors.Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
In recent years, it has been seen that the multicultural education possesses a great amount in education. It is
thought that transition from agricultural society to industrial society and knowledge society afterwards,
immigrations and unions established among countries with financial, social goals have increased the value of the
term. Societies are in transition from localness towards universality in this period. This transition period has made it
an obligation to establish universal principles in education and to accelerate intercultural interaction (Cırık, 2008).
Multicultural education is policies and practices that show respect for cultural diversity through educational
philosophy, staffing composition and hierarchy, instructional materials, curricula, and evaluation procedures
(Frazier, 1977; Grant, 1977, as cited in Gay, 1994). Multicultural education is an idea, an educational reform
movement, and a process. As an idea, multicultural education seeks to create equal educational opportunities for all
students, including those from different racial, ethnic, and social-class groups. Multicultural education tries to create
equal educational opportunities for all students by changing the total school environment so that it will reflect the
diverse cultures and groups within society and within the nation’s classrooms. Multicultural education is a process
because its goals are ideals that teachers and administrators should constantly strive to achieve (Banks, Cookson,
Gay, Hawley, Irvine, Nieto, Schofield, & Stephan, 2001). Within this theoretical framework, multicultural education
should be in curriculums.
* Corresponding Author: İlker Cırık. Tel.: +90-212-246-001

E-mail address: ilker.cirik@msgsu.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.170
Ilker Cirik / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 74 – 76 75
Sleeter and Grant (1988) recommended that any curriculum that purports to be multi culturally focused should
regularly present diverse perspectives, experiences, and contributions. These presentations would include materials
that are free of stereotypes and present members of all cultures in a positive manner. In addition, teachers should
provide as much emphasis on contemporary culture as on historical culture. Teachers must ensure the use of
nonsexist language and allow equal educational access for all students. Students' experiential backgrounds, such as
daily experiences, deserve to be considered as well (as cited in Herring & White, 1995). Multicultural curriculums
should provide coordination between curriculum elements.
Banks et al. (2001), Bennet (2001), Gay (1994) defined essential principles of multicultural education as
following: providing cultural pluralism, emphasizing social justice practices, giving place to different cultures in
curriculums, ensuring social gender equality, providing educational equality for all students, understanding
differences between people to enrich education, supporting all students to participate in hidden curriculums
activities, learning about stereotyping and other related biases that have negative effects on racial and ethnic
relations, providing opportunities for students from different racial, ethnic, cultural, and language groups to interact
socially under conditions designed to reduce fear and anxiety.
Within these essential principles of multicultural education framework, the aim of this study is to investigate the
relations between objectives of Turkish primary school (1-8 grades) curriculums and multiculturalism.
2. Method
In this study, documental analysis of qualitative analyses method were used to investigate the relations between
objectives of Turkish primary school (1-8 grades) curriculums and multiculturalism (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2004).
From this perspective, eessential principles of multicultural education were considered in investigation process to
evaluate the objectives. In this context, the research sample consists of 15 different lessons’ curriculums which use
in primary schools (MNE, 2012). The data was presented by using frequencies and percentages.

Results of the data gathered from documental analysis of curriculums are presented on the Table 1 below.
Table 1. Frequency and percentage distributions for objectives of curriculums which related multiculturalism
Curriculums Objectives related with multiculturalism Total
f % f
Turkish 30 2.38 1259
Mathematics 0 0 581
Life Information 84 28.76 292
Science and Technology 22 2.25 974
Social Sciences 85 48.57 175
Republic of Turkey Revolution History and Ataturk 34 42.50 80
English 0 0 50
Religion and Ethics 30 12.98 231
Visual Arts 8 4.18 191
Music 4 2.18 183
Play and Physical Activities 7 6.48 108
Physical Education 14 4.98 281
Technology and Design 0 0 63
Traffic Safety 0 0 24
Citizenship and Democracy Education 34 100 34
Total 352 7.77 4526
As it can be seen in Table 1, Mathematics curriculum has 581 objectives, English curriculum has 50 objectives,
Technology and Design curriculum has 63 objectives, Traffic Safety curriculum has 24 objectives totally. However,
none of these curriculums’ objectives are related with multiculturalism.
76 Ilker Cirik / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 74 – 76
As illustrated in Table 1, in the Turkish curriculum, there are 30 out of 1259 objectives (2.38%) are related with
multiculturalism (e.g., share feelings and thoughts in group works). Science and Technology curriculum has 974
objectives totally. Its 22 objectives (2.25%) are related with multiculturalism (e.g., to understand visually or hearing
impaired persons by putting yourself in their place). In the Visual Arts curriculum, there are 8 out of 191 objectives
(4.18%) are related with multiculturalism (e.g., accept that art has a specific universal language). Music curriculum
has 183 objectives totally. Its 4 objectives (2.18%) are related with multiculturalism (e.g., recognize the types of
international music). In the Play and Physical Activities curriculum, there are 7 out of 108 objectives (6.48%) are
related with multiculturalism (e.g., show understanding and tolerance towards differences in games and physical
activities). Physical Education curriculum has 281 objectives totally. Its 14 objectives (4.98%) are related with
multiculturalism (e.g., respect the rights of others in physical activities). It can be said that these relation rates are
quite low for multicultural education.
On the other hand, Life Information curriculum has 292 objectives totally. Its 84 objectives (28.76%) are related
with multiculturalism (e.g., accept that the differences with friends are natural). In the Social Sciences curriculum,
there are 85 out of 175 objectives (48.57%) are related with multiculturalism (e.g., respect the feelings and thoughts
of others). Republic of Turkey Revolution History and Ataturk curriculum has 80 objectives totally. Its 34 objectives
(42.50%) are related with multiculturalism (e.g., recognize the basic principles of secularism). In the Religion and
Ethics curriculum, there are 30 out of 231 objectives (12.98%) are related with multiculturalism (e.g., be tolerant
towards different religions and beliefs). It can be thought that these relation rates are acceptable for multicultural
education. As expected, Citizenship and Democracy Education curriculum has 34 objectives and all of them are
related with multiculturalism (e.g., take responsibility to ensure social gender equality). As a result, all curriculums
have 4526 objectives and 352 (7.7%) of them related with multiculturalism.
As Açıkalın (2010) stated that our curriculums should relate with multiculturalism. It is known that the attitudes
of the students about cultural differences are affected positively by the curriculum in the multicultural education. For
this reason it might be effective to form an understanding which is reflected to the whole of the curriculum, instead
of designing different themes about multiculturalism in curriculum. Giving place to multicultural education in our
curriculum will enrich the powerful structure of our country. To do this it is thought that making different kinds of
ethnic structures, religious and cultures basing on developing reciprocal tolerance and empathy will be meaningful
by the way of being a citizen of Turkish Republic (Cırık, 2008). The attitudes of the students about cultural
differences are affected positively by the curriculum in the multicultural education. The curriculum is affected by
the characteristics of students, teachers and society at the same time. The cooperative learning methods which are
used in the learning environment helps to students’ sharing goals and gaining equal statement. In addition to these,
multicultural materials, vicarious experiences, role playing, and simulations can help students develop more positive
racial attitudes and perceptions (Gay, 1994).
From these results it can be seen that relation rates between objectives and curriculums are quite low. Therefore,
decision makers, who work in the curriculum development department in the Turkish Ministry of National
Education, should revise these curriculums in the light of these results and multiculturalism principles. Also these
results need to be supported with new investigations from the researchers.
References
Açıkalın, M. (2010). New proaches for teaching social studies: Multicultural and global education. Elementary Education Online, 9(3), 1226-
1237.
Banks, J.A. et al. (2001). Diversity within unity: Essential principles for teaching and learning in a multicultural society. Retrieved from
Bennett, C. (2001). Genres of research in multicultural education. Review of Educational Research, 71(2), 171-217.
Cırık, İ. (2008). Çokkültürlü eğitim ve yansımaları. H.U. Journal of Education, 34, 27-40.
Gay, G. (1994). A synthesis of scholarship in multicultural education. Retrieved from
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/educatrs/leadrshp/le0gay.htm
Herring, R.D., & White, L.M. (1995). School counselors, teachers, and the culturally compatible classroom: Partnerships in multicultural
education. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 34(2), 52-65.
http://www.educ.washington.edu/coetestwebsite/pdf/DiversityUnity.pdf
MNE, (2012). Curriculums. Retrieved from http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/www/ogretim-programlari/icerik/72
Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2004). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
ScienceDirect
Learning habits in higher education

Marko Urh a *, Eva Jereb b
a
Faculty of Organisational Sciences, University of Maribor, Kidričeva 55a, 4000 Kranj, Slovenia
b
Faculty of Organisational Sciences, University of Maribor, Kidričeva 55a, 4000 Kranj, Slovenia
Abstract
We are constantly learning every day and in every area of our life. Doing this we use different learning styles, methods,
techniques and are having different learning habits. Also students in higher education differ in their learning approaches and are
having different learning habits. In the paper this approaches are described and some of the research findings among high school
students in Slovenia are presented. We tried to find out if there are any correlations between students’ learning habits and the
average grade; if there are differences in gender and age regarding learning habits; does social status like working or having
scholarship, living at home or in dorms, income rate, parents education influence learning habits.
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: learning habits, learning approaches, learning strategies, higher education, students;
1. Introduction
A number of changes are happening in all areas of life requiring new knowledge and skills. Lifelong learning is
becoming a necessity for the successful operation in an increasingly complex environment. Emergence of lifelong
learning and the need for continuing education is also changing the role and importance of education (Urh, Jereb,
2011). The ability to navigate the complex life and work environments in the globally competitive information age
requires students to pay rigorous attention to developing adequate life and career skills (Partnership for 21st Century
Skills, 2011). Employers’ feedback highlights the need to produce graduates who have the skills expected and
required (e.g. self-directed, autonomous learning) (Luke, Hogarth, 2011). Knowing the proper selection and
implementation of learning habits can result in more effective and efficient mastery of new knowledge that will
allow students to work easier and better and improve adaptation to changes. Habits are routines of mostly
subconscious regular repetition behaviour (Butler, Hope, 1995). Old habits are hard to break and new habits are hard
to form. That's because the behavioural patterns we repeat most often are literally etched in our neural pathways.
The good news is that through repetition it's possible to form new habits (Psychology Today, 2011). Learning habits
can be described as methods and means of obtaining information. This is taking place at the conscious or
unconscious level. It helps students organize their efforts to solve problems, develop skills, acquire knowledge and
completion of school obligations (Carter, Bishop, Kravits, 2011). In the literature there is currently no clear
* Corresponding Author :Marko Urh, Tel.: +38642374239

E-mail address: marko.urh@fov.uni-mb.si
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.220
Marko Urh and Eva Jereb / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 350 – 355 351
demarcation between learning styles or styles, strategies and practices that are used by students in learning. There
are certain definitions of the aforementioned concepts, but there is no clear divide between them. Confusion has
crept in with additional terms being used to describe overlapping concepts. The idea of students having clear
preferences in the way they learn led Pask (1976) to introduce the terms learning strategy and learning style.
'Strategy' was used to refer to the preferences shown in tackling an individual task, while 'style' related to general
preferences more akin to the psychological term cognitive style with its implications of relatively stable behaviour
patterns rooted in personality differences or cerebral dominance. Unfortunately, the term learning style is also used
in an even more general way to apply to any fairly consistent set of study behaviours, including approaches to
learning (Schmeck, 1988). The notion of learning style, which encompasses mental, physiological and affective
elements, refers to ‘an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining
new information and skills’ (Reid, 1995). In contrast to learning style, learning strategies are ‘those processes which
are consciously selected by learners and which may result in action taken to enhance the learning of a second or
foreign language, through the storage, retention, recall, and application of information about that language’ (Cohen,
1998). Distinct as they are, these two terms still bear a close relationship to each other (Jie, Xiaoqing, 2006). Using a
variety of styles, habits and learning strategies significantly affect a person's knowledge base which is different in
every individual. Irrespective of the different epistemological positions most researchers in this field agree that we
acquire knowledge primarily through three channels: senses (perception), intellect (mind) and intuition (insight).
These three modes correspond mainly with three basic modes of cognition: empirical, rational and metaphorical
(Jereb, 1999). According to their orientation Entwistle (2000) divides students in three main groups: those with
focus on personal meaning and importance of the profession, those with focus on reproduction and restoration of the
materials and those with focus on productivity (achievements). While in the educational literature there are many
different styles of learning mentioned (Hawk, Shah, 2007), there was relatively little research done on these styles
(Riding, Cheema, 1991). The analysis of the Myers Briggs (Myers, 1962) mentions different learning styles that
differ from extroverted to introverted, from sensory to intuition, from thinking to feeling and from judging to
persuasion. According to the learning styles of the students Honey and Mumford (1992) classified them into:
activists, reflectors, theorists and pragmatists. Fleming (2001) distinguishes different learning styles and divides
them into visual, auditory, read/written and kinaesthetic. Entwistle (2000) points out that students learn in two ways,
namely: deep strategic approach and surface, apathetic approach. In the surface approach, in contrast to strategic, the
intention is just to cope with the task, which is in student’s eyes seen as unrelated collection of information, what
leads to limited learning processes, above all to routine memorisation (Entwistle, 2000).
In addition to the aforementioned features, which are related to students, there are also other problems and
requirements. Growing numbers of students are entering college without the necessary skills to be successful in
post-secondary education. Habits of learning and dispositions of knowledge may not be at the level needed for
success in college (Tracy, 2009). Differences in complexity and unsuitability are reflected in the failure of
performance which the student achieves during study. These issues and findings show the need for a working
understanding of learning habits, ways of acquiring knowledge, perception of personality types and other matters
related to learning, both on a personal and institutional level.
Next the methodology and results of the research on learning habits of Slovenian students are presented. Learning
habits were divided into various areas such as learning time, learning space, the way of learning, learning during
lectures and social factors relating to the individual student.
2. Methodology
2.1. Research questions and hypothesis
With this research we wanted to find out which are the learning habits of Slovenian students regarding learning
time, learning space, learning way or mode, learning during lectures and their social position. To this end, we set up
the following hypothesis:
H1: There are statistically important correlations between the elements of time regarding learning and average grade.
H2: There are statistically important correlations between the students’ social elements and average grade.
H3: There is no statistically important difference between men and women in the elements of time regarding learning.
352 Marko Urh and Eva Jereb / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 350 – 355
H4: There is no statistically important difference between regular and part time students in the elements of time regarding
learning.
H5: There is no statistically important difference between men and women in the elements of space regarding learning.
H6: There is no statistically important difference between regular and part time students regarding associating theory with
practice.
2.2. Instrument
Data were collected through a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of eight general questions that
were related to age, gender, level of study, type of study, year of study, student’s average grade, the university and
faculty they are studying at; 101 statements that are related to the learning habits and 10 questions about social
status. In the case of statements the students answered by the following scale: 1=never, 2=rarely, 3=sometimes,
4=often, 5=always. The survey was anonymous and carried out in spring 2012.
2.3. Sample
The study included 329 Slovenian students from all Slovenian universities. Of these, 134 (40.7%) were men and
194 (59.0%) were women, 1 (0.3%) didn't answer the gender question. They were 18 to 45 years old. The average
age was 22 years and 9 months. 280 were regular students (85.1%) and 49 were part time students (14.9%). 288
(87.5%) were first level and 41 (12.5 %) second level students.
3. Results
We made a new variable as the average of 18 elements that relate to learning time (see Table 1 - Time of
learning 1-18). Based on the correlation test (R=0.038; p=0.567) we rejected the hypothesis which says 'There are
statistically important correlations between the elements of time regarding learning and average grade'. Statistically
significant correlations at 1 or 5 per cent risk were found only between the average grade and the statements
presented in Table 2.
Table 1. Statements regarding learning time and learning space
Time of learning Space of learning

1. I carefully prepare myself for learning. 19. I am learning in a library.
2. I prepare a time plan for learning. 20. I am learning at home.
3. I spontaneously decide when I am going to learn. 21. I am learning outside (example: in nature, etc.).
4. I am learning every time. 22. I am learning seating at a table.
5. I am mostly learning a few days before the exam. 23. I am learning lying.
6. I am learning only the day before the exam. 24. I am walking during learning.
7. I am learning a few hours a day. 25. I often change my position during learning.
8. I am learning the whole day. 26. The presence of other people does not disturb me.
9. I start to learn at least one month before the exam. 27. I can only learn in a fresh and aired room.
10. I generally spend a lot of time on learning. 28. I can learn only in a specific place.
11. I am the most productive when time is running out. 29. I can learn everywhere.
12. I am learning in the morning.
13. I am learning during the day.
14. I am learning in the evening.
15. I am learning at night.
16. I am learning in intervals (example: 1 hour learning, 15 min break).
17. I must take a break when something destructs me.
18. I take a break when finishing a chapter or defined matter.
Table 2. Statements regarding learning time for which a significant correlation was detected with the average grade
Statement R p
I carefully prepare myself for learning 0.286** 0.000
I prepare a time plan for learning 0.180** 0.007
I am learning every time. 0.170* 0.010
I am mostly learning a few days before the exam -0.286* 0.038
I am learning only the day before the exam. -0.236** 0.000
*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) **Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
There are statistically important correlations between the students’ social elements and average grade. We found
out that:
• There is a significant difference in the average grade of students who have scholarships and those that do
not (t=2.013; df=223; p=0.045) (t-test).
• There is a significant difference in the average grade of students who live at home and those who study
away from home (t=-3.192; df=223; p=0.002) (t-test).
• There is no statistically significant difference in the average grade of students who live alone and those
who do not live alone (t=0.813; df=223; p=0.417) (t-test).
• There is a significant difference in the average grade of students who live in a dorm or rented apartment
and those who at the time of the study do not live in a dorm or rented apartment (t=2.047; df=223;
p=0.042) (t-test)
• There is no statistically significant difference in the average grade between different groups of students
according to mother's education (F=0.430; p=0.651) (ANOVA).
• There is no statistically significant difference in the average grade between different groups of students
according to father's education (F=1.835; p=0.165) (ANOVA).
Further we found statistically significant differences (t=-2.441; df=251; p=0.015) at 5 per cent risk between men
and women according to the above mentioned new variable presenting the elements of time regarding learning (see
Table 1 - Time of learning 1-18), so we rejected the hypothesis that says 'There is no statistically important
difference between men and women in the elements of time regarding learning'. We found that there are statistically
significant differences between men and women with a mean agreeing with the statements listed in Table 3.
Table 3. Statements regarding learning time for which a significant difference was detected between men and women
Statement t df p
I carefully prepare myself for learning -3.976 326 0.000
I prepare a time plan for learning -3.669 326 0.000
I am learning only the day before the exam 1.997 326 0.047
I generally spend a lot of time on learning -2.857 326 0.006
Next we found that there is no statistically significant difference (t=0.960; df=327; p=0.338) at 5 per cent risk
between regular and part time students according to the above mentioned new variable presenting the elements of
time regarding learning (see Table 1 - Time of learning 1-18), so we accepted the hypothesis that says 'There is no
statistically important difference between regular and part time students in the elements of time regarding learning'.
We found that there are statistically significant differences between regular and part time students in the average
agreeing with the statements in Table 4.
354 Marko Urh and Eva Jereb / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 350 – 355
Table 4: Statements regarding learning time for which a significant difference was detected between regular and part time students
Statement t df p
I am mostly learning a few days before the exam 2.615 327 0.009
I am learning during the day 2.217 327 0.027
We made a new variable as the average of 11 elements that relate to learning space (see Table 1 - Space of
learning 19-29). We found that there is no statistically significant difference (t=-0.815; df=326; p=0.415) at 5 per
cent risk between men and women in the elements that relate to learning space, therefore we accepted hypothesis
that says 'There is no statistically important difference between men and women in the elements of space regarding
learning'. We found that there is statistically significant difference between men and women with a mean agreeing
only with the statement 'I can learn everywhere' (t=2.761; df=326; p=0.006).
Based on the t-test (t=-4.163; df=79.227; p=0.000) we rejected the last hypothesis, which states 'There is no
statistically important difference between regular and part time students regarding associating theory with practice'.
4. Discussion
In this paper we analysed the study habits of Slovenian students in terms of learning time, learning space,
learning mode, learning during lectures and social situation. For testing first, third and fourth hypotheses we made a
new variable as the average of 18 elements that relate to learning time. On this basis we tested and rejected the first
hypothesis, which says 'There are statistically important correlations between the elements of time regarding
learning and average grade' (R=0.038; p=0.567). When we compared the average grade of Slovenian students who
participated in the survey and individual statements in the context of time regarding learning we found that there is
statistically significant correlation between average grade and the careful preparation for learning (R=0.286;
p=0.000). Similar positive correlation was found between the average grade and preparation of learning time plan
(R=0.180; p=0.007) and the average grade and regular learning (R=0.170; p=0.010). From these findings we can
conclude that students with serious learning approach and who consciously or unconsciously take into account the
recommendations of basic time management achieve on average a better grade. Significant negative correlation at 5
per cent risk was observed between the average grade of student and learning just a few days before the exam (R=-
0.286; p=0.038) and between learning one day before the exam (R=-0.0236; p=0.000). Students who learn only a
day or a few days before the exam have a lower average grade. This conclusion confirms that it is necessary to
carefully prepare for the study, taking into account the basic rules of time planning and self-discipline.
Furthermore we found that students who receive scholarship have higher average grade (8.03) than students who
do not have it (7.78) (t=2.013; df=223; p=0.045). Students who receive scholarship have in many cases obligations
to the organization which provides scholarship. Obligations are increasing the level of student awareness and
responsibility which is reflected in higher average grade. We found that students who live in a student dorm or
rented apartment have higher average grade (8.07) than those who don't (7.79) (t=-3.192; df=223; p=0.002). Another
interesting finding is that students who are during their studies away from home achieve a higher average grade
(8.12) than those who live at home (7.74) (t=-3.192; df=223; p=0.002). Living away from home requires a certain
degree of autonomy and responsibility, which is clearly reflected in the average grade. It is interesting that there is
no statistically significant difference in the average grade between students who live alone (at home, in the dorm or
rented apartment) and the students who do not live alone (t=0.813; df=223; p=0.417). Furthermore, we found that
mothers education does not statistically significant affect (F=0.430; p=0.651) the average grade (average
grade=7.85) of the student, nor does (F=1.835; p=0.165) fathers education (average grade 7.84). The hypothesis
'There is no statistically important difference between men and women in the elements of time regarding learning'
was rejected (t=-2.441; df=251; p=0.015) at 5 per cent risk. We found that there are some differences among gender
in learning time. There are statistically significant differences in some of the statements between men and women in
careful preparation on study (t=-3.976; df=326; p=0.000). Women (3.37) prepare better for the study than men
(2.96). In addition to careful preparation women make learning plan and spend more time learning than men. Given
answers to the statement 'I learn only on the last day before the exam' show that there is a statistically significant
difference between men and women regarding learning the day before the exam (t=1.997; df=326; p=0.047). Men
learn significantly less regularly and just before the exam compared to the female population.
In Slovenia the students are divided into regular and part time students. For the hypothesis 'There is no
statistically important difference between regular and part time students and the elements of time regarding
learning', we found that there are statistically significant differences (t=0.960; df=327; p=0.338) at 5 per cent risk so
we accepted the hypothesis. We found that there were some differences which are reflected in the learning time. We
have observed significant statistical differences (t=2.615; df=327; p=0.009) that regular students (3.56) learn much
more just a few days before the exam than part time students (3.10). Regular students (3.30) learn mostly during the
day while part time students (2.96) have less time to learn through the day because of work and other obligations.
For the purpose of testing the fifth hypothesis we made a new variable as the average of 11 elements that relate
to space of learning. On this basis we tested the hypothesis that says 'There is no statistically important difference
between men and women in the elements of space regarding learning' and based on a 5 per cent risk found that there
was no statistically significant difference (t=0.960; df=326; p=0.415) so we accepted the hypothesis. We found that
there are significant differences between men and women in the statement 'I can learn anywhere' (t=2.761; df=326;
p=0.006).
We have also found that there is a statistically significant difference (t=-4.163; df=79.227; p=0.000) between
regular and part time students at integrating subject matter with practical examples. Part time students (3.96) are
more likely to integrate subject matter with practical examples than regular students (3.43). This observation is not
surprising since part time students often come from practice and are employed.
Differences in study performance reflect a number of factors that affect the individual. Study habits of the
individual are very important as is ability to change behaviour in relation to the needs of the study.
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ScienceDirect
Learning styles of prospective mathematics teachers: Kocaeli

university case
Yasemin KATRANCIa*, Figen BOZKUŞb
a,b
Kocaeli University, Education Faculty Primary Department, Kocaeli 41380, Turkey
Abstract
Learning is defined as changes in behaviour through repetition and experience. These changes can come in a variety of forms
based on distinctive characteristics of individuals. These distinctive characteristics include intelligence, skills, personality
characteristics, and learning styles. This study aims to identify learning styles of prospective teachers, and to determine whether
these styles show differences by age and grade level. The study is a descriptive one, conducted in the spring semester in 2011-
2012 academic year. The study group consisted of 155 prospective teachers, 51 of whom were grade one, 46 grade two, 40 grade
three, and 18 grade four students, all studying at the Kocaeli University, Education Faculty, Department of Teacher Training in
Mathematics at Primary School Level. The “Kolb Learning Style Inventory” was used as the data collection tool. Percentage,
frequency and chi-square were used in analysis of the data obtained as a result of the inventory. The study showed that 52.9% of
the prospective teachers preferred the “converging”, and 31,61% the “diverging” learning style. It was also seen that the
dominant style of learning shows differences by age and grade levels.
Keywords: prospective teachers, learning styles, Kolb Learning Styles inventory
1. Introduction
Defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior that occurs as a result of experience
(Senemoğlu, 2011), learning is affected by personal differences in educational environment. These personal
differences include intelligence, type of skill, learning style, learning strategies, level of preliminary knowledge,
personality structure, attention, type and level of motivation, gender and age (Boydak, 2007). The learning styles
that affect learning in this context are considered a significant component of teaching-learning process (Ekinci,
2003). Accordingly, learning style is the way preferred by an individual in acquiring and processing information
(Mainemelis, Boyatzis & Kolb, 2002).
When the studies aimed at identification of learning styles are reviewed (Yoon, 2000; Fowler, 2002; Kılıç, 2002;
Kılıç & Karadeniz, 2004; Özdemir & Kesten, 2012; Çelik & Şahin, 2011), it can be seen that the Kolb Learning
Styles Inventory was mainly used. In Kolb’s learning model (Hawk & Shah, 2007), learning styles of individuals are
*
Corresponding Author name: Yasemin KATRANCI, Tel.: +90 (507) 502 12 89
E-mail address: yaseminkatranci@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.216
Yasemin Katranci and Figen Bozkuş / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 328 – 332 329
in the form of a cycle, and the learning style inventory allows identification of the point where an individual is
located in this cycle (Aşkar & Akkoyunlu, 1993). This cycle of learning defines four learning skills: Concrete
Experience (CE), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), Active Experimentation (AE), and Reflective Observation (RO)
(Peker, 2005). One skill alone does not reveal the dominant learning style of an individual. Learning style of every
individual is determined by the combination of the learning skills. And the learning styles that comprise of such
skills are diverging, assimilating, converging and accommodating (Kaf-Hasırcı, 2006).
The diverging learning style consists of concrete experience and reflective observation skills. Individuals with
this learning style prefer to learn through feeling and watching. They focus on their own feelings and thoughts in the
learning process (Peker, 2003). The assimilating learning style consists of abstract conceptualization and reflective
observation skills. Individuals with this learning style prefer to learn through thinking and watching. They focus on
abstract concepts and ideas in the learning process. The converging learning style consists of abstract
conceptualization and active experimentation skills. Individuals with this learning style prefer to learn through
thinking and doing. They attach importance to details and try to understand the whole based on parts. Furthermore,
problem solving, decision making, logical and systematic planning of the ideas are among the characteristics of
individuals who have this learning style (Kaf-Hasırcı, 2006). Accommodating learning style consists of concrete
experience and active experimentation skills. Individuals with this learning style prefer to learn through feeling and
doing. They act with their instincts in learning. Individuals with this learning style attach importance to knowledge
of other people while solving problems, and they prefer working with others to set goals and assign tasks (Özdemir
& Kesten, 2012).
Knowing learning styles of students in important in terms of preparing appropriate learning environments
(Bahar, Özen & Gülaçtı, 2009). Within the framework of this importance, this study aims to identify the learning
styles of students studying at the department of teacher training in mathematics at primary school level and whether
they show differences by age and grade level. To this end, answers to the following questions were sought:
1. What is the distribution of learning styles of prospective primary school mathematics teachers?
2. What is the distribution of dominant learning styles of prospective primary school mathematics teachers by
age?
3. Are there any significant differences among the learning styles of prospective primary school mathematics
teachers by age?
4. What is the distribution of the learning styles of prospective primary school mathematics teachers by grade
level?
5. Are there any significant differences among the learning styles of prospective primary school mathematics
teachers by grade level?
2. Method
2.1. Design of the Research
The study is a descriptive one, conducted using the survey model to identify the dominant learning styles of
students.
2.2. Study Group
The study group consisted of 155 prospective primary school mathematics teachers studying at the Kocaeli
University. 118 (76.13%) of the prospective teachers that participated in the study were female and the remaining 37
330 Yasemin Katranci and Figen Bozkuş / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 328 – 332
(23.87%) were male. 51 (32.9%) students were studying at grade one, 46 (29.68%) student at grade two, 40
(25.81%) students at grade three, and 18 (11.61%) students at grade four.
Data were collected using the “Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory” developed by Kolb in 1985 and translated into
Turkish by Aşkar and Akkoyunlu in 1993. The inventory was applied to 155 prospective teachers studying at grades
one through four at the Department of Teacher Training in Mathematics at Primary School Level. The data were
collected within 2 weeks in spring semester in the 2011-2012 academic year.
In data analysis, dominant learning styles of prospective teachers and dominant learning styles by grade levels
were presented with frequency and percentage statistics. Non-parametric chi-square independence test was used to
determine whether there are any relations among learning styles of prospective teachers by their grade levels.
Significance level was set at .05.
Findings relating to distribution of the learning styles of prospective mathematics teachers and relevant
interpretations are provided below.
Table 1: Dominant learning styles of prospective primary school mathematics teachers
Primary School
Mathematics Teachers
f %
Accommodating 9 5.81
Converging 82 52.9
Diverging 49 31.61
Assimilating 15 9.68
Total 155 100
Inspection of the Table 1 shows that 52.9% of the prospective teachers preferred the “converging” learning style.
The “diverging” learning style comes second with a percentage of 31.61%. “Accommodating” learning style was the
least preferred learning style.
Findings relating to distribution of the learning styles of prospective teachers by age and relevant interpretations
are provided below.
Table 2: Dominant learning styles of prospective mathematics teachers by age
Between Between Between Between

17 and 18 19 and 20 21 and 22 23 and 24
f % f % f % f %
Converging 5 31.25 38 46.91 32 64 1 12.5
Diverging 7 43.75 28 34.57 13 26 1 12.5
Assimilating 1 6.25 9 11.11 5 10 0 0
Accommodating 3 18.75 6 7.41 0 0 6 75
Total 16 100 81 100 50 100 8 100
Inspection of the Table 2 shows that 43.75% of the prospective teachers aged between 17 and 18 prefer
“diverging” learning style; 46.91% of the prospective teachers aged between 19 and 20 prefer “converging” learning
style; 64% of the prospective teachers aged between 21 and 22 prefer “converging” learning style; and 75% of the
prospective teachers aged between 23 and 24 prefer “accommodating” learning style.
Yasemin Katranci and Figen Bozkuş / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 328 – 332 331
The chi-square test was used to determine whether there are any statistically significant differences among
learning styles by ages of prospective teachers. Accordingly, it was seen that there is a significant difference among
learning styles of prospective primary school mathematics teachers by age (X2: 51.011, p<.05).
Findings as to whether learning styles of prospective teachers show differences by their grade levels, and
relevant interpretations are provided below.
Table 3: Dominant learning styles by grade levels

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4
f % f % f % f %
Accommodating 6 11.76 3 6.52 0 0 0 0
Converging 17 33.33 26 56.52 23 57.5 16 88.88
Diverging 26 50.98 9 19.56 12 30 2 11.11
Assimilating 2 3.92 8 17.39 5 12.5 0 0
Total 51 46 40 18
Inspection of the Table 3 shows that 50.98% of the prospective teachers studying at grade one at Department of
Teacher Training in Mathematics at Primary School Level prefer the “diverging” learning style, and 56.52%
studying at grade two, 57.5% studying at grade three, and 88.88% studying at grade four prefer the “converging”
learning style.
The chi-square test was used to determine whether there are any statistically significant differences among
learning styles by grade levels of prospective teachers. Accordingly, it was seen that there is a significant difference
among learning styles of prospective primary school mathematics teachers by grade levels (X2: 32.133, p<.05).
Inspection of the findings shows that more than half (52.9%) of the prospective teachers that participated in the
study preferred the “converging” learning style. Furthermore, 31.61% of the prospective teachers preferred the
“diverging”, 9.68% the “assimilating” and 5.81% the “accommodating” learning style.
In his study, Kılıç (2004) had applied the Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory to 67 teachers studying at different
faculties and departments and receiving computer training. Analysis had shown that 25.37% of students preferred
the “converging” learning style, 25.37% the “diverging” learning style, 25.37% the “assimilating” learning style,
and 12.5% the “accommodating” learning style. In another study, Can (2011) had applied the Kolb’s Learning
Styles Inventory to 409 classroom teachers. According to the results of his study, 39.9% of the prospective teachers
preferred the “assimilating” learning style, 35.5% the “converging” learning style, 15.6% the “diverging” learning
style, and 9.0% the “accommodating” learning style. Özdemir and Kesten (2012) had studied the learning styles of
the prospective social studies teachers in their study. Accordingly, they had found that 38% of the prospective
teachers that participated in the study preferred the “converging” learning style, and 38% preferred the
“assimilating” learning style. As a result of their study conducted with prospective science teachers, Bahar and
Sülün (2011) had found that 39.7% of the prospective teachers preferred the “converging” learning style, 34.2% the
“assimilating” learning style”, 15.2% the “diverging” learning style, and 10.9% the “accommodating” learning style.
As in the previous studies mentioned above, the number of prospective teachers preferring the “converging”
learning style in this study is higher than the other learning styles. In this context, it can be said that this study
supports the relevant literature.
When the findings relating to the preferred learning styles of prospective teachers by age are examined, it is seen
that prospective teachers aged between 17 and 18 prefer the “diverging” learning style, those aged between 19 and
22 prefer the “converging” learning style, and those aged between 23 and 24 prefer the “accommodating” learning
style. The chi-square analysis was used to determine whether the preferred learning style shows differences by age.
In this context, significant differences were found among the preferred learning styles of prospective primary school
mathematics teachers by age.
In their study, Özdemir and Kesten (2012) had found that a significant relation existed between learning styles of
prospective teachers and the age variable. Accordingly, they had found that prospective teachers aged between 17
332 Yasemin Katranci and Figen Bozkuş / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 328 – 332
and 20 preferred the “assimilating” learning style, those aged between 21 and 22 preferred the “converging”
learning style, and those who were 23 and above preferred the “accommodating” learning style. In this context, it
can be said that results of this study accord with those of the others in the literature.
Another goal of this study was to identify distribution of the dominant learning styles by grade levels, and to
determine whether they show differences by grade levels. In this context, it has been found that 50.98% of the first-
grade prospective teachers preferred the “diverging” learning style, and the second-, third-, and fourth-grade
prospective teachers preferred the “converging” learning style. The chi-square analysis conducted in line with the
specified goal showed that preferred learning styles of prospective primary school mathematics teachers show
significant differences by their grade levels.
In his study conducted with prospective classroom teachers, Kaf-Hasırcı (2006) had found that the preferred
learning styles of students do not show statistically significant differences by grade levels. Özdemir and Kesten
(2012) had found that there were significant differences between grade variable and preferred learning style. In this
context, it can be said that this study shows parallelism with the literature.
References
Aşkar, P., & Akkoyunlu, B. (1993). Kolb learning style inventory. Education and Science, 87, 37-47.
Bahar, H. H., & Sülün, A. (2011). Learning styles of science teachers candidates, the link between gender and learning styles according to
learning styles of academic success. Kastamonu Education Journal, 19(2), 379-386.
Bahar, H. H., Özen, Y., & Gülaçtı, F. (2009). An investigation on academic achievement and learning styles as to branches and gender from
faculty of education students’. Ankara University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, 42 (1), 69-86.
Boydak, A. (2007). Learning styles. White Publications: İstanbul.
Can, Ş. (2011). Investigation of the relationships between the learning styles of preservice elementary teachers and some variables. Hacettepe
University Journal of Education, 41, 70-82.
Çelik, F., & Şahin, E. (2011). Examination of physical education and sports teacher candidates learning styles in terms of sex and class levels
they are (MAKÜ case). Journal of Buca Education Faculty, 21, 23-38.
Ekici, G. (2003). The importance of students’ learning styles for selecting distance educational mediums. Hacettepe University Journal of
Education, 24, 48-55.
Fowler, P. (2002). Learning styles of radiographers. Radiography, 8, 3-11.
Hawk, F. T., & Shah, A. J. (2007). Using learning style instruments to enhance student learning. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative
Education, 5(1), 1-20.
Kaf-Hasırcı, Ö. (2006). Learning styles of students of primary education: Çukurova Universtiy case. Theory and Practice in Education, 2 (1), 15-
25.
Kılıç, E. (2002). The effect of the dominant learning style on learning activities preference and academic achievement. Educational Sciences and
Practice, 1(1), 1-15.
Kılıç E., & Karadeniz Ş. (2004). The effects of gender and learning style on navigation strategy and achievement. Gazi University Journal of
Gazi Education Faculty, 24(3), 129-146.
Mainemelis, C., Boyatzis, R.E., & Kolb, D. A. (2002). Learning styles and adaptive flexibility: testing experiential learning theory. Management
Learning, 33 (1), 5-33.
Özdemir, N., & Kesten, A. (2012). The learning styles of prospective social studies teachers’ and the relationship between demographic
characterıstıcs. Atatürk University Journal of Graduate School of Social Sciences, 16(1), 361-377.
Peker, M. (2003). Model of Kolb learning style. Journal of National Education, 157, 185-192.
Peker, M. (2005). The relationship between learning styles and mathematics achievement students’ acquiring primary mathematics teacher
education. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 21, 200-210.
Senemoğlu, N. (2011). Improvement teaching and learning from theory to practice (19th Ed.). Pegem A: Ankara.
Yoon, S. H. (2000). Using learning style and goal accomplishment style to predict academic achievement in middle school geography students in
Korea. Dissertation Abstratcs International, 61(05), 1735, (UM: No: 9974495).
ScienceDirect
Lifelong Learning in Old Age: Results from the Belgian Ageing

Studies
Liesbeth De Donder a *, Dorien Brosens a, Nico De Witte ab, Tine Buffelac, Sarah Dury a
An-Sofie Smetcoren a, Dominique Verté a
a
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
b
University College Ghent, Keramiekstraat 80, Ghent, Belgium
c
Manchester University, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK
Abstract
This study investigates educational participation among older adults. Based on survey-data collected in the Belgian Ageing
Studies (N=67560), older adults’ educational participation rate, the individual profile of participants and its relation with social
participation are studied. The findings indicate that 26.2% participated to an educational activity over the past year. Participation
was lowest among the oldest age group, women, widowers, older people with poor physical health and lower socio-economic
status. Additionally, educational participation was positively related to membership of social associations, volunteering and
Internet use. The discussion provides recommendations to include vulnerable older adults in educational activities.
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Lifelong learning, educational activities, active ageing, older adults
1. Introduction
For the first time in human history, society is confronted with a demographical phenomenon where older adults
constitute a large part of the population. In 2009, more than 700 million people had reached the age of 60 years (or
over). The United Nations (2009) expect that in 2050 this group of older adults will count approximately two billion
people. Likewise, the EU population is ageing rapidly: the proportion of the population aged 65 and over will rise
from 17.1% in 2008 to 30% in 2060. The number of people aged 80 and over will even triple during the same period
(European Parliament, 2010). Population ageing is often approached as a growing problem and older people are
regularly considered as a social and economic burden. Policy makers and professionals have started to consider
older people as mainly sedentary, dependent, unproductive and passive objects (Walker 2006). As a reaction to this
merely negative perspective on population ageing, and inspired by the World Health Organization the European
Commission branded 2012 as the European Year of Active Aging. By doing so, they aim to support health,
participation and security as people age (Age Platform Europe et al., 2011). Through active ageing, older adults can
be involved in social, political and economic life (Ney, 2005) and social isolation can be reduced (Age Platform
Europe et al., 2011). The active ageing discourse emphasizes that older adults should be given the chance to
* Corresponding author: Liesbeth De Donder Tel.: +32 494 136868

- E-mail address: ldedonde@vub.ac.be
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.250
514 Liesbeth De Donder et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 513 – 517
participate fully in society. As part of this, the promotion of a culture of lifelong learning represents a cornerstone of
the present policies and efforts to widen educational participation among older adults. In order to promote lifelong
learning among older adults, knowledge of its correlates is required (Futurage, 2011).
In comparison with adults, older learners are found to be underrepresented in educational participation (Principi
& Lamura, 2009). However, participation in lifelong learning should not be restricted to younger age groups. Older
adults too have the desire to keep on learning (Boulton-Lewis, 2010). Moreover, the participation of older adults in
educational activities has been related with positive outcomes such as increased quality of life and reduced
psychosomatic complaints (Leung & Liu, 2012). While a great deal of research on learning in older adults focuses
on memory (e.g. da Silva & Yassuda, 2009; Mackey & Sachs, 2012), health related education (e.g. Park, 2011;
Small, 2012) or training older workers (Fenwick, 2012; Van Rooij, 2012), little empirical work has been conducted
on inequalities in older adults’ participation in education: i.e. who is participating and who not? Nevertheless, in
practice such insights are crucial since securing older adults’ participation in lifelong learning programs presents
unique challenges given the diversity and heterogeneity of older adults (Ballard & Morris, 2005). This diversity can
be translated as vulnerability and inequality. Through the theory of cumulative inequalities, it may become clear that
variations in lifelong learning in later life are stratified because of multiple deprivations (Ferraro et al., 2009). The
question arises what resources are available and how this affects the educational participation (Hendricks, 2008).
Therefore, the primary objective of the current study is to investigate educational participation among older
adults. The following research questions are addressed: (1) What is the participation rate of older adults regarding
educational activities in Belgium? (2) What is the individual profile of (non) participants in educational
activities/courses? (3) Is participation in lifelong learning related with social integration of older adults?
2. Data and methods
The data used in the current study were collected within the framework of the Belgian Ageing Studies (BAS).
Data were collected between 2004 and 2011 and included information from 67,560 home-dwelling older adults. The
respondents all completed a questionnaire that addressed different aspects of daily life, such as educational
participation, participation in old age (social, political and cultural), psychological wellbeing, intergenerational
contacts, and so forth. Data collection was based upon a participatory methodology named peer research; older
volunteers, were recruited within the municipalities and trained to deliver and collect questionnaires and to provide
information on the questions if necessary. Respondents were assured of the voluntary nature of their participation,
their right to refuse to answer and the privacy of their responses. Neither the respondents nor the volunteers received
any remuneration for their participation.
The target population of the study comprised home-dwelling residents, aged 60 and over. A sample, stratified for
age and gender, was drawn within each participating municipality. The sampling fraction depended on the size of
the municipality, varying between N=182 and N=1592. First response rates ranged from 65 to 85%, depending on
the municipality. In order to reduce the potential bias of non-response, volunteers received replacement addresses in
the same quota category, from an additional sample. 45.0% were aged between 60 and 69 year, 36.9% between 70
and 79 and 18.1% was 80 year or older. 45.2% of the respondents were men and 54.8% were women. Due to the
sampling design, these age and gender proportions were identical to the underlying population. 41.6% older adults
obtained a low educational level (went to school until the age of 12 years). 12.2% of the older adults followed higher
education. The majority of older adults had an income less than €1500 per month. Most older adults had an income
between €1000 and €1499 (36.6%). 23.8% had a monthly income of less than €1000. The majority (69.6%) of older
adults were married and 1 out of 5 respondents was widowed.
Participation in education was measured by asking respondents: “How often do you participate in a course or
training?”. Response categories were never (1), seldom (2), monthly (3), weekly (4) and more than once a week (5).
To identify possible risk groups, several variables were used. First, basic respondents’ characteristics, such as
Liesbeth De Donder et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 513 – 517 515
gender (0=men; 1=women) and age (year of birth) were included. Next, socio-economic status was measured by
educational level (<12 years, 12-15 years, 15-18 years, >18 years) and household income (€500–999, €1000–1499,
€1500–1999, €2000–2499 and >€2500 per month). To assess physical health status we used the subscale “physical
functioning” of the validated SF-36 (Haywood et al., 2005; Ware et al., 1994) (Cronbach’s α=0.89). The scale was
dichotomized 1 (physically restricted) to 2 (physically healthy). To measure social participation, we asked whether
respondents were member of social associations. 22 possible social associations or clubs were presented to the
respondents, varying from hobby clubs to associations for amateur art, from peace-associations to sports clubs. All
items were summed, and one dichotomized variable was created: membership in associations. Next, older adults had
to indicate whether they participated in voluntary work or not (1=no volunteer work, 2=volunteer work). Finally,
seen the increasing importance of virtual social networks (Futurage, 2011), we asked whether the respondents used
the Internet (1=not daily, 2=daily). In order to answer the research questions we applied cross-tabulations with chi-
square analysis. Given the large sample size, statistical significance was set at p<.01 for all the analyses.
3. Findings and results
The findings demonstrate that 26.2% older adults attended a course or training in the previous year. 2.2%
participated more than once a week, 3.8% weekly, 3.9% monthly and 16.4% rarely. 73.8% older adults never
participated in a course or training during the past year.
Table 1. Participation in educational activities according to socio-demographic, socio-economic and health indicators
Risk Factors Never Rarely Monthly Weekly More than

once a week
Age 60-69 61.9% 23.2% 5.8% 5.8% 3.2%
70-79 80.0% 13.2% 2.8% 2.5% 1.6%
>80 years 91.6% 5.5% 1.2% 0.9% 0.7%
Gender Men 70.3% 19.8% 4.1% 3.7% 2.0%
Women 76.6% 13.6% 3.7% 3.8% 2.3%
Marital status Married 70.4% 18.8% 4.4% 4.1% 2.3%
Never married 76.7% 13.0% 4.2% 3.7% 2.4%
Divorced 67.4% 18.8% 4.7% 5.1% 4.0%
Cohabiting 68.5% 17.8% 5.9% 5.0% 2.9%
Widowed 85.8% 8.4% 1.9% 2.3% 1.5%
Household
€500-€999 86.0% 8.7% 2.0% 1.9% 1.3%
income
€1000-€1499 78.9% 13.9% 2.8% 2.8% 1.6%
€1500-€1999 66.0% 22.0% 4.9% 4.6% 2.6%
€2000-€2499 56.8% 27.4% 6.2% 6.7% 2.9%
>€2500 44.6% 31.9% 10.0% 8.5% 5.0%
Educational level Low education 89.6% 7.3% 1.2% 1.2% 0.7%
Low secondary
75.0% 17.0% 2.9% 3.3% 1.7%
education
High secondary
59.6% 25.8% 5.9% 5.6% 3.2%
education
Higher education 38.7% 31.7% 12.3% 10.6% 6.7%
Physical health Physically restricted 75.2% 15.7% 3.6% 3.6% 1.9%
Physically not
62.0% 23.7% 5.8% 5.3% 3.2%
restricted
Table 1 presents the results of the cross-tabulation between participation in educational activities and socio-
demographic, socio-economic and health indicators. Participation in courses and trainings occurred more often
among the youngest age group. Adults between 60 and 69 year participated almost five times more often than adults
aged 80 and over. Furthermore, men more often attended courses or trainings than women in the previous year. Also
516 Liesbeth De Donder et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 513 – 517
marital status generated significant differences. Widowed older adults had the lowest educational participation rates,
while divorced older adults had the highest. In terms of socio-economic status, the findings demonstrate that older
adults with the lowest income participated 4 times less often in courses and trainings than older adults with the
highest income. Even stronger, older adults with the lowest educational attainment participated 6 times less often.
Finally, physical health was investigated. In general, the results demonstrate that older adults with physical
restrictions had lower participations rates in educational activities. All differences were found to be significant.
Table 2. Relations between participation in educational activities and social participation
Following education Volunteering Being member of a Using the Internet daily

social association
Never 10.5 60.8 7.2
Rarely 28.3 81.5 32.1
Monthly 41.1 87.5 45.2
Weekly 32.7 85.1 48.3
More than weekly 29.7 81.7 52.1
Total 16.0 66.6 15.5
Table 2 summarizes the relations between participation in educational activities and social participation. 16% of
older adults volunteered, 66.6% were member of at least one association and 15.5% used the Internet daily. In terms
of volunteering it is demonstrated that older adults who participated in courses or trainings volunteer more often
than older adults who never attended courses during the past year. However, this is not a linear relationship. When
older adults participated to educational activities weekly or more, the rate of volunteering decreased. A similar
relationship is detected between educational participation and membership in social associations. In general, older
adults who followed educational courses had a higher associational participation rate than non-members. However,
when considering the frequency of education the findings demonstrate that extensive educational participation (>
weekly) was accompanied with decreased membership of social associations, although less clear as within
volunteering. Finally, the results clearly demonstrate that the more educational courses older adults attended, the
more often they used the Internet daily.
4. Conclusions and recommendations
The World Health Organization (2002: 12) emphasizes that active ageing can enhance the quality of life when
people age by creating opportunities for participation, security and health. In this report we examined the data of the
Belgian Ageing Studies (N=65,760), particularly focusing on educational activities. As we can deduce from the
results, 1 out of 4 older adults is involved in an active manner in society through participating in educational
activities. Despite these positive results, there are also older adults who do not participate (73.8%). In particular,
participation in courses and trainings occurred less among the oldest age group, women and widowed older adults.
These findings are in line with other gerontological research, pointing out that inequalities in participation rates
among older adults are often related to stratifications based on gender and marital status (e.g. Verté et al., 2011). In
terms of socio-economic status, the findings demonstrate that older adults with lower socio-economic status
participate less often in educational activities. The level of former education was found to generate the strongest
differences. One possible explanation could be that adults with higher educational level have less programmatic
barriers (e.g. positive attitudes about learning), which positively influence participation in lifelong education
(Ballard & Morris, 2005). Finally, older adults with physical restrictions had lower participations rates in
educational activities.
The relation with social participation demonstrates that supporting educational participation could generate
additional benefits. Older adults who follow courses are more often engaged as volunteer, more often member of
social associations and use the Internet more frequently. This in in line with Musick and Wilson (2008: 460) who
argue that ‘participation breeds participation’. However, both with volunteering as membership, the findings
indicate that a certain level of competition exists. Participating extensively in educational activities reduces the
Liesbeth De Donder et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 513 – 517 517
volunteering rate. Although being active in one domain can increase the propensity to be engaged in another
domain, some activities compete with each other (Hank & Stuck, 2008; Morrow-Howell et al., 2012).
Following the above, some practical recommendations can be identified. Educational providers, associations, and
social services often aim to increase educational participation among ‘the’ older population, and older adults are
generally treated as one, homogeneous group. People are often located into the category of ‘the aged’ or ‘the elders’
from 55, 60 or 65 years old. However, within academic literature it is acknowledged that older adults are widely
heterogeneous (Nelson & Dannefer, 1992). Moreover, our study demonstrates that older adults differ in terms of
gender, age, educational level, income, marital status, physical health and activity rate in other domains, each
impacting educational participation rates. Providers should take this diversity into account when developing and
implementing educational programs for older populations. On the one hand this could be realized by delineating the
population and on the other hand by developing different strategies for particular groups (Grundy, 2006).
5. References
Age Platform Europe, European Commission & Committee of the Regions (2011). How to promote active ageing in Europe. EU support to local
and regional actors. Available online.
Ballard, S.M., & Morris, M.L. (2005). Factors influencing midlife and older adult’s attendance in family life education programs. Family
Relations, 54, 461-472.
Da Silva, H.S., & Yassuda, M.S. (2009). Memory training for older adults with low education: mental images versus categorization. Educational
Gerontology, 35(10), 890-905.
European Parliament (2010) Report on the role of women in an ageing society. Brussel: Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality.
Fenwick, T. (2012). Learning among older professional workers: Knowledge strategies and knowledge orientations. Vocations and learning,
5(3), 203-223.
Ferraro, K.F., Shippee, P.T., & Schafer, M.K. (2009). Cumulative inequality theory for research on aging and the life course. In: V.L. Bengtson,
D. Gans, N.M. Putney, M. Silverstein (Eds.) Handbook of theories of aging, 2nd edn (pp 413–433). New York: Springer.
Futurage (2011). A roadmap for European ageing research. Accessed 1st November 2011 at http://futurage.group.shef.ac.uk/.
Grundy, E. (2006). Ageing and Vulnerable Elderly People: European Perspectives. Ageing & Society, 26, 105-34.
Hank, K., & Stuck, S. (2008). Volunteer Work, Informal Help, and Care among the 50+ in Europe: Further Evidence for ‘Linked’ Productive
Activities at Older Ages. Social Science Research, 37, 1280-1291.
Haywood, K.L., Garratt, A.M., & Fitzpatrick, R. (2005). Quality of life in older people: A structured review of generic self-assessed health
instruments. Quality of Life Research, 14, 1651-1668.
Hendricks, J. (2008). Coming of Age. Journal of Aging Studies, 22, 109-14.
Mackey, A., & Sachs, R. (2012). Older learners in SLA research: a first look at working memory, feedback, and L2 development. Language
Learning, 62(3), 704-740.
Morrow-Howell, N., Hong, S.-L., McCrary, S., & Blinne, W. (2012). Changes in activity among older volunteers. Research on aging, 34(2), 174-
196.
Musick, M. A., & Wilson, J. (2008). Volunteers: A Social Profile. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Ney, S. (2005). Active Ageing Policy in Europe: Between Path Dependency and Path Departure. Ageing International, 30(4), 325-342.
Nelson, A.E., & Dannefer, D. (1992). Aged Heterogeneity: Fact or Fiction? The Fate of Diversity in Gerontological Research. The Gerontologist,
32, 1, 17-23.
Park, M. (2011). Effects of interactive pictorial education on community dwelling older adult’s self efficacy and knowledge for safe medication.
Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 41(6), 795-804.
Principi, A., & Lamura, G. (2009). Education for older people in Italy. Educational Gerontology, 35(3), 246-259.
Small, L.F. (2012). What older adults know about HIV/AIDS: Lessons from an HIV/AIDS Education program. Educational Gerontology, 36(1),
26-45.
The United Nations (2009). World Population Ageing 2009. ESA/P/WP/212. Consulted on 8 November 2011, on
http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WPA2009/WPA2009_WorkingPaper.pdf
Van Rooij, S.W.(2012). Training older workers: lessons learned, unlearned and relearned from the field of instructional design. Human Resource
Management, 51(2), 281-298.
Verté, D., Dury, S., De Donder, L., Buffel, T. and De Witte, N. (2011). Enter! About Social Participation among Older people. Brugge:
Provinciebestuur West-Vlaanderen. [In Dutch]
Walker, A. (2006). Reexamining the Political Economy of Aging: Understanding the Structure/Agency Tension. In J. Baars, D. Dannefer, & C.
Phillipson (Eds). Aging, Globalization and Inequality: the New Critical Gerontology (pp.59-80). Amityville, New York: Baywood.
Ware, J.E., Kosinski, M., & Keller, S.D. (1994). Sf-36 physical and mental health summary scales: A user manual and interpretation guide.
Boston: The Health Institute, New England Medical Center.
World Health Organization [WHO]. (2002). Active Ageing: A Policy Framework. Geneva: World Health Organization.
ScienceDirect
Lifelong learning programs in prison: influence of social networks

on participation
Dorien Brosens a *, Liesbeth De Donder a, Tom Vanwing a, Sarah Dury a, Dominique
Verté a
a
Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Pleinlaan 2, Elsene, 1050, Belgium
Abstract
This paper investigates the relationships between social contacts of prisoners and participation in lifelong learning activities.
Literature on factors related to the decision to participate mainly concentrate on personal or on organizational level. Factors
affecting the relational level are seldom taken into consideration. Based on a literature review and analysis of focus groups, the
findings demonstrate the positive as well as the negative relationships on a wide range of social networks. The discussion
highlights the need to acknowledge the importance of social networks and demonstrates how these findings may be implemented
in order to optimize lifelong learning programs in prison.
Selection
Authors. Publishedunder the responsibility
Dr. Servet Bayram
BY-NC-ND license.
Keywords:Prison
Selection programs
and/or peer-review lifelong
under learning
responsibility social contacts
of Academic participation;
Keywords:Prison programs, lifelong learning, social contacts, participation;
Introduction
In this paper, lifelong learning in prison is defined as participation to education, vocational education, wellbeing
and health courses, cultural and sport activities. Research has documented the positive association between
participation in prison activities and improvement of basic skills (Vacca, 2004), contribution of self-worth (Coyle,
2009) and reduction of recidivism (Petersilia, 2003). Although these positive associations are recognized, little is
known about factors that lead to greater participation (Hall & Killacky, 2008; Johnsen, 2001; Rose, 2004). Research
about motivators and barriers to participate in correctional programs mainly concentrate on personal (micro-level) or
organizational level (exo-level). The relationship between factors on relational level (meso-level) and participation
is seldom taken into consideration (Brosens, 2012). In response to this, we examined the role that social contacts
play in the decision of prisoners to engage in lifelong learning activities. Both the motivators and barriers that
prisoners face are considered, in relation with their social contacts inside and outside the prison.
The literature on social networks and participation is related to the social capital literature. Although different
authors use the same concept, they use different basic assumptions and stress other aspects in defining social capital
(e.g. Bourdieu, 1986; Coyle, 2009; Putnam, 2001). Nevertheless, a consensus exists that social capital refers to the
*
Corresponding Author name. Tel.: +32-2-629-25-31 –
E-mail address: dorien.brosens@vub.ac.be
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.251
Dorien Brosens et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 518 – 523 519
possibility of individuals to benefit from membership in a social network or other social structures (Portes, 1998).
Some academics view civic engagement/participation and social networks as core concepts (e.g. Abbott, 2010;
Baum & Ziersch, 2003; Guillen, Coromina, & Saris, 2011), both theoretically as well as in the operationalization of
social capital (Lindström, 2005). In the following sections, we describe some aspects of social networks that are
inherent to participation: social support, being dependent on others to carry out an activity, perceptions by others,
and the size of a social network.
Social support (1), one of the most important functions of a social network (Heaney & Israel, 2008), can be
instrumental or emotional. The first refers to getting information, guidance, material resources and practical services
from others; while emotional social support encompasses getting care, having feelings of trust and confidence and
the encouragement of personal values (Lindström, Hanson, & Östergren, 2001). The positive relationship between
getting social support and participation is frequently demonstrated in research in social sciences (e.g. Wang &
Eccles, 2012; Prins, Toso, & Schafft, 2009). However, in prison one study was conducted on this theme and found
an adverse relationship. Prisoners who did not receive emotional support from other inmates did not go to group
activities because they are resisted against talking in group and reveal personal things or problems (Baerten, 2010).
Another concept interwoven with participation is being dependent on others to carry out an activity (2). For
instance, people with disabilities and older people experience this as a social barrier for the reason that they depend
on someone else to participate (Badia, Orgaz, Verdugo, Ullán, & Martínez, 2011; Blomqvist & Edberg, 2002).
How an individual thinks being perceived by others, in other words the perceptions of the social network (3), can
also have an influence on lifelong learning participation. In a prison setting, the desire to reconnect with and to
satisfy family members showed to be an important motivator for participation. Some prisoners wanted to give
something back to their children or other family members by following a vocational training and by doing so acting
as a role model. Also human treatment by activity providers gave prisoners the feeling of being a human and not a
prisoners (Spark & Harris, 2005). However, the way an individual is perceived by others does not always have a
positive relationship with participation. For instance, disabled people expressed that they are afraid of being mocked
during their participation (Badia et al., 2011).
A last concept interrelated with participation is the possibility to enlarge a social network, conceptualized as the
size of the social network (4). This was for instance, for women in poverty who participated to adult educational
activities an important goal (Prins, Toso, & Schafft, 2009). The possibility to meet others during the activities is
considered as one of the main reasons why prisoners participate (Condon, Hek & Harris, 2008; Schlesinger, 2005).
Currently, the available research on the role of different social networks for participation to prison programs is
limited. However, we have found a few studies that focused on this topic and revealed that some groups are
positively and/or negatively related to participation: fellow inmates, family and friends, and activity providers (e.g.
Baerten, 2010; Condon, Hek, & Harris, 2008; Lee, 1996; Schlesinger, 2005; Spark & Harris, 2005). This article
attempts to provide deeper insights into the networks that are related to prisoners’ decision to participate in lifelong
learning activities. The research undertaken as a part of this study addressed 2 research questions: (1) Which social
networks of prisoners are related in the decision to participate in prison programs that foster lifelong learning? (2)
What are the positive and negative outcomes of these social networks?
1. Methods
The data for the present research were derived from a qualitative study in a prison in Flanders (Belgium). The
aim of this study was to explore the factors that influence peoples’ decision to become engaged in prison activities.
The prison is a remand prison but due to the contemporary overcrowding in all the Belgian prisons, also prisoners
who serve their sentence are locked up in this prison.
520 Dorien Brosens et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 518 – 523
13 focus groups were conducted with activity providers, prison staff and prisoners. The participating activity
providers and prison staff were selected in close cooperation with the coordinator of the Flemish community in the
local prison. Six focus groups were organized with activity providers (e.g. education, vocational education, culture,
wellbeing, health and sports) (N=33). One focus group with prison guards (N=2) and one with religious personnel
(N=4) took place. The participating prisoners were selected by distributing flyers and personal contact of
professionals. By doing so, the professionals could give more information about the goals of the research. 2 focus
groups were performed with Dutch-speaking male prisoners (N=12), 1 with Dutch-speaking female prisoners and
internees (N=10), 1 with Dutch-speaking male internees (N=15) and 1 with male foreigners who did not speak
Dutch (N=8). The prisoners were aged between 18 and 62.
A similar topic-list was used for all respondent groups, including issues as the reasons why prisoners participate to
activities, positive and negative experiences related to participation, barriers why prisoners do not take part, etc. All
interviews lasted about 2 hours and were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim. They were coded and analyzed by
thematic content analysis using a qualitative analyzing program: MAX.QDA 2007. Themes and subthemes were
coded in order to capture the broad variety of social networks that could have an influence on prisoners in deciding
to participate to correctional programs. The aim was to identify similarities and differences in perception of the
different respondent groups and by doing so, getting deeper insights into the role of social networks in participation
to lifelong learning activities.
2. Findings
The findings of our study demonstrated the relationships between participation and a wide range of social
networks: fellow prisoners, activity providers, family and friends outside the prison, and prison guards. The
literature already pointed towards the role of the first 3, not of the last one. The study provided evidence for positive
as well as adverse effects. Key factors related with participation are getting instrumental or emotional support, being
dependent on others, how being perceived by others, expanding social network and factors related to make life in
prison more bearable.
Instrumental support received in prison exists mainly out of information on activities. The majority of the
prisoners were informed through other inmates. As a prisoner said: “He told me, I told someone else and so it goes
on and on”. Conversely, activity providers indicated prison guards as having a negative influence on the information
process. The guards were responsible for the distribution of the folders about the activities. If they refused to do it,
activity providers experienced difficulties in the announcement of their offer. The reviewed literature revealed no
information about this topic.
Beside instrumental support, prisoners also received emotional support. Especially fellow inmates provided this
support because the positive atmosphere during group activities was relaxed and encouraged sharing experiences.
However, some inmates lacked emotional support and did not participate because they did not want to share
personal experiences and problems. This is in line with previous research (Baerten, 2010). Other prisoners
emphasized that memories about their offence came back when they talked about particular subjects and that they
tried to avoid that. Furthermore, sometimes prisoners stopped attending courses due to the presence of other
inmates. For instance, prisoners who are not been mastered enough in the language of the course or prisoners who
complained about prison life of their punishment were reasons why prisoners stop their participation.
Activity providers formed a second group who provided emotional support. Some professionals already
experienced that a personal request to participate in activities was more effective than for instance the posters and
flyers they always used. This personal contact resulted in a greater trust by prisoners. Some psychologists
furthermore reported that prisoners came to see them because of their duty of professional confidentiality. Despite
their perception of having a motivating power, some prisoners indicated they not dare to go to some activity
providers because they thought the providers had the obligation to report information about them to the judge or the
prison director. This indicated a communication problem between prisoners and providers. Furthermore, some
prisoners already went to professionals but felt themselves forgotten by them. This feeling arose when prisoners
have not seen a provider for a while or when activity providers not immediately reacted on report notes. A prisoner
brought that into perspective by referring to the workload of the activity providers due to the temporary
overcrowding.
Prison guards were also indicated as a supporting group. As the following activity provider emphasized, prison
guards can encourage prisoners to participate in activities: “there are guards who say to prisoners: hey man do you
know that there are lessons here? Would that be nothing for you?”. According to the providers, such a positive
attitude towards activities was already realized for education and vocational training. The other sectors (e.g. culture,
wellbeing, health and sport) gained less approval.
Regarding being dependent on others to carry out activities, the respondents only indicated one influencing
group: prison guards. Prisoners mainly emphasized their negative influence. They were dependent on guards to go to
activities. Some prisoners also reported that they did not go to activities because they did not want to be a burden to
the guards. Both relationships are not discovered in previous researches.
In with findings on participation of disabled and older people (Badia et al., 2011; Blomqvist & Edberg, 2002),
prisoners’ participation is related to how others perceive them. First, some prisoners indicated they participated in
educational courses because they got recognition from their cellmates. However, fellow inmates could also have a
negative influence. Some prisoners did not go to activities because they wanted to prevent the formation of a
negative image of ‘being a soft person’. Also activity providers indicated this by referring to the macho culture of a
prison. Soft individuals had a big chance to being teased, laughed, threatened or belittled. Activity providers
emphasized that for instance sexual delinquents do not dare to come out of their cell once it was known which
offences they committed. Also dealers wanting to quit with dealing were often being threatened.
Also the way how activity providers handle prisoners influenced prisoners’ participation. Both prisoners and
providers indicated human treatment during activities and recognition of prisoners as human beings as an important
reason to take part. A prisoner says: “I go to the psychiatric because he makes time for me when I ask it and write a
report note”. This finding is in line with previous research focussing on motivators to participate in correctional
education (Schlesinger, 2005).
A third influencing group (only indicated by activity providers and prison staff, not by prisoners themselves) was
family and friends outside the prison. If prisoners felt guilty, it occurred sometimes that they participated to
educational or other courses to make good the damage that they have caused or tried to make amends with family
and friends outside.
A following social reason to participate to prison activities was to enlarge the social network. The possibility to
meet and interact during the activities was by most respondents perceived as an important motivating factor. This
was also expressed by women in poverty to participate in adult education (Prins et al., 2009) and is confirmed by
other research in prison (Condon et al., 2008; Lee, 1996; Schlesinger, 2005). However, some prisoners felt no need
to meet and interact with others: “During the activities you see other guys. Sometimes you don’t get on very well
and then there will be a quarrel. That is what I try to avoid.”
This study revealed that some relationships could make prison life more bearable. A few inmates indicated they
followed a language course in order to communicate with cellmates from other origins. Some foreign prisoners
added that they followed Dutch courses because they wanted to be in the possibility to communicate with the
guards. A last reason indicated by some prisoners why they did not enrol for activities was because they want to
give the possibility to others and by doing so shorten the waiting lists.
522 Dorien Brosens et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 518 – 523
3. Conclusion
This study reveals that beside motivators and barriers on micro- and macro-level to which frequently is referred
in the literature (Brosens, 2012), there are also important factors on meso-level. Results have shown which and how
different social networks of prisoners are related to the decision to become engaged in one or more prison activities
that foster lifelong learning. A wide range of social networks is positively and negatively related with participation:
fellow inmates, prison guards and activity providers. Between participation and contact with family and friends
outside prison, we only found a positive relationship. The majority of literature about the relationship between
participation and social contacts focuses on positive motivating factors, however this study also reveals the opposite
effect: a negative relationship between social contacts and participation.
The findings may prove insight for activity providers into the social motivators and barriers that prisoners face in
deciding to participate in lifelong learning programs. They may incite activity providers to strive to meet the needs
of prisoners and for this purpose adapt the offer of prison programs. By doing so, motivating factors like having
more personal contact, the possibility to enlarge social network, human treatment,… need to be taken into account.
Further research is needed to explore the influences in a quantitative way and also investigate the influence of
other social networks like for instance a director of a penitentiary setting, a judge, a lawyer, religious personnel,…
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ScienceDirect
Making the unfamiliar familiar: social Representations of Teachers

about Parental Engagement in an Intervention Program in Quebec
Dany Boulanger 1, François Larose 1, Naomi Grenier 1, Frédéric Saussez 1, Yves
Couturier 1
1
Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 Boulevard de l'Université, Sherbrooke J1K 2R1, Canada
Abstract
This article seeks to identify the social representations (SR) of parental engagement (PE) among teachers participating in a
partnership program implemented between 2002 and 2009 in 24 primary schools located in socioeconomically disadvantaged
communities in Quebec, Canada. We focus on the content analysis of follow-up interviews carried out among teachers (n=32) in
2008 and the content analysis of the partnership plans (n=124) produced between 2003 and 2009. Our analysis enabled us not
only to identify and describe the RS of the PE from a structural point of view, but they also reveal some of the dynamics
pertaining to the SR.
© 2013 The
Authors Published
Published by
byElsevier
ElsevierLtd.
Ltd.Open
All rights reserved
Selection and peer
peer-review theresponsibility
under responsibility
of of Prof. Dr.World
Academic ServetEducation
Bayram. and Research Center.
Keywords: Parental engagement, social representation, school-family-community partnership, themata, partnership plan, partnership program,
socioeconomic status;
1. Introduction
If, in a socio-historical perspective, parents and teachers are often unfamiliar to each other (Waller, 1932/1961;
Lawrence-Lighfoot, 1978), the gap between the school and the family nowadays tends to persist and even increase
and the relationships are likely to deteriorate (Pace & Hemmings, 2007; Daniel, 2011). In order to address this issue,
this paper analyses the social representations of parental engagement among teachers participating in a partnership
program implemented in Quebec (Canada). After putting forward the purpose and relevance of this study on social
representations, we will describe the partnership program under evaluation. Subsequently, we will present the
conceptual framework that is composed of the following concepts: social representation and parental engagement.
Then, we will identify the methodological dimensions of this study, after which we will divide the presentation of
the results in two sections: the first devoted to the analysis of discourse and the second focusing on the analysis of
partnership plans produced within the context of the program. We will conclude briefly by interpreting the results
and suggesting two lines of research.
2. Background
The thesis developed by Waller in 1932 that parents and teachers are eternal strangers in cultural conflict is the
basis of building the field of school-family-community partnership (Lawrence-Lightfoot, 1978; Epstein, 1987).
Different sociological work, located in the extension of the perspective of social reproduction (Grignon and
Corresponding author: Dany Boulanger Tel : 366739333
E-mail: Dany.Boulanger@usherbrooke.ca
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.176
Dany Boulanger et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 106 – 112 107
Passeron, 1989), reaffirm the existence of cultural differences and a hierarchical relationship between the parents of
lower social class and middle-class teachers (Delay, 2011; Lareau & Munoz, 2012). The culture (symbolic universe;
Grignon and Passeron, 1989) of lower social class families is unfamiliar to teachers. In the neoliberal orientation of
education, the political and institutional discourses convey polarized pictures of parents (bad or good) and
contradictory messages about parental engagement regarded as both a resource and an obstacle to the success of the
child (Atkinson, 1999). On the socio-cognitive level, the authors tend to associate these discourses with negative
attitudes of teachers with regards to the engagement of lower social class parents (Souto-Manning & Swick, 2006).
The partnership plans, and the parent-teacher contracts are instutionnal instruments used to normalize parents from
lower social class according to school expectations (Gewirtz, Ball & Bowe, 1995). Knowledge therefore travels
unilaterally from the school to the families; parents need to follow the school calendar (Vincent & Tomlinson,
1997). As mechanims of school management, partnership plans are managed in an “input-output paradigm”, that is
to say in a “wall-in perspective” in which schools, considered as a closed system, ensure their internal balance and
manage threats from the outside, particularly the culture of lower social class families (Anderson et al., 2010;
Wrigley, 2004). This “reductionist” logic, encountered at the foundation of the theory of Waller (1932/1961), seems
to get updated, in some respects, through very different socio-political conditions (Auberbach, 2007; Pace &
Hemmings 2007). The partnership programs, based on partnership plans, therefore tend to be located in a
compensatory perspective (Vincent & Tomlinson, 1997).
However, some innovative intervention programs aim at creating conditions for reconciliation between parents
from EDSC and teachers as they constitute spaces for social negotiation, for the construction of discourse and for
the production of common sense knowledge (Boulanger, Larose, & Couturier, 2010; Fernandez, 2010). These
programs are traversed by two movements that come into tension: a top-down and hierarchical logic, where the
knowledge carried by teachers and added (additivity) to the families’ knowledge, and a horizontal or bottom-up
approach where such knowledge are negotiated and co-constructed (Fleer Williams-Kennedy, 2001; Boulanger et
al., 2011). Teachers who are located into this dialectical space face an unfamiliar world and they are confronted with
parents who are "strangers" to them. Consequently, they construct social representations which correspond to a
socio-cognitive and a socio-discursive mechanism of mediation between two worlds, a process by which an
individual makes familiar what is unfamiliar when faced with a strange situation (Moscovici, 1984, 2000). Few
authors have studied the relationships between school and family in terms of social representations, particularly in
Moscovici’s perspective (Pelt and Poncelet, 2012). In the field of school-family-community partnership, the Anglo-
Saxon literature is based most often on the concepts of discourse and attitude and rarely on the concept of social
representation (Boulanger, Larose, & Couturier, 2010).
This paper aims at filling this gap by soliciting this concept. It is based on the evaluation of the Famille, école,
communauté, réussir ensemble (FECRE) program, implemented in Quebec (Canada), between 2002 and 2009, in 24
primary schools located in EDSC. This program targeted children at risk of school failure and aged from 2 to 12 and
their parents. It also aimed at sensitizing teachers to the importance of parental engagement by encouraging them to
adapt their practices to the sociodemographic characteristics of parents. In order to achieve these goals, a learning
community (networks of family and non-family professionals) was experimented which represented a space
facilitating negotiation between different actors and the generation of knowledge. This learning community was
created around partnership plans, which can be described as devices that are collectively constructed, in an
horizontal manner, in a team located in the community and composed of professionals from school and other
organisations of the community.
In this paper, we seek to answer the following research question: What are the social representations of parental
engagement of teachers participating in FECRE?
108 Dany Boulanger et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 106 – 112
3. Theoretical Framework
To adress our research question, we use the concept of parental engagement defined as “a set of relationships
and actions that cut across individuals, circumstances, and events that are produced and bounded by the context in
which that engagement takes place” (Calabrese Barton, Drake, Perez, St. Louis and George, 2004, p. 6). The
mentioned actions mediate the relationship between the actors and are themselves mediated by devices (ex.
partnership plans). In addition, these actions depend on the meaning given to them by actors.
Our theoretical framework is also based on the concept of social representation defined as a social entity's
common sense knowledge (social class, group, community) whose purpose is to make something unfamiliar familiar
(Moscovici, 1961/1976, 1984). In continuity with the work of this author, Abric (1993, 1996) argues that social
representation is formed of central elements that refer to consensual and non-negotiable objects. As such, they are
associated with “notional framework” (Moliner & Martos, 2005) or thema (Moscovici, 2000). They “serve as
organizing principle and meaning generators” (Moliner, 1995, p. 27) and order different units of meaning by
assigning them meaning.
For Abric, social representation is also composed of peripheral elements that are organized according to central
elements, but also allow their adaptation to changing contexts. They also permit to tolerate the tension generated by
the presence of heterogeneous units and practices that contradict the central elements. For example, faced with
threats, the peripheral elements put in motion strange patterns, that is to say, they create a "category of exception"
through a four-step process: “recalling of the normal; designation of the foreign element; affirmation of a
contradiction between the two terms, proposition of a rationalization helping to bear the contradiction” (Abric, 1993,
p. 78). In his two-dimensional model, Moliner (1995) considers the distinction between central and peripheral
elements while incorporating a second dimension: the descriptive and evaluative function fulfilled by the social
representation.
COGNITION
Central Peripheral
Descriptive Field of DEFINITIONS Field of DESCRIPTIONS
pole Characteristics defining all objects Object’s most frequent and most
processed through the representations probable characteristics. (e.g. Research
(e.g. Hierarchy) and Creation)
Evaluative pole Field of NORMS Field of EXPECTATIONS
Criteria for evaluating the object Desired characteristics of the object (e.g.
(e.g. Profit) Personal Fulfillment).
Figure 1. Two-dimensional model of social representations*
The field of definition is based on a systematic link between the object and its characteristics, which occurs
always or necessarily. It is non-negotiable. The field of norms involves an assessment in terms of what is good or
bad, right or wrong. The field of description reflects a frequent link between the object and its characteristic that
happens sometimes. The field of expectations refers to what is desirable or undesirable, to what the person should
do.
4. Methodology
We present the results of a second-order analysis of data gathered as part of the FECRE evaluation, carried out
between 2007 and 2010. For the purpose of this longitudinal research, which was aligned with realistic evaluation
(Pawson & Tilley, 1997) and theory-driven outcome evaluation (Chen, 2005), we used a mixed methodology to
*
Moliner (1995), p. 38.
ensure, through triangulation, the convergence and the complementarity of sources, of methods and of items
retrieved from the various data gatherings and from the instruments of analysis (Howe, 2012). In this study, we
focus on the content analysis of follow-up interviews carried out among teachers (n=32) in 2008 and the content
analysis of the documentary data regarding partnership plans (n=124) produced between 2003 and 2009. Such tools,
which serve to support the collective memory and to materialise discourses, may also be signs of representations.
For the secondary treatment of the discourse, which pertains to partnership plans†, we selected two interview
questions. First, we asked the teachers if intervening in a FECRE school affected their relationship with the parent,
then we asked if they thought that partnership plans had effects on parental engagement. These questions targeted
the opinions of teachers in relation to parental engagement, which is shaped in the context of FECRE and within
their practices (partnership plans). Our analysis aims at identifying diverse opinions through a structural perspective.
Subsequently, we have conducted a textual data analysis (Lebart, Salem, & Berry, 1998) on written materials
(partnership plans) and on interview transcripts. Through this approach, which uses correspondence factor analysis
(CFA) on a body of discourses, a certain number of forms (words) or segments (concepts) characterize the discourse
of a number of social entities. These discursive elements, as they pertain to operators reflect the more or less off-
centered position of specific activities in relation to the centre of the factorial plan. The factorial design can
therefore be read through its interpretative meaning as a geographical metaphor of structural relations between the
different components of discourse since the centration or the eccentricity of its components reflects the belonging of
structural elements. Central elements are equivalent to ordinary (folk) discourse because the peripheral components,
prescriptive or normative, mark the eccentricity of the distribution of conceptual units (Larose, Audette, & Roy,
1997).
5. Results
5.1. Discourse Analysis
Through our discourse analysis, we were able to underscore the content associated with the four representational
fields (Figure 1) identified by Moliner (1995). After briefly presenting them, we will focus on areas of tension
involving the field of expectations of peripheral elements. Thus, we not only will analyse representational structures,
but also certain socio-cognitive “dynamics”. Moreover, following the model of Moliner (1995), we will report
transverse tendencies. For lack of space, we will not systematically identify the characteristics (e.g. frequency or
evaluation indexes) of the objects represented nor will we put forward their occurrence in the discourse.
The field of norms (central elements) reveals transverse topics (notional framework): parental engagement, the
parent-teacher relationship, parental attitudes, the milieu as a culture-of-poverty and the intervention with the child.
The last two topics will be discussed when we will tackle the areas of tension. The field descriptions, indicating
what is variable, refers to the presence or absence of the parent in school and the nature of his engagement. These
peripheral elements are systematically associated with central elements, which put them in perspective.
Parental engagement is generally considered positive. It is apprehended negatively when it concerns help with
homework, which is infrequent. Since the parents are more present in the context of activities or projects, meetings
and, sometimes, general gatherings, these forms of engagement are considered positive. The valence of the attitude
thus depends on parental presence and of the type of their investment. Teachers often state that parents never attend
committees. This is where the field of descriptions intervenes. The parent-teacher relationship, which is positively
connoted, also depends on parental presence in school. Parental attitudes are generally seen in a positive light.
As for the "dynamics", we identified three sets of antinomies which correspond to polarities of different factorial
design axes of the textual data analysis. It is therefore related to the structuring dimensions of discourse. Teachers
†
The reader who wishes to deepen his or her understanding of partnership plans in FECRE can refer to Boulanger et
al. (2011).
consider seeking the parents’ engagement, recruiting them and bringing them to school as desirable goals (field of
expectations). They mention deploying considerable efforts in this direction, but without observing effects that meet
their expectations. Although parents are engaged academically and demonstrate positive attitudes, they do not
respond adequately to the teachers’ requests. Teachers explain that parents are hard-to-reach (field of norms). They
also emit a series of negative judgments on this subject. We notice that a peripheral element (the desire to encourage
parental engagement) makes sense in the light of this central element. Teachers refer to a second central element to
make sense of the gap between their "expectations" (field of expectations) and reality: the culture-of-poverty. The
fact that these parents come from EDSC is frequently accompanied by negatively connoted attributions, such as
being hard-to-reach.
A second dynamic helps to explain the gap between the poor motivation of parents from EDSC (field of norms)
and teachers’ willingness to seek parental engagement (field of expectations); teachers often refer to the parents’ low
skill level. According to this reasoning, it is not because the parents do not want to commit that they do not get
engaged, but because they are incompetent. This incompetence is a feature of the culture-of-poverty. Teachers then
develop a strange pattern (Abric, 1993) to manage the tension generated by the contradiction that we have identified.
In addition, this reasoning is associated with another expectation (field of expectations): "taking the parents as they
are, accept them without asking too much." In appearance, they adopt a comprehensive point of view in relation to
the parent. However, their reasoning is based on a fixed perspective of the culture-of-poverty, an invalidation of
parenting skills. Moreover, it leads to a decrease in expectations for parental engagement. In terms of expectations,
we can mention, for example, that parental engagement in the design of partnership plans is considered undesirable.
The third dynamic manifests itself through the recognition of the students’ needs (field of expectations) to make
parents allies since it is the ultimate condition of the academic success of the child. Even if parents have a negative
approach and can be disturbing (field of norms), it appears necessary to associate them for strategic purposes
because the quality of the teachers’ interventions with children depends on the parents. Parents are therefore
“instrumentalized”, considered as necessary allies. This reasoning is associated with low expectations, defined in
terms of the support of school agenda by the parent.
5.2. Partnership Plans Analysis
Overall, our analysis of partnership plans both confirms and complements the analysis of discourse. We analyzed
all means in order to target those related to parental engagement. The results are presented in the following table.
2005-2007 2007-2009
Activities -Student-centered. -Diversification of strategies to attract parents and find ways for them
-Traditional strategies for attracting parents to get engaged.
Associated with
(solicitation). -School-family relationship mediation (e.g. the child, the community,
Partnership Plans -Parental engagement through workshops the newspaper).
(skills). -Stakeholders networking and coming together.
-Relationships begin to appear.
Activities -General strategy for attracting parents to -Personalized, mediated, and adapted solicitation.
school activities. -Recruitment during events and meetings.
Associated with
-Support workshops (skills). -Parental engagement in a wider variety of activities.
Parental -Some teacher initiatives. -Formal and informal recognition of engagement.
Engagement
Table 1. Partnership plans and parental engagement
As shown in the table 1, parental engagement is at the heart of the various means of action, which confirms that
this is a significant object. More specifically, we observe a diversification of engagement and parental solicitation
strategies (outreach). Between 2007 and 2009, teachers are part of a cycle of practice transformation. We know that
the representations evolve with the practices (Abric, 1996) and that the partnership plans are also traces of practices.
Therefore, it consists of a discourse on practice. Moreover, in 2009, teachers tended to rely increasingly on the
networks in which they were involved with the organizations of the community to solicit parents.
We previously mentioned that the discourse analysis on parental engagement revealed a series of tensions around
antinomies. This type of dynamic can be considered as a sign of change in terms of social representations
(Moscovici, 2000). We hypothesize that if interviews had been conducted later (not at the beginning of 2008, but in
2009), we would have observed the formation of "dialectical synthesis" between these units in tension. This would
have resulted in a modification of the central elements by integrating the influence of peripheral elements through
the effect of practices (Abric, 1996). Parents would probably have been deemed competent and the family
environment could have been apprehended on a more contextual basis, through an opening on the environment on
the teachers’ part.
6. Conclusion
To make a very brief return on the analyzes that were carried out, teachers participating in the FECRE program
in general had positive social representations on parental engagement which they considered frequent and desirable,
but which they also regarded as obstacles because of the parents’ belonging to a culture-of-poverty. In the context of
market education, parents are “instrumentalized”. They are perceived as "allies" whose function is necessary to
support passively the teacher in the transmission of school knowledge to children. In this way, the study of the
representations through this particular angle underscores the peripheral position of parents in the school ‘‘field’’.
Consequently, our study sheds light on the importance of the structural factors associated with parental engagement,
which leads us to suggest the use of structural homology with social representation (Deschamps & Moliner, 2008) to
understand the unequal distribution of knowledge and resources in EDSC.
The study of parental engagement through the social representations viewpoint has not only highlighted the "top
down" relation between school and family, but also a "horizontal approach". Social representations of parental
engagement are not fixed or attached to a reified and non-consensual universe (Moscovici, 1984). We have seen,
rather, that they evolve around strong dynamics, depending on the evolution of discourse on practices (partnership
plans) and possibly on the practices themselves. We can consider the FECRE program as a dialectic field that allows
the free flow of knowledge between the school, the family and the community. These findings confirm the thesis
defended by Fernandez (2010) which was briefly presented previously. If the polarities found in the political
discourse are often identified as constraints to the parent-teacher relationship (Atkinson, 1999), it is obvious from
our analysis that the representational dynamics unfold around antinomies. Pelt and Poncelet (2012) use the concept
of semantic field to describe the representational dynamic implemented at the crossroads of school, family and
community. In continuity with them, we propose to study parental engagement as a themata. To put it simply, it
refers to an image-concept that takes the form of systems of oppositions which are constructed through an exchange
between plural discourse internal and external to a semantic field. Moscovici and Vignaux (2000) provide the
following definition of themata:
They refer to possibilities of action and experience in common which can become conscious and integrated into past actions and
experiences. In sum, the notion of theme indicates that the effective availability of meanings always goes beyond what may
have been actualized by individuals or realized by institutions. (p. 163).
For the authors, themata are closely associated with dynamic processes by which actors make familiar what is
unfamiliar through socio-discursive activities marked by dialectical tensions. Hence, according to Lawrence-
Lighfoot (1978), we consider the gap between the school and the family as an area of potentialities instead of an
obstacle. In other words, it emanates from the transformational potentialities of the school-family relationships.
Therefore, making parents more familiar seems to be a dynamic and constructive process.
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implementation of a community collaboration model for school improvement. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation,
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et les représentations sociales. Nouvelles Pratiques Sociales, 23(1), 152-196.
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ScienceDirect
Motivation in Second Language Acquisition

María Luisa Carrió-Pastor *, Eva M. Mestre Mestre
Abstract
In this study, integrative motivation and instrumental motivation are examined to establish the correlation between the form of
motivation and successful second language acquisition. The analysis studies whether other aspects, such as the degree in which
the specificity of the courses or the introduction of an immersive virtual world can modify the students’ self-efficacy beliefs. Two
groups of students were selected to carry out a qualitative study on motivation. The activities and results obtained in both groups
were contrasted in order to determine if the two basic types of motivation played a relevant role in second language acquisition. It
can be stated that the results showed that the pre-conceived beliefs of learners were relevant in certain activities, i.e.
collaborative, web based activities; and in the demand for a definite syllabus of the course.
Keywords: motivation, second language acquisition, virtual world, learners’ beliefs.
1. Introduction
Student’s motivation, as defined by Gardner (1982), is composed of three elements; effort (the time spent
studying and the drive of the learner), desire (the yearning to become proficient in the language) and affect (the
emotional reactions of the learning towards studying). Thus, it could be defined as the various purposes that are part
of the goals to learn a second language. Motivation is divided into two basic types: integrative and instrumental.
Integrative motivation is characterized by the learner's positive attitudes towards the target language group and the
desire to integrate into the target language community. Instrumental motivation underlies the goal to gain some
social or economic reward through L2 achievement, thus referring to a more functional reason for language learning.
The concepts of metacognitive knowledge and beliefs are defined in this research considering the points of view
of Wenden (1987) and Horwitz (1987). Metacognition is defined as “thinking about one’s own thoughts” (Hacker,
1998: 3). From this, several implications can be derived, such as a “reflection and evaluation of thinking that may
result in making specific changes in how learning is managed, and in the strategies chosen for this purpose”
(Anderson, 2008: 99).
Our main interest has been originated from research on learner autonomy and learner strategies (Wenden and
Rubin, 1987). In the classroom context, the perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and metacognitive knowledge of the
students enrolled in a learning situation have been recognized as significant contributory factors in the learning
process. Sakul and Gales (2002), Bernat and Gvozdenco (2006) and Siskin (2008) provide some examples that
* Corresponding Author: María Luisa Carrio-Pastor. Tel.: +34-963877530

doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.201
María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Eva M. Mestre Mestre / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 240 – 244 241
illustrate how second or foreign language students may hold strong beliefs about the nature of the language under
study. For instance, they can consider its degree of difficulty, the process of its acquisition, the success of certain
learning strategies, the existence of aptitude, their own expectations about achievement and teaching methodologies,
etc. Identification of these beliefs and reflection on their potential impact on language acquisition as well as in more
specific areas such as the learners’ expectations and strategies used, can inform future syllabus design and teacher
practice in the course.
There are different kinds of knowledge implied in second language acquisition. In this study, we are interested in
the strategic knowledge used by the teacher and its effect when applied to students. Strategic knowledge refers to the
information about what strategies are likely to be effective in achieving the learning goal (Flavell, 1979). In other
words, strategic knowledge is general knowledge about the nature and utility of strategies (Wenden, 1987). More
precisely, it includes information about the strategies as such, why they are useful and specific knowledge about
when and how to use them (Wenden, 1998). Metacognitive knowledge is a relatively stable body of knowledge,
which may change over time. This knowledge may be acquired formally or informally, and consciously, e.g. in a
class or unconsciously, e.g. imitating somebody. As learners gain in cognitive maturity, they may reflect on their
learning processes and revise earlier assumptions or develop new ones.
Wenden (1999: 436) also distinguishes metacognitive knowledge from metacognitive strategies and refers to the
former as information, which learners acquire about learning, and to the latter as consists of general skills that allow
learners to “manage, direct, regulate, and guide the learning process”. Wenden (2001) provides further insight on the
function of language learners’ metacognitive knowledge in learning. She focuses on the nature of the interaction that
defines the relationship between what learners know and how they self-direct their learning.
The focus of this research was the analysis of the motivation of Higher Education students when learning a
second language, specifically, English. The analysis was twofold; the integrative and the instrumental motivation of
students when acquiring a second language were analysed and compared. To do this, we considered their attitude
towards the target language, the individual economic and the social factors surrounding their language acquisition,
and furthermore, the use of technology as a new type of motivation for some individuals. Henderson, Huang, Grant
and Henderson (2009) have also considered this last aspect, specifically the integration of the virtual world as a
strategy to motivate students.
The objectives of this research were first, to discuss the role that motivation has in language acquisition as a
specific variable at higher education level. Second, to check whether the specificity of the courses had some effect in
the student’s motivations, and thirdly, to study whether the introduction of technology, by means of self-defined
activities and the recreation of an on-line world improved students’ capacity to use English language in a variety of
real-life contexts.
2. Methodology
Two groups of students were selected for a qualitative study on motivation. One of the groups (henceforth group
A) was composed of twenty students enrolled in a specific English class offered as an optional subject in an
engineering degree at Universitat Politècnica de València; Technical English, taught in the Degree of Electrical
Engineering in the first academic year. The second group included in the analysis (henceforth group B) was
composed of twenty university students enrolled in an English course aimed to improve general concepts of English.
The subject was taught in the Degree of Geometrics and Topography as an optional subject.
During the classes, group A used a specific handbook as classroom material with references to the economic and
social environment of engineering (English for Engineering, CUP); meanwhile, group B used on-line material which
mixed grammatical and cultural contents. The activities carried out by this group of students included the selection
and completion of online activities as well as the participation in a software programme which invited to the
recreation of an on-line world. The motivation shown by students of both groups was contrasted in order to
determine whether integrative motivation (which can be measures by means of the positive attitudes shown by
students toward the target language and culture) and instrumental motivation (assessed by the gain-related
motivation) had played a relevant role in the students instruction considering the different materials used in their
242 María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Eva M. Mestre Mestre / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 240 – 244
acquisition of a second language. The analysis focused on the relevance of using on-line material to motivate
students.
In group A, teachers proposed to students repetitive exercises and asked them to perform a task the same way
regardless of the topic. Teachers often presented the task as if it could only be performed one way. In addition, the
key to the activities was included at the end of the handbook, which implied that most exercises proposed were
based on closed-ended questions. In group B, teachers presented materials and invited students to plan individually
their own learning, and decide what to do or emphasize in each lesson. Teachers helped students to customise the
materials according to their own needs and abilities or experiences and the context in which they were expected to
be used. Students were thus able to adapt the material to their language level and repeat some exercises, depending
on the difficulty. In both groups, teachers acted as tutors, helping students and working collaboratively in the
classroom.
In order to measure the motivation and their relationship with students’ beliefs, two questionnaires were
designed. Students were asked to fill in questionnaires when they finished their term. The questions related to
motivation asked to the students of both groups were:
1. Integrative motivation:
a) What is the role of the teacher in the classroom?
b) Do you consider your English level adequate to pass the subject?
c) Do you consider relevant the learning strategies in your English class?
d) Do you feel confident in your English class?
e) Have you improved your English knowledge?
f) Are you going to enrol in a similar English course next year?
2. Instrumental motivation:
a) Do you consider English relevant?
b) Do you prefer to learn English than another foreign language? why?
c) Are you going to use English in a professional environment?
d) Do your family or friends speak English?
e) Is English a lingua franca?
f) Do you use English in the Internet?
Both groups were asked the same questions, disregarding the type of methodology that had been used in the
language classroom. The answers were contrasted in order to measure the integrative and instrumental motivations
of both groups. The results extracted helped us to link the type of motivation to the type of language learning
environment created for the purpose and determine if different learning strategies varied students’ motivation and if
the attitude towards the target language or the economic and social motivation changed depending on the material
and the teacher’s attitude.
3. Results
The results showed that the pre-conceived beliefs of learners were relevant in order to ask for certain activities,
i.e. collaborative, web based, etc. Motivation played a vital role in determining the needs and expectations of the
learners and the questionnaires helped teachers to be conscious of the needs of students. Table 1 shows the answers
of group A and B to questionnaire 1 (A= agree; D= disagree):
María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Eva M. Mestre Mestre / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 240 – 244 243
Table 1. Answers to questionnaire 1
Questionnaire 1- Integrative motivation Group A Group B

a. Role of teacher 45% A/ 55% D 85% A/ 15% D
b. Adequate English level 35% A/ 65% D 70% A/ 30% D
c. Relevance learning strategies 45% A/ 55% D 45% A/ 55% D
d. Confident in class 25% A/ 75% D 75% A/ 25% D
e. English improvement 35% A/ 65% D 90% A/ 10% D
f. Enrolment in similar class 45% A/ 55% D 90% A/ 10% D
As we can observe, students enrolled in Group B answered positively to the questions related to integrative
motivation. The students felt confident and motivated in a classroom that helped them to have a positive attitude
towards the target language. They could complete the activities more freely and they could plan their own learning
activities. The learning strategies used in class motivated them, although we should notice that Group A felt also
motivated by the learning strategies. Group A did not feel that the activities proposed motivated them to integrate
the target language and considered that teachers controlled group activities, being unable to adapt the teaching
activities to their needs. In Table 2 we can observe the answers to the questionnaire 2 about instrumental motivation:
Table 2. Answers to questionnaire 2
Questionnaire 2- Instrumental motivation Group A Group B

a. Relevance of English 75% A/ 25% D 40% A/ 60% D
b. Preference- English 80% A/ 20% D 30% A/ 40% D
c. English in profession 90% A/ 10% D 30% A/ 70% D
d. Family-friends speak English 60% A/ 40% D 40% A/ 60% D
e. English as a lingua franca 90% A/ 10% D 70% A/30% D
f. English in the Internet 90% A/ 10% D 90% A/ 10% D
As we can see in Table 2, Group A agreed to almost all the questions related to instrumental motivation. The
students who enrolled in this English course wanted to improve in their future profession; henceforth their
motivation was purely instrumental. Conversely, Group A was more interested in integrating other skills to learn a
foreign language and this is the reason why they did not consider relevant some of the aspects of the second
questionnaire. We should notice that the majority of the students of both groups considered English as a lingua
franca and they used English to communicate on the Internet.
4. Conclusions
While both integrative motivation and instrumental motivation are essential elements of success, it is integrative
motivation which has been found to sustain long-term success when learning a second language (Taylor, Meynard
and Rheault, 1977; Ellis, 1994; Crookes & Schimdt, 1991). In some of the early research about motivation,
integrative motivation was viewed as being of more importance in a formal learning environment than instrumental
motivation (Ellis 1994). In later studies, integrative motivation has continued to be emphasised, although now the
importance of instrumental motivation is also stressed. However, it is important to note that instrumental motivation
has been acknowledged as a significant factor for the group of students interested in specific language learning,
whereas integrative motivation is linked to general second language acquisition. It has been found that generally
students select instrumental reasons more frequently than integrative reasons for the study of a specific language. In
this study, the students who support an integrative approach to language study are usually motivated to a greater
degree to learn a second language and overall more successful in language learning. They plan their language
learning and repeat exercises that consider relevant; meanwhile the students who preferred instrumental motivation
are more interested in communication than in leaning the target language.
244 María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Eva M. Mestre Mestre / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 240 – 244
We can observe that the learners who prefer instrumental motivation are provided with no opportunity to use the
target language to communicate collaboratively and therefore, no chance to interact with members of the target
group. The students who prefer integrative motivation can interact with the rest of the class and communicate in
Internet with native English speakers.
Brown (2000) makes the point that integrative motivation and instrumental motivation are not necessarily
mutually exclusive. In this study, we selected activities that did not include both kinds of motivation, although this is
not a desirable objective in second language learning. Learners rarely select one single form of motivation when
learning a second language; they rather combine both orientations in their learning. Brown cites the example of
international students residing in the United States, learning English for academic purposes while at the same time
wishing to become integrated with the people and culture of the country.
As we have shown in this research, motivation is an important factor in L2 achievement. For this reason it is
important to identify both the type and combination of motivation that assists in the successful acquisition of a
second language. At the same time it is necessary to view motivation as one of a number of variables in an intricate
model of interrelated individual and situational factors which are unique to each language learner.
No matter the underlying motivation to study a second language, what cannot be disputed is the fact that it is an
important variable when examining successful second language acquisition. In this study we have just focused on
evaluating motivation although we are conscious that motivation includes cognitive and metacognitive causes that
should also be considered in future research.
References
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ScienceDirect
Peculiar Properties of the Student Creative Personality Traits Formation as a

Principal Factor of the Competitive Specialist’s Outstripping Preparation.
Ospanova B.A professor, doctor of education., Massyrova R. doctor of education, Sagdullayev I,
Tashbulatova A docotor phd student
Kazakhstan, Almaty
Abstract
A matter of increasing nation’s competitiveness, intellectual and creative potential of

professionally mobile specialists is advancing in the rate of the most actual tasks of present
Kazakhstan’s society. It is connected with a need of education’s modernization in accordance
with new aims and tasks for the Republic of Kazakhstan development.
Today, a high school, which is widely accepted as an organization, an institutional system,
association, is an educational quality provision and professional training actual. Such interest is
conditioned by the changes in specialists training who are ought to be ready for a repeatedly
change of professional activity. Besides, the acquisition of professional habits and skills must
take a short period of time and minimal expenses. It supposes ability to the active acquisition of
new activity which is connected with ability to self expression and continuous learning. Only
innovative education is able to solve this problem, the aim of which is security and development
of a man creative potential.
© 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: competence, education, student, professional activity, skills, creativity.
1. Introduction
A matter of increasing nation’s competitiveness, intellectual and creative potential of

professionally mobile specialists is advancing in the rate of the most actual tasks of present
Kazakhstan’s society. It is connected with a need of education’s modernization in accordance
with new aims and tasks for the Republic of Kazakhstan development.
It is worth to note that nowadays there is a living interest to the matters of students’ creativity
formation among teachers and psychologists. It is explained by
Corresponding Author: Bissenbayeva Zh Tel: +23 444747839
Email: Bissenbayeva Zh @gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.164
34 B.A.Ospanova et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 33 – 37
social necessity to have creative, competitive specialists. From this point of view, a revision of
theoretical positions with regard to a nature of creativity, criteria for their diagnosis and mental
abilities numerous searches of creativity sources, conditions are conducted.
For creativity realization a set of qualities are need, it makes up a person creative potential. It is
complicated integral concept which includes natural-genetic, social-personal and logistic
components which are from one hand founded genetically and from the other hand could be
formed and developed throughout life. From the pedagogical point of view a positive creative
potential could be regarded as a combination of knowledge, skills, abilities and man’s aspirations
to change the world in different spheres of activity in accordance with norms of morality. In the
process of formation and developing these qualities is necessary to take into account the initial
and secondary creativity peculiarities. The initial creativity supposes the achievement of so-
called “creative illumination”, “spirit growth” in the result of which creative ideas could appear.
Secondary creativity requires making the result of “creative illumination” a final product. For the
initial creativity formation the following qualities are required: imagination development,
spiritual-emotional impulse, creativity reflection and others. For a secondary creativity we need
to add a professional instrument operation, mastery, hardworking, selflessness and will qualities.
Therefore a formation process and learners’ creative potential’s development are to be done with
their account.
2. Discussion
For creativity realization a set of qualities are need, it makes up a person creative potential. It is
complicated integral concept which includes natural-genetic, social-personal and logistic
components which are from one hand founded genetically and from the other hand could be
formed and developed throughout life. From the pedagogical point of view a positive creative
potential could be regarded as a combination of knowledge, skills, abilities and man’s aspirations
to change the world in different spheres of activity in accordance with norms of morality. In the
process of formation and developing these qualities is necessary to take into account the initial
and secondary creativity peculiarities. The initial creativity supposes the achievement of so-
called “creative illumination”, “spirit growth” in the result of which creative ideas could appear.
Secondary creativity requires making the result of “creative illumination” a final product. For the
initial creativity formation the following qualities are required: imagination development,
spiritual-emotional impulse, creativity reflection and others. For a secondary creativity we need
to add a professional instrument operation, mastery, hardworking, selflessness and will qualities.
Therefore a formation process and learners’ creative potential’s development are to be done with
their account.
The scientist V.Ivanov point of view is interesting for the usage of two levels concepts for the
intellectual development and making accent on the man’s potential formation in the process of
learning, it allows seeing the dynamics of learner’s development and with the account to
forecast, plan the perspectives [1]. Actually, it concerns all sided stimulation of the inner power-
intellectual-creative, emotions and will. All possible potentials are better seen when difficult but
feasible tasks are set in front of students. Here the basis for a learning process is a student’s
activity, his intellectual-creative mobilization, his will, emotional feelings.
B.A.Ospanova et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 33 – 37 35
Regarding a future specialist’s competitiveness we can determine that it is defined rather by a

combination of the individual stable features, demands conditions which allow them to be
professional. Competitiveness as an integral part of a person is characterized by the following:
abilities-clarity of aims, values, creative approach, psychological flexibility, independence, ready
to take a risk, leadership, tolerance; character features-hardworking, an appeal to a continuous
self development, professional growth (carrier); condition-congruence, stress resistance.
Let us carefully study them. Ability to foresee a fruitful result which provides a wholeness
and purposefulness of a subject’s behavior, exactly a setting of definite aims are defined by an
ability to plan, estimate and correct the results of a planned activity; have a motive for success
achievements and motivation of a professional activity.
The clarity of value orientation is an ability to differentiate the objects of reality regarding
their significance. Value and meaning differentiation is defined by the ability to evaluate own
possibilities and individuality; a skill to drive own opinions and speculations when regarding
professionalism, mistakes and others in optimistic way; by an intelligence-up-to-date knowledge
applied for professional matters salvation; by professional forecasting- skill to foresee a situation
before its appearance; by professional objectiveness which makes value orientation rich in
content.
Creativity in deeds is defined by an ability to active-positive interactions with reality and
development of a creative individuality which is demonstrated by intellectual and motivational
spheres of psychics including motive, reflexive and creative thinking.
Person’s ability to change an outlined program of activity in conditions requiring
reconstruction (psychological flexibility), formation the program with the account of an
intellectual sphere development (ability to analyze, to demonstrate creativity, criticism,
consequence, mobility, efficiency), emotional sphere (a skill to control one’s emotional
condition and to react adequately for changing objects of emotions), motivate sphere (a flexible
system of professional motives).
An independence and corresponding ability to personal orientation and standing to a personal
position includes: an adequate self-estimation and presence of a low level of social anxiety; a
skill to overcome inner and outer obstacles while improving one’s purposeful activity;
communicative skills; realization of a choice, opinion freedom; positive “I-concept”, which
includes a positive perception of oneself and satisfaction with a profession.
Ability to take risks, exactly, an appropriate action when making a choice in terms of
indefinites of events’ outcome, this ability is determined by a high level of qualities’
development and allows to take motivated risks in different professional situations.
An ability to be a leader, to make responsible decisions, to organize a joint work of a staff,
regulation people’s relations in accordance with individual-psychological features of a teacher, a
psychologist, exactly, extra or outer versions, creative thinking which is characterized by
eccentricity, communicativeness which allow to organize and control a place and time of
communication.
A principal component of competitiveness is a tolerance as an ability to interact productively in
terms of ideological competition, non coincided imaginations values, referring systems (a
trustworthy system of estimation), subjective realities and others. An aspiration to a continuous
36 B.A.Ospanova et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 33 – 37
self development is defined by a developed self-consciousness, self-cognition, self-observance,

self-upbringing, self-actualization (a person’s aspiration to a complete revelation of his
possibilities and their development).
Demand for ability development is necessary for the available effectiveness achievement in
the chosen profession and realized in the aspiration to a continuous growth.
An integral condition of a person is characterized by coordinated sides of psychics responsible
for social experience and behavioral reactions are characterized as congruence. In its formation a
development of reflection processes is of a big significance , capabilities to estimate one’s
possibilities, to realize oneself as an individuality.
A special meaning for a future professional is in competitiveness and its components as stress
resistance (a strong psychical condition), which is characterized by an acceptable flow of
nervous processes, emotional stability. A skill to operate negative emotions allows to decrease
the sharpness of emotional tension, promotes to create an emotional comfort and professional
well-being. For providing an accelerated person’s development, an educational system must use
a grading data “from future” which regard social norms of education quality must depend on the
formation of forecasting models of an open education which promote a free and all-sided
development of a person.
One of the acceptable ways of acceleration is student provision with a special information card
on a taught discipline which is regarded as a guide in course taking. Special attention is paid to
the volume and acceptance of assignment. It is worth to draw attention to a peculiarity if an
educational process in any other educational institution is to forestall today’s requirements for
life and labour preparation then it is necessary for a professional training process to forestall
these requirements with big periods of it. Exactly, “a double forestalling” in pedagogical staff
training but in this case we can rely on a successful fulfillment of any qualitative changes in the
educational system and pedagogical science which are oriented on perspectives. In connection
with it along with a category “succession” a principal meaning for theory and practice of
“forecasting” appears.
In the context of mentioned above position of B.M. Bim-Bad for creating a forestalling
education is interesting. The author figures out a general education as a base of any other
specialty, including into different types of activity. But, according to B.M. Bim-Bad “forestall
means to be able to a constant, purposeful and systematic, mastering of system of knowledge,
skills, habits, values, relations, orientations, norms of behaviour, ways and forms of
communication. New information technologies are well fit into the forestalling education” [3].
According to B.M. Bim-Bad the main characteristics of the forestalling education are
modernized scientific and technical knowledge, ability to operate the newest technologies;
information competence; stable disposition and ability to productive labour and change types of
work; disposition and ability to continuous education; emotional richness of mental activity,
mentality.
A main driving power of person’s development is programming qualities-tendency, intelligence
and self-consciousness. So, driving powers of the innovation processes in high schools of
Kazakhstan are the adaptation to the home labour market and an aspiration to be insisted in the
world educational system as a full member. A constant educational programs adaptation
B.A.Ospanova et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 33 – 37 37
demands a labour market is a need. The quality criteria is considered as a readiness for practical
fulfillment and a real competitiveness of leavers.
3. Conclusion
Consequently, education and upbringing must not be reproductive but productive and
must be aimed at the formation of new person who is active, creative, aware of informative and
communicative technologies, able to mobilize and introduce himself and his professional-
creative qualities as a competitive specialist.
In assessing the research, design activity is the opportunity to assess the level of formation.
Acknowledgements
Ivanov V. Modelling of pedagogical activity. // Visshee obrazovanie Rosii, 1998-№2- p.62-64

Bim-Bad B.M. Forestalling education and practice, // Sovetskaya pedagogika.1998-№6p.51-6
References
Mizintsev V.P., Karpova A.F. Application of methods graph modeling and informational
estimation of meaning structures in the study of pupils’ habits formation speed. //
Dalnevostochni physicheski sbornik.-Khabarovsk, 1974-p.163-206.
Kondakov A.M. Education as a resource of person’s and society’s development//
Thesis on the interregional educational forum. Eurasian Fond-Moscow-May 22,2004,
http://www.eurasia.msk.ru/news/archive.html
Ospanova B.A. Scientific basis of future specialist’s creativity formation in conditions of the
university education.
Monography: IKTU, 2006-p.254
ScienceDirect
Pero Vaz de Sequeira, an opera based on historical event: An

alternative history of Thailand in the late reign of King Narai
(1684-1688)
Pathorn Srikaranonda a *
a
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Humanities, Kasetsart University, 50 Ngam Wong Wan Rd, Lat Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900 THAILAND
Abstract
This research is one of the subprojects of Pero Vaz de Sequeira, an opera commemorating the Quincentenary of
Portugal-Thailand Diplomatic Relations (1511-2011). It is dedicated to the Duke of Bragança HRH Dom Duarte
Pio, the project’s honorary patron.The purposes of this research were 1) to review and synthesize history books and
contemporary historic archives of the late period of King Narai of Siam’s reign (1684-1688). This period was very
critical in terms of Siamese identity in the global context when European aggression was evermore presented which
lead to the fall of Narai’s dynasty after his demise. 2) The use of the synthesized information is to construct the plot
of Pero Vaz de Sequeira, a new opera with an alternative perspective of Siamese history.The research design of this
study was qualitative research including two phases of study. Phase one, to study the historical data using
documentary study. Phase two, to construct the plot of the opera using synthesized information starting from 1)
general plot outlining the whole story, 2) specific plot in details with conflicts, 3) character portraying, and 4)
constructing the libretto and narratives in the form of epistles.
Keywords: Portugal – Thailand – History – 1684-1688, Historical – Opera, Pero Vaz de Sequeira, Narai King of Siam, Petracha King of Siam,
Maria Guyomar de Pina;
1. Background and significant of the study
1.1. The Portuguese presence in Siam
In 1498, the Portuguese Vasco da Gama, sailing around the southern tip of the African continent, discovered the
sea route from Europe to India. Within the following decade, the Portuguese were able to set up its stronghold in
India and in 1509, by the order of the newly established office of Viceroyalty in Goa, a trade mission was sent to
Malacca in Southeast Asia (Trakulhun, 2011). The Malaccan at first welcomed the foreigner but later turned against
them. While they were taken prisoners in Malacca, the Portuguese learned that the Malaccan at that time was under
the suzerainty of the kingdom they called “Siam” (Conceição Flores, 1991). After escaping from Malacca, the
* Corresponding Author: Asst. Prof. Dr. Pathorn Srikaranonda. Tel.: +66-81-482-8262

E-mail address: pathorns@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.207
Pathorn Srikaranonda / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 270 – 278 271
Portuguese returned to Malacca once more in 1511 and conquered it. The first task undertaken after the conquest
was sending the first mission to Siam to inform the Siamese King Ramathibodi II (r.1491-1529) of the conquest
(Phongsīphīan, 2011). In 1518, a trade treaty was concluded and a Portuguese compound or bandel was established.
Over the centuries, the Portuguese were to play parts in the course of development of the Siamese culture, politics
and military (Conceição Flores, 1991). Their legacy survives to the present days in the form of religion, armory, and
gastronomy. Many of the Thai national dishes especially desserts such as Taungyib, Taungyaud, and Foitaung can
all trace its origin from Portugal (Kantāmara, 2002).
1.2. The coming of the French, the Siamese Revolution and its aftermath
King Ramathibodi III (r.1656-1688), better known in the West as King Narai, is known to be a progressive ruler
– one of the most enlightened monarchs in Thai history. Narai’s open policy to foreigners particularly the Europeans
was well known and recorded in contemporary accounts. Narai’s government under his favorite, the Greek
adventurer cum chief minister, Constantine Phaulkon, sent diplomatic missions throughout Asia and Europe (Strach,
2000). The French King Louis XIV (r.1643-1715) sent missions to Siam in 1685 and 1687. The growing French
influence caused the fear among the mandarins of colonialism and lead to the so-called “Siamese Revolution” in
1688 (Taikūntanapop, 2012). The revolution resulted in the execution of Phaulkon and the ascension to the Throne
of Ok-pra Petracha (r.1688-1703). The new king immediately expelled the French and the policy of xenophobic
isolationism was introduced (Smithies 2004). The Portuguese residents were not mentioned in any source of whether
they participated in the revolution. They were however allowed to remain in Siam and continue to be in service to
the Crown until the Fall of Ayuthaya in 1767 when they relocated to Bangkok, the new Siamese capital under the
new king, Barommaracha IV (r.1767-1782). The French, on the contrary, never re-established again until 1856 when
they arrived in Southeast Asia with colonialist ambitions during the reign of King Mongkut (r.1851-1868) (Lemire,
1903).
In present time, the French is now seen as Thailand’s close ally and the diplomatic relationship between the two
countries is seen as unabrupt since the time of King Narai. The many French accounts of the two embassies are
interpreted as that Louis XIV treated Narai to be his equal. In modern-day Thailand, King Narai is seen as a symbol
of prosperity and greatness. The epithet “the Great” was bestowed upon him during the nationalist government of
Prime Minister Pibulsongkram in the 1960s. Phaulkon is seen as a loyal servant to the king who only wanted the
best for the Siamese. King Petracha, on the contrary, is seen as a usurper whose isolationism policy drove the
country into backwaters and lead to the Fall of Ayuthaya with the reign of his great grandson King Egatat (r.1758-
1767) (Jumsai, 1988).
1.3. The Embassy of Pero Vaz de Sequeira to the Court of King Narai and the Portuguese legacy in Siam
In 2006 the researcher was approached by the Portuguese Embassy in Bangkok about the idea of composing a
commemoration piece for the 500th anniversary of diplomatic friendship between Thailand and Portugal in 2011.
The researcher proposed the idea of a musical tribute based on the story of the first Portuguese embassy in 1511 and
began searching for raw materials for such musical composition. However, the researcher found a recently
discovered report of a Portuguese embassy to the Court of King Narai in 1684. The account was found in Goa, India
and subsequently published in Macau by Leonor de Seabra. Not only that it shows the Portuguese involvement in
the international politics at that time, it also gave us light to the early French colonialist ambitions in the Southeast
Asia that is contradict to the generally accepted version of popular history (Seabra, 2005). The researcher decided to
re-propose the project using this story set into an opera instead.
272 Pathorn Srikaranonda / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 270 – 278
2. Research objectives
The purpose of this research is to gather as much information and data as possible to construct the storyline of the
opera with specific objectives as follow:
1) The general plot outlining the whole story. This includes a) the storyline from the arrival to the departure of
the embassy, b) the prologue that is used to build up the plot, and c) the epilogue which deal with the aftermath of
the Siamese Revolution.
2) Specific plot in details of specific scenes, i.e. the presentation of the embassy in the throne hall and the
elephant round-up ground.
3) Character portraying and background, i.e. the king, the ambassador, the monk, or the treasonous minister.
4) Constructing the libretto and narratives in the form of epistles which has to sound authentic in terms of idea
and manners in multicultural contexts.
3. Research questions
1) How the researcher uses the information to construct the plot of the opera?
2) How historical archives mention about the foreign diplomacy and the Siamese Revolution of 1688?
4. Scope of the research
This research is focused on the time at the end of King Narai’s reign (1684-1688) that mentioned about 1) the
Embassy of Pero Vaz de Sequeira, and 2) the Siamese Revolution of 1688.
5. The history of Siam during the late reign of King Narai (1684-1688)
The data that contain the period of the late reign of King Narai that the researcher reviewed can be generally
categorized into 3 sources as follow:
5.1. The Thai and Burmese Archives
The researcher reviewed the two editions of the Ayuthayan Royal Chronicle: 1) The older chronicle, Pra Rācha
Pongsawadārn Krung Srī Ayuthayā Chabab Pan Chandhanumās (Royal Chronicle of Ayuthaya edited by Pan
Chandhanumas), compiled in early Thonburi Period (1767-1782), and 2) Pra Rācha Pongsawadārn Krung Srī
Ayuthayā Jāk Ton Chabab Tī Pen Sombat Kaung British Meusiam Krung Laundaun (Royal Chronicle of Ayuthaya
from Manuscript kept at the British Museum, London), compiled in 1807. The two chronicles are the official
versions with general information such as names of the monarch, their reigning dates, and royal genealogies. They
also gave the accounts of the important activities of the rulers such as the decisive battles or religious ceremonies
however they do not give any account about diplomatic activity or mention of any political upheld. Both chronicles
only briefly mentioned that in 1682 the ailing King Narai appointed Ok-pra Petracha Regent of Siam and after the
King’s demise six years later, Petracha presided over the royal cremation.
The researcher also reviewed the only Siamese chronicle written in the Burmese language: The Kam Hai Gān
Kun Luang Hā Wad (The Lord Temple-Searching’s Interview). It is an account written in Burma after the Fall of
Ayuthaya in 1767. The King of Ayuthaya, Uthumpaun, after reigning for 2 months in 1758, abdicated in favor of his
elder brother Egatat. The latter was killed in Ayuthaya while the former, in monkhood, was taken prisoner along
with his courtier to Ava. This report is one of the most studied documents from the pre-Bangkok era, when it was
translated into Thai and published in Bangkok by Samuel Smith in 1912, as it was allegedly compiled from
interviewing Uthumpaun and other former courtiers themselves. A chapter is devoted to King Narai of which
mentioned that the King himself demonstrated the art of elephant training to the “farang” (a general term in Thai for
Caucasians), who viewed it with awe. It is the only source that firmly stated that Narai’s illegitimate son, Ok-luang
Sorasak, was offered the throne after the former’s demise but the latter gave the throne to his foster father Ok-pra
Petracha instead. This is very much in contrast to the Thai Royal Chronicles where Petracha himself was recognized
by Narai to be his natural successor despite their unclear relation. It likewise mentions neither diplomatic account
nor the Siamese Revolution.
5.2. The French Archives
The French King Louis XIV (r.1638-1715) sent two embassies to Siam during the reign of King Narai. The first
one, headed by Chevalier de Chaumont, in 1685 was sent at the request of Constantine Phaulkon to convert King
Narai to Catholicism. De Chaumont reported that his embassy was the first ever from Europe to be granted an
audience with the King himself. Phaulkon granted the tin monopoly on the Island of Phuket to the French which De
Chaumont appointed his own maître d’hôtel (headwaiter) to the position of the Island’s governor. This report
however never mention the Portuguese mission that arrived the previous year.
The second mission, headed by Simon de la Loubère, in 1687 is even more interesting as the mission consisted of
a French expeditionary force of 1,361 soldiers, missionaries, envoys and crews. When they arrived on the
Chaopraya Delta, a group of 600 soldiers were to take over the Port of Bangkok and another group dispatch to the
Port of Mergui in the South. De la Loubère himself compiled and published a book entitled Description du Royaume
de Siam in 1700 exploring Siam in every detail. From this book, the researcher examined the lives of the mandarins
at the royal court where at one point stated that Narai and Petracha were cousins. De la Loubère, never updated his
account, did not mention about the Portuguese embassy or the Siamese Revolution however many who accompanied
the second embassy wrote accounts of the Siamese Revolution, many of whom were among the first witnesses.
These are the Jesuit priests Guy Tachard (Second Voyage du père Tachard au royaume de Siam) and Marcel
LeBlanc (Histoire de la révolution du royaume de Siam en 1688), soldiers General Desfarges, Lieutenant de La
Touche, and engineer Jean Vollant des Verquains (Three military accounts of the 1688 ‘revolution’ in Siam).
De Chaumont’s report, de la Loubère’s book and other French contemporary accounts, for many decades, served
as only viewpoints of the period until the discovery of the Pero Vaz Mission Report in the Indian Archive.
5.3. The Indian Archive
In 2006, the report of a Portuguese mission to Siam, headed by Macau’s statesman Pero Vaz de Sequeira in 1684,
was discovered at the Goa State Museum and Archives, India. This report gave us a viewpoint that is different from
all other contemporary accounts. It shows how the Portuguese viewed the French arrival to the Asian Continent with
skeptic. It also gave a full account of how the embassy was received at the royal court and, for the first time, gave us
a full picture of the Portuguese bandel in Ayuthaya.
Pero Vaz de Sequeira (c.1630-1703) was a natural son of the Portuguese ambassador to Japan, Gonçalo de
Sequeira de Sousa. Pero Vaz accompanied his father to Japan and when the elder died in Goa in 1648, he rendered
his services to the Portuguese Viceroy of India. While in service, he traveled throughout the world before settling
down in Macau in 1670. During his time in Macau, he managed a successful private trading company covering a
wide area of Siam, Malaya, the Philippines, China, and India. He became one of the wealthiest men around and, at
the height of his career, owned the largest fleet in Macau.
In 1683, the Viceroy of India, on behalf of the Prince Regent of Portugal, appointed Pero Vaz Ambassador to
Siam to reaffirm the old friendship between the two nations. After his return to Macau in 1684, he became an agent
for King Narai looking after his interests in Macau until Narai’s demise in 1688. During this period (1684-1688),
Pero Vaz also supported Ok-pra Petracha against the French-supported Constantine Phaulkon. After the Siamese
Revolution, Pero Vaz continued conducting trade with Siam and corresponded with Petracha who succeeded Narai
as king of Siam. Pero Vaz became the Governor General of Macau from 1698-1700 and a rare second term from
1702 until his demise while in office in 1703.
The archives reviewed by the researcher are summarized in the table 1 below:
Table 1. The historical data reviewed
Topic Thai & Burmese French Indian

1. The Portuguese a) The European presence in - a) The Portuguese was the first
presence in Siam Siam European to arrive in Southeast
Asia.
Topic Thai & Burmese French Indian
2. The French presence a) The European presence in a) The French embassies and a) The French embassies and
in Siam Siam. merchants. merchants.
b) The French offers friendship b) The French colonialist motives b) The French aggressions and
and treats Siam as equal. and secretly collecting data for it. colonialist intentions
c) Claims that the 1685 French c) The French “Propaganda Fide”
mission was the first for a takes religious control from the
European envoy to be treated with Portuguese.
full honor.
3. The Pero Vaz - a) Reports that a Portuguese a) The Pero Vaz Embassy is
Embassy mission has just depart Siam but received by the Royal Court.
states that they has not been b) The treaty concludes with
received by the Royal Court. success.
4. The Siamese a) Non, only peaceful change of a) All accounts of the Revolution a) The events that lead to the
Revolution ruling dynasty from Prasattaung in details. Revolution but not the Revolution
to Baan Pluluang. itself.
5. Places a) Imperial Palace, Lawo a) Imperial Palace, Lawo a) Portuguese bandel, Ayuthaya
b) Regal Palace, Ayuthaya b) Elephant round-up ground b) Chaopraya delta, Bangkok
c) Elephant round-up ground c) Imperial Palace, Lawo
d) Elephant round-up ground
6. Character Portrayals a) King Narai a) King Narai a) King Narai
b) Ok-pra Petracha b) Ok-pra Petracha b) Ok-pra Petracha
c) Constantine Phaulkon c) Pero Vaz de Sequeira
d) Maria Guyomar d) Captain-Major
e) Father Manoel Soares e) Constantine Phaulkon
f) Maria Guyomar
g) Father Manoel Soares
h) Luiz de Sequeira de Sousa
The researcher used the documentary-research method. The researcher studied the related documents in details
and analyzed and synthesized the result. The processes were:
1) The researcher studied the historical archives both primary and secondary data according to research objective.
2) The researcher constructed the index to effectively manage the data.
3) The data were categorized into groups before analyze.
4) The data were validated using the data triangulation.
5) The data were analyzed using content analysis with focus on describing and explaining the chain of events.
6) The analytic-induction analysis was used to summarize the result of the study.
7) The data was then used to construct the plot, the libretto, and the characters of the opera.
7. Result
The purpose of this study was to construct an alternative viewpoint to the history of late-17th-Century Siam. The
researcher is not a historian but a musical composer, the aim was therefore not to rewrite history or to find truest
“truth” for that matter. The result of the study was used to create a semi-non-fictional plot for a stage performance
and not a history book or a thesis.
The plot of the opera is divided into two acts of five cantos or scenes in each. The chosen time period is from 27
March 1684, the day that the embassy arrived at Bangkok, to 8 June 1684, the day that the embassy was concluded.
The first act deals with the time in the City of Ayuthaya and the second act, in the City of Lawo, the second capital
where King Narai resided. Thus the first five cantos deal with Pero Vaz gathering as much information from people
around regarding the French activities. The second act is about putting the clues together and trying to warn King
Narai.
The researcher also added three special “epistle” scenes which the Pero Vaz character would read the three
important letters outlining the whole story. The first or the “past” letter, to be read at the beginning of the opera, is
from the Viceroy of India, who gave the instruction to the task of the mission especially the concern of the French
presence in Siam. The second or the “present” letter, to be read between canto five and six, is from the antagonist
Constantine Phaulkon, who authorized Pero Vaz to go to Lawo to present the embassy. The last or the “future”
letter, to be read at the end, is from Maria Guyomar telling Pero Vaz of the “Siamese Revolution” and its aftermath.
The researcher portrays the character of Pero Vaz as the protagonist of the story due to his role in preserving the
Siamese independence but nowadays is completely forgotten. King Petracha, who succeeded King Narai, had often
been portrayed by historians as nothing more than a usurper when he should be portrayed as the Siamese savior and
the defender of the Buddhist faith. Likewise, Maria Guyomar’s status, as stated in her own “epistle”, was reduced
down to the lowest rank of the society that is of slavery. Of all her heroic deeds and virtues, she is only remembered
as someone who took the Portuguese gastronomy to Siam. The synopsis and libretto are therefore drastically
different from popular viewpoint. It gave more prominent roles to historical figures who otherwise being silent in
most history books. The data are summarized in table 2 below:
Table 2. Synopsis outline
Scene / Title Action Significance Source

First Epistle: Letter Instructions to ratify the friendship between the This letter proves that the international Pero Vaz
from Viceroy two countries. Secretly find out about the community at that time was aware of Embassy Report
French activities in this area. the French colonialist ambitions.
Canto I: Chaopraya 1) Pero Vaz finds that the Captain-Major of the Find out why the Captain-Major is Pero Vaz
Delta, Bangkok Portuguese bandel is imprisoned. imprisoned since he only answers to the Embassy Report
Viceroy of India?
Canto II: Chaopraya 1) Constantine Phaulkon invites the embassy to Pero Vaz
Delta, a day later disembark and travel on the royal vessels to Embassy Report
Ayuthaya.
2) Phaulkon mentions that the Captain-Major Find out why and how the Captain- Ayuthayan
was caught in crimes against the state and the Major is arrested by the Regent? Chronicles
church and is arrested by Petracha, the Regent
of Ayuthaya.
Canto III: Portuguese 1) Constantine informs that the King is at Lawo Shows that Constantine does not want Pero Vaz
Bandel, Ayuthaya and asks Pero Vaz to deliver the embassy to the the Embassy to succeed since it might Embassy Report
Regent instead but Pero Vaz disagrees. interfere with his activities with the
French.
2) Father Manoel informs about the French Father Manoel was among the first De Chaumont
Propaganda Fide and that the French vicar is Portuguese priests in Siam to accept the Embassy Report
here. However he assures that the Pope is in suzerainty of the French vicar. His
control of the propaganda and the French will advice is found to be untrue as the
not interfere with the Portuguese residents. French vicar already interfere with the
Portuguese administration in Siam.
3) Father Manoel informs that the French vicar Pero Vaz
governs the Portuguese bandel while the Embassy Report
Captain-Major is imprisoned.
4) Father Manoel praises Constantine for his Who authorized the French vicar to Pero Vaz
greatness but warns not to trust Ok-pra govern the bandel when he had no Embassy Report
Petracha. rights in temporal administrating?
Canto IV: Market 1) Pero Vaz and Luiz discusses about the fell The Portuguese involved too much in Gonço de Sousa
Place, Ayuthaya Embassy to Japan of Pero Vaz’s father 40 years Japanese politics in early 17th Century. de Sequeira
previously. This resulted in the expulsion of Embassy Report
foreigners and Christians. This episode
can repeat in Siam if Pero Vaz
interferes too much in Siamese politics.
On the contrary, this episode forecasts
what would eventually happen.
Canto V: Regal 1) D. Pero is taken to the Regal Palace by There is no historical account
Palace force.

2) Ok-pra Petracha asks why, in Portugal, a It is important to state here that History of
regent governs the land. Pero Vaz replies that Portugal at that time was governed by a Portugal
the King of Portugal suffers from illness and Prince Regent due to the King of
his younger brother Prince Pedro acts as regent. Portugal’s incapability to rule. Petracha Ayuthayan
Petracha states that the King, his cousin is in has been Regent of Siam since 1682 Chronicle,
perfectly good health but prefers to be at the due to the King’s preference to reside in The Burmese
Court in Lawo. So he acts as regent but he has Lawo. In all accounts, Petracha stated Interview
no desire to take the throne for himself. his disinterest to be king himself.
3) Petracha reveals that he fake-arrested the There is no account to this episode Pero Vaz
Captain-Major in order to protect him from however at the end of the Pero Vaz Embassy Report
Phaulkon. He reveals that Phaulkon supports mission, the Captain-Major went to
the French domination of Siam. Macau with Pero Vaz who claimed that
only the Viceroy of India can issue an
arrest. After the Siamese Revolution,
the Captain-Major returned to Siam and
continued administrating the bandel
until his death.
4) Petracha promises to personally inform the Again, there is no record of it, however Pero Vaz
King to grant the presentation of the embassy. we learned that the Siamese State Embassy Report
Council, of which Petracha was a
member, advised the king to grant the
presentation against Phaulkon’s advice.
Middle Epistle: Permission for the embassy to go up the river In this letter, Phaulkon still insisted on Pero Vaz
Letter from Phaulkon to Lawo to present the embassy to the King. the Siamese custom for the ambassador Embassy Report
to prostate on the ground which Pero
Vaz refused.
Canto VI: Embassy Maria reveals that she is the wife of Phaulkon There is no account of Maria’s Tachard’s Second
Resident, Lawo and hands over a letter she intercepts from her interception but the letter he wrote to Voyage,
husband. He wrote the King of France to send the King of France still exists. Tachard LeBlanc’s
more missionaries to Siam but not to spreading mentioned in his book that the six Histoire,
the religion but rather to gather information as French Jesuits were instructed to collect De la Loubère’s
much as possible. The secondary goal is to information as much as possible. In Description
convert the King. LeBlanc’s book also mentions a
recommendation to the French King to
colonize Siam without difficulty.
Canto VII: Imperial 1) The presentation of the embassy. This is the first ever for the Portuguese Pero Vaz
Palace, Lawo envoy (or any of the European nations) Embassy Report
to be accepted with such grand honor.
2) King Narai praises Portugal as Portugal was Pero Vaz
the first European country to have contact with Embassy Report
Siam since 1511.
Canto VIII: Elephant 1) The embassy attends the King’s elephant

Round-up Ground round-up.
2) Pero Vaz warns the King, without success, This episode shows that the Siamese Pero Vaz
about the French Propaganda. Revolution was unavoidable. Embassy Report
3) Maria informs Pero Vaz that Phaulkon has Although there is no proof (or have yet Pero Vaz
requested the King of France to grant him a to be discovered) of Maria’s espionage, Embassy Report,
French countship and requests for the French de la Loubère gave a report that the De la Loubère’s
armada to come to Siam, offering the French to French countship was granted to Description,
take over the Cities of Mergui and Bangkok, Phaulkon immediately after the French Desfarges’
turning Siam into a French protectorate with embassy’s arrival. Military Accounts
Phaulkon as regent.
4) Pero Vaz praises Maria as a true spirit of the Maria’s brevity and loyalty to Siam was
Portuguese greatness. She replies that she is evidenced after the Siamese Revolution
indeed have Portuguese ancestry however as when King Petracha and later reigns
she was born and grows up here, she considers appointed her as the Tāō Tāūng Kībmā
herself to be a Siamese. She states that Petracha or the royal dessert chef despite her
will do whatever it takes to protect Siam from slavery status. Her son also rendered his
the French. service to the Siamese Crown until the
Fall of Ayuthaya.

Canto IX: Regal Pero Vaz rushes to the Regal Palace and Narai’s trust in Petracha was so Royal Ayuthayan
Palace informs Petracha about what he has heard. overwhelmed that he appointed Chronicles,
Petracha vows to do anything to protect Siam Petracha Regent of Siam in 1682 even Desfarges’
from the French. Pero Vaz pledges his support though Narai’s two brothers were still Military Accounts
to Petracha. alive.
Canto X: Imperial 1) The embassy has the farewell audience with Pero Vaz tried to warn the king about Pero Vaz
Palace, Lawo the King. He does not ask the King again to the French intentions many times Embassy Report
consider the expulsion of the French but rather during his embassy in Siam. With the
request him for the protection of the Portuguese advice made by both Maria Guyomar
residents in Siam. The King grants the request and Father Manoel, Pero concluded the
and decrees to send an embassy to Portugal to mission by asking for the jurisdiction
ratify the friendship. He also requests Pero Vaz over the Portuguese bandel and thus
to look after the matters of the Siamese Crown established another settlement for the
in Macau for him. French vicar.
2) Pero Vaz concludes the mission. Phaulkon is Pero Vaz
seen at the side looking forward to the greatest Embassy Report
achievement of his with the French while his
wife Maria, in grimed face, foretelling the
Siamese Revolution.
Last Epistle: Letter Report of the aftermath of the Siamese This letter is a reconstruction from LeBlanc’s
from Maria Guyomar Revolution. Petracha ascends to the Throne and information regarding the living Histoire,
expel the French. She thanks Pero Vaz for condition of Maria and her family after Desfarges’
putting in good words to the new king and the Siamese Revolution. Military Accounts
allows her to work in the Royal Confectionary.
8. Conclusion and discussion
Although the objective of this study is to construct the storyline of an opera based on historical event in the late
period of King Narai of Siam’s reign (1684-1688), using the documentary-research method from original sources,
there are more value to the study. The contrasts between the three archives allowed the researcher to examine,
analyze and resulted in an alternative viewpoint to the history.
Not only that an operatic plot is produced as a result, the key points to the events that lead to the Siamese
Revolution have been reexamined. The often overlooked roles of the Portuguese involvement in Siam and the
Siamese Revolution with emphasis on the Pero Vaz Embassy are reinterpreted. The motives of Ok-pra Petracha is
reexamined and showing him to be a rightful heir rather than a usurper. Maria Guyomar, likewise, had more
prominent roles in history than the adaptation of the Portuguese delicacy in Thai’s diet.
As stated that the researcher is a musical composer and not a historian, the researcher prefer to leave the task of
writing (or rewriting) history to historians. The researcher hopes that the study and its result will lid up a small torch
that can perhaps begin a chain of thoughts relooking at what had happened in the late period of King Narai’s reign.
References
Amatayakul, T. (ed.). (1964). Pra Rācha Pongsawadārn Krung Srī Ayuthayā. Bangkok: Kaona.
Conceição Flores, M. da. (1991). Os Portugueses e o Sião no Século XVI. Lisboa: Universidade Nova de Lisboa.
Jumsai, M. (1988). Somdej Pra Nārai Lae Kōsā Pān. Bangkok: Kuruspa.
Kantāmara, K. (2002). Tāō Tāūng Kībmā. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press.
Lemire, C. (1903). La France et le Siam: Nos Relations de 1662 à 1903, Situation Économique - Situation Politique. Paris: A. Challamel.
Phongsīphīan, W. (ed.). (2011). 100 Ekasārn Samkan: Sappa Sāra Prawatisāt Thai, Vol 1. Bangkok: Thailand Research Fund.
Seabra, L. de. (2005). A Embaixada ao Sião de Pero Vaz de Siqueira. Macau: Universidade de Macau.
Smithies, M. (ed.). (2004). Witness to a Revolution: Siam 1688, twelve key texts describing the events and consequences of the Phetracha coup
d'etat and the withdrawal of French forces from the country. Bangkok: Siam Society.
Strach, W. (2000). Constance Phaulkon: Myth or Reality? Explorations in Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 4. Hawaii: University of Hawaii.
Taikūntanapop, K. (2012). Somdej Pra Pētrāchā: Kasat Pū Tautān Ārayatam Tawantok. Bangkok: Siam Kwamru.
Trakulhun, S. (2011). Suspecious Friends: Siamese Warfare and the Portuguese (c.1540-1700). Southeast Asian Historiography Unravelling the
Myths. Bangkok: River Books.
ScienceDirect
Political Concepts in Jordanian Schools

Curricula of the Scientific and Literary Streams
(Grades 11th and 12th)
Dr. Amani Ghazi Jarrar
Assistant Proffessor of Political Education, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, University of Petra, Amman P.O.Box 961343, Jordan
Abstract
The study aims at identifying political concepts in Jordanian schools curricula for grades 11th and 12th in the scientific and literary
streams .Books were analyzed according to the content analysis approach. The results showed that political concepts were more
obvious in the 12th grade of the literary stream if compared to the 11th grade. It was concluded that more attention to political
concepts should be given in the scientific stream in order to contribute to developing students' political understanding, so as to be
able to deal with global issues, in addition to teaching concepts renouncing ideological extremism. The study recommends that
more quality political concepts should be introduced in the scientific stream curricula.
Keywords: Political concepts, School curricula , Content analysis,Scientific stream, Literary stream, Education in Jordan.
1. Introduction
Political education is considered as one of the branches of social sciences, if thinking of it as a process of political
knowledge development of the learner, it is concerned with matters related to political concepts such as freedom,
democracy and pluralism, it seeks to develop aspects of young people's personality in a social context of meaningful
education, so everyone has the right to play a responsible social and political role, in the framework of social
education, which is the context that takes care of individuals and groups in terms of intellectual concepts to be raised
political parties, security, economic and cultural concepts. Therefore political education enables learners to acquire
political and responsibility
2. Theoretical background & Literature:

The importance of social education increased accordingly too many variables: local, regional and global, where it
became necessary for the learner to be aware of what is going on around in order to understand the changes that can
make the learner a good participant in the political life. So that some educators don’t believe in teaching political
science as a separate topic in early school stages, but it can be included as concepts in the social studies curriculum
in order to provide an opportunity for teachers in the classroom to be able to teach students the political concepts,
such as state, power, legitimacy, and political education. So that Dynneson (1992), pointed out that social studies
and teachers in this field can play an important role in making learners able to understand the policy part of the daily
lives of individuals, and this can provide them with knowledge requirements of practicing good citizenship. Other
Corresponding Author: Amani Ghazi Jarrar, Tel: +12 564847839
Email: amani@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.213
308 Amani Ghazi Jarrar / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 307 – 315
researchers believe that political knowledge and political participation are important and considered as the criteria
for development and civilization. (Nasser, 1993).
However, Nakayame (1989) said that the main objectives of the social studies is the development of political
education and global thinking for learners as future citizens of the world, so that social education can help students
to understand the other opinions and make them better practice democratic behaviour for being aware of the
relations that exist between countries in this world. Took also believes in the responsibility for social studies
teachers to help students learn how to focus on the political dimension in researches and decision-making, and to
enable them to be aware of global developments. (Took, 1988).
2.1. Problem of the study and questions:
The problem of the study emerged because of the developments that have taken place in the Arab States and the
world, where conceptual changes should be tackled in the books of history, geography and general education. One
can see that such concepts have become very rare in the books of history and general education, especially in the
basic stages of school. Political concepts were lacking in our educational curricula especially in high Jordanian
schools.
More focus should be given to the study of political thought, especially concepts related to governments, history,
and heritage of political thought, the constitution, international law, public administration, ethics, and the philosophy
of politics. Hence, the main problem appears in the school curricula that should play a key important role in
documenting these political concepts.
The study attempts to analyze the content of education books, history, geography and general education, trying to
assess the higher stage curricula, especially for grades (11th and 12th) in Jordanian schools system, trying to identify
the political concepts by answering the following questions:
The first question: How frequent are political concepts introduced in the books of history, geography and
general education for grades (11th and 12th ) in Jordanian schools in both scientific and literary streams?
The second question: How frequent are political concepts introduced in history books for grades (11th and
12th) in Jordanian schools?
The third question: Are there statistically significant differences at the significance level (α = 0.05) between
the frequencies of the political concepts raised in the books of history, geography and general education for
grades (seventh to tenth) in Jordanian schools, due to the variable of the grade?
2.2. Importance of the study:

The study highlights the importance of teaching political concepts, teachers of social studies, students, and its
curricula. Its importance is derived from the necessity of teaching political concepts, to enable students take their
role in the political process, aiming at making them politically democratic, and making them able to deal with
political hot issues. This requires that teachers of social studies empower their students to deal with issues and
political events carefully in accordance with the political system, taking into their consideration the objectives of
social studies and the nature of its curricula. Teachers should be capable of developing political knowledge and
political awareness among students through the channels of education, and training them on the process of
reconciliation between political ideologies, to make them able to face the political internal and external changes, and
participate responsibly towards the world. The study also realizes the significant impact of politics in the everyday
affairs of life of individuals and groups, in addition to its the importance of teaching social studies for national
security , knowing that political education ,given through the social studies and general education curriculum, is the
first step in this direction in the Jordanian school curricula system.
Amani Ghazi Jarrar / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 307 – 315 309
2.3. Objectives of the study:

The aim of this study is to determine the extent of assimilation of political concepts in social education books in
Jordanian schools curricula, based on actual assessments for the basic stage for grades (11th and 12th). Another
objective is to undertake curricula developments in accordance with the Jordanian society's need to consolidate the
political base concept.
3. Previous Studies:

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3.1. Comments on Previous Studies:

The study goes in line with the following previous studies in terms of subject and analysis of curriculum and method
.The study of Shlool (1996) analyzed the content of social and national education books, including the preparation
of questionnaires in the same concepts. While the study of Omari (1997) identified the contribution of the social and
national education curriculum as a foundation of knowledge affecting positively the affiliation of students in the first
four classes from the perspective of supervisors and teachers. The study of Freha (2002) also identified the
effectiveness of schools in the national education at third secondary grades in schools of Lebanon, where variables
studied were gender, religion, and type of school and the culture of parents. Zyadat & Qatawi (2010) study aimed at
investigating the level of political knowledge of Jordanian teachers of social studies and its relationship to variables
of expertise, specialization, and gender. They used a questionnaire made up of (44) paragraphs of the multiple-
choice type based on four areas of political systems, political participation, political theory and international
relations. Obeidat & Tarawneh study (2004) aimed at identifying the degree of interest of social and national
education books of the sixth-grade in political, introducing political concepts consisting of (94) political concepts.
Drisko study (1999) also aimed at highlighting the role of schools in national education. Hahn conducted a study
(1999) that aimed at comparing the reality of national education in Britain, the United States, Germany, Denmark,
the Netherlands and Australia, in order to see the political practices, through the answer of students in age (14-19
years) for paragraphs of a questionnaire built for this purpose, in addition to interviewing their teachers. Crick also
conducted a study (2000) on the inclusion of national education curriculum in Britain as the rest of curricula of
geography, history and English. Starkey and Osler study (2001) also aimed at identifying the documents related to
the policy of national education in France and Britain, comparing the contribution of this policy in promoting the
concepts of national identity and national education in both countries. Then Murgescu study (2002) aimed at
highlighting the role of the textbook as a tool for understanding and stability in the communist countries of East
Asia, trying to re-write such books constructing a new era of communism.
4. Method and Procedures:

The following is a presentation of the study sample, tools of the study, and methods of verification of the
truthfulness and reliability, and procedures of the study, variables, and statistical treatments used by researcher.
4.1. Study Sample:
The study includes all the books of social and national education in the stage of secondary grades 11-12 in both
literary and scientific streams in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan for the academic year (2011/2012).The books
evaluated were books of history, geography, general education for grades 11th and 12th.
4.2. Instrument of the Study:

In order to implement the study and achieve its goals, the researcher worked on the following steps:-
1. Prepare a list of the political criteria by referring to a group of Arabic and foreign references related to the
field, the researcher also tried to point out the political Standards contained in the relevant studies, and the
educational literature to rely on theoretically.
2. Taking the views of a list of researchers in the political education area from different university professors
and others interested in the field of social studies in Jordan.
3. The researcher adopted re-analysis to ascertain the stability of the analytical process by analyzing the
content of education books in these stages, social and national, twice by the researcher in the period of time,
then spaced three weeks, by another professor whose specialty is in the social studies curriculum and
teaching methods, after giving an idea of the subject and analysis conducted, and to find out the stability
analysis (Holsti) formula was used for reliability.
4. To achieve the objectives of the study the researcher analyzed the books (mentioned in the study sample),
according to a paragraph, where each paragraph in each lesson presents a specific idea, and the researcher
determines whether that paragraph carries with it a political concept or not, with the help of another
researcher carrying a doctorate in social studies, according to the following steps:
Reviewing and using the general framework for social and national education in the basic stage.
Review the Jordanian Constitution.
Review the law of Ministry of Education No. (3) Of the Year (1994) and its amendments.
Revision of the National Charter.
Review and document Jordan First.
Review the Amman Message.
4.3. Viability of Study Instrument:

To ensure the authenticity of the study instrument, the researcher conducted gap analysis of the content of the books
of history, geography and general Education in 11th grade literary stream & books of general education in 12th
grade both literary and scientific streams with a time lag of one month, where the agreement correlation calculated
reaches 81%, and this value is considered suitable for analysis.
4.4. The Stability of Content Analysis Process:

For the purpose of verifying the stability of the content analysis, the researcher analyzed the Education textbooks in
both grades trying to point out political concepts available, and entrusted two other researchers for this task, those
researchers were carrying a Ph.D. in Curriculum Social Studies with experience in books analysis, which reflects the
stability, compatibility co-efficiency factor was calculated for the results of analyses of the three cases according to
Holsti equation calculating the proportion of agreement among analysts, which represents the stability analysis.
5. Results:
After reviewing the previous curricula, the following tables present the distinction between grades 11th and 12th in
both streams (scientific and literary):
Grade 11th
Literary Stream History Geography Total
Book total number of pages 299 394 693
Allocated pages for political concepts 209 111 320
Percentage of politics pages to the total 69.8% 28% 46.1%
So that the percentage of political concepts pages in the literary stream is 46.1% as compared to the scientific stream
as 0%.
As for Grade 12th literary stream

Literary Stream History Geography Total
Book total number of pages 257 366 623
Allocated pages for political concepts 257 173 430
Percentage of politics pages to the total 100% 47.2% 69%
As for grade 12th, both students of scientific and literary streams take General Education curricula, as follows:
Literary Stream General Education
Book total number of pages 210
Allocated pages for political concepts 165
Percentage of politics pages to the total 78.5%
So that the 12th grade literary stream takes the following pages in curricula:
430 ( pages of history & geography) +165 ( pages of General Education) = 595 (pages of political
issues)
As for grade 11th literary stream, the allocated pages for politics in the history curricula reaches 209 pages of a
percentage of 69.8%, presented in the following parts:
(Jordanian participation in the rise, National Arab movement foundation of Jordanian states ,
constitution, Jordan and international relations, Palestinian, Saudi, Syria, Iraqi , Kings of Jordan and
their political positions, economic planning , Palestinian issue, women in army).
As for the allocated pages for politics in the geography book in the 11th grade literary stream, they represent 111
pages making 28% of the total; these were distributed on topics as follows:
(5 Pages on demographic policies, 90 pages on human resources of the state, 16 pages on globalization
and sustainable development).
As for grade 12th literary stream, the allocated pages for politics in the history curricula is 257 presented in the
previously mentioned 6 parts, with a percentage of 100%.
As for grade 12th literary stream the geography curricula presents 173 pages making 47% of the total pages ,
presenting the following parts : 68 pages in Geopolitics , and 91 pages on National resources & power of state , then
14 pages on efforts for environmental protection
As for the General education curricula of grade 12th literary and scientific streams, about 165 pages were allocated
for political concepts with a percentage of 78.5% of the total pages of the book, presenting the following : 20 pages
on Islamic ethics, good citizenship & benevolence, 40 pages on The Hashemites,15 pages on Amman message, 20
pages on Jordan civilization , 30 pages on World modern history, 40 pages on Modern Jordan .
So that a little comparison could be done between that portion of pages that students of the 12th grade read, for
example students of the scientific stream read only 165 pages as total and that is only in General Education, while
students of the same grade of the literary stream read 595 pages of General education, history and geography.
While in the 11th grade, when students of the scientific stream read nothing on political concepts , we realize that
same students of the literary stream read 320 pages on pure politics, Which means 46.1% of the total pages of
history and geography books.
Such results compare what students of the scientific stream read to those of the literary stream, as follows:
Grade/Streams Scientific Literary

th
12 Grade 165 pages 595 pages
11th Grade 0 320 pages
Total 165 pages 915 pages
Which means that students of scientific streams read only a percentage of 18% compared to those of the literary
stream? And that is a very weak percentage that entails the importance of reconsidering the content of curricula in
terms of quantity and quality as well, which interprets making students of the scientific streams unaware of political
concepts and issues.
6. Recommendations:
After reviewing the discussion and results of the study, the researcher recommends the following:
• Developing the curricula of the 11th and 12th grades of the scientific stream, so as to increase the amount of
pages dedicated for political concepts, so that students of the scientific stream may take a similar overview
of political concepts as those introduced to students in the literary stream, but with a different way of
evaluation.
• The deployment of more political concepts to be transformed into practice focusing on high school stages
in order to develop the value system (loyalty, national identity, and the practice of democracy)
• Developing the existing curriculum selecting those concepts of political orientation and employing them in
practical life.
• Developing the spirit of political participation among the students of high schools and developing training
programs that aim at raising the awareness of democracy.
• To provide political training programs for high schools students to develop their personal philosophy ,
enabling them to deal with many political dilemmas serving the national interests .
References
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Allaquany,A. et al.(1990).Teaching social sciences .2nd volume ,Cairo :books world for publication.(Arabic
book )
Alobeisi, M. (2001). Teaching social studies, planning, implementation and evaluation of the educational
return.Kuwait :Dar falah.(Arabic resource)
Alqutawi, M.(2007). Social studies methodologies.1st edition , Amman :Dar alfikr .(Arabic book )
Alzyadat,M and Alqutawi ,M (2010). The level of political knowledge in social studies teachers in Jordan and
its relationship with some variables. Islamic university journal , vol.18, issue 2, pp.399-428
Center for Civic Education (1994). National Standards for Civic Government, Calabasas CA.
Chapin, J. & Messick (1992). Rosemary, Elementary Social Studies, Network: Longman.
Chris, G, F. (1988). Global Political Concepts on a Future for Education. National conference on the future of
Civic education.
Crick, B. (2000). In education for citizenship, Lawton Denis, Continuum publisher, London.
Dynneson, T. L (1992) “What does Good citizenship mean to students". Social education. Vol (52). No (1).
Freha, M. (2002). School effectiveness in civic education, and the availability of the basic elements of civic
education among students in the third secondary grade in Lebanese schools .Journal of Islamic University
,(Humanitarian studies series ),vol.16(1):pp.78-109
Galston, W. (2003). Civic Education & Political participation, Phi Delta Kappen, 85(1), 29-33.
Ghali, B. (1995).Introduction to political science .1st edition, Dar nahda: Beirut. (Arabic resource)
Hahn, C. (1999). Citizenship Education: an empirical study of policy, practices and outcomes, Oxford Review
of Education, vol. 25, Issue 1, p. 231-251, EBSCO.
Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities. Reading , Mass: Addison-
Wesley Publishing Co.
Hussein, M. (1997). Proposed Program for national identity values through the material of history at the
second intermediate grade .Unpublished dissertation, Ein Shamse university.
Ibrahim. (1999). Social studies in the curricula of general education in theory and practice. Alexandria :Dar
almarifa for publication. (Arabic resource)
Khadr, F. (2006).Social studies teaching methods .Amman :Dar almaseera for publication .(Arabic book )
Langhlin, M. & Hartoon, M. (1999). Challenges of Social Studies Instruction Middle and High Schools,
Harcourt Brace and Company.
Maxim, G. (1995). Social Studies for the Elementary School Child, Newjersy: prentice – Hall, INC.
Murgescu,M. (2002). Rewriting School Text Books as a tool of understanding and Stability, EBSCO,
Publishing.
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critical thinking among the students of social studies faculties of Applied Sciences in Oman. Thesis, Yarmouk
university, Jordan.
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education. Vol. (53).No (3).
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319.
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ScienceDirect
Predictive Relationship between Physical and Psychosocial Aspects of

Science Laboratory Learning Environment among Secondary School
Students in Malaysia
Che Nidzam Che Ahmada*, Kamisah Osmanb, Lilia Halimc, Noraini Mohamed Nohd
a
Faculty of Education, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim,35900, Perak, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, 43600, Selangor, Malaysia
c
d
Faculty of Education, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim,35900, Perak, Malaysia
Abstract
This study was conducted to analyze the characteristics of science laboratory learning regarding the physical and psychosocial aspects.
Students’ perception on psychosocial aspects were measured using Science Laboratory Environment Inventory (SLEI) while perception on
physical aspects was measured using Physical Science Laboratory Environment Inventory (PSLEI). The participants of this study were 800
form four students from 100 secondary schools in Selangor, Malaysia. Analysis of findings revealed that students demonstrated positive
attitudes towards the psychosocial environment and moderate level of suitability towards the physical environment. In addition, results of the
multiple regression analysis show that there existed significant contributions of physical aspects on psychosocial aspects of the science
laboratory learning environment. These results provide valuable feedback to institutions and to educators in setting their learning environment.
Keywords: Science laboratory, learning environment, physical aspects, psychosocial aspect;
1. Introduction
The quality of classroom life is significant in shaping students’ emotions and attitudes towards their classmates, teachers, the
subjects that they study and the entire education system (Zedan, 2010). According to Baek and Choi (2002), learning
environment has been identified as a critical factor in student achievement. In the teaching of science, science laboratory plays an
important role as it offers students an environment different from the conventional classroom. Laboratory activities have the
potential to engage students in authentic investigations in which they can identify their own problems to investigate, design
procedures and draw conclusions. These activities can give students a sense of how scientists go about their work, which in turn
may influence their attitudes about scientific enterprise (Chiappetta & Koballa, 2006). Along with attitudes about science,
laboratory activities can help students acquire a better undrestanding of the concepts and principles as the result of concrete
experience. Arzi (2003) also argues that engaging students in laboratory activities promotes students’ understanding of scientific
concepts and problem-solving skills, and improves their attitudes towards science. Therefore, science laboratory learning
environment should foster and encourage the learning process.
Che Nidzam Che Ahmad. Tel.: +6013-3922230

E-mail address: nidzam68@yahoo.com.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.185
Che Nidzam Che Ahmad et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 158 – 162 159
The learning environment including the physical and psychosocial aspects should in line with the pedagogy and support the
needs of students and teachers. In addition, studies by Zandvliet (1999, 2005) show that physical aspects of learning environment
do contribute to the psychosocial aspects of the classroom. These means carefully crafted laboratory activities, with appropriate
physical facilities and positive psychosocial environment could stimulate intellectual activities, increase social contact, and
promote learning and students’ development, as well as limit negative behaviours among students.
2. Review of Literature
Learning environment is a place where learners and educators congregate for extended periods of time to participate in the
activity of learning. Therefore, the environment created during these activities is regarded as an important component in the
teaching and learning process. The essence of a learning environment is the interaction that occurs between individuals, groups
and the setting within which they operate. The investigation in, and of, learning environment is based on the formula, B=f (P, E)
whereby behavior (B) is considered to be a function of (f) the person (P) and the environment (E). The formula recognizes that
“both the environment and its interaction with personal characteristics of the individual are ‘potent determinants of human
behavior’ ” (Fraser, 1998).
The learning environment encompasses a variety of tools and information resources, the interaction, the relationships between
and among students and teachers, as well as expectations and norms of learning behavior. Over the past several decades,
research has established relationships between classroom environment and students’ achievement, as well as evaluated
educational programmers and identified determinants of learning environment. Indeed, research indicates that student’s
achievement is higher in an environment in which students feel comfortable and positive (Waldrip & Fisher, 2003). Furthermore,
a favorable science learning environment correlates significantly to student involvement, teacher support, and classroom
organization.
In Malaysia, research on learning environment is still at early stage especially on physical aspects. Not many researches have
been done on physical characteristics of the classroom environment that might affect the learning environment experienced by
the students (Lilia, 2009). Fraser (2003), suggests that Asian researchers adopt, adapt or create a new theoretical frame in
learning environment studies. This research therefore, attempts to explore the contribution of physical aspects on psychosocial
aspects in science laboratory learning environment.
3. Methodology
This study explores students’ perception on physical and psychosocial aspects of the science laboratory learning environment
and determines the contribution of physical aspects on psychosocial aspects. The study uses quantitative methods and all data are
collected using questionnaire. A total of 800 science students from 100 secondary schools in Selangor participated in this study.
Students’ perception on psychosocial aspects are measured using Science Laboratory Environment Inventory (SLEI) while
perception of physical aspects are measured using Physical Science Laboratory Environment Inventory (PSLEI). SLEI consists
of five scales, consisting of student’s cohesiveness, open-endedness, integration, rule clarity and material environment. On the
other hand, PSLEI consists of six scales, which include furniture and equipment, space, technology, lighting, air quality and
safety aspects. Both instruments have been validated by two experts in science education and supervisors. Additionally,
reliability is obtained through a pilot study. The internal consistency reliability (coefficient alpha) ranges from 0.76 to 0.91 for
the five SLEI scales and ranges from 0.69 to 0.86 for the six PSLEI scales. These ranges are considered acceptable to good
(George & Mallery, 2001), since the closer the alpha is to 1, the greater the internal consistency of the items.

4.1 Physical aspects of science laboratory learning environment
Table 1 shows that from the physical aspects, students’ perception indicates a high level of fitness for lighting and space. For
furniture and equipment, technology, air quality and safety aspects, students’ perception is found to be at a moderate level. The
high level of fitness for lighting from students’ perspective may be due to the use of combination of natural and fluorescent
lighting in most of the science laboratories studied. This parallel with suggestion by Benya (2001) that for lighting to be
effective, daylight must be supplemented by automatically controlled electric lighting that dims in response to daylight levels
(p.1). In addition, Barnitt (2003) also stated that good lighting can only be achieved by a combination of direct and indirect
lighting. For the furniture and equipment, technology, air quality and safety aspects, the moderate level of fitness are also
reported in previous studies (Giddings & Waldrip, 1993).
160 Che Nidzam Che Ahmad et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 158 – 162
Table 1: Average mean and average standard deviation of PSLEI scales
No. Scale Mean SD

1. Furniture & equipments 3.53 0.77
2. Space 3.67 0.79
3. Lighting 3.76 0.73
4. Technology 3.62 0.95
5. Air quality 2.99 0.95
6. Safety aspects 3.37 0.86
n= 800
Students’ perceptions are one source of information in making decisions (Lizzio, Wilson & Simons, 2002). Giddings and
Waldrip (1993) also argue that perceptions on science laboratory facilities are important as it could affect science teachers and
students who use these facilities. If the science laboratory facilities are perceived as inadequate, teachers might not maximize the
use of these facilities, and this could affects the optimization of educational productivity. Efforts should be made to ensure that
all science laboratories are well-equipped with equipment and facilities in line with the teaching and learning needs, particularly
the identified physical aspects, in order to improve the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process in the science
laboratories. This physical environment could be considered as a second teacher whereby it could motivate students, enhance
learning, and reduce disciplinary problems and undesirable behaviors (Matai & Matai, 2007; Aladejana & Aderibigbe, 2007; Che
Ahmad et al. 2010). Thus, many countries have modified their science laboratories learning environment, particularly to provide
students with the opportunities to explore and construct knowledge in a more conducive and encouraging learning environment.
4.2 Psychosocial aspects of science laboratory learning environment
From the psychosocial aspects, students demonstrate positive attitudes in all SLEI scales, with an exception of open-ended scale
as shown in Table 2 below. The mean score of the integration scale is the highest of all the scales. In contrast, the mean score of
the open-endedness scale is the lowest (mean intermediates between seldom and sometimes).
Table 2: Average mean and average standard deviation of SLEI scales
No. Scale Mean SD

1. Student cohesiveness 3.74 0.62
2. Open-endedness 2.41 0.66
3. Integration 3.91 0.70
4. Rule clarity 3.78 0.65
5. Material environment 3.43 0.78
n= 800
The high mean score of integration scale is consistent with previous studies (Lilia, 2009; Fraser & Lee, 2009). The low score of
open-endedness scale is also consistent with the findings of previous studies in various countries (Lee & Fraser, 2001; McEwen
et al., 2009; Lilia, 2009; Fraser & Lee, 2009). The reason of having a low mean score of this scale could be due to the practical
laboratory work in Malaysia which mainly to verify knowledge provided by teachers in the classroom. Fraser and Lee (2009)
also state that laboratory activities would normally reinforce what students have already learned in the classroom. Numerous
studies in other countries also show that the environment in science laboratories seems to be close-ended. In addition, Lee and
Fraser (2001) state that practical laboratory work is only a supplement to learning theory in the classroom and science teachers
also seem unsure about the value of the practical work in the science laboratory. This could be due to the fact that Malaysian
science teachers: (i) focus more on examinations, (ii) face time constraint, and (iii) are not well-equipped with the required skills
to generate ideas.
According to Kalu (2004), science teachers do not carry out open-labs and inquiry-oriented activities due to the lack of ability
and understanding of inquiry teaching strategies and their ways of implementation, or perhaps the tendency of the teachers to
teach as they were previously taught. Thus, teachers need to be exposed to the latest teaching techniques that emphasize on
collaboration and interaction in the classroom, as well as active learning. One of the strategies is to use of inquiry methods. These
methods could encourage the generation of ideas (Hofstein et al. 2001) and increase critical thinking among students.
4.3 Contribution of physical aspects towards psychosocial aspects
The contribution of physical aspects on psychosocial aspects of a science laboratory environment was determined by multiple
regression (stepwise) analysis. In this study, multiple regression analysis is conducted five times and the results are summarized
in Table 3. The results show that there are significant contributions of physical aspects on the psychosocial aspects in the science
laboratory. The learning space, lighting, air quality, and technology are predictors of students’ cohesiveness. The predictors of
Che Nidzam Che Ahmad et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 158 – 162 161
open-endedness are air quality and safety aspects. Next, the predictors of integration between theories and practice are learning
space, lighting, technology and air quality. In addition, the predictors of rule clarity are lighting and technology, and lastly the
predictors of material environment in the science laboratory are furniture and equipment, learning space, lighting and technology
at a significant value, p < 0.05.
Table 3: Multiple regression analysis (stepwise) between physical and psychosocial aspect
psychosocial Students’ cohesiveness Open-endedness Integration Rule clarity Material

environment
Physical
β Β β β β
Furniture and equipment - - - - 0.12*
Learning space 0.04* - 0.10* - 0.10*
Lighting 0.04* - 0.17* 0.18* 0.18*
Technology 0.03* - 0.22* 0.10* 0.20*
Air quality 0.03* 0.11* 0.17* - -
Safety aspects - 0.18* - -
Multiple Correlation (R) 0.13 0.06 0.12 0.11 0.22
The variation in each psychosocial aspect among students could be described by the identified physical aspects. Thus, it can be
deduced that the physical aspects can impact the psychosocial aspects in the science laboratory learning environment. Zandvliet
(1999) in his study on high-technology classroom environment also finds that there is a relationship between the physical aspects
and psychosocial aspects in the classroom. Therefore, in our efforts to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning in the
school science laboratory, we need to ensure that the learning environment is in line with the pedagogical needs of teaching and
learning, and meets the needs of the teachers and students. According to Lip man (2010), the design process must focus on the
role of the social environment and how the physical environment may be structured to support learning and assist facilitators and
learners in their works. Taylor (2008) also notes that a well-designed learning environment would be able to drive teachers and
students towards active learning, and enhance the positive effects of the learning pedagogy. Besides that, good consideration
about the size of classrooms and furniture styles are also important in creating flexible and easily modified spaces (Kabrich
2007). This flexible learning space will enhance collaboration, interaction and eventually increase motivation and academic
achievement among students.
5. Conclusion
This study adds to the growing body of research on the science laboratory learning environment from the student’s perspective,
especially in Malaysia. Data analysis reveals that science laboratory learning environment in Malaysia still needs improvement in
some aspects. The suitability of the physical aspects in the science laboratories should be enhanced to meet the requirements of
teaching pedagogy and the needs of the teachers and students. Psychosocial aspects (especially the open-endedness scale which
encourages students to generate ideas) should be applied in the teaching of science in order to give opportunities to students to
pursue knowledge on their own. Attention must also be given to the physical aspects, which contribute to the psychosocial
aspects in teaching and learning. By fulfilling the students’ need in physical aspects and increasing the exposure associated with
the latest teaching and learning techniques, such as the use of inquiry and problem based learning, the learning of science could
be improved. This in turn can enhance the overall quality of the learning environment.
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Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Curtain University of Technology
ScienceDirect
Predictive Relationship Between Technology Acceptance Readiness

and the Intention to Use Malaysian EduwebTV Among Library and
Media Teachers
Noraini Mohamed Noha, Hani Meryleina Ahmad Mustafab, Che Nidzam Che Ahmadc
a
Faculty of Education and Human Development, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim,35900, Perak, Malaysia
b
c
Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim,35900, Perak, Malaysia
Abstract
Library and Media Teacher (LMT) serves as a catalyst for the implementation of the technology programs conducted in schools.
The challenge to the LMT is to be more open and innovative to the innovations introduced in schools from time to time. Their
level of readiness to accept new technology in teaching and learning earlier than their colleagues in schools could expedite the
diffusion process into the school education system. Therefore, this study was conducted to measure the level of readiness
acceptance among LMT in terms of Personal Innovativeness (PI), Personal Innovativeness Information Technology (PIIT) and
Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE), and the contribution to the acceptance of Edu web TV in teaching and learning. The study
involved 546 respondents consisting of LMT of primary and secondary schools in Malaysia. The findings show that the readiness
acceptance level among LMT in terms of PI, PIIT and CSE are moderate. Significant relationships were found between CSE, PI,
PIIT and behavioural intentions to use the Edu web TV. The obtained results also show that PIIT and CSE significantly
contributed to the intention to use Edu web TV. Therefore, those individuals with higher levels of PIIT and CSE are more open,
willing to try and confident in the adoption of new technology in teaching and learning than those with lower levels of PIIT and
CSE. These results provide valuable feedback to institutions and educators in enhancing the effectiveness of LMT.
Keywords: Library and Media Teacher, Technology Acceptance
1. Introduction
Computing technology has been marketed as the current solution to problems of education (Rockman, 2000), and
the quest for technologically equipped schools has grown dramatically. Computers and computing technology are
not only necessary for quality schools but are indicative of good teaching and student learning. Therefore, in an
Corresponding Author: Noraini Mohamed Noh. Tel.: +6-019-3700987
E-mail address: noraini.noh64@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.182
Noraini Mohamed Noh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 144 – 148 145
effort to provide quality education for all through the use of information and communication technology (ICT), the
Malaysian Ministry of Education (MOE) has implemented a video-based interactive educational portal, since March
2008. This innovation is known as the Educational Web Television or Edu web TV. This educational portal aims at
developing the teaching and learning of the nation through creative use of ICT. It is also an effort to reduce the
digital divides in urban, sub-urban, rural and interior districts. This portal is an interactive educational portal based
on applicable video in the teaching and learning process. For this technology adoption to be successful teachers must
be willing to change their role in the classroom.
The introduction of new technologies often involves some form of change for the users. Such a change could be
as minor as a simple modification of the user interface, or as profound as a complete alteration of the way an
individual accomplishes a certain daily task. Different users may react differently to the changes. Some might
welcome these changes, while others might resist them. Users’ resistance to the changes brought about by new
technologies is often the main reason of why an information-technology project fails (Venkatesh et al. 2000).
Although teachers may believe that computers can lead to improved teaching and learning, they may choose not to
use this technology if they have low confidence in their abilities to use computers. Issues related to the slow
acceptance of technological innovations among teachers are often debated after several years after the innovation
was introduced. According to Rogers (2003), the role of change agents can help to speed up the diffusion of
innovation in the social system of an organization. For the purpose of diffusing the EduwebTV in school, Library
and Media Teacher (LMT) is one of the change agent. Therefore, they must be proficient with technology, helping
in addressing the information needs of users, promoting new technologies in teaching and learning, and being early
users of Edu web TV compared to other teachers in the school. The question is, are LMTs in Malaysian school
innovative toward adopting new technology? Are they confident to use new technology implemented in schools?
Therefore, this research is carried out to identify the level of technology acceptance readiness among LMT in terms
of their computer self-efficacy and innovativeness in accepting new technology. Can computer self-efficacy and the
innovativeness influence their intention to use the new technology in teaching and learning?
2. Review of Literature
Previous research claimed that the lack of user acceptance has been an impediment to the success of new
technology (Davis, 1993). Apart from teachers’ knowledge and skill, there are several other studies that show
teachers’ belief is one determining factor in the ability of teachers’ intention in using the new technology in teaching
and learning (Ramayah & Aafaqi, 2004; Beas & Salanova, 2006; Crawford, 2008), teachers’ attitude such as inertia
to change, lack of willingness to take risks, being afraid to deviate from the usual educational practices and lack of
awareness on the benefits of new technology can be an impediment to the teacher to adopt the new technology
(Hunt et al. 2004; Weston, 2005). Recently, there has been a growing interest in studying personality as an
explanatory tool in the literature to help understand people’s use of information technology (Devito Da Cunha &
Greathead, 2007; Oreg & Nov, 2008; Pratt & Chudoba, 2006). According to Schillewaert et al. (2000), personal
innovativeness and computer self-efficacy are related to consumer's acceptance readiness.
According to Schillewaert et al. (2000), personal innovativeness is a personal trait that greatly affects consumers’
acceptance towards technology. Innovativeness can also be used to classify people into adopter categories because it
is a continuous variable that can be partitioned into discrete categories. General innovativeness and personality
construct may be interpreted as willingness to change and not the change itself (Hurt et al. 1977). Consumers can
fall under the different parts on a continuum ranging from an ability ‘to do things better’ to the ability ‘to do things
differently’. Meanwhile the concept of domain specific innovativeness reflects the tendency to learn about and adopt
new products within a specific domain of interest (Goldsmith, 1990). For example, personal innovativeness in
information technology (PIIT) is a domain-specific individual trait which reflects the willingness of a person to try
out new information technology (IT). According to Agarwal and Prasad (1999), this specific domain has an explicit
relationship with individual perceptions of new technology.
Computer self-efficacy (CSE) is a specific type of self-efficacy. The concept of CSE has become an important
social construct in assessing people’s attitudes towards computer and technology (Cassidy & Eachus, 2002;
Campeau & Higgins, 1995). CSE refers to individuals’ judgment of their capabilities to use computers in diverse
situations (Compeau & Higgins, 1995). Previous research on technology acceptance has confirmed the critical role
CSE plays in understanding individual responses to information technology (Agarwal & Prasad, 1999). Therefore,
participants with little confidence in their ability to use computers might perform poorly on computer-based tasks.
146 Noraini Mohamed Noh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 144 – 148
3. Methodology
This study explores LMTs technology acceptance readiness level, in terms of personal innovativeness, personal
innovativeness in information technology and computer self-efficacy. This study also explores the influence and
contribution of PI PIIT and CSE on technology acceptance. This study employs a quantitative research design and
all the data were collected using questionnaire. The sample is selected from a population of LMTs who served in
government secondary and primary schools in Malaysia. In this study, a total of 546 LMT are selected to ensure
sufficient data for analysis, including graduates and non-graduates. The instruments used consist of personal
innovativeness, personal innovativeness in information technology questionnaire and computer self efficacy. The
personal innovativeness instrument contains 20 items and represents the scale of openness, enthusiasm and
reluctance. It is adopted from the Innovativeness Scale by Hurts et al. (1977) and designed to predict an individual’s
level of innovativeness on a global level, which can be applied to all types of innovations. Meanwhile, the scale of
personal innovativeness information technology questionnaire consist of 6 items. The computer self-efficacy
instrument is developed based on the modification of the CSE by Campeau and Higgins (1995). The CSE instrument
contains 16 items and represents the scale of confidence in using the innovation and confidence in diffusion of
innovation (6 items). Additionally, reliability is obtained through a pilot study. The internal consistency reliabilities
(coefficient alpha) ranged from 0.732 to 0.899 for the two CSE scales, 0.829 to 0.89 for the three PI scales and
0.833 to 0.921 for the PIIT scale. Thus, the scales indicate good internal reliabilities.

4.1. Technology Acceptance Readiness
4.1.1. Personal innovativeness (PI)

The personal innovativeness is measured based on teachers’ openness, enthusiasm and reluctance to technology
acceptance. Base on Table 1, the finding shows that LMTs have a high level of openness to integrate new
technology into their lives. The mean score of the openness scale is the highest of all the scales. In contrast, the
mean score of the reluctance scale was the lowest mean compared to other scales. It means that although LMT has a
high openness towards the intention of using the EduwebTV, they are less excited to try this innovation in the early
stage of its implementation. This could be due to the initial caution in their acceptance of new technology. This level
of innovativeness might affect the speed in making the decision to use Edu web TV in the teaching and learning
process.
Table 1: Average mean and standard deviation of personal innovativeness scales
No. Scale Mean SD Level

1. Openness 3.77 0.46 High
2. Enthusiasm 3.60 0.45 Modetrate
3. Reluctance 2.93 0.57 Modetrate
Overall 3.38 0.38 Modetrate
4.1.2. Personal innovativeness in information technology (PIIT)

The level of PIIT among the LMTs is moderate and the overall mean score is 3.27 (SD= 0.58). This finding
means that LMTs are less willing to use Edu web TV in teaching and learning earlier than other user in the school
and less willing to learn how to use the Edu web TV. This could be due to the fact that LMTs did not have clear
information about Edu web TV and they did not require this innovation in their duties.
4.1.3. Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE)
Based on Table 2, the mean for the confidence in using the Edu web TV is moderate (M = 3.27, SD = 0.67). The
mean of the confidence to diffuse Edu web TV is moderate (M = 2.88, SD = 0.62). It means LMTs are more
confident to be end users rather than to persuade other teachers to use Edu web TV in their teaching and learning.
Overall the level of computer self-efficacy among the LMTs is moderate (M = 3.11, SD = 0.63). The level of
computer self-efficacy in this finding can be a serious obstacle for them to turn towards the adoption of Edu web TV
in teaching and learning even though they are given a course on Edu web TV.
Noraini Mohamed Noh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 144 – 148 147
Table 2: Average mean and standard deviation of LMTs level of computer self-efficacy
Scale Mean SD Level

Efficacy of using EduwebTV 3.27 0.67 Moderate
Efficacy of diffusing EduwebTV 2.88 0.62 Moderate
Computer self efficacy (overall) 3.11 0.63 Moderate
These findings are consistent with the previous studies (Shyh-Mee & Diljit, 2008; Sami & Pangannaiah, 2006).
The reason of having a moderate level of CSE may be due to the content of Edu web TV courses to LMTs
ineffective delivery of the knowledge in integrating ICT materials in their teaching and learning.
4.2. The Level of EduwebTV Acceptance
Base on Table 3, the finding shows that LMTs’ perception on the ease of use of the Edu web TV is at the high
level (M = 4.02, SD = 0.41) but their perceived usefulness of the Edu web TV is at the moderate level (M = 3.47,
SD = 0.52). It means that they are less convinced that this innovation is useful to speed up the task of teaching
material preparation, simplify the task of teaching and the collections of video can be adapted to any teaching topics.
The LMTs’ attitude is moderate (M = 3.59, SD = 0.56), indicating that LMTs are unsure of whether they would be
comfortable in using Edu web TV. Although their perceived ease of use the Edu web TV is high, their intention to
use Edu web TV is moderate (M = 3.45, SD = 0.57).
Table 3: Average mean and standard deviation of acceptance of EduwebTV
Scale Mean SD Level

Perceived ease of use 4.02 0.41 High
Perceived usefulness 3.47 0.52 Moderate
Attitudes 3.59 0.56 Moderate
Intention to use 3.45 0.57 Moderate
4.3. Contribution of Personal Innovativeness, Personal Innovativeness in Information Technology, Computer Self-
Efficacy towards EduwebTV acceptance
The contribution of the technology acceptance readiness in terms of personal innovativeness (PI), personal
innovativeness in information technology (PIIT), computer self-efficacy (CSE) towards Edu web TV acceptance is
determined by multiple regression (stepwise) analysis. In this study, multiple regression analysis were conducted
four times and the results are summarized in Table 4. The finding shows that CSE is useful predictor for the
perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitudes toward innovation and their intention to use Edu web TV in
teaching and learning. It means that LMTs with high level of CSE may adopt the Edu web TV if they perceive it as
convenient and useful for their teaching and learning. These findings are in line with Chang et al., (2011), who
found that CSE has a positive impact on the perceived ease of use the technology and influenced teachers in making
the decision to accept new technology. This study also finds that PIIT is useful predictor for perceived ease of use,
perceived usefulness, attitude and the intention to use the Edu web TV. This suggested that having a high level of
openness to accept new technology and having a high level of enthusiasm to try Edu web TV will overcome the
skeptical nature in acceptance of new technology. Hence CSE and PIIT are useful predictors for the perceived ease
of use, perceived usefulness, attitudes toward innovation and the intention to use Edu web TV. The findings of this
study are supportive of the finding of the study by Schillewaert et al. (2000) who found that, PIIT and CSE are two
individual traits that have a significant affect on the technology adoption.
Table 4: Multiple regression analysis (stepwise) between acceptence rediness and EduwebTV
Perceived ease of use Perceived usefulness Attitude Intention to use

β Β Β β
Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE) 18.2 11.9 19.8 16.8
Personal Innovativeness In 3.6 2.3 4.0 3.3
Information Technology(PIIT)
148 Noraini Mohamed Noh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 144 – 148
Personal Innovativeness (PI) - - - -

Multiple Correlation (R) 21.8% 14.2% 23.8% 20.1%
5. Conclusion
Computer self-efficacy and personal innovativeness in information technology are very important as predictors of
readiness acceptance of technological innovation. Therefore as a changing agent in school and the user of Edu web
TV, LMTs should have high level of acceptance readiness in term of their computer self-efficacy and personal
innovativeness in information technology. These combined aspects will influence their readiness to adopt new
technology earlier than other colleges in adopting new technology in school. Therefore, LMTs of the Malaysian
schools, should be given a course that teaches them how to use any new technology product that have been
implemented in the school especially how to integrate the technology in teaching and learning. The LMTs will
experience a shift in their attitude after they know about the innovation, so the persuasion stage follows the
knowledge stage in the innovation-decision process. A good exposure on how to operate the innovation can give an
effective impact to the LMTs’ role as change agents which also capable to be role models. This development can
helpfully speed up the diffusion and the technology acceptance in Malaysian schools.
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ScienceDirect
Pre-service EFL teachers' attitudes towards Computer Assisted

Language Learning (CALL)
Tutku BAŞÖZ a *, Feryal Çubukçu b
a
Research assistant, Balıkesir University, Necatibey Education Faculty, ELT Department, 10100 Balıkesir, Turkey
b
Associate Professor, Dokuz Eylül University, Buca Education Faculty, ELT Department, 35000 İzmir, Turkey

Over the past decade, Computer Assisted Language Learning, any kind of language learning or teaching activity conducted by
using computers, has increasingly become an important part of the language-learning process. As Computer Assisted Language
Learning has been an integral part of education, it is inevitable that it attracts the attentions of pre-service English as Foreign
Language (EFL) teachers. The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of pre-service EFL teachers of English as a
Foreign Language towards Computer Assisted Language Learning. The participants of the study include 112 pre-service EFL
teachers studying in the English Language Teaching Department of Dokuz Eylül University. The data collection instrument
consists of a questionnaire which measures the participants' attitudes towards Computer Assisted Language Learning. The data
obtained from the questionnaires are analysed. It is expected that pre-service teachers of English as a Foreign Language have
positive attitudes towards the use of Computer Assisted Language Learning. In the light of the findings, some practical
recommendations are presented.
Keywords: Computer Assisted Language Learning, attitudes, pre-service teachers, English as a Foreign Language
1. Introduction
Computers have tremendously affected not only the way people live but also the way people do their jobs.
A few decades ago, it was very hard to imagine that computers would be so widespread, available and practical.
Today, almost every aspect of our lives involves the use of computers. As they have been an integral part of our
lives, it was inevitable that computers would attract the attentions of pre-service EFL teachers. One of the uses of
computers in education is Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Over the past decade, CALL has
increasingly become an important part of the language-learning process. In broad terms, CALL may be defined as
"the search for and study of applications on the computer in language teaching and learning" (Levy, 1997: 1). It is
often regarded as the use of computers as an aid for presenting the language material. Schofield (1995) defines
CALL as any kind of language learning or teaching activity done by using computers. Another definition of CALL
that accommodates its changing nature is "any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves
his or her language (Beatty, 2003: 7). The term is widely used to refer to "the area of technology and second
Corresponding Author:

+090-266-2412762

doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.253
532 Tutku Başöz and Feryal Çubukçu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 531 – 535
language teaching and learning" (Chapelle, 2001: 3). CALL has come to include issues of materials design,
technologies, pedagogical theories and modes of instruction (Beatty, 2003). It is now used routinely in a variety of
instructional situations.
The use of CALL and web-based environments are appropriate to the alternative methodologies of modern
foreign-language instruction. Use of a variety of educational technologies both improves the quality of education
and strengthens learning environment in a way to enable students to learn a foreign language effectively. CALL
helps students improve their language skills rapidly and helps them study at their own pace and get immediate
feedback, corrections, and error analysis. In other words, it gives the student the means to control his or her own
learning, to construct meaning, and to evaluate and monitor his or her own performance (Hanson-Smith, 1997).
Jaber (1997) also mentions that with the aid of the computer, students are able to collaborate, to use their critical
thinking skills, and to find alternatives to solutions of problems in the student-centered classrooms.
Related literature shows that foreign language learners usually have positive attitudes towards CALL. In
Al-Juhani's study (1991) that aimed to investigate the EFL learners' attitudes towards CALL, it was noted that the
participants held positive attitudes towards CALL. In a study conducted by Askar, Yavuz & Köksal (1992), it was
found that all assessed perceptions of both the computer assisted and traditional environments were in favour of
CALL. Students reported developments in concentration and self-evaluation while studying in a computer assisted
class. In another study (Önsoy, 2004) that focused on the attitudes of students and teachers towards the use of
CALL, both students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards CALL were found to be positive. However, the study of Min
(1998) which investigated the attitudes of Korean adult students toward the use of computers in learning English as
a foreign language, suggested that a significant group of these Korean adult language learners did not express a
positive attitude towards the use of computers in English-language learning. Furthermore, Tang (1995) aimed at
determining the attitudes of ESL learners towards CALL and no significant differences were found with regard to
participants' attitudes towards computer-assisted instruction. To sum up, though most studies show that learners
have positive attitudes toward CALL, it is necessary to emphasize that there are also some studies which discuss the
negative attitudes of students towards CALL. Taking all these into account, the purpose of the present study is to
investigate the attitudes of pre-service teachers of English as a Foreign Language towards Computer Assisted
Language Learning. It is assumed that the attitudes of pre-service EFL teachers may provide valuable information
about the strengths and weaknesses of CALL and necessary improvement can be provided.
2. The Research Method and the Participants

112 pre-service teachers studying in the ELT Department of Dokuz Eylül University in İzmir, Turkey
participated in the study. The data collection instrument consists of a questionnaire, adapted from The Attitudes
towards CALL Questionnaire designed by Vandewaetere & Desmet (2009). The reliability of the scale was
calculated to be 0.80. The first part of the questionnaire interrogates the participants about their computer
availability, computer experience in years, academic courses in which they use computers, and frequency of
computer use. The second part of the questionnaire involves an attitude scale containing 27 items in Likert type and
aims to measure the participants' attitudes towards Computer Assisted Language Learning. The data obtained from
the questionnaires were analysed descriptively using the SPSS software.
3. Findings
Statistical findings in the present study can be divided into three sections. The first section gives the
findings on computer availability, computer experience, academic courses in which computers are used, and the
frequency of computer use. In the second section, the findings on the attitudes of the participants towards CALL are
presented. The third section presents the relationship between their attitudes and the independent variables.
According to the findings presented in Table 1, almost all participants (96.4 %) have their own computers
while only 3.6 % of them do not own any computers. The values also indicate that the percentage of the participants
who have been using computers for 1-3 years and for 7-9 years are the same (22.3 %). The percentage of the
participants who have been using computers for 4-6 years and for more than 9 years are also the same (27.7 %).
Most of the pre-service EFL teachers say that they use computers in language skills (61.6 %) most whereas 26.8 %
Tutku Başöz and Feryal Çubukçu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 531 – 535 533
of them use computers in literature course and 11.6 % of them use them in methodology course. Moreover, it is
clear that most of the participants (83%) use computers daily.
Table 1. Computer availability, computer experience, academic courses in which computers are used, and the frequency of computer use
Variables N %
Computer availability Yes 108 96.4
No 4 3.6
Computer experience 1-3 years 25 22.3
4-6 years 31 27.7
7-9 years 25 22.3
More than 9 years 31 27.7
Academic courses in which Language Skills 69 61.6
computers are used Literature 30 26.8
Methodology 13 11.6
The frequency of computer Daily 93 83.0
Once a week 18 16.1
use
Once a month 1 0.9
Never - -
As seen in Table 2, findings show that the participants' attitudes vary in the statements in the questionnaire.
The participants believe mostly that computer assisted language learning develops their listening skills and
vocabulary knowledge. Most of the participants also think that CALL gives flexibility to language learning and
constitutes a more relaxed and stress-free atmosphere. Additionally, they regard CALL as valuable as traditional
language learning. For them, CALL is a valuable extension of classical learning methods. They also believe that
learning a foreign language assisted by computer enhances their intelligence. However, they do not think that CALL
can stand alone. According to them, CALL does not develop their writing skills. Lastly, they do not agree that
learning a foreign language assisted by computer is as good as oral practice.
Table 2. Frequency tables for the attitudes
Totally Agree
Statements
Undecided
Disagree
Disagree
Totally
Agree
% (f) % (f) % (f) % (f) % (f)
15. Computer- assisted language learning develops my listening skills. 0.9 (1) 4.5 (5) 9.8 (11) 45.5 (51) 39.3 (44)
6. Computer- assisted language learning gives flexibility to language learning. 0.9 (1) 6.2 (7) 14.3 (16) 53.6 (60) 25.0 (28)
9. Computer- assisted language learning constitutes a more relaxed and
2.7 (3) 6.2 (7) 23.2 (26) 46.4 (52) 21.4 (24)
stress-free atmosphere.
19. Computer- assisted language learning develops my vocabulary knowledge. 0.9 (1) 5.4 (6) 27.7 (31) 41.1 (46) 25.0 (28)
7. Computer- assisted language learning is as valuable as traditional language
1.8 (2) 9.8 (11) 36.6 (41) 36.6 (41) 15.2 (17)
learning.
5. Computer- assisted language learning is a valuable extension of classical
3.6 (4) 11.6 (13) 33.9 (38) 34.8 (39) 16.1 (18)
learning methods.
10. Learning a foreign language assisted by computer enhances your
5.4 (6) 14.3 (16) 31.2 (35) 31.2 (35) 17.9 (20)
intelligence.
14. Computer-assisted language learning develops my reading skills. 4.5 (5) 17.0 (19) 30.4 (34) 33.9 (38) 14.3 (16)
4. People who learn a language assisted by computer- assisted learning are
15.2 (17) 33.0 (37) 33.9 (38) 14.3 (16) 3.6 (4)
less proficient than those who learn through traditional methods.
26. In a face- to- face situation (classroom) I often feel anxiety when speaking
5.4 (6) 15.2 (17) 32.1 (36) 31.2 (35) 16.1 (18)
in the foreign language.
25. I feel less inhibited when communicating in the foreign language via
2.7 (3) 17.0 (19) 35.7 (40) 34.8 (39) 9.8 (11)
computer than in face- to- face situation.
18. Computer- assisted language learning develops my grammar. 0.9 (1) 17.9 (20) 38.4 (43) 33.0 (37) 9.8 (11)
534 Tutku Başöz and Feryal Çubukçu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 531 – 535
27. For me, it takes longer to start a face to face conversation than a virtual
8.0 (9) 13.4 (15) 37.5 (42) 26.8 (30) 14.3 (16)
one on computers.
24. I have faith in computer- based language exercises. 2.7 (3) 18.8 (21) 39.3 (44) 33.0 (37) 6.2 (7)
3. Computer- assisted language learning is less adequate than the traditional
8.0 (9) 31.2 (35) 42.0 (47) 17.0 (19) 1.8 (2)
learning.
21. Teacher's enthusiasm in CALL largely defines my own motivation. 3.6 (4) 10.7 (12) 47.3 (53) 30.4 (34) 8.0 (9)
2. Computer based language tests can never be as good as paper -and- pencil
11.6 (13) 26.8 (30) 41.1 (46) 12.5 (14) 8.0 (9)
tests.
12. The feedback provided by computer is clear. 2.7 (3) 23.2 (26) 38.4 (43) 25.9 (29) 9.8 (11)
23. I have faith in computer- based language tests. 1.8 (2) 25.9 (29) 36.6 (41) 31.2 (35) 4.5 (5)
11. I would like to learn foreign language by computer. 4.5 (5) 32.1 (36) 29.5 (33) 19.6 (22) 14.3 (16)
13. The feedback provided by computer gives me enough information on
8.0 (9) 25.0 (28) 34.8 (39) 25.9 (29) 6.2 (7)
where I went wrong.
17. Computer- assisted language learning develops my speaking skills. 8.9 (10) 32.1 (36) 26.8 (30) 19.6 (22) 12.5 (14)
22. Teacher's proficiency of using computers in language learning largely
1.8 (2) 17.9 (20) 48.2 (54) 25.9 (29) 6.2 (7)
defines my own attitude to CALL.
16. Computer- assisted language learning develops my writing skills. 10.7 (12) 28.6 (32) 33.0 (37) 19.6 (22) 8.0 (9)
20. Teacher's attitude towards CALL largely defines my own attitude. 3.6 (4) 19.6 (22) 58.0 (65) 15.2 (17) 3.6 (4)
1. Learning a foreign language assisted by computer is not as good as oral
3.6 (4) 14.3 (16) 39.3 (44) 24.1 (27) 18.8 (21)
practice.
8. Computer- assisted language learning can stand alone. 29.5 (33) 36.6 (41) 21.4 (24) 8.9 (10) 3.6 (4)
As indicated in Table 3, multivariate statistical analysis shows that there is a significant correlation between
the frequency of computer use and three items in the questionnaire as these items have significance levels less than
0.05 (p1=0.03, p11=0,04, p22=0,04). According to the findings, the pre-service EFL teachers who use computers
daily believe more that learning a foreign language assisted by computer is as good as oral practice in comparison
with the students who use computers once a week. They are also more eager to learn foreign language by computer.
Furthermore, they believe more that teacher's proficiency of using computers in language learning largely defines
their own attitude towards CALL.
Table 3. The correlation between the frequency of computer use and attitudes
The frequency of
Statement computer use Mean St. D. F Sig.
1. Learning a foreign language assisted by computer Daily 2.5 1.0
3.3 .03
is not as good as oral practice Once a week 2.7 0.9
Daily 3.1 1.1
11. I would like to learn foreign language by computer 3.2 .04
Once a week 2.6 1.0
22. Teacher's proficiency of using computers in language Daily 3.2 0.8
3.1 .04
learning largely defines my own attitude to CALL Once a week 2.7 0.7
However, findings gained from multivariate statistical analysis show that there is no significant correlation
between attitudes towards CALL and some independent variables such as computer availability, computer
experience and academic course in which computers are used (p>0.05). In other words, there is no significant
correlation between computer ownership/ computer experience or academic course in which computers are used and
27 items in the survey.
4. Conclusions and Discussion
The results of the research can be summarized in two topics: Positive and negative attitudes of pre-service
EFL teachers towards CALL and correlations between attitudes and independent variables. First of all, pre-service
EFL teachers have positive attitudes towards CALL as they believe that CALL constitutes a more relaxed and
Tutku Başöz and Feryal Çubukçu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 531 – 535 535
stress-free atmosphere (67.8). They think that CALL gives flexibility to language learning (78.6). Moreover, they
view computer assisted language learning as valuable as traditional language learning (51.8). They also agree that
CALL is a valuable extension of classical learning methods (50.9). As for the language skills, they believe that they
can develop their vocabulary knowledge (66.1) and listening skills (84.8) with the help of the use of computers in
language learning. Additionally, they agree that learning a foreign language assisted by computer enhances their
intelligence (49.1). Nevertheless, pre-service EFL teachers also have negative attitudes towards CALL. For instance,
they do not think that CALL helps them develop their writing skills (27.6). They do not agree that learning a
foreign language assisted by computer is as good as oral practice (17.9). Finally, they agree that CALL cannot stand
alone (12.5). As stated above, some of the independent variables are correlated significantly with some statements in
the survey. As an example, the pre-service EFL teachers who use computers daily believe more that learning a
foreign language assisted by computer is as good as oral practice in comparison with the students who use
computers once a week. They are also more enthusiastic about learning foreign language by computer. However,
some independent variables such as computer ownership, computer experience, and academic courses in which
computers are used do not have effect on the pre-service EFL teachers’ attitudes towards CALL.
The results of the present study do support previous findings (Al-Juhani, 1991; Askar, Yavuz & Köksal,
1992; Önsoy, 2004) that EFL learners have positive attitudes towards computer assisted language learning. Some
limitations of this research include that the participants were restricted to 112 pre-service EFL teachers studying in
the English Language Teaching Department. Moreover, the scope of the study was confined to the descriptive data
obtained from the questionnaire designed by Vandewaetere & Desmet (2009). Further research should be focused on
other factors that could affect pre-service EFL teachers' attitudes towards CALL.
References
Al-Juhani, S. O. (1991). The effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in teaching English as foreign language in Saudi secondary
school. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Denver, Denver, CO.
Akcaoğlu, M. (2008). Exploring Technology Integration Approaches and Practices of Pre-service and In-Service English Language Teachers.
Unpublished Master Thesis, Middle East Technical University, Ankara.
Aşkar, P., Köksal, M. & Yavuz, H. (1992). Students' perceptions of computer assisted instruction environment and their attitudes towards
computer assisted learning. Educational Research, 34 (2), 133-139.
Beatty, K. (2003). Teaching and researching computer-assisted language learning. New York: Longman.
Chapelle, C. A. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition. New York: Cambridge.
Hanson-Smith, E. (1997). Technology in the classroom: Practice and promise in the 21st century (TESOL Professional Paper No.
Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of the Other Languages.
Jaber, W. (1997). A survey of factors which influence teachers' use of computer- based Technology, Unpublished Doctoral dissertation,Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Levy, M. (1997). Computer-assisted language learning: Context and conceptualization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Min, B.C. (1998). A study of the attitudes of Korean adults toward technology-assisted instruction in English-language programs.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Illinois, DeKalb.
Önsoy, S. (2004). Students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards the use of computer- assisted language learning at the Preparatory School of
Celal Bayar University. Unpublished master’s thesis, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey.
Schofield, J. W. (1995). Computers and classroom culture. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Tang, L. (1995). Whole language instruction in the computer-assisted instruction setting: ESL learners' attitudes (English as a second language).
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern Illinois, Carbondale.
Vandewaetere, M. & Desmet, P. (2009). Introducing psychometrical validation of questionnaires in CALL research: The case of measuring
attitude towards CALL. Computer assisted language learning: an international journal, 22 (4), 349-380.
Warschauer, M., and Healey, D. (1998). Computers and Language Learning: An Overview, Language Teaching, 3(1)
ScienceDirect
Pre-service Elementary Mathematics Teachers’ Views on Model

Eliciting Activities
Mesture Kayhan Altay a *, Elif Yetkin Özdemir a , Şeyma Şengil Akar a
a
Hacettepe University, Department of Elementary Mathematics Education, Beytepe, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
Abstract
The aim of this study is to investigate the views of pre-service elementary mathematics teachers on model eliciting activities and
the nature of mathematics and of doing mathematics via MEAs after experiencing four model-eliciting activities in a 14 week
“Modeling in Teaching Mathematics Course” offered as an elective course at a major university in Ankara, Turkey. For this
purpose, a focus group interview was conducted with nine pre-service elementary mathematics teachers. The interview took
about an hour and video-recorded. Findings indicated that pre-service elementary mathematics teachers have positive views on
model eliciting activities in learning and teaching elementary school mathematics.
Keywords: mathematical modeling, model eliciting activities, pre-service elementary mathematics teachers
1. Introduction
Models and modeling (M&M) perspective of mathematical thinking and learning gained greater attention with the
reform movement in education began in 2005, in Turkey. M&M perspectives focus on the development of
knowledge, conceptual tools, and/or models in order to make decisions to solve complex, real-life problems (Lesh
& English, 2005). These models and/or conceptual tools are “powerful (for some specific purposes), sharable (with
other people) and reusable (beyond the context in which they were developed)” (Lesh & English, 2005, p. 488).
Model-eliciting activities (MEA)s are meaningful and interesting thought-revealing (Lesh, et al., 2000) activities
that require students to express and adapt their current ways of thinking in order to interpret and develop useful
tools/models to solve the complex, real-life problem situations. During the solution of MEAs, students go through
the iterative modeling cycles which involve four nonlinear steps of interacting processes: description, manipulation,
prediction, and verification (Lesh & Zawojewski, 2007). Description involves students’ mapping from the real
world to the modeled world. Then students manipulate the mathematical model and generate predictions related to
the original problem they aim to solve in the real world. Finally they verify the model by checking the usefulness of
their predictions in the context of real world. Students often express, test, and revise their trail solutions during these
iterative processes.
MEAs are mainly used in mathematics education to understand and assess student thinking and to teach
mathematical concepts. With the curricular changes in Turkey, both teachers and pre-service teachers are introduced
* Corresponding Author: Mesture Kayhan Altay. Tel.: +0-312-297-8626

E-mail address: mkayhan@hacettepe.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.219
346 Mesture Kayhan Altay et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 345 – 349
to modeling perspective in math education through seminars, training programs and courses. We, however, know
little about the teachers’ and pre-service teachers’ perceptions about using models and adopting modeling
perspective in their classrooms. Research has shown that both in-service and pre-service teachers have difficulties in
understanding M&M perspective and using MEAs in their mathematics classrooms (Bukova-Güzel, 2011; Eraslan,
2011; Kayhan-Altay, et al., 2012; Turker, et al., 2010; Yu & Chang, 2009). Yu and Chang (2009) worked with
sixteen secondary mathematics teachers’ attended in a nine week course linked to a Master’s degree program in
education. Participants were asked to engage in three MEAs throughout the course and then to design one MEA as a
group. Results showed that teachers developed positive attitudes towards MEAs in teaching mathematics since they
are related to real life and include open-ended problems that are promoting students’ mathematical thinking and
communication skills. On the other hand, teachers were concerned about making connections between MEAs with
the current math curriculum and the entrance exams of schools. They also pointed out the challenges of applying
MEAs in real classroom settings in terms of managing the class discussion and adjusting time for students to engage
in MEAs.
Research conducted with pre-service teachers in Turkey revealed similar results. Bukova-Güzel (2011) examined
secondary pre-service mathematics teachers’ approaches as they construct and solve mathematical modeling
problems. During the elective mathematical modeling course, teacher candidates were introduced modeling
perspective and worked on MEAs. As a requirement of the course, six groups of pre-service teachers were asked to
first construct mathematical modeling problems and then solve the problems they constructed. Results have shown
that pre-service teachers constructed MEAs by taking into account several criteria such as suitability to real life and
to students’ existing mathematical knowledge. With regard to solving MEAs they constructed, pre-service teachers
were able to understand and simplify the problem situation, whereas they had difficulty in interpreting and
validating the findings revealed through the model. Likewise, Türker, et al. (2010) examined elementary and
secondary pre-service mathematics teachers’ performances at MEAs and their views on these activities. They asked
60 participants to solve four MEAs individually at four sessions. Findings showed that pre-service teachers were
more successful on the activities that involved the most numerical data. Furthermore, interviews with four
participants demonstrated that pre-service teachers found the activities challenging and different from the ones they
had encountered before. They also expressed that the skills to form a mathematical model and solve a real life
problem through the model could be developed through training. Likewise, Eraslan (2011) examined prospective
elementary mathematics teachers’ perceptions on MEAs after they took an elective course related to modeling in
mathematics education. Findings indicated that pre-service teachers found MEAs ambiguous and difficult to use in
teaching mathematics at early grade levels. They; however, also expressed beliefs on MEAs’ positive effects on
mathematical learning.
Prior research conducted with pre-service teachers mostly focused on their perspectives on MEAs and their
performances at designing and solving MEAs. The current study aims to examine not only pre-service teachers’
views on MEAs but also their views about the nature of mathematics and of doing mathematics via MEAs.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
The participants, who had no experience on MEAs and no knowledge about MEA perspectives before the course,
were enrolled in a mathematics teacher education program in one of the large universities in Ankara, Turkey. They
were in the second year of their undergraduate program. At the beginning of the course, 10 heterogeneous groups of
three pre-service mathematics teachers were formed according to their GPA. For the current study, nine pre-service
elementary mathematics teachers who were members of three study group were interviewed. These groups were
selected according to their modeling performances (high, medium, and low) demonstrated throughout the course.
2.2. Content of the Study
The study was conducted during fall semester of 2011-2012 academic years with 30 pre-service mathematics
teachers who had been enrolled Modeling in Teaching Mathematics course. The course was offered by the two
Mesture Kayhan Altay et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 345 – 349 347
researchers for 14 weeks, two hours per week. The course was focused on the theory and practical applications of
MEA perspectives via discussions based on MEA literature for 4 weeks and pre-service teachers’ engaging with
four model eliciting activities (big foot, summer job, summer reading, and quilt problem). As a requirement of the
course, pre-service teachers developed one MEA in a 14 week period.
2.3. Data Sources and Analysis
In this study, qualitative data collection methods were used in order to investigate the views of pre-service
elementary mathematics teachers on model eliciting activities. A semi-structured focus group interview was
conducted with nine pre-service elementary mathematics teachers. The interview took about an hour and it was
video-recorded. During the interview, pre-service teachers were asked to talk about their opinions related to the
course, how they worked on mathematics as they engaged with MEAs, and whether and how their views on the
nature of mathematics and of doing mathematics were changed as they engaged with MEAs. Field notes taken by
the researchers during or after the classes and the transcription of the interview were constituted as major data
sources. The data were analyzed and coded based on teachers’ views about the nature of mathematics and of doing
mathematics through model eliciting activities. The themes revealed from the analysis include motivation related to
MEAs, nature of mathematics (relationship between math & real life), and nature of doing mathematics through
MEAs (group discussions, communication, etc.).
3. Results
The purpose of this study was to identify pre-service elementary mathematics teachers’ views on model eliciting
activities, as well as to examine their views about the nature of mathematics and of doing mathematics via model
eliciting activities. The results revealed that pre-service teachers’ views on model eliciting activities are mostly
positive. During the interview, pre-service teachers expressed that the course was the most interesting course among
the other courses that they had enrolled for the teacher education program. It can be inferred that modeling in
teaching mathematics course motivated pre-service teachers to be interested in their profession. They also pointed
out that the course is different from the other courses in that they mostly engaged in mental activities throughout the
course instead of merely listening to the instructor. This result is consistent with the findings of Türker, et al. (2010)
who also stated that pre-service teachers expressed that the model eliciting activities did not look like the problems
they had encountered before, and that they required more thinking and logical reasoning. In fact, during the
interview participants requested to integrate MEAs into mathematics courses such as Analysis. Türker, et al. (2010)
similarly found that pre-service teachers indicated the need for a course that they can develop modeling skills in the
teacher education program.
Pre-service teachers’ views about the nature of mathematics and doing mathematics through MEAs were also
examined in the current study. For this purpose, they were asked to define MEAs and the process they involved in
through MEAs during the modeling course. First of all, they defined model-eliciting activities as activities
“including real life problem situations they face in their life.” Pre-service teachers also mentioned that they realize
the actual and significant use of math in real life owing to this course. They stated that their belief about using math
in real life was mainly limited to skills related to shopping. Additionally, they pointed out that engaging with
mathematics through MEAs is enjoyable and meaningful as these activities require students to make connections
between mathematical concepts and real life. It can be inferred that pre-service teachers’ views about connections
between math and real life are influenced by the experiences during this course.
In the aspect of the nature of mathematics, we can say that pre-service teachers have a traditional view of
mathematics before the course. During the interview, one pre-service teacher stated her previous math experience
as:
“We are accustomed to find only one correct answer in mathematics. If a person answers a problem
correctly, then my answer which is different from his/her answer could not be a correct answer.
Because there is only one correct answer in mathematics”
348 Mesture Kayhan Altay et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 345 – 349
However, she said that after engaging with MEAs they could see how an answer of a complex, real-life problem
could be changed when considering different variables given in the problem situations. Particularly, pre-service
teachers emphasized that these activities (MEAs) could create opportunities for students to approach problems by
taking into account different perspectives. They, however, admitted that they had difficulties to adopt different
approaches when they were required to quantify and categorize the relationships among mathematical ideas. For
instance, in Bigfoot Problem, pre-service teachers were asked to identify the owner of the mystery footprint and to
generalize the method to find the height of a person given the size of his or her footprint (Lesh and Harel, 2003).
Pre-service teachers said that they don’t take into account the width of the footprint while measuring the size of the
footprint although a ruler is provided for them to use. Their traditional views of mathematics may constrain their
approaches to the problem.
In parallel to the findings of Eraslan’s (2011) and Yu and Chang’s (2009) studies, this study also found that pre-
service teachers reported that working in groups to solve model eliciting activities was a good way for them to see
alternative strategies for approaching and solving the problems. They also stated that group work provided a basis
for them to develop confidence for their own thinking. With this respect to this finding, one of the pre-service
teachers said,
“….Since mathematics problems normally can be done correctly in only one way; students usually
can not ask any question to his/her teacher. Since there is not one correct answer in model eliciting
activities, I still try to find out the solution of the problem. My other friends in my group also find out
different things by looking from a different perspective for the same problem. Then we need to talk
with each other. It makes me feel more relax, because there is not only one correct answer.”
4. Conclusion and Recommendation
To sum up, pre-service teachers expressed that MEAs provided them opportunities to see the significant
connections between math and real life and allowed them adopting different approaches in solving complex
problems. Although pre-service teachers displayed positive improvements about the nature of mathematics and of
doing mathematics after taking the modeling course, they also stated the limitations related to using MEAs in their
future mathematics classrooms. They identified challenges to use model eliciting activities with particularly in our
educational system. They pointed out that they could use MEAs in their mathematics classroom to teach basic math
concepts. This finding showed that although pre-service teachers realized the importance of modeling and believed
in its necessity, they continued holding traditional views about the nature of mathematics and doing mathematics
that they brought to the course. These findings could be expected since pre-service teachers in our study were in the
second year of their undergraduate program and they had not yet enrolled pedagogy courses that could provide them
opportunities to develop alternative/current approaches to learning and teaching mathematics.
It takes time for pre-service teachers to internalize modeling perspectives. As Eraslan (2011) stated in his study,
to create confidence for pre-service teachers to use MEAs in their future classroom, they should gain more
experiences.
References
Bukova-Güzel, E. (2011). An examination of pre-service mathematics teachers’ approaches to construct and solve mathematical modeling
problems. Teaching Mathematics and Its Applications, 30 (1), 19-36.
Eraslan, A. (2011). İlköğretim matematik öğretmen adaylarının model oluşturma etkinlikleri ve bunların matematik öğrenimine etkisi hakkındaki
görüşleri. İlköğretim Online, 10 (1), 364-377.
Kayhan-Altay, M., Şengil-Akar, Ş., & Yetkin-Özdemir, E. (2012). En examination of model-eliciting activities designed by pre-service
mathematics teachers based on six design principles. European Conference on Education Research (ECER), University of Cadiz, 18-21
Sep., Cadiz, Spain.
Lesh, R., Hoover, M., Hole, B., Kelly, A., & Post, T. (2000). Principles for developing thought-revealing activities for students and teachers. In
A. Kelly & R. Lesh (Eds.), Handbook of Research in Mathematics and Science Education (pp. 113-149). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Mesture Kayhan Altay et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 345 – 349 349
Lesh, R. & Harel, G. (2003). Problem solving, modeling and local conceptual development. Mathematical Thinking and Learning: An
International Journal, 5 (2/3), 157-190.
Lesh, R. & English, L. D. (2005). Trends in the evolution of models & modeling perspectives on mathematical learning and problem solving. The
International Journal on Mathematics Education (ZDM), 37 (6), 487-489.
Lesh, R. & Zawojewski, J. S. (2007). Problem solving and modeling. In F. Lester (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching
and Learning. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
Türker, B. Sağlam, Y., & Umay, A. (2010). Pre-service teachers’ performances at mathematical modeling process and views on mathematical
modeling. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2 (2), 4622-4528.
Yu, S., & Chang, C. (2009). What did taiwan mathematics teachers think of model-eliciting activities and modeling? 14. International
Conference on the Teaching of Mathematical Modeling and Applications, ICTMA-14, University of Hamburg, Hamburg.
ScienceDirect
Preservice science and mathematics teachers' beliefs about

mathematical problem solving
Yasemin Sağlam a*, Senol Dost b
a
Hacettepe University, Hacettepe Universitesi Beytepe Kampüsü OFMAE Bölümü Beytepe, Ankara 06800, Turkey
b
Hacettepe University, Hacettpe Universitesi Beytepe Kampüsü OFMAE Bölümü Beytepe, Ankara 06800, Turkey
Abstract
Problem solving is one of the core concepts for the learning of mathematics. In recent years cognitive factors which
have an impact on problem solving are the subject of researches. Beside the cognitive factors, affective factors are
also influential on learning of the mathematics. In these factors beliefs have an important role. Furthermore belief
structure influences teachers as well as the students. Beliefs about the problem solving shape the behaviors of
teachers in the class. The purpose of this study is to investigate preservice secondary teachers’ beliefs about
mathematical problem solving in terms of different variables. The research was conducted in 2011-2012 academic
year in a public university of Turkey with 413 preservice physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics teachers from
grade levels 1-5. In the study, Beliefs about Mathematical Problem Solving instrument which was developed by
Kloosterman and Stage (1992) and adapted in to Turkish by Haciomeroglu (2011) was used. The belief structure of
preserve teachers that is investigated through the instrument was examined in terms of different variables like grade
levels, fields of the study, grade point average etc.
Keywords: mathematical problem solving beliefs, preservice teachers;
1. Introduction
Problem solving has been one of the key topics in education and learning activities in recent years. Preparing
students for life and making them well-equipped problem solvers both in business life and in their private lives has
an important place in enabling them to acquire analytic thinking skills. In this respect, mathematical problems
present themselves as important tolls in order to gain such ends. The abstract nature of mathematics and its
contribution to analytical thinking have the potential to make it possible for training well-equipped problem solvers.
One can talk about different variables affecting mathematical problem solving. Within the scope of this study,
mathematical beliefs, which are a variable with a high potential for affecting problem solving process, will be e
laborated. Schoenfeld (1992) defines mathematical beliefs as individual comprehension and emotions that shape
* Corresponding Author: Yasemin Sağlam. Tel.: +90-312-297-8601

E-mail address: ysaglam@hacettepe.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.212
304 Yasemin Sağlam and Senol Dost / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 303 – 306
individual conceptualization and mathematical behavior patterns; Raymond (1997) defines them as individual value
judgments of a person that are shaped by his/her previous experience in mathematics.
Mathematical beliefs can be examined according to different dimensions. De Corte, Verschaffel and Op’t Eynde
(2000) categorize mathematical beliefs as beliefs related to mathematics, learning mathematics and problem solving;
individual’s beliefs about himself/herself in relation to mathematics, and beliefs related to learning mathematics
within social context. In addition to the dimensions of mathematical beliefs, when they are constructed has also been
an interesting research topic for researchers. Previous experience plays an important role in shaping the belief
system. The earlier a belief is included in a belief system, the stronger it is, and the more difficult it is to change
(Pajares, 1992). Moreover, belief systems affect teachers as much as they affect students. Beliefs related to the
nature of problem solving are effective in shaping teachers’ in-class behavior. The aim of this study is to examine
beliefs of pre-service teachers related to mathematical problem solving.
2. Methodology
2.1. Sample of the study
The research was conducted in 2011-2012 academic year in a public university of Turkey with 413 preservice
physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics teachers from grade levels 1-5. The distribution of students in gender,
grade levels and the departments is shown in the Table 1.
Table 1. Distribution of participants in departments, grade levels and gender
Grade level 1 2 3 4 5 Total

Gender F M F M F M F M F M
Physics 13 7 13 3 13 5 8 4 7 9 82
Chemistry 13 7 14 5 6 3 9 7 4 3 71
Biology 24 2 18 3 24 3 15 4 12 4 108
Mathematics 27 6 22 5 28 14 21 7 13 9 152
Total 77 20 67 14 71 23 53 19 36 23 413
2.2. Data Sources

In this study, Beliefs about Mathematical Problem Solving instrument which was developed by Kloosterman and
Stage (1992) and adapted in Turkish by Haciomeroglu (2011) was used. The original instrument consists of 36
items. During the adaptation process 12 items was deleted. The adapted instrument which was used in this study
consists of 24 items and five factors. These factors are mathematical skill, role of mathematics, understanding the
problem, importance of mathematics, problem solving skill. 16 of items were expressed positively and 8 items
negatively.
2.3. Data Analysis

Mathematical problem solving beliefs of preservice teachers were examined in terms of grade level, grade point
average, gender, and department. The analysis of the data was conducted using the SPSS 15.0 software program. For
the reliability analysis Cronbach Alfa coefficient was calculated (0.94 ). In the analysis of data one-way ANOVA
and frequency analysis were used.
Yasemin Sağlam and Senol Dost / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 303 – 306 305
3. Findings
In the study, first of all, mathematical problem solving beliefs of pre-service teachers were compared according
to their GPA and gender. Mathematical problem solving beliefs of pre-service teachers did not present a significant
difference either according to their gender or their GPA (p>.05).
Then, mathematical problem solving beliefs of pre-service mathematics and science teachers were examined
according to the department they are enrolled in and their grade level.
Table 2. Anova results of problem solving beliefs according to department and grade level
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Department 10,529 3 3,510 9,866 ,000
Grade level 6,844 4 1,711 4,810 ,001
Department * Grade level 23,519 12 1,960 5,510 ,000
Error 139,800 393 ,356
Total 5674,259 413
According to the analysis results, mathematical problem solving beliefs of pre-service teachers present a significant
difference according to the department they are enrolled in (F=9.86, p>.05). Likewise, grade levels of pre-service
teachers also create a significant difference in their mathematical problem solving beliefs (F=4,81, p>.05). Mutual
effect of department and grade level on mathematical problem solving beliefs of pre-service teachers is also
significant (F=5.51, p<.05).
When multiple comparisons are taken into consideration, it was seen that there is a meaningful difference
between pre-service mathematics teachers and pre-service science teachers in terms of their mathematical problem
solving beliefs. However, there was no meaningful difference among pre-service science teachers in this respect.
Table 3. Tukey Test results for problem solving beliefs according to departments
Mean 95% Confidence Interval

Department Department Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound
1 2 -,1552 ,09107 ,323 -,3901 -,1552
3 -,0548 ,08749 ,923 -,2806 -,0548
*
4 ,2274 ,07590 ,015 ,0316 ,2274*
2 1 ,1552 ,09107 ,323 -,0798 ,1552
3 ,1004 ,09543 ,719 -,1459 ,1004
4 ,3826* ,08493 ,000 ,1635 ,3826*
3 1 ,0548 ,08749 ,923 -,1709 ,0548
2 -,1004 ,09543 ,719 -,3466 -,1004
4 ,2823* ,08109 ,003 ,0731 ,2823*
4 1 -,2274* ,07590 ,015 -,4233 -,2274*
2 -,3826* ,08493 ,000 -,6017 -,3826*
3 -,2823* ,08109 ,003 -,4915 -,0731
1- Biology, 2-Physics, 3-Chemistry, 4-Mathematics
When the mathematical problem solving beliefs were compared according to grade level, there was a significant
difference between freshmen and the sophomores, junior, and seniors; however, there was no significant difference
between freshmen and fifth year students.
306 Yasemin Sağlam and Senol Dost / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 303 – 306
Table 4. Tukey Test results for problem solving beliefs according to grade levels
(I) Grade (J) Grade Mean Std. 95% Confidence Interval

level level Difference (I-J) Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound
1 2 -,4102* ,09008 ,000 -,6570 -,1633
3 -,3826* ,08632 ,000 -,6191 -,1460
4 -,4109* ,09206 ,000 -,6632 -,1586
5 -,1770 ,09433 ,332 -,4355 ,0815
2 1 ,4102* ,09008 ,000 ,1633 ,6570
3 ,0276 ,09072 ,998 -,2210 ,2762
4 -,0007 ,09620 1,000 -,2643 ,2629
5 ,2331 ,09838 ,126 -,0364 ,5027
3 1 ,3826* ,08632 ,000 ,1460 ,6191
2 -,0276 ,09072 ,998 -,2762 ,2210
4 -,0283 ,09269 ,998 -,2823 ,2257
5 ,2056 ,09495 ,195 -,0547 ,4658
4 1 ,4109* ,09206 ,000 ,1586 ,6632
2 ,0007 ,09620 1,000 -,2629 ,2643
3 ,0283 ,09269 ,998 -,2257 ,2823
5 ,2339 ,10019 ,136 -,0407 ,5084
5 1 ,1770 ,09433 ,332 -,0815 ,4355
2 -,2331 ,09838 ,126 -,5027 ,0364
3 -,2056 ,09495 ,195 -,4658 ,0547
4 -,2339 ,10019 ,136 -,5084 ,0407
The belief structure of the preservice teachers that is investigated through the instrument was examined in terms
of grade levels, fields of the study, grade point average, and gender. Mathematical problem solving beliefs of pre-
service teachers did not present a significant difference either according to their gender or their GPA. When the
departments students were enrolled in are taken into consideration, there is a significant difference between pre-
service science teachers and pre-service mathematics teachers in terms of their mathematical problem solving
beliefs. This is an expected situation; however, it is surprising that there is no meaningful difference among pre-
service science teachers, because pre-service biology teachers do not take mathematics classes, unlike pre-service
physics and chemistry teachers. However, that they all study mathematics for university entrance examination and
for the Public Personnel Selection Examination, an exam they all take after graduation, can be seen as the reason
behind the lack of difference. Similarly, while there was a meaningful difference between freshmen and the
sophomores, junior, and senior, there was no meaningful difference between freshmen and fifth year students. This
can be explained by the exams these students take in order to enter the university and after graduation, too.
References
De Corte, E., Verschaffel, L., & Op’t Eynde, P. (2000). Self-regulation: a characteristic and a goal of mathematics education. In M. Boekaerts,
P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of selfregulation (pp. 687–726). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Haciomeroglu, G. (2011). Matematiksel problem çözmeye yönelik inanç ölçeğinin Türkçe’ye uyarlama çalışması. Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp
Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 17, 119-132.
Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers' beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62( 3), pp.
307-332.
Raymond, A. M. (1997). Inconsistency between a beginning elementary school teacher's mathematics beliefs and teaching practice. Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education, 28(5), 550- 576
Schoenfeld, A. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving, metacognition and sense making in mathematics. In D. Grouws
(Ed.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning: A Project of the National Council of Teaching of Mathematics (pp. 334–
370). New York: Macmillan
ScienceDirect
Problem-Based Learning in Teacher Education: Its Promises and

Challenges
Tolga Erdogana *, Nuray Senemoglub
a
Turkish Land Forces Command, Yücetepe, Ankara, Turkey
b
Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
Abstract
Problem-based learning has been in use in the education of medicine, law, and engineering students. The aim of this study is to
put forth that PBL could be used equally successful in the education faculties, hence to analyze the effects of problem-based
learning on academic achievement and self-regulated learning skills together, and to undertake self-peer assessments that have
been long neglected in PBL studies. Senior students (treatment=36, control=21) of Middle East Technical University Faculty of
Education Department of Foreign Language Education took part in the study. An achievement test, an open-ended-application
exam, a scale on self-regulation in learning, and self-peer assessment forms were developed and used to gather quantitative data.
Statistical procedures like independent samples t-test, ANOVA for repeated measures, and Pearson correlation technique were
administered to quantitative data. The quantitative results revealed that PBL was effective on students’ academic achievements,
but it had no significant effects on self-regulated skills. Students were consistent in their self and peer assessments, but their self-
assessments were lower than their peer assessments. Suggestions parallel to findings are given in the end.
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Problem-based learning, self-regulation, constructivism, academic achievement, teacher education, self-
peer assessment.
1. Introduction
These days when information is growing rapidly, there is an ongoing discussion on which teaching-learning
process should be followed in the education of students who are capable of managing that bulk of information,
participating actively to the learning process, having higher thinking skills and are equipped with lifelong learning
skills.
The constructivist teaching-learning approach which has been worded widely in educational settings in recent
years focuses on students taking responsibility of their own learning while constructing their own versions of
knowledge. Hence, some instructional approaches like case-based learning, inquiry based learning, project based
* Corresponding Author. Erdogan and Senemoglu Tel.: +90-532-493-3001

E-mail address:tolgasensei@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.240
460 Tolga Erdogan and Nuray Senemoglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 459 – 463
learning, and problem-based learning that take constructivism as basis have emerged (D’Angelo, Touchman &
Clark, 2009).
The main subject of this study, the problem-based learning (PBL), has been successfully in use in the education
medical, law, and engineering students. In this approach, students working in cooperative learning groups study real
life problems, where they work on both content and application of knowledge. They have the opportunity to see
what and why they are learning and be prepared better to their future careers.
2. The purpose and significance of the study

Some reservations have been held about constructivist learning approaches, problem-based learning included.
The role of teachers in this particular approach is to guide students in their learning processes and to facilitate their
learning. In addition, students are expected to reconstruct and research the information and take responsibility of
their own learning instead of passively receiving it. Some people are reported to have worried that students will not
have equal academic development and there will be no controlled learning (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Savery &
Duffy, 1995; Schmidt, 1983). However, studies in primary school (Deveci, 2002; Çiftçi, Meydan & Ektem, 2007;
Araz, 2007; Karaöz, 2008; Özsarı, 2009), secondary school (Sungur, Tekkaya & Geban, 2006; Özgen & Pesen,
2008; Kuşdemir, 2010), and higher education (Özyalçın Öskay, 2007; Şendağ, 2008; Erdem, 2009) have shown that
students are academically successful in problem-based learning settings as those in traditional settings. The analyses
of those studies have revealed that (a) most of them cover only a unit and utilize both quantitative and qualitative
methodologies, (b) besides academic achievement they also focus on attitudes towards particular courses, and (c) a
few of them investigate the influence of PBL on students' retention skills. We thought that those studies lack to state
PBL's effects on knowledge and/or higher thinking levels separately. Some other studies have investigated and
found positive results about PBL's influence on the development of self-regulation and motivational elements which
are expected to improve in those cooperative learning groups handled during the sessions (Dolmans and Schmidt,
1994; Van den Hurk, Wolfhagen, Dolmans & Van der Vleuten, 1999; Sungur & Tekkaya; 2006; Turan, 2009).
Besides those studies done in medical education, there are no investigations on self-peer assessments processed
during PBL sessions. We thought there is a need to further study self-regulation and self-peer assessments in PBL
environments.
Within this respect, the aim of this study is to analyze PBL's influence on students' academic achievements and
their self-regulations, and to investigate those self-peer assessments that have been long neglected in related
research. For these purposes, answers to the following questions are sought for:
In METU (Middle East Technical University), English teaching department, testing and evaluation course;
1. Is there a significant difference between
a. the knowledge and comprehension levels of students in control and treatment groups?
b. the application and higher levels of students in both groups?
2. Is there a significant difference between the self-regulation levels of students in both control and treatment
groups?
3. What is the level of relationship among students' self-peer assessments in the treatment group?
3. Methodology
3.1. Method and participants
In this control group pre-post test research that lasted for 15 weeks, one control and one treatment group were
observed. The participants were METU English teaching department senior undergraduate students taking the
testing and evaluation course in the fall semester of 2010-2011. There were 36 students in the treatment group and
21 in the control one.
3.2. Instrumentation and data analysis
Achievement tests (a multiple-choice knowledge and comprehension achievement test and an open-ended
application exam), a scale on self-regulation in learning and self-peer assessment forms were used to gather data.
Tolga Erdogan and Nuray Senemoglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 459 – 463 461
The “Scale on Self-Regulation in Learning” (SSRL) developed by one of the authors (Erdoğan, 2012) is based on
literature review and similar studies (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1986; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Pintrich,
Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1991) done, and consists of two main categories: self-regulated learning skills and
motivational factors. To better reflect the construct of self-regulation, later those self-regulated learning skills factors
were grouped under three dimensions: before study, during study, and after study. The goodness of fit indices
obtained for the whole scale are summarized in Table 1. In short, the 67-item scale, which has two sub-scales as
self-regulated learning skills/strategies and motivation, explains 64.48% of the variance, and has the Cronbach’s
alpha of 0.91 for the whole scale. The multiple-choice achievement test consists of 35 items (15 knowledge level
and 20 comprehension level items) and has the Cronbach's alpha value of 0.91. The open-ended application exam
aims to assess students' behaviors at analysis and higher levels. The self-peer assessment forms were adapted from
the study of Das, Mpofu, Dun, & Lanphear (1998). SPSS was utilized to analyze data. Independent samples t-test,
variance analysis for repeated measures and Pearson correlations were used during the analyses.
Table 1. Goodness of fit statistics for SSRL.
Goodness-of-fit Statistics
x2/df GFI AGFI SRMR RMR CFI RMSEA NFI IFI
Before Study 4.6 0.95 0.93 0.04 0.10 0.94 0.07 0.93 0.94
During Study 2.7 0.96 0.94 0.04 0.06 0.94 0.04 0.91 0.94
After Study 3.8 0.96 0.94 0.05 0.08 0.97 0.06 0.96 0.97
Motivation 3.1 0.94 0.92 0.05 0.07 0.95 0.05 0.93 0.95
3.3. Research Procedures
The traditional method was followed in the control group, whereas the lessons in the treatment group were
implemented according to the principles of problem-based learning methodology. Both groups were given the
achievement tests and the scale on self-regulation at the beginning and at the end of the study. Apart from the
control group, the students in the treatment group completed their self-peer assessments at the end of each module
(there were a total of five modules).
4. Findings and results
Results of variance analyses for repeated measures obtained revealed that both control and treatment groups were
equal in their knowledge level achievements, whereas significant differences (p<0.01) were found in favor of the
treatment group considering students' comprehension and higher level (application, analysis, and synthesis)
achievements. Such a result is considered mundane or predictable. Because, instead of passive learning, in PBL
students participate in cooperative learning groups where they work on real life problems, hence they have the
chance to research more information and see the actual practical results of theoretical constructs, and take the
responsibility of their learning eventually. As in the studies found in literature, the real power of PBL can be seen in
activities based on application and in real life problems encountered during their occupational experiences (Barrows
& Tamblyn, 1980; Savery & Duffy, 1995; Schmidt, Vermeulen & Van Der Molen, 2006).
The analyses considering all dimensions of the scale on self-regulation in learning showed that there was
difference between the control and treatment groups. Though the self-regulation levels of students in the treatment
group were found higher than those of the students in the control group, except for the task value component of the
scale, the differences were not significant (p>0.05). The main reason could be that students in both groups already
had high self-regulation. The students attending the language teaching department of METU are among the top
students in Turkey. Besides, a 15-week application could not be enough to show real development in self-regulation.
Just as in their research, Van der Hurk et al (1999) investigated students' progress in their self-regulations through
undergraduate grades of 1-4 and found that real development occurred only in the 3rd and 4th grades. It is estimated
462 Tolga Erdogan and Nuray Senemoglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 459 – 463
that a better and healthier observation of self-regulatory skills development could be made in a study that would last
3-4 years, covering all the classes the students attend during their undergraduate studies.
The Pearson correlations considering the self-peer assessments undertaken during PBL sessions in the treatment
group showed that students were consistent in assessing themselves and their peers. Such a finding is parallel to the
findings of a study done by Langendyk (2006). However, their self-assessments were lower than their peer
assessments. As Violato & Lockyer (2006) show in their study, those students assessing themselves lower than their
peers are the ones with high achievement levels. The present study provides no proof explaining which achievement
groups (low or high) evaluated themselves lower (or occasionally higher) than their peers. Besides, some other
studies (Bergee, 1997; Falchikov & Goldfinch, 2000) reported that peer assessments are more accurate than self-
assessments. The reason for this could be that even though students could discriminate good and bad performances,
they fail to use the same standards when it comes to evaluate themselves (Ward, Gruppen & Regehr, 2002). At the
same time, Eva et al. (2004) and Ward, Gruppen & Regehr (2002) state that self (and peer) assessments could be
more accurate and consistent as the students become more experienced with such assessments. These findings could
be true for the present study as well. As a result, it can be said that time and patience could contribute substantially
to the development of student self-peer assessments.
5. Discussion
In the present study, we sought for the influence PBL has on student achievements, on students' use of self-
regulatory learning skills, and we analyzed the self-peer assessments completed at the end of each module processed
in the treatment group. The findings present us with the fact that PBL has significant influence on student
achievements at knowledge level, comprehension level , and higher levels. While such a result relieves us from our
previous concerns that constructivist learning methods like PBL would fail to teach our students the basic
knowledge and comprehension level competencies, it also helps us to see the power and influence of PBL
methodology on student achievements at application and higher levels. The positive, but not significant effect of
PBL on students' use of self-regulatory skills can be dedicated to the nature of such methodologies, where students
work in cooperative learning groups, investigate more information, spend more time on directing, observing, and
evaluating their own learning, and as a result become more autonomous learners. The insignificant difference
between the self-regulations of control and treatment groups could be explained by the students in both groups
already being equipped with high self-regulatory skills, and the short period of application reserved to see the
changes PBL would have on self-regulation. Though not experienced they were, the students in the treatment group
did fairly well and were consistent in their self-peer assessments. Reflecting similar results found in literature, their
self-assessments were lower than their peer assessments. Again, more frequent exposure to such assessments would
help students become more accurate and consistent in their evaluations and they would learn to successfully apply
those standards on their own performance eventually, as they do on the performance of their peers.
As a consequence, the results of this particular study, which investigated the influence of PBL on achievements
and self-regulation and analyzed self-peer assessments, show that PBL could equally be utilized successfully in the
education of prospective teachers as it is used in medicine and engineering. It is thought that better infrastructure
and smaller class size could give better results. Also, the replication of this research in other universities with
varying student levels could provide a better chance to observe PBL's real influence on self-regulation.
References
Araz, G. (2007). Probleme dayalı öğrenme modelinin ilköğretim öğrencilerininö genetik konusundaki başarılarına olan etkisi, Unpublished
Master's Thesis, Middle East Technical University, Institute of Social Sciences, Ankara.
Barrows, H. S. & Tamblyn, R. M. (1980). Problem-Based Learning: An Approach to Medical Education. New York: Springer Publishing.
Bergee, M. J. (1997). Relationships among faculty, peer, and self-evaluations of applied performances. Journal of Research in Music Education,
45(4), 601-612.
Çiftçi, S., Meydan, A. & Ektem, I. S. (2007). Sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde probleme dayalı öğrenmeyi kullanmanın öğrencilerin başarısına ve
tutumlarına etkisi, Selçuk University Journal of Institute of Social Sciences, 17, 179-190.
D’Angelo, C. M., Touchman, S. & Clark, D. B. (2009). Constructivism. Anderman, E. M. and Anderman, L. H. (Ed.) Psychology of Classroom
Learning: An Encyclopedia. USA: Gale, Cengage Learning.
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Das, M., Mpofu, D., Dunn, E. & Lanphear, J. H. (1998). Self and tutor evaluations in problem-based learning tutorials: Is there a relationship.
Medical Education, 32, 411-418.
Deveci, H. (2002). Sosyal bilgiler dersinde probleme dayalı öğrenmenin öğrencilerin derse ilişkin tutumlarına, akademik başarılarına ve
hatırlama düzeylerine etkisi, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Anatolian University Institute of Educational Sciences, Eskişehir.
Dolmans, D. H. J. M. & Schmidt, H. G. (1994). What drives the student in problem-based learning? Medical Education, 28, 372-380.
Erdem, E. (2006). Probleme dayalı öğrenmenin öğrenme ürünlerine, problem çözme becerisine ve öz-yeterlik algı düzeyine etkisi. Unpublished
Doctoral Thesis, HacettepeUniversity, Ankara.
Erdoğan, T. (2012). Probleme dayalı öğrenmenin erişiye ve öz-düzenleme becerilerine etkisi. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Hacettepe
University, Ankara.
Eva, K. W., Cunnington, J. P. W., Reiter, H. I., Keane, D. R. & Norman, G. R. (2004). How can I know what I don't know? Poor self-assessment
in a well-defined domain. Advances in Health Science Education, 9, 211-224.
Falchikov, N. & Goldfinch, J. (2000). Student peer assessment in higher education: A meta-analysis comparing peer and teacher marks. Review
of Educational Research, 70(3), 287-322.
Karaöz Pakyürek, M. (2008). İlköğretim fen ve teknoloji dersi “kuvvet ve hareket” ünitesinin probleme dayalı öğrenme yaklaşımıyla öğretiminin
öğrencilerin bilimsel süreç becerileri, başarıları ve tutumları üzerine etkisi, Unpublished Master's Thesis, Muğla University Institute of
Natural and Applied Sciences, Muğla.
Kuşdemir, M. (2010). Probleme dayalı öğrenmenin öğrencilerin başarı, tutum ve motivasyonlarına etkisinin incelenmesi, Unpublished Master's
Thesis, Mustafa Kemal University Institute of Social Sciences, Hatay.
Langendyk, V. (2006). Not knowing that they do not know: Self-assessment accuracy of third-year medical students. Medical Education, 40,
173-179.
Özgen, K. & Pesen, C. (2008) Fonksiyon konusunun öğretiminde probleme dayalı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarı ve hatırda
tutma düzeyine etkisi. e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy, 3(3).
Özsarı, T. (2009). İlköğretim 4. sınıf öğrencileri üzerinde işbirlikli öğrenmenin matematik başarısı üzerine etkisi: Probleme dayalı öğrenme
(PDÖ) ve öğrenci takımları – başarı bölümleri (ÖTBB), Unpublished Master's Thesis, Aegean University Institute of Social Sciences, İzmir.
Özyalçın Özkay, O. (2007). Kimya eğitiminde teknoloji destekli probleme dayalı öğrenme etkinlikleri, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Hacettepe
University, Secondary Education Department, Ankara.
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Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33-40.
Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A., Garcia, T. & McKeachie, W. (1991). A Manual for the Use of the Motivational Strategies for Learning
Questionnaire (Technical Report No. 91-B-004). Ann Arbor, MI: Program on Instructional Processes and Educational Outcomes.
Savery, J. R. & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem-based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational Technology,
35, 31–38.
Schmidt, H. G. (1983). Problem based learning: rationale and description, Medical Education, 17, 11-16.
Schmidt, H. G., Vermeulen, L. & Van Der Molen, H. T. (2006). Longterm effects of problem-based learning: a comparison of competencies
acquired by graduates of a problem-based and a conventional medical school, Medical Education, 40, 562-567.
Sungur, S. & Tekkaya, C. (2006). Effects of problem-based learning and traditional instruction on selfregulated learning. The Journal of
Educational Research, 99(5), 307–317
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Şendağ, S. (2008). Çevrimiçi probleme dayalı öğrenmenin öğretmen adaylarının eleştirel düşünme becerilerine ve akademik başarılarına etkisi,
Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Anatolian University, Institute of Social Sciences, Eskişehir.
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Hacettepe University, Ankara.
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learning issues on individual study time and academic achievement. Medical Education, 33, 808–814.
Violato, C. & Lockyer, J. (2006). Self and peer assessments of pediatricians, psychiatrists and medicine specialists: Implications for self-directed
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strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 23(4), 614-628.
ScienceDirect
Professionalizing Teachers in Career Dialogue: Effect Study

M. Kuijpers a *, F. Meijers b
a
Associate Professor Pedagogy of Vocational and Professional Education, The Hague University, Bilderdijkstraat 2, Goor 7471 XZ, The
Netherlands
Associate Professor Pedagogy of Vocational and Professional Education, The Hague University, Markt 16A, Wijchen 6602 AN, The Netherlands
Abstract
As a result of the changing notions of work schools are increasingly acknowledging that they have a strong responsibility to
guide students not only in their academic growth, but also in their career development. This paper presents the result of a study
about effects of teachers training on career dialogue promoting career competency development in students. For the quantitative
part of the study, a quasi experimental research design is used to measure effects among 2500 students. Video-recordings of
conversations are used for qualitative research. The results show only when the off-the-job training is followed by on-the-job
coaching, the professionalizing proves to be effective on student level: students notice that the guidance conversations are more
appreciative, reflective and activating and are about self image development, work and career actions. Also the observation on
guidance conversations show that the conversations are more career related.
Keywords: career dialogue, teachers professionalization, career development, training design
1. Introduction
Since the 1980s the range of possible occupational and educational choices has increased dramatically in
Western societies (OECD, 2004). As a result, individuals are faced with a growing pressure to make choices, while
at the same time due to flexibil of employment relationships (Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005) and
individualisation within society (Beck, 1994) less and less direction is provided. The individual is expected to
demonstrate more self-directedness on the labour market (Savickas et al, 2010). Schools are increasingly
acknowledging that they have a strong responsibility to guide students not only in their academic growth, but also in
their career development (Gysbers and Henderson, 2005; Jarvis and Keeley, 2003). Therefore, schools for
vocational education in the European Union invest increasingly in career guidance (Company, 2009).
Research shows that the focus on careers education and guidance in schools is mainly focused on helping
students with their academic achievement and not on helping students to plan and prepare for their work roles
afterwards (Parsad, et al., 2003). Kuijpers, Meijers & Gundy (2011) show that a strong career learning environment
* Corresponding Author: Marinka Kuijpers. Tel .: +31 65 14 27 650

E-mail address: mact.kuijpers@home.nl
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.172
M. Kuijpers and F. Meijers / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 82 – 87 83
(i.e. an environment that enables students to develop and to use career competencies) allows for experiential
learning in combination with a dialogue about what can be learned from the concrete experiences which are aimed at
the (development of) a vocational calling and in relation to that a career. A career dialogue is needed to
(re)formulate dreams and goals regarding a career (Pizzolato, 2007) and to create ‘vocational hope’: the feeling that
a career is possible (Diemer & Blustein, 2007).
It proves to be extremely difficult, however, to achieve a career dialogue in schools; schools rarely offer
room for students’ narratives to be developed or expressed (Winters et al., 2009, 2011, 2012). Educational culture is
monological and focused on control by means of tests (Nichols & Berliner, 2007) – as a result most teachers are
very uncertain about their abilities to help students in developing a career narrative which is a result of a career
dialogue. Therefore, teachers explicitly ask to be trained in initiating a career dialogue with their students (Sangers,
2011). It is important to acknowledge that teachers feel uncertain in this area because the effectiveness of a
dialogical career approach largely depends – as in all forms of counselling (Wampold, 2001; Cooper, 2008) – on the
trust the counsellor has in the chosen approach.
This study aims to contribute to the knowledge on the effects of a training for teachers with regard to career
dialogues. The research question is: What is the effect of the training on the form and the content of the career
dialogue between teacher en student?
2. Design
A total of 230 teachers from twenty schools for primary vocational education in the Netherlands
participated in the training on career conversations and in the research connected to the training. A little bit more
than half of the research group (59%) is female; one third has less than four years, one third four to ten years, and
one third has more that ten years of working experience. Most teachers teach third year students, a third teaches
fourth year students and only 10% teaches second year students.
The research has a quantitative and a qualitative component. Before and after the training questionnaires
were administered to students in an experimental (students of 191 teachers, who participated in the training) and a
control group (students of colleague-teachers, who did not participate). The questionnaires were completed by 2291
students before and after the training. The group of students was equally divided among gender lines and the
average age was 15 with 20% being from the immigrant population. The students were mainly in the third and
fourth year and came from all four sectors in primary vocational education (i.e. health care, economics, technics,
agriculture and the so-called multi-sectorial education).
For the qualitative part of the study, teachers, who participated in the training made video recordings of
their career conversations with students before and after the training. Thirty two of these recordings are used for the
qualitative research.
The training consisted of an off-the-job and an on-the-job part. In the off-the-job part the emphasis is on
theory and on exercising career conversations in a safe environment. In the off-the-job part the emphasis is on the
transfer to school practice. To measure the effect of training, there are two variants of the experimental/control
group:
1-students of the teachers’ group that participated in the two-day off-the-job training with a control group of
teachers who had no training at all.
2- students of teachers who participated in the full training process consisting of the off-the-job as well at least two
individual coaching’s sessions and two team coaching sessions on-the-job, and a control group of teachers who had
no (full) training program.
84 M. Kuijpers and F. Meijers / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 82 – 87
2.1. Instruments
The self-evaluation based questionnaire used for collecting data from the students is an adaptation of the
questionnaire used by Kuijpers & Meijers (2011). The questionnaire measures two aspects regarding the form and
two aspects regarding the content of the dialogue. The form aspects consists of (1) the appreciative form of the
career dialogue (5 items; Cranach’s’ alpha pre-test .79 and post-test .86), and (2) the reflective/activating form of the
dialogue (7 items; alpha .83 and .86). Example items for the appreciative form include: “my teacher gives me
compliments”. Example items for the reflective-active form: “My teacher makes me think about my future” and
“My teacher encourages me to learn new things that I find challenging”. The content aspects of the conversations
that were measured, are (1) self images (6 items; alpha .86 and .89), and (2) work and concrete actions regarding
career (6 items; alpha .87 and .87). An example item for self image is: “I talk with my teacher about my talents”.
Example items for concrete actions regarding work and career are: “I talk with my teacher about pro’s and con’s of
certain jobs” and “I talk with my teacher about how I can use my activities outside school for my future”. Gender,
ethnicity, study year, study level and sector are included as control variables.
Due to the hierarchical nature of the data (students within classes within schools), multi-level regression
analysis was conducted, using the MLWIN v.2.0 program (Rasbash et al. 2005). All continuous variables were
normalized to a mean of zero and a standard deviation of 1.0. All hypotheses were tested two-sided and p-values
less than 0.05 were considered to be significant, unless indicated otherwise.
For the qualitative analyses of the recorded conversations we used the instrument developed by Winters et
al. (2009, 2012). This instrument was tested on usefulness and reliability through analysing three conversations by
two independently operating researchers. As a result, the instrument was slightly adjusted.
3. Results
The training proves to be effective when the full professionalizing program, off-the-job and on-the-job, is
completed. Table 1 shows that, when we compare the training group to the control group, participating in the full
training program contributes to the scores of the outcome variables (post-test scores on form and content of
guidance conversation), when we take the scores of the pre-test into account, and control for the personal and
situational factors. This means that students of teachers, who participated in the full training program, find that their
guidance conversation has become more career related over time than students of teachers who did not have the
(full) training. Students of teachers, who participated in the training, experience their guidance conversation as more
appreciative, reflective and activating since the pre-test than the students in the control group. Moreover, they talk
more about their self image, work and career actions.
Table 1. Results of multilevel regression analyses with career conversations as dependent variable in the post-test
Appreciative Reflective- About self image About work and

activating career actions
Score in pre-test .383 (.019)* .364 (.020)* .409 (.019)* .355 (.020)*
Personal and situational factors
Male (0/1) -.006 (.020) .006 (.020) .051 (.020) .063 (.021)*
Immigrant (0/1) -.035 (.020) -.023 (.020) -.034 (.020) -.025 (.021)
Study year -.017 (.035) -.019 (.036) -.004 (.031) .011 (.035)
Study level .043 (.036) -.007 (.036) -.049 (.032) -.057 (.035)
Sector: Health care .180 (.103) .214 (.108) .156 (.093) .103 (.106)
Economics .143 (.092) .122 (.097) .011 (.082) .117 (.095)
Technics -.013 (.122) .114 (.125) -.007 (.110) .052 (.123)
Agriculture -.010 (.140) -.001 (.150) .019 (.122) -.077 (.146)
Multi sector .137 (.128) .072 (.132) -.050 (.111) -.010 (.128)
Full training program (0/1) .083 (.032)* .098 (.035)* .073 (028)* .071 (.034)*
School variance .000 (.000) .007 (.009) .000 (.000) .008 (.008)
Group variance .115 (.019)* .114 (.020)* .070 (.014)* .099 (.018)*
Rest variance .690 (.022)* .709 (.022)* .719 (.023)* .736 (.023)*
Improvement of the model by adding 6,4 (df 1)* 7,8 (df 1)* 6,7 (df 1)* 4,5 (df 1)*
the full training program to personal
and situational factors
N 2211 2211 2211 2211
* p<.05
When we conduct the analysis with the off-the-job training program as the experimental condition instead
of the full training program, we find no significant effects on the development of form and content of career
conversations measured at student level (not shown in table).
In the qualitative study we see that conversations after training take more time, compared to the
conversations before training. The main reason for this is that teacher and student talk more fully about the career of
the students. Besides this, the development of the self image of students is more often taken into account. Even work
and career actions are subjects of conversation, whereas in the pre-test conversations these subjects were hardly
addressed.
As to the form of conversation, we see that students have more input into the conversation than before.
Unlike in the pre-test, in the post-test conversation the goal and content of the conversation is determined prior to
the conversation (i.e. a clear contact and contract). As in the pre-test conversation, teachers have an active listening
attitude and validate students’ input. More often than in the pre-test conversation, appreciative remarks are made by
the teachers. Students are also more challenged in thinking further and deeper about their careers and orienting
themselves. Students are rarely challenged to practice what they want to learn or to prove what they are already able
to do. Furthermore, students are rarely challenged to formulate their thoughts; often the teacher fills in for the
student.
After the training, the topics discussed in the guidance conversations are more often career related. Not
only the number of topics but also the perspective of these topics changed. When it is about the student’s course of
study, the conversation is more focused on the attitude of students and less on their marks and problems. There is
more talking about their private lives and their extracurricular experiences and the experiences students have that are
related to their career. Reflection on qualities and motives are addressed on a higher abstraction level. Such
conversations provide input for self-image development and self-confidence. More often than in the pre-test
conversation, teachers talk with the students about work and about the actions students can undertake to realise their
vocational wishes. Also these subject are more often addressed in relation to the student’s future. Networking was
no subject of discussion in the pre-test conversation. However, in almost all post-test conversations networking was
introduced. Networking is more about who students know, not about how to approach people or how they can
expand and maintain their network.
4. Discussion
An important conclusion of this study is that a two day off-the-job training for teachers seems insufficient
to achieve significant changes in guidance conversations, measured on a student level. However, this off-the-job
training combined with individual coaching and team coaching on-the-job, proves to be effective in improving the
guidance conversation from a student perspective. It requires guided processing of the off-the-job training in the
teacher’s own practice. Not only the quantitative study shows changes in guidance conversations after the training
program, changes are also visible in conversation recordings; in other words teachers achieve more career-oriented
questions and students achieve more career-oriented answers.
86 M. Kuijpers and F. Meijers / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 82 – 87
Although the training proves to be effective, it is not easy to motivate teachers to participate in training. A
need for professionalization is not self-evident to teachers (Van Driel, 2008). Teachers prefer short off-the-job
training courses to learn how to work with specific instruments. However, the offered training is not only more time
consuming (a combination of off-the-job and on-the-job), it focuses on changes in one’s professional identity. The
development of personality traits and qualities only takes place when those learning find the content meaningful
(and that is something quite different than content being considered ‘necessary’). Moreover, it requires
implementation of learning activities in the career of the teachers (Kuijpers & Scheerens, 2006). The kind of
dialogue that is needed here is described by Shotter (1993, p.20) as “a socially constructed myriad of spontaneous,
responsive, practical, unselfconscious, but contested interactions”, a form that is directly opposed to “the apparent
representation of dialogue as converging upon a single ultimate ‘Truth’”. The togetherness that lies at the heart of
collective learning is therefore not based on pre-established truths, but a rich, shared meaning created and based on
the ideas of all those involved (Easterby-Smith, Crossan & Nicolini, 2000). In order to achieve such a learning
environment within the dominant educational culture, transformative leadership is essential (Geijsel, Meijers &
Wardekker, 2007). Such leadership, however, is rare in Dutch education. Further research could focus specifically
on the contribution of collective learning and transformative leadership on career learning of teachers and career
guidance by teachers.
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ScienceDirect
PSYCHOLOGY OF TRANSLATION IN CROSS-CULTURAL

INTERACTION
Assoc. Prof. Dr Loreta Ulvydienė
Vilnius University, Kaunas Faculty of Humanities, Lithuania
Abstract
The world today is characterized by an ever growing number of contacts resulting in communication between
people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This communication takes place because of contacts
within the areas of business, military cooperation, science, education, mass media, entertainment, tourism but also
because of immigration brought about by labor shortage or political conflicts. From the earlier times commercial
interaction was one of the foremost features of ancient civilizations. Commerce of different goods by the traders
created new paths of cultural interactions among different lands. Nevertheless, in the 21st c. even the most famous
business companies, e. g. General Motors, IKEA, Electrolux, etc. fail to introduce some of their products due to
mistakes of inaccurate cross-cultural translation, i. e. advertising gaffes. Thus, translation is a tool for
communication between diverse cultures and people of different backgrounds. This tool enables people to send and
to receive information and to achieve successful communication. Besides the differences in languages there are also
differences in cultures and people representing those differing cultures. The paper first gives a short overview of the
concept of culture-specific items and of the techniques that are applied when translating them. Different theorists
argue that cultural behavior is one of the most important aspects in translation of commercials. People from different
cultures do things in different ways. Thus, I argue that it is important to increase our awareness of and sensitivity to
culturally different modes of behavior. We need to recognize different cultural patterns at work in the behavior of
people. It is also useful to be aware of how our own cultural background influences our behavior.
Purpose of this study: to discuss and describe different translation techniques applied in the translations of
different cross-cultural advertisements and to demonstrate that semiotics form the basis upon which the translation
of persuasive advertisements should be built.
Method of this study: discursive semiotic approach.
Findings and results: For the purpose of translating persuasive advertisements, the various signs, their
meaning and significance as well as their intertextual relationships (text and context) have to be examined in order
to establish their significance and their role when translated into another language and culture. It is important to
transmit the message adequately, or it may lead to loss of business. The conclusion is drawn that miscalculating the
pertinence of cross-cultural communications can be counter-productive at best, or abysmal at worst. Cultural
differences with regard to eye contact, appropriateness of a smile, and protocol for addressing foreign counterparts
are all qualities that dramatically impact all angles of negotiation and interpersonal communication.
Keywords: translation gaffs, slogans, culture-specific items, socio-cultural component, localization, translatability, cultural interactions, semiotic
translation
Selection
© and Authors.
2013 The peer review under the by
Published responsibility of Prof.
Elsevier Ltd. OpenDr.access
Servetunder
Bayram
© 2013 The Authors.Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Corresponding Author: Loreta Ulvydienė

E-mail: loretaulvydiene@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.197
218 Loreta Ulvydienė / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 217 – 226
1. Introduction
The world today is characterized by an ever growing number of contacts resulting in communication
between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This communication takes place because of
contacts within the areas of business, military cooperation, science, education, mass media, entertainment, tourism
but also because of immigration brought about by labor shortage or political conflicts.
Undeniably, from earlier times commercial interaction was one of the foremost features of ancient
civilizations. Commerce of different goods by the traders created new paths of cultural interactions among different
lands. Nevertheless, in the 21st century even the most famous business companies, e. g. General Motors, IKEA,
NIKE, Electrolux, etc. failed to introduce some of their products due to mistakes of inaccurate cross-cultural
translation, i. e. advertising gaffes.
Thus, language has always been an integral part of the business situation. Yet, language and the
management thereof (such as translation and interpretation) have never been given their rightful prominence and
importance in business sectors.
Moreover, of all the symbolic systems, language is the most complex, most socially and culturally affected,
and the richest (in part because of its reliance on convention). Through it, we learn almost all of the other systems.
With it, we can achieve very special effects. Therefore, advertisements as discourse must first be recognized as paid,
non-personal communication forms used by identified sources through various media with persuasive intent (cf by
Rotzoll 1985: 94,) Moreover, the examples discussed in present surveys witness how important and delicate this
problem is and how subtle and carefully structured advertisements and their translation should be. It is obvious that
language plays the most important role in advertising.
In addition, methods of promotion and techniques of advertising are of supreme importance. The researches
carried out in the framework of commerce and e-commerce verify that the advertiser can either address the emotions
of the audience, the emotional appeal, or the intellect of the audience, the rational appeal. In the emotional appeal,
the advertiser suggests rather than argues. Before choosing the kind of appeal to be made, and before being able to
decide what to say, the advertiser has to know about the social and psychological entities he is dealing with.
Therefore, the translator needs to recognize different cultural patterns at work in the behavior of people. It is also
essential to be aware of how our own cultural background influences our behavior.
Cultural Translation, norms and behavior

Cultural translation is considered to be one of the most essential and complicated translations. If the
translator does not have any cultural background of the source language then he will face difficulties conveying the
whole meaning of the cultural patterns that are included in the original text. Nida and Taber (1982) viewed cultural
translation as, “A translation in which the content of the message is changed to conform to the receptor culture in
some way, and/or in which information is introduced which is not linguistically implicit in the original” (p. 199). –
this is APA style, maybe it’s not applicable to the style guide you are using.
Larson (1984) believes that one translates culture and not language arguing that, “Language is a part of
culture and, therefore, translation from one language to another cannot be done adequately without a knowledge of
the two cultures as well as the two languages structure” (p. 431).
Moreover, Gideon Toury (1995), a leading academic innovator of translation theory, maintains that
“Translation activities should rather be regarded as having cultural significance. Consequently, ‘translatorship’
amounts first and foremost to being able to play a social role, i.e., to fulfill a function allotted by a community - to
the activity, its practitioners and/or their products - in a way which is deemed appropriate in its own terms of
reference. The acquisition of a set of norms for determining the suitability of that kind of behaviour, and for
maneuvering between all the factors which may constrain it, is therefore a prerequisite for becoming a translator
within a cultural environment. In fact, cognition itself is influenced, probably even modified by socio-cultural
factors. At any rate, translators performing under different conditions (e.g., translating texts of different kinds,
and/or for different audiences) often adopt different strategies, and ultimately come up with markedly different
products” (53-69).
In addition, translation of general values or ideas shared by a community - as to what is right and wrong,
adequate and inadequate - into performance instructions appropriate for and applicable to particular situations,
Loreta Ulvydienė / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 217 – 226 219
specifying what is pre-scribed and forbidden as well as what is tolerated and permitted in a certain behavioural
dimension (the famous ‘square of normativity’, which has lately been elaborated on with regard to translation in De
Geest (1992: 38-40) is of supreme importance and a key to successful cross-cultural communication (in Toury 1995:
53-69).
On the other hand, it is also necessary to speak about ‘Cultural Untranslatability’ as cultural differences are
always one of the main causes of translation problems, particularly if both languages belong to a totally different
background. Catford (1965) differentiates between what he calls “linguistic” and “cultural” untranslatability.
Furthermore, cultural behavior undoubtedly is one of the most important aspects in translation of
commercials. People from different cultures do things in different ways. Therefore, the localizing translator must
pay careful attention to behavioural specificities, the most important being the socio-cultural component which
includes the local particularities stemming from religion, mores, social and commercial habits, rules of conduct and
ethical norms, i. e. the principal component that is related to the main features of the hosting culture and society.
Psychology of Advertising
The concept of advertising is a complicated issue since it involves two interactive processes-
communication and persuasion - which both have many different aspects. In order to have an idea about how
complicated the world of advertisement is, the reader might start by asking questions which have to do with who is
speaking to whom, by what means and what is the purpose behind the whole communication. The answers to such
questions will prove that language plays an important role, but obviously not the only role, in the communication
network; and that advertisement, although appearing to be straightforward and simple, is usually extremely subtle
and carefully structured.
Advertisements are sometimes classified into what is called ‘reason’ and ‘tickle’ advertisement. The former
suggests motives for purchase and ‘tickle’ advertisements, on the other hand, make appeals to emotion, humor as
well as mood.
On the one hand, it is through standardization of communication strategy that a given company is able to
achieve a company image that is recognized all over the world. The task of transferring marketing strategy from one
country into another has been faced by opposing points of view. On the other hand, to some critics, standardization
is not desirable at all, and more than one theme is essential to respond effectively to the cultural differences which
take place among countries. The latter argue that the task seems to be extremely difficult, if not impossible, due to
the differences in market characteristics, industry conditions as well as legal restrictions. Another group of critics
claim that people who belong to different heritages are basically the same and that they do have similar perceptions
of products. This means that an international advertising campaign with a universal appeal can definitely be
effective in any market.
It is indeed very risky not to adapt communication to local markets, especially in countries where the
cultural tradition is still very present. Moreover, the translator of the 21st century should be a professional of culture
able to decode and encode the cultural signs within the advertising communication.
Ultimately, as researchers from CCJK company that is devoted to integrating worldwide resources and
facilitating cross-cultural exchanges, insist, when speaking about “translation problems in global marketing, it is
necessary to remember that translation is a more complex communication than that within a single language because
it involves two languages. Given the importance of consumer’s psychology, the translator must be fully aware of the
cultural understanding, aesthetic standards, and consumption modes of both starting language and target language
readers, and should keep in mind the intention of the original so as to transfer its message maximally. Moreover, the
translated advertisements should be delightful to the eye, pleasant to the ear, easy to remember, as well as be a
perfect unity of sound, form, and meaning.*
Linguistic and cultural semiotics
*
For more extensive information see http://www.ccjk.com/blog/translation-based-on-reader%E2%80%99s-
psychology-ii/
Throughout ages a variety of signs helped man not to get lost in the world. Hence, various scientific
approaches have been evolved to help man decipher the message encoded in the sign. One of such scientific systems
is semiotics, which relies on the study of language with reference to its structure and meaning. As a method,
semiotics emphasises the structural integrity of the text, the smaller sections of which enable the act of cognition.
Semiotic analysis is in search for the cultural patterns that underlie language and give meaning of the text.
The theory of cultural semiotics is based on the insights of the Russian scholar Yuri Lotman (1922-1993).
Cultural semiotics of Yuri Lotman is oriented towards the interconnection of regular and irregular conditions in the
semiotic processes. Cultural semiotics stresses the unity of culture and language because it is language that retains
the collective memory of humanity, which is individualised by the reader with regard to signs.
As Linguistic and Cultural Semiotics is a branch of communication theory that investigates sign systems
and the modes of representation that humans use to convey feelings, thoughts, ideas, and ideologies, semiotic
analysis is rarely considered a field of study in its own right, but is used in a broad range of disciplines, including
art, literature, anthropology, sociology, and the mass media. Umberto Eco in his Theory of Semiotics (1979) jokingly
suggests that semiotics is a discipline for studying everything which “can be used in order to lie” (7). Whether used
as a tool for representing phenomena or for interpreting it, the value of semiotic analysis becomes most pronounced
in highly mediated, postmodern environments.
Thus, semiotic analysis provides the translator with means to deal with signs in a persuasive advertisement
which reflect a cultural identity. By analysing the signs and semiosis in the source culture, the translator can identify
their functions and transfer them into a target language (and culture) by finding equivalents in the target culture.
Thus the translation of persuasive advertisements must be seen as a process and a product which should be handled
within the framework of a general theory of signs and not merely by (means of) methods that are purely language-
based.
Gideon Toury (1980: 12) explains that a specific culture (for instance Flemish) would represent one
semiotic entity or system. This entity would incorporate linguistic and non-linguistic elements. Translating an
advertisement from culture 1 to culture 2 would thus entail the transfer of signs between two systems. Toury (1980:
12) points out that the transfer situation involves certain relationships, namely:
- between each one of the two entities and the system within which it is situated (in other words, how
acceptable is this entity to the norms of the system);
- between the two entities themselves (in other words, the level of equivalence or correspondence).
In a translation situation this means that (i) the signs in the target text must be acceptable to the users in that
sign system, i.e. the culture, and (ii) the meaning (and thus the message) generated by the signs in the target text
must have an equivalent effect on the receivers, i.e. the same effect as on the source text receivers (as cited in
Bezuidenhout, 1998).
Traditionally translation has dealt mainly with the linguistic aspects in advertisements, but now the
semiotic aspects of a discourse such as advertising should be incorporated in order to make cultural transfer
possible. In other words, not merely the random substitution of one image or symbol with another in the target
language, but the use of symbols in the target language which will create the same effect and have the same impact
and meaning on the target receivers as they had on the source receivers.
On the other hand, when dealing with translation, one should admit that there will always be a certain
degree of loss in meaning when a text is translated. Peter Newmark, one of the main figures in the founding of
translation studies in the English-speaking world from the 1980s claims that “...if the text describes a situation which
has elements peculiar to the natural environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable
loss of meaning, since the transference to...the translator’s language can only be approximate” (1988: 7).
In the case of advertisement translation the translator would have to be very sensitive to the losses and
gains of cultural elements. S/he should assess the ‘weight” (connotations, denotations, familiarity) of cultural
elements in the source text in order to translate them into the target text and bring about the same effect as in the
source text.
Culture as a universal semiotic object and metalanguage

The main task of culture as expressed by Lotman deals with the organisation of the world that surrounds
man. Culture itself can be viewed as a storehouse of information, and even everyday cultural activity consists in
“translating a certain sector of reality into one of the languages of the culture, transforming it into a text” (Lotman
quoted in Segre 1988: 128). The text for Lotman is information coded appropriately and presented to collective
memory. Culture takes the language as its main instrument, and language itself protects collective memory, to which
reality is exposed through signs. The term collective memory refers to recognition and safeguarding of texts as the
heritage of community, and the modification of texts into the single consciousness. The text for the culture then
could be viewed as “a global sign, endowed with distinctive traits” (ibid., 129).
Further on, inner (or subconscious) mechanism allows the cognition of central and peripheral cultural
spheres as texts, thus, it refers to the impact of cultural information on the process of text interpretation. What is
more, cultural myth-forming mechanism acquires features of a verbal text formed under the principles of a sentence
and yet differences between central and peripheral cultural systems cannot be avoided. As Lotman puts it, “the
central sphere of culture is constructed on the principle of an integrated structural whole, a sentence” (1990: 215),
which then functions as the structural model of the world and is perceived as a concentric system, while “the
peripheral sphere is organized as a cumulative chain, simply by the accretion of structurally independent entities”
and relates to excesses (ibid, 215). Nonetheless, culture never encloses everything but creates a marked-off sphere.
A change of culture is traditionally followed by an intense development of semantic behaviour, e.g. the change of
names, which, on the other hand, pertain to a specific change in culture. At the same time the multiplicity of
lifestyles expands the possible range of choice and encourages the experience of communal differences.
It is important to note that language and culture form a whole complex in Lotmanian perception. As the
critic argues, “no language can exist unless it is steeped in the context of culture; and no culture can exist which
does not have, at its centre, the structure of natural language” (1978: 212). Firstly, culture could be perceived as the
nonhereditary memory of the community, which means each individual being a representative of the community or
fulfilling various cultural functions. On the other hand, culture could be perceived as memory for it is only perceived
after some time and at the same time culture as memory introduces the issue of a program, recognised as semiotic
rules by which human experience is transferred into culture, or text. As the reader of the text should always consider
memorisable facts under semiotic norms that view the text being not reality, but the material applied in its
reconstruction, semiotic analysis of the text should always precede historical. However, any reality introduced in the
area of the text starts playing the role of a sign and “generates multilingual phenomena” (ibid., 229). The world
made double in the word and man in space form an initial semiotic dualism. At the same time texts are enciphered
by the means of a variety of codes, which also alludes to the fact that different cultural memory might be detected in
various parts of a synchronic text. From a dynamic point of view, the rise of other types of texts is based on the
innovation of codes.
Nonetheless, textual techniques, e.g. delineation of semantic fields, individualisation of motives and
themes, start working due to the impact of metalanguage that helps to “overcome the heterogeneity and the
incommunicability of the text” (Segre 129). Then the sequence of discrete textual elements is exceeded as “one sets
out from the results of comprehension, whose nature is continuous, and from distinctive traits” (ibid, 129-130). In
addition, the definition of the principle of alternation as introduced by Lotman presents actual oppositions being
simply interpretations filled with information. The term of semiosphere as one of the key concepts of Lotmanian
semiotic system is also of importance to explain the processes of language functioning.
Thus, the question can be asked: What is the value of a discursive-semiotic approach to translating
advertisements? This can be answered by looking at the application of semiotics in the advertising industry.
Peirces’s doctrine of signs should not be ignored as all verbal language is mainly symbolic though the symbol only
becomes meaningful in a practical way because the sign user (or better the community of sign users) makes logical
decisions about its scope and usage. Without sign representation there is no possibility of sign interpretation.
Interpretation, translation or any other type of semiosis, means, in effect, tracing out the ground as it is operative in
actual sign use. Meaning arises from exploratory interpretation of signs in their natural habitat: the world of context
in which humans use verbal (and nonverbal) signs in order to meaningfully (for themselves) organize the reality
surrounding them, thereby mastering them (in Gorlee 69-77)
It is obvious that within the framework of semiotic symbol systems, the conventionality of a true symbol
rests on the shared understanding by the communicating participants that the symbol is a token representing some
referential class, and that the particular token represents a particular aspect of shared situational context, and,
ultimately, a shared universe of discourse. Conventional symbol systems are therefore grounded in an
intersubjective meaning field in which speakers represent, through symbolic action, some segment or aspect of
reality for hearers. This representational function is unique to symbolization, and is precisely what distinguishes a
symbol from a signal. A signal can be regarded as an (possibly coded) instruction to behave in a certain way. A
symbol, on the other hand directs and guides, not the behaviour of the organism(s) receiving the signal, but their
understanding (construal) or (minimally) their attention, with respect to a shared referential situation.
Ultimately, even though there is usually no full equivalence between code-units in the case of interlingual
translation, the message may serve as adequate interpretations of alien code-units or messages. What happens is that
during the translation process the message in the source language is substituted for an entire message in the target
language, and not only code-units. The translator acts as the go-between between the two languages and has to
create an equivalent effect in the target language (cf Bezuidenhout 1998).
The semiotics of advertising: translation as sign interpretation

Over the years, not only some of the largest and most marketing-savvy companies have made big
translation blunders.
The famous American baby food brand, Gerber which can mean “to vomit” in French was misunderstood
because of failures in advertisement translation. Additionally, when Gerber started selling baby food in Africa, they
used the same packaging as in the US, with the smiling baby on the label. Later they learned that in Africa,
companies routinely put pictures on the labels of what was inside since many people could not read!
Puffs brand tissues (Procter&Gamble) are quite popular in the U.S.A., however, their quest for global
marketing ran into a few snags due to their name. In Germany, “Puff” is a colloquial term for a whorehouse. In
England, a similar word, “Pouf,” is an offensive term for homosexual.
Japanese car maker Toyota had to send apologies to Chinese consumers for running advertisements that
many Chinese complained were aimed at humiliating them and their domestic industry. The advertisements, for two
new types of cars - Prado GX and Land Cruiser - had drawn widespread indignation and criticism from China’s
citizens, who saw them as a deliberate act by the Japanese car firm to insult the Chinese. One advertisement
depicted a traditional Chinese-style stone-carved lion saluting a moving Prado GX, whose Chinese translation
means “despotic manner”. “You have to pay respect to it,” read the slogan. The other showed a Land Cruiser
pulling a cumbersome Chinese-made truck on a bumpy road on a plateau.
The advertisements, published in Friends of Cars magazine drew strong reaction from readers as many of
them connected the stone-carved lion with those carved on the Marco Polo Bridge, where Japanese imperial troops
launched a full-scale invasion of China in 1937. The bridge is one of the symbols of humiliation China has suffered
in modern history.
DHL, the leading express and logistics company, took delivery of a new fleet of 200 vans from Ford and
Toyota to serve its customers in Saudi Arabia in 2003. As the campaign suggested, DHL offices, air express centers
and signage were being re-branded to match. It was accompanied by the new slogan “We move the world” which
was supposed to sum up the strength of DHL as the global brand for all Deutsche Post World Net Group express and
logistics business. In Saudi Arabia, though, the slogan was immediately banned as violating and insulting religious
beliefs of the Muslims as only Allah can move the world.
Pakistan Telecommunications Authority issued a directive to mobile operators after receiving complaints
about late-night call advertisements sent to customers, which went against the country's social norms and values.
According to the government agency, the directive was issued because the operators were promoting “vulgarity” and
such service packages were against “social norms” and the country's “values.” Several mobile phone companies in
Pakistan offered “late-night packages” which allowed users to make calls at a lower rate compared to calls made
during the day. A lot of complaints were received from the Supreme Court of Pakistan, the Parliament’s Standing
Committee, and subscribers regarding the “promotion of vulgarity” through advertisements.
One more localization mistake comes to us from Iran, where a detergent and cleaning brand “Barf” is
named after the Farsi word for “snow.” However, it would be difficult to imagine many English speakers cleaning
their home or dishes with Barf.
Moreover, in post-communist countries, like Lithuania, Latvia or Estonia, advertising of consumer products
and services and advertisement translation has emerged as a new text type as a result of the swift transition from a
planned economy, which rendered advertising futile, to market economy, which is advertisement dependent. (cf. by
Jettmarova, Piotrowska, Zauberga 1997: 185) For obvious reasons, with a state monopolized non-competitive
market, a domestic genre of advertising did not exist in those countries (including Check Republic and Poland).
Therefore, the socio economic changes that started with the “Singing Revolution in Lithuania” and collapse of the
Soviet Union brought changes to the business sector and advertising. With new products being imported from across
the seas, major problems in advertising were caused not by the unawareness of languages but primarily by the
unawareness of cultures. Brand names (though they are the property of the company) were not adapted to specific
culture(s) and cases of translation gaffes that led to failures in selling were quite frequent. For example, commercials
for Schick razors or Camay Chic soap sounded like a vulgar Lithuanian verb imperative to void (if back translated to
shit) and for obvious reasons did not sell well.
Apparently, product (brand) launching is quite similar to product arrangement and culturalisation. Our
Latvian neighbours Latvians when promoting “Country Holidays in Latvia” offered sunbathing, bathing, boating,
cycling, horse-riding, steam-bathing, angling, mushrooming, berry picking in the woods, sports, games and dancing.
They also offered nourishing country food. There was not a word given about sunbathing in its English translation
as in the given climate this would hardly be a plausible attraction for foreigners. Instead the English text offered
“bird watching” and “making new friends” (Zauberga 1997: 189) On the other hand, searching for clichéd texts our
neighbours made obvious translation mistakes in their slogan “Easy to go, hard to live” when it was supposed to say
“Easy to go, hard to leave.”
Furthermore, although in 1991-2004 American impact on the advertising industry was obvious in the Post-
Soviet countries, with Lithuania entering EU space (2004), European ideas became more attractive. Nevertheless,
even though elements of national history are quite often employed to promote one or different products, i. e. the
commercial is localized and domesticated, often they are developed by foreign companies, and therefore an obvious
lack of cultural background is still acute. On the other hand, direct transfers in advertisement translation are still in
favor and frequently result in the loss of the persuasive force and the change of the source text function. The
examples demonstrate that once the rules of the game were created for a different culture, i. e. remote recipient,
they do not necessarily work on the recipient coming from a different cultural context. A good example of this is
the commercial with Vikings shopping in Lithuanian malls and placing their goods into barrels did not bring
commercial success to the most rapidly developing retail chain in Lithuania Norfos mažmena whose target was the
practical buyer with a medium income. Taking into consideration the fact that about 72 percent of Norfa’s buyers
are middle aged women the method for promoting Lithuanian products was rather doubtful because Norwegian
historical figures wearing helmets were perceived as alien. If interpreted within the framework of semiotics, the
received views of the Vikings as violent brutes or intrepid adventurers owe much to the modern Viking myth which
had taken shape by the early 20th century. Current popular representations are typically highly clichéd, presenting
the Vikings as familiar caricatures. Thus, in Lithuanian culture they are associated with violence and look like
travesty on Lithuanian screens.
One more case of inadequacy adjusting the source text to the target culture was associated with Estonia and
Lithuania – the two Baltic sister countries. In November 2012 an Estonian company attempted to implement easy
access post boxes/kiosks for sending letters in the fastest way. They created the commercial on TV with the phrase
“Estonians are very slow at writing” which caused an opposite effect. The company who developed the commercial
most probably did not take into consideration the negative psychological aspect of all jokes about Estonians that are
very popular in Lithuania. Bearing in mind that Estonians are quite often laughed at for their slow manner of
completing the tasks the customers read the message “Use easy access kiosks to send letters and your recipient will
receive them in half a year at its best”. Even if the idea was to create “tickle” advertisement the commercial became
anti-advertisement and was quickly removed from the screens though the uncertainty about the quality of service
became deeply rooted in the minds of those who saw it.
Moreover, though the cheapest mobile telephone connection operator in Lithuania, Tele2 admits to
spending too much on advertising in Lithuanian media,† having the biggest number of customers, Tele2 may be said
†
Lithuania’s major telecommunications operators spent 120 million litas (EUR 34.78m, not including discounts) on
media advertising between January and August, data from TNS LT has shown. The largest amount was invested by
Tele2.
to have achieved success with its commercial. However the case when the customers see a short history of one
family with two brothers one of whom is imprudent, though easily recognized by the receivers who know the fairy
tales about the “Silly Hans” or “Jack the Dullard” (H. K. Andersen) or Lithuanian folk tales about the third brother
being silly, caused ambiguous feelings. Therefore, not surprisingly, the company most obviously chose teenagers
and also elderly population as its target audience. On the other hand, with business sectors as Target audience and
service promotion, inadequacy was observed when historical warriors intrude into the office to request for the bill.
The bills for mobile services are periodically sent to the customers and they are not requested as the commercial to
promote Tele2 service in Lithuania suggests. The only reasonable explanation here would be that Tele2 AB is a
major European telecommunications operator, with about 34 million customers in 11 countries and Chief
Commercial Officer and Executive Vice President of Tele2 Anders Olsson most obviously evaluated, to employ
Toury’s (1995) formulation, norms that “serve as criteria according to which actual instances of behaviour are
evaluated, <…> though normative formulations tend to be slanted, then, and should always be taken with a grain of
salt” (56). Therefore, the latter commercial was soon updated and gained success.
On the other hand, these normative formulations and the importance of cultural awareness can be illustrated
by the example of Samsonas - one of the largest meat processing companies in Lithuania. This was one of the best
success stories of product advertising in Russia and Belarus. In 1998 a new line of “Tarybiniai” (which means
“Soviet”) meat products was launched and at once attracted exclusive customers’ attention. It soon became a
recognised and popular meat product. Samsonas employed a deeply rooted image of Lithuania as the country
representing the highest quality merchandise in former times. The advertisement “Meat products “Tarybiniai”
(“Soviet”) did not imply banal nostalgia for Soviet times, but was intended as a resolute search for quality and return
to the natural attracting the attention of the target customers’ in Belarus and Russia. Samsonas engaged the concept
of Lithuania known among other Soviet Republics of the former U.S.S.R. as “The Little America.” In addition, with
the scandalous evidence delivered via TV and the results of the TV investigation being spread via all channels, that
few sausages in Lithuanian market contained meat, Samsonas gained success learning the “Where’s the Beef?”
lesson. Their commercial asked and suggested at the same time “Who told you that there is no meat in sausages?
Searching for meat? You should try “Tarybines” (Soviet) sausages”.
Nevertheless, in Lithuania products “Tarybiniai” did not bring benefit to MAXIMA - a retail chain
operating in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Bulgaria. Customers will not forget the ambiguous feelings caused by
the promotion of “Tarybiniai” in January 2013. With the image of a Soviet woman in the background the
advertisement announced: "Special offer for ham sausage “Tarybine” exceptionally on January 13! Buy one, get one
free!”
Twenty years ago January 13, 1991 the world witnessed Lithuania’s darkest hour as it struggled to regain
its freedom and sovereignty from the Soviet Union. The January 13 events are deeply ingrained in the Lithuanian’s
hearts. “I would place this date to one of the most important events in the Lithuanian history. I would call it
Lithuania’s ‘Winter War’, which came some 50 years later. Same like the Fins in 1939 decided to fight with the
much larger enemy despite the fears that the Soviets swiftly will crush the resistance”, says Ruslanas Iržikevičius
who is monitoring political and economical developments in Lithuania.‡ The Lithuanian Winter War in January
1991 was a crucial for the survival of our nation as the Žalgiris battle in 1410, as the Lithuanians fights against the
Bolsheviks in 1920, as the Partisan War after World War two (ibid.)
Thus, a retail chain operating in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Bulgaria MAXIMA made an unpardonable
blunder trying to promote sausages “Tarybines” (Soviet). Opting out of promotional inquiries Samsonas on its turn
decreed that the company does not support either the way of advertising or the promotion itself on the day of
commemoration of “January 13 victims”.
Overall, the cases demonstrate that the countries that used to share single economic space know the rules of
the game, i. e., know symbols and signs encoded in those cultures and it may lead to successful advertising
For more details read “January 13, 1991 – Lithuania’s ‘Winter War’ at Lituanica
http://irzikevicius.wordpress.com/2008/01/13/january-13-1991-%E2%80%93-lithuania%E2%80%99s-
%E2%80%98winter-war%E2%80%99/
communication. In addition, if semioticians drag the unconscious messages being transmitted into consciousness by
isolating and identifying the signs to constitute the message, the translator has a double role: as semiotician and as
transference agent or translator. The translator must create a similar effect on the receivers in the target language.
Conclusions
Before choosing the kind of appeal to be made, and before being able to decide what to say, the advertiser
has to know about the social and psychological entities he is dealing with. Therefore, the translator needs to
recognize different cultural patterns at work in the behavior of people. He has to know about their desires, attitudes
as well as habits. It is also essential to be aware of how our own cultural background influences our behavior.
In the case of advertisement translation the translator has to be very sensitive to the losses and gains of
cultural elements. S/he should assess the “weight” (connotations, denotations, familiarity) of cultural elements in the
source text in order to translate them into the target text and bring about the same effect as in the source text. In
producing a target text, the translator will enable transcultural communication.
Knowledge of semiotics gives the translator a better understanding of the intrinsic appeal of an
advertisement, in other words how the different elements and parts work together as a discourse to perform a certain
function, and thus a message and effect. Furthermore, the translator gets additional insight into the receivers who
might respond to the advertisement and buy the product, and make an estimate of the bond the consumer will form
with the product.
Commercial translation requires special proficiency in the specific commercial field. The commercial
translator must have thorough knowledge regarding the commercial domain he or she is going to translate along
with deft skills in the language of commerce. A perfect combination of all these skills will enhance the presentation
of the commercial data from the source to the target language.
Taking into consideration the researches in the field of advertisement translation it is possible to conclude
that the weakness a shortcoming of a discursive-semiotic approach is that advertisements, as a discourse, are
dynamic. It might not always be obvious that a specific discourse is an advertisement. Thus, the translator might not
treat that particular discourse as such. Another problem is that the translator might not be fully adapted to deal with
cultural nuances in the target language, and may consequently use signs that have an adverse effect on the target
receivers by not generating an equivalent message (of the source message).
References and Sources

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ScienceDirect
Readability and French language teaching texts: An analysis of

French language teaching websites and textbooks
Mustafa MAVASOGLU a* , Serkan DINCER a
a
Cukurova University, Faculty of Education, Adana 01130, TURKEY
Abstract
In parallel with the rapid development of Internet, the number of online language learning resources created for self-study seems
to have overtaken print-based resources and more and more language teachers orientate their students towards language teaching
websites so that these documents could have a support role outside the classroom. With regard to research focus, as some
researchers rightly stated (i.e. Kong, 2009), educationists centered their focus, on the contrary, more on print-based teaching
materials while linguistic and interactional features of websites are mostly disregarded. One possible reason of this would be the
consideration of online learning materials are simple reproductions of their print-based counterparts which is not true because
web-based and print-based materials are different tools. Readability of texts serving as online documents is one of the neglected
features concerning language teaching websites. To examine if online textual materials are simple duplicates of print-based
materials, the present study aims to compare French language teaching websites and textbooks in terms of their lexical density
and clause length which are common criteria for readability. Results showed similarities regarding both clause length and lexical
density between websites and traditional textbooks. Based on these results, practical implications that would be needed for the
design of appropriate online instructional resources have been then discussed.
Keywords: French; textbook; websites; readability.
1. Introduction
Reading online has been the subject of many investigations (Chun, 2001; Garcia & Arias 2000; Kong 2009; Liou
1997; Lomicka, 1998). While some text readability studies examined the relationship among particulars of Internet
and learner motivation and performance, others dwelt on online reading from various aspects (Corbel & Gruba,
2004; Glister, 1997; McNabb, Hassel, & Steiner, 2002; Snyder, 2002). In this context, readers’ comprehension of
websites has been focused in some studies. For example, in a study conducted with English language learners, Dail
(2003) found that, while reading online texts, learners did not use same strategies as those they employed during
reading activities with printed documents. This paper aims to identify the similarities and differences of grammatical
explanations found in online and printed materials in the sense of their properties of readability.
*
Corresponding Mustafa MAVASOGLU. Tel.: +0-90-5079417721
E-mail address: mmavas@cu.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.204
Mustafa Mavasoglu and Serkan Dincer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 256 – 259 257
1.1. Differences of online and print reading
There are differences between online and print reading in terms of their nature for reading practice. Reading a
text on a computer screen is found more exigent than reading a printed material (Kong, 2009). Morkes and Nielsen
(1997, as cited in Kong 2009) claim that individuals scan the computer screen instead of reading it. In another study,
Nielsen (1997, as cited in Kong 2009)) found that online reading is approximately 25% slower than print reading.
Grammar texts on internet for self-study are dissimilar to printed grammar texts in terms of discourse features
such as individual words and sentences, sentences and paragraphs individually structured and in terms of layouts
features such as headings, abbreviations, and lists individually bulleted, enumerated. This also creates difficulties in
reading online (Lesikin, 2000).
1.2. Clause length and lexical density
Readability indicates the suitability of written materials to be easily read and understood (Richards & Schmidt
2002). The average length of sentences and the frequency of difficult words are of some main factors determining
text readability. Similarly, the readability of online texts is evaluated by sentence length and the frequency of
difficult words. To understand the relationship between spoken and written languages which present different level
of complexity, the term lexical density was used. For Halliday (1993), lexical density is a measure of the density of
information in any passage of text, according to how tightly the lexical items (content words) have been packed into
the grammatical structure (p. 76). Online text should carry fewer and less difficult words (Kong, 2009). Procedures
to measure readability are known as readability formulae which consist of dividing the total number of clauses into
the total number of lexical words.
2. Methodology
The corpus selected for the present study consisted of 15 websites and 10 textbooks for teaching French grammar
to find out if their texts had similar or dissimilar features in terms of lexical density and clause length (see Appendix
1). The main purpose of both corpora is to teach French as a foreign language.
In the corpus, only the parts on relative clauses were chosen for analysis because, as Kong (2009) states, texts
may differ from each other regarding the number of grammatical items which may receive different treatments and
explanations. Besides, only the language of instruction was analyzed. All examples were excluded. Websites
presenting grammatical explanations in a language other than French were also excluded.
The texts were first analyzed concerning their lexical density and then their clause length. Following Kong
(2009), clause length was preferred to sentence length because the latter can comprise many clauses while the
former is a more central unit of meaning. A clause is defined by the existence of a finite or non-finite verb.
3. Findings and discussion

Results of this study clearly showed that French grammar teaching websites have twice as many words as do
textbooks (average of 264.2 versus 123.7 words). The same stands for the number of clauses, namely the average
number of clauses on websites was almost triply higher than that in textbooks (16.27 versus 5.7 clauses).
Surprisingly, French language teaching websites, at least those existing in our corpus, give more explanations than
do textbooks. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the websites, with their high number of words and
clauses, are more likely to present a difficult readability that the textbooks. As for why textbooks have fewer words
258 Mustafa Mavasoglu and Serkan Dincer / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 256 – 259
compared to websites, explanations coming to mind are that textbooks do not elaborate on grammatical
explanations. They rather present a grammatical subject by giving sufficient examples.
With regards to lexical density, results revealed that the websites were lexically much denser than the textbooks
(average of 5.1 versus 3.98). As previously cited, Halliday (1993) argues that a text would be more difficult to
understand if it has a much higher lexical density. Inversely, a text would be easier to understand if it has a less
higher lexical density. In Halliday's terms, we can conclude that, compared to the textbooks, texts given by the
French grammar teaching websites of the present study seem to be more difficult to understand. However, as Kong
(2009) argued, online explanations ought to be formulated with lower lexical density given the difficulty of online
reading because of its demanding nature.
Websites seemed to maintain their superiority over textbooks in terms of clause length, another way to measure
readability of texts. Indeed, they have distinctly longer clauses than the textbooks (average of 14.18 versus 9.50).
When we take into account results of lexical density together with those concerning clause length, we can conclude
that French grammar teaching websites are more difficult to understand than the textbooks. This high level of
reading difficulty is not adequate considering the more demanding nature of online reading (Kong 2009). Kong
explains the tendency of grammar teaching websites of English to create longer clauses overly jammed with
(lexical) words by the wish to make websites more interesting with grammatical explanations which are remarkable
and satisfactory. Based on our findings revealing that textbooks give less grammatical explanations than do
websites, it is likely that this trend might also be caused by a wish to support textbooks by providing explanations
and examples.
4. Conclusions
Based upon the findings of this study, it is quite apparent that website writers should be more attentive while
creating reader-friendly texts for learners. Bearing in mind the demanding feature of reading online, they should
avoid grammatical explanations with over length or lexically dense clauses. Teachers should analyze well before
recommending to their students any of French grammar websites. And students should know that they may have to
need printed and traditional grammatical texts when online texts of grammar seem to be quite difficult to
understand.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by Cukurova University Department of Scientific Research Project (Project
Number: EF2012BAP10).
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Nielsen, J. (1997). Be succinct! (Writing for the Web). Retrieved July 15, 2012, from http://www.
useit.com/alertbox/9703b.html.
Richards, J. C & Schmidt, R. (Eds.). (2002). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics.
(3rd ed.) New York: Longman
Snyder, I. (2002). Silicon literacies. London: Routledge.
Appendix 1. Sources of research samples
Web sites
Title URL
1 Bonjour de France http://www.bonjourdefrance.com/n8/cdm2.htm
2 Centre Collégial de Développement Didactique http://www.ccdmd.qc.ca/media/allo_pron_dis_039Allophones.pdf
3 Centro Linguistico di Ateneo http://claweb.cla.unipd.it/home/smazurelle/dynamots/a1/m3/gr_relatifs.html
4 Espace Français http://www.espacefrancais.com/quiz/divers/pronoms-relatifs/quiz.htm
5 Francés para todos en Utebo http://francesparatodosenutebo.blogspot.com/2010/03
6 Français Facile http://www.francaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-francais-2/exercice-francais-41289.php
7 Français Langue et Culture http://www.orthogram.com/la_proposition_relative.html
8 Global French Language http://www.french.ch/Lecon_21_pronoms_relatifs_complet.htm
9 Intef http://platea.pntic.mec.es/cvera/hotpot/relatifs_qui_que.pdf
10 Lisgar Alumni Association http://www.lisgar.net/zamor/Fran11/relatifs.html
11 Ortholud.com http://www.ortholud.com/grammaire/proposition_subordonnee_relative/index.php
12 Synapse Developpement http://www.synapse-fr.com/manuels/P_RELAT.htm
13 tolearnfrench.com http://www.tolearnfrench.com/exercises/exercise-french-2/exercise-french-31128.php
14 University of Calgary http://fis.ucalgary.ca/Elohka/qui_que.htm
15 The University of Hong Kong http://www.french.hku.hk/starters/structures/07_relatifs.htm
Textbooks
1 Berger, D. & Spicacci, N. (2001) Accord 1: Méthode de français (5th ed.). Paris: Didier
2 Gallier, T. & Grand-Clément, O. (2004) Belleville 2 : Méthode de français. Paris : Clé International
3 Girardet, J. & Pécheur, J. (2002) Campus 1 : Méthode de français. Paris : Clé International
4 Monnerie-Goarin, A. & Siréjols, E. (1998) Champion 1 : Méthode de français. Paris : Clé International
5 Baylon, C., Campa A., Mestreit, C., Murillo, J., Forum 1 : Méthode de français. Paris : Hachette
& Tost, M. (2000)
6 Mérieux, R. & Loiseau, Y. (2008) Latitudes 1 : Methode De Français. Paris: Didier
7 Capelle, G. & Noëlle G. (1998) Reflets 1 : Méthode de français. Paris : Hachette
8 Flumian, C., Labascoule, J. & Royer, C. (2004) Rond Point 1 : Méthode de français. Paris :Editions Maison des Langues
9 Menand, R., Berthet, A. & Kirizian, V. (2003) Taxi ! 2 : Méthode de français. Paris : Hachette
10 Augé, H., Canada Pujols, M.D., Marlhens, C. & Tout va bien ! 1 : Méthode de français. Paris : Clé International
Martin, L. (2005)
ScienceDirect
School Culture and American Indian Educational Outcomes

Donna Martinez, Ph.D.
University of Colorado Denver, Campus Box 134, Denver, Colorado, 80217-3364, United States
Abstract
American Indians have the lowest educational attainment rates of any group in the United States. Researchers have attributed this
educational disparity gap that American Indians experience to the lack of cultural relevance in mainstream educational settings.
American Indian students perceive a cultural bias against them in classroom curriculum as well as pedagogical practices. While
some states have passed legislation to support teaching about American Indians, no funding to support culturally relevant
curriculum changes or teacher training accompany these measures. Successful American Indian college students learn how to
develop a strong academic identity, while retaining strong cultural ties. A continuing educational gap in access to higher
education, in a knowledge-based economy affects the socio-economic status of families and tribes. Incorporating tribal values
into mainstream schools would not only educational connections for American Indian students, but can also enhance the learning
environment for all students.
Keywords: American Indian education, educational disparity, boarding schools, culture and cognition
Introduction
American Indian students have the lowest educational attainment rates of any group in the United States.
Many American Indian students perceive their current classroom experiences as unrelated to them culturally.
Insisting that the culture of school is more important than culture of students’ homes is form of cultural imperialism.
Educational institutions believe that they offer a “culture blind” education to all American students; an education
where race and cultural backgrounds of students do not matter, a reportedly culture-free zone.
Researchers have attributed the educational disparity gap that American Indians experience to the lack of
cultural relevance in mainstream educational settings. The rate of high school graduation for American Indian
students is 46% compared to a national average of 89%. Only 17% begin college, compared to a national average of
62%. Of this 17%, only 4% survive the first academic year. 11% of American Indians have college degrees, less
than half the norm for the rest of the country (American Indian Education Foundation, 2011). American Indians
comprise 0.9% of the United States population (Census Bureau, 2010), and a distinct numerical minority in
Corresponding Author: Donna Martinez, Tel: +21 443247839
Email: donnamartinez@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.194
200 Donna Martinez / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 199 – 205
educational settings. They are largely invisible or present as tokens and stereotypes in school curriculum. Current
school cultures do not lead to equitable educational outcomes for American Indian students.
The idea of cultural blindness masks entrenched inequality. Educators assume that racial harmony is the norm in
cultureless classrooms. Many view the underperformance of American Indian students in education as merely
representing the lack of individual hard work and determination. Current educational disparities are viewed as a
reflection of individual underachievement and lack of educational potential.
A continuing educational gap in access to higher education, in a knowledge-based economy affects the
socio-economic status of families and tribes. Many American Indian families depend on public education as a
pathway to upward mobility and increased opportunities. Reservations remain economically underdeveloped, and
the full potential of many American Indian students, untapped.
Both Gallup and Kaiser Family polling data indicate that the majority of white Americans believe that
racial discrimination no longer exists, that we live in a post-racial, color-blind, or race neutral society (Gallagher,
2012). The myth of color and cultural blindness maintains white privilege by negating the reality of racial and
cultural inequality that American Indians face in American institutions.
History of American Indian Boarding Schools
Historically, education has been used as a weapon of colonization against American Indians. The American
Indian boarding school system can be described as a war in disguise, a war to attain complete cultural supremacy.
Education was used as a weapon to remove and isolate children from their families, diminish tribal populations, and
extinguish tribal cultures.
Differences in the perception of education exist among dominated minorities, some resist “colonial
education” while others view education as a path to economic security for their families. Boarding schools started as
an experiment with Indian prisoners at Fort Marion, in St. Augustine, Florida. The Bureau of Indian Affairs and
churches ran boarding schools. Money was deducted from annuities if children weren’t sent away to schools
(Reyhner, 2004, p. 47). Tribes suspected that boarding schools were set up to divert their treaty money.
After the Civil War, the Catholic Church developed the largest number of mission schools, using
government funding. Cultural repression was emphasized in boarding schools. The term ethnocide refers to the
destruction of one’s ethnic culture. Children were subject to the repression of any previous cultural ties such as their
names, languages, and religion. Modeled on the emerging prison system, military style training and corporal
punishment were routine. Physical and sexual abuse, and death from disease was rampant (Bear, 2008). Children
were removed from their families and tribal communities, as young as the age of five, up to age eighteen (Daniels,
2012). Runaways were returned by law enforcement. The impact of American Indian boarding school practices on
parenting skills, families, and tribes, has yet to be fully understood.
The war against American Indian cultures, and for complete assimilation, was waged overtly. The
infamous quote of Carlisle Indian Industrial School founder, Richard Henry Pratt, summarized the intent of these
schools, “Kill the Indian, Save the Man.” (Child, 1998 p. 54). As succinctly stated by Reverend A.J. Lippincott at a
Carlisle commencement, “The Indian is DEAD in you. Let all that is Indian within you die! You cannot become
truly American citizens, industrious, intelligent, cultured, civilized until the INDIAN within you is DEAD.” (Child,
1998, p. 77).
Donna Martinez / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 199 – 205 201
Retaining family bonds was difficult given the cost of transportation to boarding schools. The cost of round
trip train fare was over thirty dollars; while per capita annual income for American Indians was eighty-one dollars
(Reyhner, 2004, p. 45). Students were a source of cheap labor for local farms. The students sometimes lived with
white families in a practice called “outing”. The emphasis was on learning a trade or basic skill to become part of an
unskilled labor force. The lack of professional training left an underdeveloped economy and no potential for growth
among families and tribes.
In 1865, President Grant recommended that American Indian children be removed from their homes in
order to achieve the goal of establishing an assimilated cultural identity in government-run schools, instead of
church schools (Child, 1998). Protestants fought to end all government funding of mission schools.
In 1923, the Secretary of the Interior formed the Committee of One Hundred, to review Indian government
policy, including the practice of boarding schools. They recommended that reservation based day schools be
established. (Reyhner, 2004, p. 203). By the 1920s, the Bureau of Indian Affairs changed from a primary focus on
boarding schools, to attendance at public schools. By 1923 the majority of Indian children nationwide attended
public schools (Reyhner, 2004, p. 200).
The 1928 Meriam Report found that the majority of American Indian schools were inadequate. This report
specifically criticized the use of American Indian students as laborers, at a time when child labor laws prohibited
these practices in many states (Reyhner, 2004, p. 208). The Meriam Report supported the development of
community day schools on reservations and the phasing out of boarding schools.
One legacy of the era of boarding schools are the high rates of historical trauma experienced in American
Indian families. Historical Trauma theory argues that cultural trauma to a society impacts succeeding generations
(Sztompka, 2000). Researchers have found that unresolved cultural grief causes generational emotional distress
(PTSD).
The basis of historical trauma theory was developed with survivors of the Jewish Holocaust and Veterans
of World War I and II. Similar to other traumatized populations, PTSD rates are higher among American Indians
(22%), than among the general population (8%) (Brave Heart, 2011). American Indians continue to be exposed to
more trauma than the general population. Eighty-five percent of American Indians experience trauma compared to
52% of the general population (Bullock, 2005). Trauma theory changes fundamental therapeutic questions from
“What’s wrong with you?” to “What’s happened to you?” (Bloom, 2004). American Indians experienced
colonization through a number of federal government policies including; wars, fraudulent treaties, forced
relocations, incarceration on reservations, boarding schools, and tribal termination in the 1950s.
Historical trauma continues in multiple generations because the descendants of genocide are genetically at
higher risks of developing PTSD (Kellermann, 2001) Grief resolution can occur through collective mourning, based
on cultural rituals, and on a commitment to community healing (Whitbeck, 2004). Cultural practices that are
retained can be used for healing.
American Indian Educational Disparity
The dropout rate for American Indians is three times that of non-Indian students, at a time when a high
school diploma is a minimal qualification for entry-level jobs. Over one-third of American Indian young people
drop out of high school. Only 46% of American Indians graduate from high school and 17% attend college. Only 13
percent of American Indians earn a college degree (American Indian Education Foundation, 2011).
It is important to look beyond the educational outcomes so many Indian youth face, and also examine the
schools they attend. A 2012 ASHE report attributes American Indian attrition rates to the lack of representation of
American Indians in curriculum and among teachers (McKinney, 2012). A U.S. Department of Education study
identified the top reasons why American Indian students drop out of school: (1) uncaring teachers, (2) curriculum
designed for mainstream America, and (3) tracking into low achieving classes and groups (Department of
Education, 1991).
The campus climate of schools can be aggressively anti-Indian at times. The use of derogatory American
Indian mascots in public schools seems to support the belittling of culturally important figures. Public schools
continue to use sports mascots with names like “Savages”, “Redskins”, and “Fighting Reds”. Sports mascots are
often crude, cartoon-like depictions of "braves" and "chiefs". Religious symbols like face paint and feathers are used
without respect and context, an overt message of religious intolerance and cultural disrespect. Beginning in the
1960s, the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) campaigned against this demeaning use of native
traditions and rituals. In 2005, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) required colleges to retire
demeaning mascots, but many public high schools still use them.
American Indian students perceive a cultural bias against them in classroom curriculum as well as
pedagogical practices. Only 8% of American Indian students who drop out do so because of academic failure. Most
complain about boredom, and perceived hostility from classmates and teachers which creates a difficult school
climate. (Reyhner, 1995). Standardized testing has narrowed needed curriculum revisions and further disconnects
teachers and curriculum from the lives of many American Indian students (Roppolo, 2007).
An analysis of social studies curriculum found that American Indians are largely depicted as victims, rather
than recognized for their contributions to American culture (Journell, 2009). Any American Indian history that is
covered in schools focuses on a limited time frame of pre-twentieth century history. Contemporary achievements of
tribal self-determination are excluded from school curriculums, as well as a substantial pre-Columbian history of
ancient civilizations in America. This serves to reinforce media images of American Indians as people who existed
in the past. Americans can feel as though they have accepted people who only existed in the past (Willow, 2010).
Nearly all states cease their coverage of American Indians after wars in 1860s, creating an incomplete narrative.
This creates significant implications for the historical consciousness of all students, and especially for American
Indian students.
Non-native teachers teach the overwhelming majority of American Indian students, whether on
reservations or urban areas, in both tribal colleges and mainstream institutions. American Indian teachers can serve
as important role models, but low educational attainment rates have contributed to a deficit of certified American
Indian teachers. Teachers don’t need to be cultural experts, but just aware of American Indian students and
welcoming to them (Pewewardy, 2003). Good teachers can build upon diverse student cultural backgrounds. Lack of
empathy from teachers is cited as a major contributing factor in drop out rates of American Indian students (Pember,
2010). Dropout prevention starts with caring and informed educators, many can benefit from cultural relevancy
training.
While some states have passed legislation to support teaching about Americans Indians, no funding to
support culturally relevant curriculum changes or teacher training accompany these measures. American Indians
have struggled to gain a presence in educational curriculum. In the 1990s, a political “culture war” occurred in the
United States regarding the presentation of public school history curriculum. Liberals asserted that a critical reading
of national history needed to be presented; while conservatives felt that a celebration of “traditional” American
historical accounts should be stressed. National educational standards, developed in 1994, did not expand the
presence of American Indians in school curriculum. The original people of the Americas remain associated with the
idea of “foreignness”. American Indians appear once a year in school curriculum, as part of the mythology of
Thanksgiving, where they are “guests” of the Pilgrims, or an occasional Indian massacre or battle is mentioned.
American Indians have served in every war, beginning with the American Revolution. A 1988 United States Senate
resolution acknowledged the influence of the Iroquois Confederacy on the American Constitution. Imperial
nostalgia has romanticized and belittled American Indians, belatedly showing approval of cultural aspects that were
repressed by government policies in the past, yet unable to support the educational needs of American Indians in
classrooms today.
Many whites today know little of American Indian history. The invisibility of American Indians in school
curriculums supports Anti-Indian sentiments. As Elizabeth Cook-Lynn defines the term, “Anti-Indianism is that
which treats Indians and their tribes as though they don’t exist, the sentiment that suggests that Indian nationhood
(i.e., tribalism) should be disavowed and devalued (Cook-Lynn, 2001, p. x).While overt expressions of racism
against American Indians have been reduced, they have been replaced by a romanticized notion and
commodification of American Indians (Denzin, 2013). Rather than acknowledging racial hierarchy, race and culture
are now viewed as media symbols that can be consumed, and supposedly understood by anyone.
A strong relationship exists between language, culture, and cognition. Different linguistic communities
conceive reality in different ways. According to the U.S. Department of Education, schools that support a student’s
language and culture are more successful in educating those students. The Department of Education Indian Nations
at Risk Task Force identified top priorities as the need for culturally and linguistically based education, and the need
to train more American Indian teachers (Locke, 2007). Schools can play a vital role in serving student and
community needs at a time when American Indian languages struggle to survive as spoken languages.
With higher poverty rates, American Indian families may experience frequent relocations due to family
hardships. Government data reveal that 27% of American Indian families with children live in poverty, rates that are
more than double those of the general population (National Institute Health, 2012). A high level of absences is often
the first evidence of dropout behavior (Reyhner, 2006). American Indian students are often placed in special
education and basic skills programs, instead of culturally appropriate programs (Reyhner, 2004, p. 11). School
discipline, detentions, and suspensions are higher for American Indian students than non-Indian. American Indian,
African American and Hispanic youth are disciplined at higher rates and two to five times more likely to be
suspended or expelled (Wallace, 2009, p. 47).
Educational Success and Resiliency Factors
For students to succeed in school they must have positive beliefs about their abilities as students, and about
the importance of education to their future opportunities. This correlation may be difficult on some reservations with
high unemployment rates and few jobs. Only 6 of every 100 American Indian college students will graduate, and
only 2 of these 6 will complete graduate or professional degrees (Alberta, 2001, p. 89).
One response from tribes to high university attrition rates resulted in the development of tribal colleges. In
1968, the Navajo nation founded the first tribal college, Navajo Community College, renamed Dine College in 1997
(Reyhner, 2004, p. 295). Tribal colleges are committed to providing culturally based education on reservations.
There are now 32 tribal colleges, most of them two-year institutions, in 12 states, Ninety one percent of tribal
college students are non-traditional, often older working parents, and many are single mothers (Williams, 2007).
These students take longer to complete their education due to both financial and family demands than traditional
students.
Students at some tribal colleges face a digital divide in their educational pursuits. More than 90% of tribal
populations lack high speed Internet access, accoridng to the Federal Communications Commission (PBS, 2011).
With less than 10% of tribal lands having access to broadband Internet service, some developing countries have a
higher rate of access, according to the Department of Commerce. American Indian students on reservations also
need to use limited funds on gas to drive miles to Wi-Fi locations. (Huffington Post, 2012).
Communities also founded American Indian charter schools; there are currently forty-four such schools in
the United States (Reeves, 2009). The majority of American Indians are an urban population and do not attend tribal
colleges on rural reservations, or charter schools, so there is still a great deal of work to be done to change
mainstream educational institutions in order to change educational outcomes for the majority of American Indians
students. The need for cultural and language retention programs are acute. Many tribes have reservation based
language programs, but the majority of tribal members live off-reservation, without access to Indigenous language
classes at mainstream schools and universities.
Developing an academic identity, and perceptions of social support systems are key factors in college
persistence (Okagaki, 2009). Many American Indian students are first generation college students who can
encounter a less familiar campus climate. Second generation college students have more factual information about
college from their family and friends. Students who can successfully develop an academic identity are more likely to
persist in academia (Montgomery, 2000, p. 387). Students who have more positive perceptions of the university
environment are more easily retained (Alberta, 2001).
When the factor of social support is examined, the role of faculty mentoring has the most significant impact
on college retention. Students with at least one faculty mentor are more likely to succeed in college (Alberta, 2001,
p. 96). Yet American Indians remain underrepresented among college faculty. According to the National Center for
Education Statistics, nationwide there are a little over 7,000 American Indian faculty on college campuses (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2012). American Indian faculty can connect to the important role that extended
families hold in American Indian cultures, but they also face many pressures in academic environments which
reward publishing more than community commitments. The lack of role models and precedents is revealed in
student comments, “Statistically, we’re not supposed to be doing this…We’re not both supposed to be going to
school and getting our education…you know---being Native Americans.” (Montgomery, 2000 p. 392). A lack of
role models in educational pipelines impacts student aspirations.
Successful American Indian college students learn how to develop a strong academic identity,while
retaining strong cultural ties. In addition to the academic challenges that all student face in college, American Indian
students will also face cultural adjustments. Those who have a strong sense of cultural identity are more likely to
persist (Alberta, 2001, p. 89).
Tribal Cultural Values as an Educational Foundation
Incorporating tribal values into mainstream schools would not only support educational connections for
American Indian students, but can also enhance the learning environment for all students. Tribal values focus on
how to be respectful and generous, how to live in balance, how to withstand hardship, and how to receive blessings.
One way to encourage educational attainment may be to encourage more American Indian youth to become
involved in their communities. Personal identity is based on how people view you and learning your place in the
world with humility and grace. Without sustained interactions, cultural miscommunications can proceed
unwittingly. For example, while American schools often emphasize the need to build self-esteem in students, many
tribal cultures value humility above the concept of self-esteem (Reyhner, 2006b).
American Indian students need to develop a strong sense of both their tribal identity and also their
academic identity. They must view their cultural identity as being compatible with a positive academic identity.
Students who have a strong cultural identification and can successfully operate in a majority culture, have the most
positive educational outcomes. Academic success does not need to detract from strong cultural identity.
School cultures that are more congruent tribal values will better serve the needs of American Indian
students. College degrees can be viewed as an opportunity, rather than a barrier, as a part of life’s journey.
Education is a pathway of many journeys; schools that embrace tribal values can be an important part of this
journey.
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ScienceDirect
Science as an Integrated Approach - A Démarche Focused on

Promoting the Competencies for Life
Luminiţa Mihaela Drăghicescu a *, Ana-Maria Petrescu a, Gabriel Gorghiu b, Laura
Monica Gorghiu c
a
Teacher Training Department, Valahia University Targoviste, 5 Moldovei Str., 130093 Targoviste, Romania
b
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Information Technology, Valahia University Targoviste, 18-24 Unirii Blvd., 130082
Targoviste, Romania
c
Faculty of Sciences and Arts, Valahia University Targoviste, 18-24 Unirii Blvd., 130082 Targoviste, Romania
Abstract
Our world is not a world made of disciplined puzzle pieces, but one where issues, situations, realities must be addressed in full
uniform, gathering knowledge, skills, abilities, patterns, acquired interdisciplinary mental schemes and actions, but also beyond
disciplines. Unfortunately, the knowledge is transferred often to pupils/students in limited contexts, circumscribed different
subjects, and the attempts for breaking this pattern are quite shy, at least in Romanian schools.
Considering that the learning objects subsumed under Science area are the first enabled to be envisaged in an integrated
approach, with the help of a conducted Delphi study organized in the FP7 European Research Project PROFILES - Professional
Reflection-Oriented Focus on Inquiry-based Learning and Education through Science (code: SiS-2010-5.2.2.1-2.2.1-266,589), it
was proposed to identify the perception of the academic trainers in relation to the content to be taught to lower and upper
secondary school-children, Science teaching skills, as well as learning contexts to be organized.
The paper illustrates some results of this investigative approach that shows a gap between the effectively implemented
curriculum in school and the real training needs (objectified in content and specific skills) identified by questioned trainers. Most
opinions stipulate that a Science integrated approach allows the students’ experience to be clearly involved in the process,
offering more substance and relevance of learning. Topics such as Renewable Energy Sources, The Environment - Do We Love It
or Destroy It?, Nutrition and Health: What Is Good to Eat?, have a great potential to become more accessible and interesting for
students if they are considered beyond the narrow lens of disciplines, isolated from each other, and treated inter-, many-(multi-)
and/or trans-disciplinary.
Selection
by Elsevier ofunder
BY-NC-ND license.
© 2013 The
Selection Authors.
and/or Published
Keywords: integrated curriculum, teacher professional development, lifelong learning, in-service training, Inquiry-based Science Education,
PROFILES Project;
* Corresponding name: Luminiţa Mihaela Drăghicescu. Tel.: +40-245-220694

E-mail address: lumidraghicescu@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.167
50 Luminiţa Mihaela Drăghicescu et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 49 – 55
1. Introduction
The major changes that accompany the path of the postmodern society force us to reconsider the educational
theories and practices and to employ other axiological retrospections. At the same time, it determines profound
transformations which are produced, first of all, inside our beings, in our mentality.
“Through the unprecedented growth of knowledge in our epoch, the problem of adapting the mentality to that
knowledge gains legitimacy”, asserted Basarab Nicolescu in 1999. For an optimum reporting and adaptation to the
world we live in, it is necessary to break the disciplines’ patterns (and the actual curriculum is centered on
disciplines), to create bridges between them, trying to see also what is beyond disciplines.
The reviving of the Romanian school depends not only upon the educational policy decisions which were taken
lately, but especially upon the measure in which the teachers can effectively achieve the profound and so necessary
curricular reform. That implies a pragmatic orientation of the curriculum, a connection to the problems of the
contemporary society, an educational paradigm change and a flexible pedagogical conception, dissociated from the
canons of the traditional, conservatory and out-dated pedagogy. In this context, the curriculum integrated approach,
the alignment with the competences represent - both for the conceivers of educational policy, of scholar curriculum
etc., and for the education practitioners - the reference that can move the school out of its old patterns / routine.
2. The skills - a desirable result of the educational process
On the18th of December 2006, the European Parliament and the European Council adopted the recommendation
regarding the key skills for the lifelong learning - a document that constitutes the European reference frame in the
related field. The European reference frame of the key skills for lifelong learning defines 8 key-skills, already
integrated in the educational policy documents. As such, in Romania, in the National Education Law, the 68th article
stipulates:
“(1) The national curriculum for primary and secondary school is axing on 8 domains of key skills that determine
the pupil’s training profile:
a) communication skills in Romanian and mother tongue (in the case of the national minorities);
b) communication skills in foreign languages;
c) basic skills of mathematics, sciences and technology;
d) digital skills of using the information technology as a learning and knowledge instrument;
e) social and civic skills;
f) contractor skills;
g) cultural sensitiveness and expression skills;
h) skills of learning how to learn.”
The defining and description of the key-skills constitute an actual preoccupation not only for the EU organisms,
but also for other institutions, national and international institutions and organizations. The project Partnership for
21st century skills, which started in 2002, involving the USA Department of Education, but also other organizations
interested in the educational field, aimed also to define the key-skills for the XXI century, starting from the premise
that every child needs certain specific knowledge and skills in order to become an efficient citizen, worker or leader,
in order to efficiently integrate in the society he leaves in.
The observation that served as a benchmark in the projection of those skills - an observation which is valid also
for the Romanian space - is that there is a profound disparity between the knowledge and competences delivered to
the pupils in school and the knowledge and skills they need in the communities of the 21st century and at their future
job.
In order to help the education practitioners for integrating the necessary competences in the basic academic
disciplines, it was elaborated the learning framework in the XXI century (P21 Framework Definition Document),
which offers an unitary vision upon the learning process. This framework generally describes the abilities,
knowledge, skills and expertise that pupils must master / detain in order to have success at work and in life. Three
Luminiţa Mihaela Drăghicescu et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 49 – 55 51
types of skills are identified: learning and innovation skills, information, media and technology skills and life and
career skills.
In the Romanian school, we begin to see the huge effort of involving in an oriented démarche toward producing -
in general - the necessary skills for social development - and especially, for the personal development - taking into
account specific needs analysis (Gorghiu et al., 2012) but also the conditions of identification and maximal
valorization of pupils’ individual abilities.
The achieving of such démarche requires the pupil’s placement in the center of the educational process, thus
ensuring the satisfaction of his / her expectations, interests and needs. In this sense, we should be preoccupied with
the organization of a motivational educational environment that stimulates the pupils’ participation at their own
training process, allowing so the formation and practicing of the cognitive, instrumental-applicative, attitudinal,
meta-cognitive etc. skills and facilitating / ensuring the necessary conditions for their placement in specific
situations of scholar success.
3. The Science integrated approach and the formation of life skills
In Romania, the Science skills were defined in a special report produced by the Romanian Academic Society
(SAR), in March 2010, as the ability to use a methodological and knowledge body, implicated in the actual world
explaining, in order to identify questions and to draw conclusions based on empiric evidences. For Science and
Technology, the essential knowledge includes: basic principles of the natural world, the fundamental scientific
concepts, technology, technological products and processes, the understanding of the Science and Technology
impact upon the natural world. Those skills must help individuals to a better understanding of the progress,
limitations and risks of the scientific theories, of the applications of technology in the society (in relation with the
decisional process, the moral and cultural aspects and values).
The abilities include the capacity to use: instruments and devices; scientific data to achieve an objective or to
reach a conclusion / to make a decision based on empiric evidences. Persons should be able to recognize the
essential features of the scientific investigation and to have the ability to communicate the conclusions and the
reasoning through which they were achieved (School’s exit from mediocrity. How do we define key skills and the
risks of scholar curriculum modification, SAR Report, 2010).
Benefiting of a clear description of the knowledge and abilities circumscribed to the Science skills, we wonder in
what measure are our pupils in their possession and in what measure does Science represent for them a field
attractive enough to study it thoroughly at a superior level, through university studies? We identify the answer to
those questions in a document issued by the European Union Council. Thus, in the conclusions of the Council
regarding the improvement of the basic skills level in the context of the European cooperation for the schools in the
XXI century (2010), the following statements are specified:
- innovative pedagogic methods and well trained teachers can improve the pupils’ attitude towards MST
(Mathematics, Science, Technology) and the accomplishments in this field; at the same time, this might lead to the
situation in which more pupils will continue at superior levels the studies in those fields and, eventually, to a
growing of the number of graduates in the MST field;
- following the Commission Report from 2007 (Science education now: a renewed pedagogy for the future of
Europe), it is recommended a more extended usage of the education based on research in Science, the elimination of
the Science teachers’ own action by creation of specific networks, paying a special attention to the girls’ attitude
towards Mathematics, Science and Technology, and the school opening toward a larger community;
- achieving of basic skills - the foundation of the key-skills development for lifelong learning - will have an
essential role in the improvement of the professional insertion capacity, of the social inclusion and personal
fulfillment. Consequently, measures must be taken in order to stop the low learning results and the social exclusion;
- good level of reading skills and arithmetic knowledge, next to a solid understanding of the basic principles of
the natural world and fundamental scientific concepts, ensure the basis of achieving of the fundamental skills for
lifelong learning and thus they must be approached from an early age;
- when approaching the complex problematic related to the improvement of the MST reading skills and
knowledge, it must be paid attention to the following aspects:
a) conceiving of scholar curriculum;
b) motivation for reading skills and MST knowledge;
c) impact of the new technologies on the basic skills and their usage in order to support those who study to gain
autonomy and to remain motivated.
In conclusion, especially in Science teaching, it is necessary to renounce to the pedagogical practices centred on
the formalized presentation, excessively abstracted of the specific contents, and to promote an integrated approach
(multi-/inter-/trans-disciplinary) involving teaching-learning methods axed on action, experimentation, investigation
and problems solving.
The formation of pupils’ scientific spirit, of their learning abilities during the entire life, implies “… a changing
of the type of intellectual activity, of the method used by the one who learns; and, of course, a problem of teaching,
and exercising in an activity of learning specific scientific issues, which to offer the possibility to make a kind of
”Science indenture” or of “discovery indenture”, to behave like a “pupil-researcher”, able to regard reality with the
researcher eyes, that is to ask questions (raise problems), to issue hypothesis, to imagine strategies; to engage in an
activity of search, exploration, attempts, investigation, rediscovery of what he / she should know” (Cerghit, 2002).
The teaching practices activated by teachers should then be thought over, selected and used according to their
capacity to start an authentic learning, based on understanding, on the logic thought mechanisms. The expert-teacher
builds his / her didactic démarche respecting the principles of the pedagogic constructivism and constantly reporting
to the age and individual psychological particularities of his / her pupils. The teacher creates a learning environment
in which pupils can valorize their own knowledge, even if they are acquired in non-formal or informal contexts, they
can verify their validity, they can confront them with other colleagues knowledge, they can share them with others;
an experiential learning environment, based on action, scientific investigation, experiencing, on the discovery of
new truths that will be the generating source for restructuration in the previous build cognitive structures.
The formation of the skills that are usable in a variety of actual situations is - according to the EU documents -
the mission of the contemporary school. In this respect, in a specific Delphi study organized in the FP7 European
Research Project PROFILES - Professional Reflection-Oriented Focus on Inquiry-based Learning and Education
through Science (Bolte et al., 2011; Bolte, & Schulte, 2011), it was identified the perception of the academic trainers
in relation to the content to be taught to lower and upper secondary school-children, Science teaching skills, as well
as learning contexts to be organized.

Figure 1. Chemistry situations and contexts appreciated as useful to be Figure 2. Physics situations and contexts appreciated as useful to
introduced in the lessons in order to stimulate and further the Science-related be introduced in the lessons in order to stimulate and further the
educational processes (CM - Environmental Chemistry; CCN - Science-related educational processes (FR - Physics of
Unconventional combustibles; CA - Food Chemistry; CCE - Experimental radiations; FE - Electricity; FCS - Physics as Science)
Chemistry; CO - Organic Chemistry; CCA - Inorganic Chemistry; CCS -
Chemistry as Science)
The Romanian Delphi study respondents were various stakeholders, starting from students (pupils) - 16-18 years
old to Science teachers, educators, researchers, education spokespersons for education policy, and finalizing with
people who are not directly involved with Sciences (Gorghiu et al., 2012).

Figure 3. Biology situations and contexts appreciated as useful to be Figure 4. Interdisciplinary situations and contexts appreciated as
introduced in the lessons in order to stimulate and further the necessary to be introduced in the lessons in order to stimulate and further
Science-related educational processes (BG - Genetics; BB - the Science-related educational processes (HC - Health care; NP - Nature
Biosystems; BM - Microbiology; BFU - Human Physiology; BT - preservation; EL - Everyday life; ST - Free time observation; KN -
Biotechnologies; BCS - Biology as Science) General knowledge; IM - Technological development; HE - Home
environment; SR - Scientific research)

Figure 5. Skills / competencies / attitudes that should be developed and Figure 6. Didactic methods that should be used to support
enhanced to support students in becoming scientifically educated (MI - students in becoming scientifically educated (CWL -
Motivation and interest; SNE - Sensitivity related to nature and environment; Cooperative learning; UNM - Using new technologies; DR -
ARR - Acting reflectively and responsibly; SC - Social competences / ability to Experimenting; IL - Interdisciplinary learning; MO -
work in a team; CS - Communication skills; CU - Contextual understanding; Modeling; IBS - Inquiry-Based Science Learning)
ICT - Interdisciplinary and complex thinking; FSQ - Formulating scientific
questions / hypotheses)
For the teaching practices, the most interesting feed-back was offered by the Science teachers and Science trainee
teacher educators who formulated specific statements related to Science situations, contexts and motives that can be
taken as a basis in order to stimulate and further science-related educational processes, but also to evidence skills,
competencies and attitudes that should be developed and enhanced to support students in becoming scientifically
educated. In this respect, figures 1, 2 and 3 illustrate the Chemistry / Physics / Biology situations and contexts
appreciated as useful to be introduced in the lessons, in order to stimulate and further the Science-related educational
processes. It is evident that Chemistry / Physics / Biology as Sciences, as natural and life sciences need more
detailed information, attention and time to be considered more in the actual teaching / learning process than usual.
On the other hand, as figures 4 and 5 present, interdisciplinary studies (as health care of everyday life contexts) are
appreciated as very necessary and important for promoting the students’ competencies for life, and specific skills /
competencies / attitudes (as acting reflectively and responsibly or contextual understanding) should be developed
and enhanced for supporting students in becoming scientifically educated.
Finally, as figure 6 illustrates, it is important to mention that more than half of the interviewed Science teachers
and Science trainee teacher educators express that interdisciplinary learning represents the main channel that
should be used for supporting the students in becoming scientifically educated persons. At the same time, process
and phenomena modeling and inquiry-based Science education should be taken into consideration as specific
didactic methods focused on student’s constructed learning.
5. Conclusions
We consider that the themes afferent to the Sciences field can be approached in an integrated manner, the scholar
curriculum being susceptible of being multi-/inter-/trans-disciplinary projected, thus facilitating the understanding of
the physical, chemical and biological processes and phenomena which are vital for the conservation of a healthy
natural environment. Acting in this manner, we will accomplish a quality education for and through Science,
centered on skills, promoting an integrated curriculum which subsumed the basic scientific contents and the related
abilities, the practical habits and the attitudes specific for Science. Covering such an educational path, the future
graduates will possess the instruments that will allow them to have continuous access at complex scientific
knowledge and to extend learning at their entire life scale (life-long learning).
We nourish the firm conviction that “the scholar success is given by the pupil’s capacity to excel in the various
disciplinary structures and context, when success in personal, professional and social life is given by the capacity to
get out of the disciplinary box, by the ability to make fast connections and transfers, which lead to the efficient
solving of the actual problems with which he / she confronts” (Ciolan, 2003).
Acknowledgements
This work was funded through the Seventh Framework Programme “PROFILES - Professional Reflection
Oriented Focus on Inquiry-based Learning and Education through Science” No. 5.2.2.1 - SiS-2010-2.2.1, Grant
Agreement No. 266589, Supporting and coordinating actions on innovative methods in Science education: teacher
training on inquiry based teaching methods on a large scale in Europe. The support offered by the European
Commission as well as the Community Research and Development Information Service as responsible for the
management of EU’s programmes in the fields of research and innovation, through the project mentioned above, is
gratefully acknowledged.
References
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Outlining Aspects and Approaches of Modern Science Education, Proceedings of the Second World Conference on Educational Technology
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Education. Unpublished.
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ScienceDirect
Second Language Writing: use of the World Wide Web to Improve

Specific Writing
María Luisa Carrió-Pastora *, Francesca Romero-Fortezab
a, b
Abstract
Different strategies should be considered when teaching writing in a second language, as successful writing involves, among
other things, the ability to integrate information learnt by the writer in different kinds of contexts. Nowadays, the World Wide
Web is a very useful source of information for second language students, as they can obtain information about very specific
topics and practise a second language. In this paper, our main objective is to detail how the use of the World Wide Web can
benefit the language skills of university students. Apart from practising a second language, students obtain useful information
related to the specific subjects they study to achieve an Industrial Engineering degree in Spain. The purpose of this pilot study is
twofold, to improve their performance in a second language (English) and to widen their knowledge of specific topics. The
results obtained in this pilot study are shown and the benefits of the use of the World Wide Web are detailed.
Keywords: Second language, the World Wide Web, writing, specific English;
1. Introduction
The ability to write autonomously in English enables students to draw on a wider information base and carry out
research effectively. Furthermore, the professional market demands students to be able to write technical and
scientific information in electronic form. This information has to be searched for, identified, and understood and
after that, second language speakers should be able to produce additional ideas. The relevant details need to be
extracted, integrated with data from other sources, and written to communicate with the receivers of our message.
The written word is a more durable and effective means of transmitting information. Furthermore, writing is also
a mechanism through which we build up knowledge structures; it is a primary mechanism that allows human beings
the creation and transmission of knowledge.
The main objective of this study is to explain how the use of the World Wide Web to practise writing can benefit
the language skills of university students. We consider the fact that students use technology to practise language
skills, and, in this sense, they have to write about the non-static information they get from specific fields. Apart from
practising a second language, they obtain useful information related to the specific subjects they study to achieve an
* Corresponding Author name: María Luisa Carrió-Pastor. Tel.: +34-963877530

doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.200
236 María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Francesca Romero-Forteza / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 235 – 239
Industrial Engineering degree in Spain. Our purpose is twofold in this research, to analyse students’ performance in
a second language (English) and to observe if students widen their knowledge of specific topics.
In this study, it was believed that nowadays, students take into account if their teachers are reasonably competent
users of technology, and if computer-mediated activities are incorporated in teaching materials (Lea, Clayton,
Draude & Barlow, 2001; Imus, Ployhart, Ritzer & Sleigh, 2004; Schrodt & Turman, 2005; Spodark, 2005; Li,
2006). Students are also used to the ease and speed with which information can be accessed and now expect online
syllabus descriptions, assignments and materials. This change may also affect language skills and the way we
communicate. Digital writing and digital reading are specific ways of communication that entail additional abilities
that should be practised by second language learners. Students scan and skim multimodal discourse that includes
texts, graphs, pictures, web sites, etc. This fact should be taken into account when teaching writing to students as
teachers could take advantages of the teaching possibilities of the World Wide Web.
As a matter of fact, the development of the world Wide Web has resulted in fundamental changes in classroom
practices and brought with it new responsibilities for language teachers. Indeed, successfully integrating the World
Wide Web into a language course depends not only on theories of language learning, pedagogical principles or the
design of tasks, but also on the access to online resources or the skills of language teachers.
The main advantages of using the World Wide Web for language learning are because it facilitates greater
exposure to authentic language, access to a wide range of sources of information and to different varieties of
language, opportunities for interaction and communication and greater learner participation (Carrió Pastor, 2009).
Nevertheless, there are also some disadvantages: there has to be a sound pedagogical background for using the
World Wide Web in language learning contexts, the volatility of the information in the World Wide web and the
evaluation of language learning to name just some of them. The volume of information on the World Wide Web
could prove difficult to manage. Furthermore, knowing which sites are trustworthy or keeping track of changes to
the content or the address can be problematic. Nevertheless, as Luke (2006: 33) points out, as computers and related
technologies steadily become an integral part of many societies and education systems “[…] the possibilities for
computer use in language learning settings are bounded only by the creativity and ingenuity of the designer or
instructor.”
In this study, the fact of using the World Wide Web to practise writing was considered positive for second
language learners, thus different activities were proposed to students to improve second language acquisition. We
were conscious of the drawbacks, but the advantages of using real and specific material for students of a specific
degree were a starting point to analyze the characteristics of digital writing.
2. Methodology
The students involved in this study were enrolled in the first year of the degree in Electrical Engineering at
Universidad Polytechnic de Valencia during the academic year 2011-12. The group was composed of sixty students
who were involved in the design and evaluation of the writing activities based on the World Wide Web. The
students attended the optional subject called ‘Technical English’ that was taught during the second semester of the
academic year. The language proficiency of the students involved in this study was A2, following the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages described by the Council of Europe (2001). To determine the
students’ level of proficiency in the writing competences we initially designed a test based on the competences of
the A2 level of the Common European Framework. When students finished the semester, a second test based on the
competences of the B1 level was designed, as this was the level supposedly acquired by students after their training
in the subject.
The first step was the design of written activities that implied the use of the World Wide Web. The second step
was to design three questionnaires based on one-minute paper to test the improvement of students. In this way,
students’ progress was identified through the writing activities proposed and the questionnaires. The level of
language acquisition was determined following the competences designed by the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages (CEFR). We considered for the design of writing activities following the descriptor of the
CEFR: to write simple connected text on topics, which are familiar or of personal interest. In this study, specific
topics were selected as students were enrolled in a specific degree, Electrical Engineering.
María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Francesca Romero-Forteza / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 235 – 239 237
In the assessment of the writing performance of students, a grid based on the CEFR document was designed to
facilitate the evaluation of their progress, which can be seen in Table 1:
Table 1. Written assessment criteria grid. Level B1 (adapted from Council of Europe, 2001)
Written assessment B1 level Criteria grid Students

Overall (1) The student can write
straightforward connected texts on
a range of familiar subjects within
his field of interest, by linking a
series of shorter discrete elements
into a linear sequence.
(2) The texts are understandable
but occasional unclear expressions
and/or inconsistencies may cause a
break-up in reading
Range (3) The student has enough
language to get by, with sufficient
vocabulary to express him/herself
with some circumlocutions on
topics such as family, hobbies and
interests, work, travel, and current
events.
Coherence (4) The student can link a series of
shorter discrete elements into a
connected, linear text.
Accuracy (5) The student uses reasonably
accurately a repertoire of
frequently used “routines” and
patterns associated with more
common situations.
(6) The student occasionally
makes errors that the reader
usually can interpret correctly on
the basis of the context.
Description (7) The student can write accounts
of experiences, describing feelings
and reactions in simple connected
text.
(8) The student can write a
description of an event, a recent
trip – real or imagined.
(9) The student can narrate a story.
(10) The student can write
straightforward, detailed
descriptions on a range of familiar
subjects within his field of interest.
This assessment criteria grid was used to evaluate the writing tasks and questionnaires of the students involved in
the study. Once the written proficiency of students was evaluated, we classified the students taking into account if
their English proficiency was A2, B1 or B2. Once detected the students who were not able to improve their
238 María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Francesca Romero-Forteza / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 235 – 239
proficiency in written English to B1 or B2 using the World Wide Web, we analysed in detail their writings to detect
the most frequent errors and the cause of the pedagogical approach used.
3. Results
Some of the exercises designed to practise and improve second language writing taking into account different
web sites were:
(Example 1) http://science.howstuffworks.com/airplane.htm
Click on the image that is in the section ‘Floor Plan’ to see a complete floor plan of Air Force One. It will open in
a separate window so you can toggle between the article and the floor plan. Describe the different parts of the
plane including all the specific vocabulary that is included in the picture.
(Example 2) Go now to section ‘History’. What do you know about the history of USA? Write two historical
events you remember. Do you think the history of USA affects us or do you think they are too far away to influence
our economy or political situation? Give reasons to support your answer. Write the name of the presidents
mentioned in this section and look for more information about them in the WWW. Write a short biography of each
one.
(Example 3) www.energyquest.ca.gov. Information gathering.
In the section “Super Scientists” you can find biographies of major scientists. Choose one of them and summarize
his/her life and works briefly. Why was he/she important in your opinion?
Within the “Energy Library” section, you can access a part called Internet Citations. Write down a short written
composition (about any topic of your interest) including at least 2 Internet citations from selected websites.
As we can observe, in examples 1, 2 and 3, students had to visit some web sites to answer the questions,
producing a writing activity, which was evaluated following the grid shown in Table 1. Once evaluated the sixty
students involved in this study, taking into account the results obtained after the evaluation of the different activities
done during the semester and the average mark of the three questionnaires, the different levels of English
proficiency acquired can be seen in Table 2:
Table 2. Assessment of writing activities and questionnaires
Students A2 proficiency B1 proficiency B2 proficiency

60 (100.0%) 13 (21.6%) 44 (73.3%) 3 (5.0%)
As can be seen, most of the students (almost 74%) could achieve the proficiency level in the writing skill that was
the objective of the English course, i.e. B1 level. Some students could not get the B1 level and did not improve their
writing with the activities based on the World Wide Web. After the manual analysis of the writings produced by the
almost 22% of the students, we observed that most of the errors were classified in the overall and accuracy levels.
Most errors were due to the use of incorrect words that the reader usually cannot interpret on the basis of the
context. Some errors detected in the writings of the students with a lower level were also caused because the student
could not write straightforward connected texts by omitting the linking of shorter elements into a linear sequence.
4. Conclusions
The conclusions of this study provide several aspects that should be taken into account when using the World
Wide Web to improve second language learning:
a. The activities should be designed considering first the goals and aspects to be improved or the activities could
be very time-consuming.
b. The assessment criteria should also be delimited and, as a consequence, students could be conscious of the
tasks that should be done to obtain the objectives set.
María Luisa Carrió-Pastor and Francesca Romero-Forteza / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 235 – 239 239
c. The individual characteristics of each student should be taken into account a not all the students obtain the
same results in the training period, so individual tutorials are recommended during the training period after the
results obtained during the semester.
Summing up, the results presented in this study are part of a pilot study that focuses on the benefits of the use of
the World Wide Web to improve language acquisition. In this paper, some results related to writing are shown,
although listening, speaking and reading activities are also being designed and analysed at present. The results and
methodology of the analysis of the language skills with the use of the World Wide Web, not included in this paper,
will be explained in future studies.
Reference
Carrió Pastor, M. L. (2009). Enhancing learner-teacher collaboration through the use of on-line activities. In I. González-Pueyo, C. Foz-Gil, M.
Jaime Siso & M. J. Luzón Marco (Eds.), Teaching Academic and Professional English Online. Berlin: Peter Lang.
Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Imus, A., Ployhart, R., Ritzer, D. & Sleigh, M. (2004). An understanding of students’ perceptions of technology use in the classroom. Inventio:
Creative Thinking about Learning and Teaching, 6 (1), 1-10.
Lea, L., Clayton, M., Draude, B. & Barlow, S. (2001). The impact of technology on teaching and learning. Educause Quarterly, 2 (1), 69-71.
Li, J. (2006). The mediation of technology in ESL writing and its implications for writing assessment. Assessing Writing, 11, 5-21.
Luke, C. (2006). CALL in the broader context. In L. Ducate & N. Arnold (Eds.), Calling on CALL: From Theory and Research to New
Directions in Foreign Language Teaching (pp, 21-41). San Marcos, Texas: CALICO.
Schrodt, P. & Turman, P. (2005). The impact of instructional technology use, course design, and sex differences on students’ initial perceptions
of instructor credibility. Communication Quarterly, 53 (2), 177-196.
Spodark, E. (2005). Technoconstructivism for the undergraduate foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 38 (3), 428-435.
ScienceDirect
Semantic Transfers of Values Concerning the Aesthetic Education

through a Descriptive System of the Hexadic Model
Heliana Munteanua *, Bianca Luigia Manoleanub, Laura Monica Gorghiua, Ion Croitoruc
a
Faculty of Sciences and Arts, Valahia University Targoviste, 18-24 Unirii Blvd., Targoviste 130082, Romania
b
Faculty of Performing Arts, National University of Music Bucharest, 33 Ştirbei Vodă Str., Bucharest 010102, Romania
c
Faculty of Orthodox Theology and Science Education, Valahia University Targoviste, 35 Lt. Stancu Ion Str., Targoviste 130105, Romania
Abstract
Aesthetic education is certainly an important premise in creating a mature personality. The concept of education reflects the
commitment of the child in a continuous process of formation-development designed and built according to certain finalities and
education can represent, simultaneously, a process and also a product. The organization of educational practice can be realized
progressively, according to the synthesis of the elements that constitutes the meaning of educational principles, accompanied by a
series of nuances of the system of values. The entire normative system can emphasize certain elements from the normative area that
receive meanings from de system of spiritual values, claimed by a certain educational paradigm. The judgment and aesthetic value
represent the potential explored of the process of interiorization of the subject’s institutions. The purpose of this study is to promote a
conception of knowledge, based on subjectivity that defines the concrete value of an aesthetic education. The justifying approach of
educational values represents a necessity of the joy to accept and use groups of values such as: understanding, faith/doubt, criticism,
evaluation etc.
Selection
by Elsevier ofunder
BY-NC-ND license.
© 2013 The
Selection Authors.
and/or Published
Keywords: esthetics, pedagogical model, esthetic and moral values, art, sacred, culture;
1. Introduction
The aesthetic education is without doubt an important premise in the construction of a cult personality. The
concept of education reflects the engagement of the child in a continuous process of formation-development,
realized according to certain finalities; thereby the education can become a process, but also a product.
Thus, the organization of the educational practice can be realized progressively according to the synthesis of the
elements that represents the meaning of educational principals, accompanied by several nuances of the system of
values. The entire normative system can be revealed by certain elements from the area of normality, but they can
also receive meanings from the system of spiritual values, claimed by a certain educational paradigm, due to the
* Corresponding Author: : Heliana Munteanu. Tel.: +40-245-213382

E-mail address: heliana_munteanu@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.166
44 Heliana Munteanu et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 43 – 48
privileged position of humanistic sciences in the contemporary academic context. Primarily, there will be
highlighted the components related to:
the openness towards the student;
the exercise of the creativity;
shaping the personality in learning situations;
preferences and personal taste;
the organization of the activity according to the norms;
the speech generated by persons competent in the field.
The values of aesthetic education are subject to certain changes (some musical genders or pictorial styles),
regardless their value, and they registered lower preferences from the society, even from one generation to the other.
An eloquent example is the so called „crisis of the work”, that is crossed by grotesque productions of the greatest
masterpieces, by changing their meaning and their intrinsic value (Iamandescu, 2004). Although, pushed to the
periphery of preoccupations and to the receptivity of present generations, the great music is a universal heritage,
impossible to be recreated by the future musicians, but certain a source of truths, higher ideas and sublime emotions.
It is obvious that a number of cultural, scientific personalities or from other domains, true elite, makes a group,
apparently polymorphic, that refreshes the spiritual forces, generating the progress of the humanity.
2. Description of procedure
Despite the conviction of the authors of the present study that the interior nature of all human beings is inclined
to grow, the assurance of the conditions, offered by the learning institutions, that facilitates the creativity is
sometimes insufficient. Frequently, the positive tendencies were blocked or distorted and replaced with destructive
behavior. This is only one of the reasons that explain how an individual can be disrupted, “blocked” at earlier times,
thus being incapable to fructify their potential (Cassirer, 1994). The pedagogical thinking, leaving a place to the
subjectivity, can concentrate in the educational space values from the aesthetic group, making possible the transition
from the paradigm of the certitude
the establishment of the educational act,
the same reproduction of the knowledge,
the strict control of the performances obtained by the students,
- towards the paradigm of uncertainty whose important feature is given by the subjectivity of learning, the
integration of the whole personality in the mechanism of learning and in pedagogical situations unscheduled.
Promoting a conception about knowledge based on subjectivity that defines the concrete value of an aesthetic
education. The justified approach of educational values represents a necessity of the joy to accept and use groups of
values such as: understanding, belief/doubt, critic, evaluation. As a method, it is proposed the application of the
hexadic model, starting from the principle that tomorrow’s illiterate will no longer be the one who cannot read and
write, but the one who didn’t learn how to learn (Munteanu et al., 2012).
The modern teaching proposes, through learning sciences, approaching the human as a subject of education,
marking the elimination of outdated norms that implicated the student only as an object of education. From this new
perspective, the man is called to always learn, in other words, to be open to education, thus being able to make
transfers, reorganizations or restructuring (Isac, 2001), with de following meanings: he becomes independent; he
founds and maintains means of subsistence; he chooses a life partner, with whom he learns to coexist; he becomes a
parent and fulfills the specific duties; he interacts with the community and with the society; he expands his
responsibilities as a citizen; he accepts the changes in relations of parents or children; he prepares himself for
retirement; he obtains satisfactions (at a material or spiritual level) in old age; he is prepared for death (Kidd, 1981;
Careau, 2003).
Sublimation is a result of education and designates processes through which primitive needs are transformed by I
in complex acts. This transformation is productive from a social point of view, though they are not always socially
accepted and we remind the destiny of Socrates, Rembrandt, Beethoven and others, in order to realize the frequency
by which the society rejected creations given through processes of sublimation. Sublimation attracts the
Heliana Munteanu et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 43 – 48 45
establishment of a symbolic link between the need for beauty and other groups if ideas and complex actions,
facilitated by the capacity to promote ideas and to understand analogies - capacity that implies thinking as a primary
and secondary process (Reboul, 1992).
The ability to use and create symbols draws the separation line between man and other species. Symbolism is a
kind of mental representation and ensures the starting point for more complex representations such as images,
fantasies, thoughts, concepts, dreams and language. Educational values that can be used through the hexadic model
are established in a speech that keeps certain characters:
they make the distinction between the values of aesthetic education and those of science;
clarity and understanding of the sacred by describing the learning in terms of higher initiation and revelation;
promotes higher values, unanimously accepted: taste, judgment, critic, admiration;
the values of aesthetic education don’t stop once the education is finished.
3. Results and discussions
Among the principles that facilitate the relationship with the work of art, we mention those who also stand up in
the religious education in Romania. As a receptor of art, the subject can values personal beliefs by engaging himself
in a profound process of transformation, of evolution, facilitated by the educational environment, which makes
possible to reach the vocal music and the pictorial art. Thus, the trainer can create connections with what is
meaningful and touches the familiar areas; in relation with art, the subject receptor deciphers valid things for his
own life just by searching the meanings spread in the work (Munteanu et al., 2012).
The spiritual dimension can be revealed as a mental commitment over a significant period of the subject’s life.
The chronological succession of holidays can offer to the teacher opportunities to build activities that include, as a
form of expression, vocal music favored by children. When they are vocally involved in a musical activity, the
subjects are engaged in a cognitive and inherent process that reveals images and mental messages, making decisions
and creating solutions. Whether singing, reciting or drawing, the creation of art implies instantly feedback systems,
leaving the freedom to form a style of receiving artistic and moral values. Moreover, the subject is taught to exist, to
discover his inner speech, to build his own world that approaches the ideals that transpire through art.
The observations of the authors of the present scientific study, facilitated by a long educational practice, reveals
the fact that also children are fascinated by their lives in relation with music, thus being able to create their own
vision of the world, vision that can be used in the evaluation of the vital environment of the child. Children are able
to organize the musical images by rank (identifying the most expressive songs and texts, relevant for the organized
activity) or they can compare and contrast them.
The „guide” of this journey for understanding music and contained values is the humming (crooning). In the
musicians’ activity, humming a presence that certifies an innate practice, same as the language, thinking, breathing,
they accumulate in a synthetic way. Practicing the humming consciously integrates thinking and values the personal
emotional background, on the flow of breathing. Existing in a sensorial way, the music enters, through breathing and
kinesthetic sensations in the depths of our being. The subtle technique of humming restores the meanings of musical
ideas, doubled by the metaphors in the text (more suggestive in religious cases), leading to their correct assimilation.
It is required to mention that humming and singing are different phonetic attitudes, having a clear correspondence
with the interior and exterior language. Humming describes an inner vector, with the intention of founding, opposed
to singing, always directed towards others; therefore a performing art is implied. The resultants of this search are
judgment and aesthetic value, constituents of the explored potential through the process of internalization of the
subject’s intuitions, but also the accentuation of certain procedures through which are identified the musical ideas of
repetitive order (replaying the same version of the song) or in a contrasting shade. In the presence of such
developments of the melodic line, the subject must develop an explanatory activity, generated by the apparent
disorder of the musical development, but with a particular way of articulating the important fragments in the context
of the sound.
Founding responses and solutions for developing the personality can be done through the assimilation of modules
offered by religion, anthropology, art aesthetic but also by border areas. We can highlight the features that
distinguish moral education from training activities established in scientific and technical domains and also
theoretical basis that are necessary in order to understand moral values. The special emphasis on educating through
all the levels of school permits the enlargement of the field of knowledge with the possibilities of understanding
(from the early ages), facilitated by the activities with musical content. Important observations were made about the
use of humming and singing, as a mean of approaching inside a little collectivity through the analysis of vocal
spectra, of implication in a interpretative activity mediated by TIC. The relational dimension of knowledge inside
the hexadic model is highlighted by musical art in religious education due to the expansive character of sounds and
music’s harmony. The sacred dimension becomes in this way intermediated, all together with moral values, by the
related language used in religion and art, through the entire scale of human ages. The organizer of certain activities
that are subordinated to norms of beauty can anticipate the methods and can quantify in an informational way the
means of restoration and semantic instauration that ennobles the human being.
The education through religion and art, connected by the exposure and the cultivation of moral values, through
educational activities when specific ICT components are used, cannot be simplified to the teaching of certain
contents, due to the fact that it involves all six dimensions of the hexadic model (Figure 1).
Cognitive dimension, as the

Personal dimension of the psycho- knowledge of art history assumptions,
behavioral profile by overcoming but also stylistic, sociological,
prejudices and sometimes personal regarding the generation and the
stereotypes moral consequences of cultural
phenomena
Methodological dimension, that

Sacred dimension, which values refers to the accumulation of
procedures and methods of
moral the languages used in
Religion and Art
differentiation and customization
of values
Socio-cultural dimension, where is

promoted the beautiful and all that Relational dimension of knowledge
ennobles the human being within of real data on human subjects with
the society where it is found and whom they work
within the civilization where it lives
Figure 1. Hexadic model dimension
In order to emphasize how important are the six dimensions of hexadic model for the in-service teachers, an
analysis was developed in the frame of a teachers’ professional development program developed in a blended format
(face-to-face and distance sessions). Figures 2-7 illustrate the teachers opinions related to the six model dimensions.
Heliana Munteanu et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 43 – 48 47
Figure 2: Increasing the self motivation Figure 3: Increasing the scientific content understanding
(personal dimension) (cognitive dimension)
The target group was formed by music, art and religion in-service teachers from nine counties of Romania. The
evaluation of the hexadic model dimensions was realized through applying an evaluation questionnaire to the
trainees who graduated the professional development program. A five-level Likert scale (1- Totally; 2 - To great
extent; 3 - To some extent; 4 - Not sure; 5 - Not at all) was used for evaluating each dimension.
Figure 4: Improving the teaching methods Figure 5: Attracting the learners to study and cooperate
(methodological dimension) (relational dimension)
Figure 6: Applying the knowledge in social activities Figure 7: Attracting the learners to retrieve their moral values in the
(socio-cultural dimension) development process of their own knowledge (sacred dimension)
4. Conclusions
The analysis of the finalities shows some lack of coordination between the educational intentions and the
formation of judgment, as a clear target of education, on the one hand, and a source of contradictions occurring in
practice, on the other hand. All of this can be seen also from a different perspective of the process of education
through learning (Benne, 1990): learning conceived as an ability detained by a person of what it is known about a
certain subject; learning as an expansion and clarification of meanings of the personal experience of an individual;
learning as a process through which someone verifies the ideas and the generalizations connected to some problems
and they are tested through some experiences more or less objective and controlled, fit for the purpose.
The results presented in this paper emphasized that most of the Romanian teachers highly appreciated at the end
of the training program the increasing of self motivation and scientific content understanding, improving the
teaching methods, attracting the learners to study and cooperate, applying the knowledge in social activities and last
but not least, attracting the learners to retrieve their moral values in the development process of their own
knowledge. This proved a good implementation of the hexadic model components in the teaching-learning process.
References
Benne, K. D. (1971). A Conception of Authority. New York: Russell and Russell, USA.
Benne, K. D. (1990). The Task of Post-Contemporary Education: Essays in Behalf of a Human Future, New York: Teachers College Press,
Columbia University, USA.
Careau, F. (2003). Les valeurs et le sacré dans l’éducation d’aujourd’hui. Retrieved from http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/801240ar
Cassirer, E. (1994). Eseu despre om. Bucharest: Humanitas, Romania.
Iamandescu, I. B. (2004). Muzicoterapia receptivă. Bucharest: Info Medica, Romania.
Isac, I. (2001). Obiective fundamentale ale educaţiei adulţilor în lumea contemporană. Revista de Ştiinţe ale Educaţiei, 4/1.
Kidd, J. R. (1981). Cum învaţă adulţii, Bucharest: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Romania.
Munteanu, H., Gorghiu, L. M., Croitoru, I., Gorghiu, G. (2012). Art and moral values - a pedagogical approach through the hexadic model,
Proceedings of the Second World Conference on Educational Technology Researches (WCETR 2012), Kyrenia, Cyprus (in press).
Reboul, O. (1992). Les valeurs de l'education. Paris: PUF, France.
ScienceDirect
Social Intelligence in Portuguese Students: Differences According

to the School Grade
Joana Carneiro Pintoa, Liliana Fariab, Maria do Céu Taveirac *
a
Faculty of Human Sciences, Portuguese Catholic University, Travessa de Palma de Cima, Lisboa 1600, Portugal
b
ISLA Campus Lisboa – Laureate International Universities, Estrada da Correira,nº 53 Lisboa 1500-210, Portugal
c
School of Psyhcology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga ,4710-057, Portugal
Abstract
This study aims to present Portuguese students’ perceptions about their social intelligence and to analysis and discussion of the
differences between groups according to their school grade. Participants are adolescents attending the 8th, 10th and 11th grades of
Portuguese public schools. Adolescents were administered the Cognitive Test of Social Intelligence (CTSI; Candeias, 2007), a
pictorial self-report instrument, aimed at the diagnosis of adolescents needs capabilities, experience and motivation to deal with
interpersonal situations. Resultsof indicate the existence of statistically significant differences between three school
grades.Problem Solves and Motivation indexes.
Keywords:Social Intelligence, School Grade, Adolescents.
1. Introduction
The construct of social intelligence has raised repeated research questions over the history of psychology. The
design and the study of social intelligence has been part of general debate about intelligence, although its study has
been more controversial and less investigated.
Thorndike (1920) used the notion of social intelligence to clarify that intelligence could manifest itself in
different facets (Landy, 2005), and characterized social intelligence as the ability to accomplish interpersonal tasks.
Thirteen years later, Vernon (1933) understood the social intelligence as the ability to get along with people, the
awareness of social issues, the susceptibility to stimuli from other group members, and the insight to the states of
temporary mood and personality traits of unfamiliar people. In the early 60’s, Guilford (1967) defended that social
intelligence referred to the behavioral content, involving the interactions between individualsand the attitudes,
needs, desires, mood states, perceptions and thoughts about the others and ourselves (Rosas, Boetto,& Jordan,
1999). The 90’s has seen a greater interest in understanding the social intelligence (e.g., Cantor &Kihlstrom, 1989;
Ford &Tisak, 1983; Gardner, 1983, 1998; Sternberg, 1984; Sternberg & Barnes, 1988; Sternberg & Wagner, 1986).
Specifically, Gardner (1998) discusses multiple intelligences and specifies two intelligences –interpersonal and
intrapersonal. The interpersonal intelligence is the ability to read other people’s moods, motives and others’ mental
*Corresponding Author: Maria do Céu Taveira Tel: +23 444747839

E-mail address: ceuta@psi.uminho.pt
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.168
Joana Carneiro Pinto et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 56 – 62 57
states. The intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to access one’s own feelings and to draw on them to guide
behavior. Since then, numerous research efforts have explored the social intelligence construct (e.g., Cantor
&Kihlstrom, 1987; Ford &Tisak, 1983; Goleman, 2006; Kosmitzki& John, 1993; Marlowe, 1986; Silvera,
Martinussen, & Dahl, 1991; Walker & Foley, 1973).
Nevertheless, definitions of the construct and associated measurement approaches have varied to a notable degree
across these perspectives. For example, recently, Goleman (2006) identifies two broad categories of social
intelligence: social awareness and social facility. Social awareness deals with four abilities: (i) Primal empathy,
which includes feeling for others,and sensing non-verbal emotional signals, (ii) Attunement, that is, listening with
full receptivity, attuning to a person, (iii) Empathic accuracy, which means understanding another person’s thoughts,
feelings, and intentions and, (iv) Social cognition, that is, knowing how the social world works. In contrast, social
facility includes (i) Synchrony, which means interacting smoothly at a nonverbal level, (ii) Self-presentation, that is,
presenting ourselves effectively, (iii) Influence, which represents shaping the outcome of social interactions, and (iv)
Concern, that is, caring about others’ needs and acting accordingly.
Weis and Süß (2007), using a multitrait–multimethod-designand a confirmatory factor analysis supported the
multidimensional structure of social intelligence for the domains of social understanding, social memory, and social
knowledge. Others studies, based also these multitrait-multimethod designs, have provided clear evidence for the
multidimensionality of social intelligence (Jones & Day, 1997; Lee, Day, Meara, & Maxwell, 2002; Lee, Wong,
Day, Maxwell, & Thorpe, 2000; Wong, Day, Maxwell, &Meara, 1995).
The concept ofsocial intelligenceadopted in this paperis based on acognitiveandmetacognitiveapproachof
intelligence, fromthe influences of theTriarchic Theory ofIntelligence formulated by Sternberg (1983),and the
TheoryofMultipleIntelligences developed by Gardner (1993).In this perspective, social intelligence is a
multidimensional construct that refers interpersonal problem-solving processes and skills such as comprehension,
elaboration of an action plan, execution and monitoring (Candeias, 2007). It comprises the analysis of procedural
(e.g., cognitive process and performance), structural (e.g., type of contents elected for the resolution of the
situation)and attitudinal (e.g., interestand self-confidence in problem-solving) levels of analysis of interpersonal
cognition.
In summary, social intelligence has been thought of as the ability to accomplish interpersonal tasks (Kaukiainen
et al., 1999) and to act adequately and shrewdly in relationships (Bjorkqvist, 2007; Frederiksen, Carlson, & Ward,
1984). Intelligencein interpersonal relationships has been characterized as a key ability (Hopkins &Bilimória, 2008),
with some scholar arguing that the social facets of intelligence may be as important or even more important than the
cognitive aspects (Sternberg &Grigorenko, 2006).
Despite the lack of consensus on concepts of social intelligence, empirical research has shown that social
intelligence is a relevant component for socially competent behavior (Süß, Weis, & Seidel, 2005), seeming to adapt
social and cultural changes around education, employment or performance (Candeias, 2008). Research has also
demonstrated that girls (Carvalho, 2011) and women (Hopkins &Bilimoria, 2008) register higher levels of social
intelligence.
This study aims to present Portuguese students’ perceptions about their social intelligence and to analyze and
discuss differences between groups according to their school grade.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Participants were 1171 adolescents, 590 girls (50.4%) and 581 boys (49.6%), aged between 11 and 25 years old
(µ=14.84±1.89), attending the 8th- (48.2%; N=565), 10th- (27.4%; N=321), and 11th- (24.3%; N=285) grades at
elementary and secondary schools, in the northern, center and southernPortugal.
2.1.1. Instrument
Social intelligence in adolescence was assessed with the Cognitive Test of Social Intelligence (CTSI, Candeias,
2007), a self-report instrument for adolescents from 12 to 17 years old.The CTSIdraws on three interpersonal
illustrative stimuliofreal lifesituationsinwhich people usesocial view. The first stimulus has an old lady and several
youths at a bus stop, with the old ladyfacingin the wrong directionand out ofplace. The second stimulus presents a
58 Joana Carneiro Pinto et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 56 – 62
dialogue between a teenager standing up and a couple sitting on a sofa in a living room, with the teenager telling a
story and one member of the couple pointing to his pulse clock. The third stimulus represents a professional meeting
of a leader with four subordinates, two of which are sitting in a sofa and with a passive attitude and the other two are
standing and with arms in the air. Subjects are asked in each situation to answer a questionnaire with 16 questions,
in which the first 10 are open-response format and the remaining six are in a 5 point scale (1=None and 5= Very
much). The CTSI offers four indices of social intelligence (a) the index of Problem Solving of social situations
(questions 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10), (b) index of Motivation for the resolution of social situations (questions 11 and
12), (c) index of Self-confidence in solving social situations (questions 13 and 14) and (d) index of Familiarity with
the resolution of social situations (questions 15 and 16). The results of the first ten items, involved in the calculus of
the Problem Solving index specifically allow to analyze the comprehension of each social situation (questions 1 and
4), the ability to elaborate an action plan (question 5), the ability to execute one or more action plans (questions 6, 7,
8 and 9) and the capacity of monitoring those action plans (question 10) being assigned to each question from 0 to 3
points depending on the degree of complexity, accuracy, and generalization of the response. The remaining indexes
are obtained by summing the respective items response values. For scoring purposes, the 14th item needs to be
reversed. The interpretation of resultsis basedon cognitive performance criteriaand on attitudinalcriteriaexpressedin
the fourindices global scores. Validation studies of the CTSI with Portuguese adolescents from 7th to 11th school
grades demonstrate this is a test with good indicators of reliability and internal validity(Candeias, 2007).
2.1.2. Procedures
This studyis part of the researchproject“Career and citizenship: personal and contextual conditions for ethical
questioning of life-career projects.†”This projectaims to contribute tothe comprehension of the factors and processes
ofthe adolescents’ psychosocial development (e.g., social competence, emotional intelligence, self-concept), as well
asthe conditions of theireducational context that promoteor inhibitthese skills andattitudes (e.g., parents and
teachers’ life values), in the development of life-career projects that consider not only tangible individual benefits,
but also human, societal, and economic ends. To this end, basic and secondary schools in the north, center and
southern Portugal were contacted, and formal meetings were scheduled with the direction boards and the educational
agents (teachers, parents, and psychologists). These meeting were intended to present themain objectivesand
characteristics of thisproject,as well as, to obtain their permission and cooperationin the data collection
process.Datawere thencollected from8th, 10th and 11th grade students,inthe classroom, in the presence of a
teacherandajunior researcher.Allwereinformed of thegeneral objectives of theresearch and the ethical
proceduresassociated with the data analysis. Completionof the CognitiveTest ofSocial Intelligencetook, on average,
30 minutesper class.
3. Results
Table 1 presents the frequencies and analysis of variance of CTSI data considering school year.Results indicate
that participants have average levels of social intelligence which are below the mean value of the indexes. In
general, 8th grade students have higher mean scores in almost every dimension and indexes. There are exceptions in
allsituations, in which the 10th grade students have higher mean scores at the Familiarity index.
The comparison between the results obtained in each of the indexes, considering the global sample, and the mean
values of the respective index, through a One-Sample T-Test, indicates the existence of statistically significant
differences among the participants’ results and the standard scores in all indexes and per social situation. At the
Problem Solving index, statistically significant differences were found between the global sample’s mean scores and
the mean values, in all three stimulus social situations (S1: t(1163)= -63.94, p=.000; S2: t(1163)= -69.39, p=.000;
t(1161)= -80.74, p=.000). At the Motivation index, statistically significant differences were found between the
global sample’s mean scores and the mean values, in all three situations (S1: t(1164)= -8.78, p=.000; S2: t(1167)= -
5.82, p=.000; t(1161)= -13.91, p=.000). At the Self-confidence index (S1: t(1162)= 10.44, p=.000; S2: t(1165)=
16.39, p=.000; t(1159)= 8.33, p=.000), and also at the Familiarity index (S1: t(1167)= -20.75, p=.000; S2: t(1166)= -
†
Project funded by Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology and Compete Program- PTDC/CPE-CED/098896/2008
4.39, p=.000; t(1159)= -14.96, p=.000), statistically significant differences were found, between the global sample’s
mean scores and the mean values, in all three situations.
The analysis of variance of the results considering the school year indicates the existence of statistically
significant differences between the schools grades, in each situation. In situation 1, there are statistically significant
differences in the Problem Solving index (F(2,1168)=47.37, p=.000), between the 8thand 10th grades (Mean
difference= 1.934, p=.000), and between the 8thand 11th grades (Mean difference= 1.189, p=.000). There are also
significant differences in the Motivation index (F(2,1459)=-8.21, p=.000), between the 8thand 10th grades (Mean
difference= .303, p=.038), and between the 8thand 11th grades (Mean difference= -.487, p=.000).In situation 2, there
are statistically significant differences in the Problem Solving index (F(2,1168)=8-03, p=.000), between the 8thand
10th grades (Mean difference=.879, p=.000), and between the 10thand 11th grades (Mean difference= -.634, p=.040).
There are also significant differences in the Motivation index (F(2,1168)=6.53, p=.002), between the 8th and 10th
grades (Mean difference= -.423, p=.004), and between the 8th and the 11th grades (Mean difference= .366, p=.023).
In situation 3, there are statistically significant differences in the Problem Solving index (F(2,1168)=8.91, p=.000),
between the 8th and the 10th grades (Mean difference= .808, p=.000) and between the 10th and 11th grades (Mean
difference= .487, p=.000). Considering the global situations, there are statistically significant differences in the
Problem Solving index (F(2,1168)=24.326, p=.000), between the 8th and 10th grades (Mean difference=3.63,
p=.000), the 10th and 11th grades (Mean difference= -2.18, p=.001), and the 8th and the 11th grades (Mean
difference= 1.44, p=.023), in the Motivation index (F(2,1168)=7.25, p=.001), between the 8th and 10th grades (Mean
difference=.801, p=.033) and the 8th and 11th grades (Mean difference= 1.16, p=.001).
Table 1.The Cognitive Scale of Social Intelligence: frequencies and analysis of variance considering school year
Factor Indices School year M (SD) Range F (2,1168)

8th year 7.08 (2.81) 0-13
10th year 5.15 (2.76) 0-12 47.37***
Problem Solving
11th year 5.89 (3.34) 0-12
Total 6.26 (3.05) 0-13
8th year 5.75 (1.79) 2-10
10th year 5.45 (1.68) 2-10 8.21***
Motivation
11th year 5.26 (1.70) 2-10
Total 5.55 (1.75) 2-10
S1
8th year 6.54 (1.53) 2-10
10th year 6.40 (1.56) 2-10 1.11 (n.s.)
Self-confidence
11th year 6.41 (1.45) 2-10
Total 6.47 (1.52) 2-10
8th year 4.98 (1.72) 2-10
10th year 5.09 (1.58) 2-10 .868 (n.s.)
Familiarity
11th year 4.91 (1.60) 2-10
Total 4.99 (1.65) 2-10
8th year 5.84 (.133) 0-12
10th year 4.96 (.176) 0-12 8.03***
Problem Solving
11th year 5.59 (.187) 0-12
Total 5.53 (3.17) 0-12
8th year 5.88 (1.99) 2-10
10th year 5.46 (1.71) 2-10 6.53*
Motivation
11th year 5.52 (1.86) 2-10
Total 5.68 (1.89) 2-10
S2 8th year 6.78 (1.54) 2-10
10th year 6.65 (1.52) 2-10 .777 (n.s.)
Self-confidence
11th year 6.76 (1.55) 2-10
Total 6.74 (1.54) 2-10
8th year 5.61 (2.09) 2-10
10th year 5.90 (2.00) 2-10 2.16 (n.s.)
Familiarity 11th year 5.80 (2.02) 2-10
Total 5.74 (2.05) 2-10
8th year 5.26 (2.93) 0-12
S3 Problem Solving 8.91***
10th year 4.46 (2.82) 0-12
11th year 5.25 (2.96) 0-12

Total 5.04 (2.93) 0-12
8th year 5.33 (1.93) 2-10
10th year 5.28 (1.71) 2-10 2.18 (n.s.)
Motivation
11th year 5.06 (1.73) 2-10
Total 5.25 (1.83) 2-10
8th year 6.47 (1.62) 2-10
10th year 6.33 (1.44) 2-10 2.19 (n.s.)
Self-confidence
11th year 6.25 (1.45) 2-10
Total 6.38 (1.53) 2-10
8th year 5.06 (2.05) 2-10
10th year 5.27 (1.94) 2-10 1.24 (n.s.)
Familiarity
11th year 5.07 (1.98) 2-10
Total 5.11 (2.00) 2-10
8th year 18.21(7.02) 0-34
10th year 14.58 (7.47) 0-36 24.33***
Problem Solving
11th year 16.74 (8.20) 0-35
Total 16.86 (7.59) 0-36
8th year 17.00 (4.76) 6-30
10th year 16.20 (4.21) 6-29 7.25***
Motivation
Global 11th year 15.84 (4.28) 6-29
Situations Total 16.50 (4.52) 6-30
(S1, S2, and 8th year 19.78 (3.67) 6-30
S3) 10th year 19.38 (3.61) 6-29 1.71 (n.s.)
Self-confidence
11th year 19.42 (3.33) 7-30
Total 19.58 (3.58) 6-30
8th year 15.64 (4.41) 6-30
10th year 16.25 (4.06) 6-29 2.21 (n.s.)
Familiarity
11th year 15.78 (3.91) 6-27
Total 15.84 (4.20) 6-30
This study aimed to present the social intelligence levels of a sample of Portuguese adolescents and to analyze
and discuss the existence of differences according to school grade groups.
The results of the three indices of the Social Cognitive Scale of Intelligence (Candeias, 2007), considering the
global sample, indicate average values ranging from 5.04 (S3) to 6.26 (S1) in the Problem Solving index, from 5.25
(S3) to 5.68 (S2) in the Motivation index, from 6.74 (S2) to 6.38 (S3) in the Self-confidence index, and from 5.74
(S2) to 4.99 (S1) in the Familiarity index. These results indicate the existence of statistically significant differences
for each index, considering the global sample, when compared with the mean value of the respective index.This
suggeststhat these studentsbelieve they have apoor performancein what concerns their ability to understand, make
decisions about, and solve interpersonal situations personally meaningful (Candeias, 2007). These results are
incongruent with those obtained in previous studies with samples of 8th grade Portuguese students, in which it was
verified the absence of statistically significant differences between their results and the normative values of the
Portuguese version of the scale (e.g., Carvalho, 2010; Pinto, Taveira, Candeias, Carvalho& Marques, 2013).
However, it is important to note that inthis sample, the 8th grade students havethehighest mean scores,
whencomparedwiththe other school grades, in almostall situationsand indexes.Exceptionsoccur onlyfor
theFamiliarityindex, in which studentsof 10th gradegethigher resultsatall situations.
In what concerns the hypothesis on the existence of school grade differences in the social intelligence, results
indicate statistically significant differences across the three social situations, in the Problem Solving and Motivation
indexes. According to these results, the 8th grade students have higher results in the Problem Solving and Motivation
indexes, when compared to the 10th and 11th grade students. These results indicate that younger students believe they
have a greater ability to use cognitive procedural and structural dimensions of problem solving (problem solving
index) and also, they experiencehigher levelsof interestand pleasureassociated with the resolution of problems
related to social situations. In what concerns the Self-confidence and the Familiarity indexes, differences were not
found between the different school grades, which means that, in general, the confidence in their skills (self-
confidence index), and the perception that they possess the knowledge and experience to effectively deal with
situations of a social nature (familiarity index), is similar across students from the different school grades. These
results are distinctive from those obtained in the study developed by Candeias (2007), in which no differences were
found between the resultsofSCSIdepending on schoolgrade. However, although the studies of
Carvalho(2011)andPintoet al.(2013) have not analyzedthe differencesbetween schoolgrades, they suggest
thatyounger studentshavestatisticallyhigher resultsin the Familiarity index, and thatolder
studentshavestatisticallyhigher resultsin the Self-confidence index,respectively, and there are nodifferencesin the
Problem solvingandMotivation indexes, depending on age.
Theseresults show thatPortuguese studentsof our sample have low-perceptionsof social intelligence. In other
words, these studentsbelieve they do not possessthe necessary skills toeffectivelysolvethe problemsthey facein their
social life. Giventhat severalstudies point toots relationship with academic, professional and social success(Gardner,
1999;Goleman, 2006;Gricorenko&Stenberg, 2003), reduced social intelligence levels can negatively influence
theway thesestudents design and manage their life career task sand projects(Kihlstrom&Cantor,2000). Thus,
thisstudydemonstrates theurgent need toinvestin thedevelopmentof educational and careerinterventions within
scholarcontexts that takeintoaccounttheimportanceof thestudents'cognitivefactors, such as socialintelligence.
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medida na confluência de múltiplas concepções. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo.
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Cognition (Vol. II, pp. 1-60). NJ: Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates.
Carvalho, V. (2011). Inteligência social em alunos do 8º ano: implicações para o questionamento ético dos projetos de vida [Social intelligencein
8th grade students: implications to theethicalquestionningoflifeprojects]. Unpublished master thesis. Braga, Portugal: School of Psychology,
University of Minho.
Ford, M., &Tisak, M. (1983).A further search for social intelligence.Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 196-206.
Frederiksen, N., Carlson, S. & Ward, W.C. (1984). The place of social intelligence in a taxonomy of cognitive abilities. Intelligence, 8, 315–337.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1993). Inteligências múltiplas [Multiple intelligences] (1st ed.). Barcelona: Ed. Paidos.
Gardner, H. (1998). A multiplicity of intelligences. In Scientific American presents: Exploring Intelligence, (pp. 19-23).
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed. New York: Basic Books.
Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence: The new science of human relationships. New York: Bantam Books.
Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of intelligence. New York: McGraw Hill.
Hopkins, M. M., &Bilimoria, D. (2008). Social and emotional competencies predicting success for male and female executives.Journal of
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ScienceDirect
Social Skills Deficits of Students with Autism in Inclusive Schools

Unchalee Sanrattanaa *, Thidakorn Maneerat b, Kamonrat Srevisate c
a
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand
b
c
Abstract
This research was twofold: (a) to sample the incidence of autism among students in kindergarten, primary and
secondary levels (b) to identify the most frequently occurring social skills deficits among autisms at each of the
grade levels. Survey research was used and the data were collected from teachers of 145 autistic students in
inclusive schools. The research tool was a social skill survey form, covering three aspects of social skills, (a) self
control, (b) communication with others, and (c) playing and working with others. The questions at the early
childhood level totaled 38 items, at primary level 70 items and at secondary 67 items. Research found that most
autistic students in inclusive schools were boys (78.62%).The most frequently observed deficits in social skills of
autistic children at each grade levels were Not sharing toys/ articles that they are interested in, Not able to play a role in
a story with beginning, progression, and ending and Doing activities or playing alone during leisure time or at lunch
time.
Keywords:primary level,incidence,twolfod, leisure time or at lunch time.
1. Introduction
The Constitution of The Kingdom of Thailand 2007; The National Education Act, 1999; and Amendments 2002
(Second Issue); and the Education for the Disabled Act, 2008 each state that all individuals have an equal right for
basic education of not less than 12 years, which is to be provided by the government with good quality and free of
charge. The right applies to the disadvantaged, the disabled, and those suffering hardship, providing life-long free
education for the disabled. Autism is a specific diagnosis included under the broader term, autistic spectrum disorder
(ASD). In addition to autism, Asperger’s, Rett’s syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive
development disorder not-otherwise-specified are part of ASD. All conditions included in ASD fall along a
continuum in each area of development ranging from severe problems to above average abilities. No facial
* Corresponding Author: Unchalee Sanrattana. Tel.: +6-643-343-453

E-mail address: unesar@kku.ac.th
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.249
510 Unchalee Sanrattana et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 509 – 512
characteristics or other physical features thought of as an invisible disability. Persons with ASD are characterized
by problems in three areas of development: communication, social skills, and patterns of behavior or range of
interests, all of which result from neurological impairment (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Research
Council, 2001). Presently, students with ASD are enrolled in regular education with an increasing trend owing to the
aforementioned Acts. However, it has been found that ASD students in inclusive schools do not usually succeed,
primarily due to a lack of social skills (Uthairattanakit, 2002). The problems frequently found include lack of
understanding of social regulations, absence of interest in the surroundings or surrounding people, and inability to
build social relationships with their peers. All of these raise difficulty in relationships with others. Thus, education
for ASD in inclusive classrooms must involve academic, social and emotional skill integration of normal students
and ASD in order that they can develop mutual learning.
2. Objectives
2.1 To sample the incidence of autism among students in the educational system of Khon Kaen Province, Thailand.
2.2 To survey problematic social skills of students with autism in inclusive classrooms
Survey research was conducted and informants were comprised of teachers of 145 ASD students at pre-primary,
primary, and secondary levels of the academic year 2008 in inclusive schools , Khon Kaen Province.The research
tool was a social skill survey form, covering three aspects of social skills, (a) self control, (b) communication with
others, and (c) playing and working with others. The questions at the early childhood level totaled 38 items, at
primary level 70 items and at secondary 67 items. The data were analyzed into frequencies and percentages.
4. Research findings
4.1 To sample the incidence of autism among students in the educational system of Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
found that
In 2008, 145 students with autism were enrolled in inclusive schools, Khon Kaen. Most of them were boys
(78.62%). The highest proportion (55.86%) was studying at the primary level, while the lowest proportion (7.59%)
was at the secondary level. Findings related to gender distribution were consistent with previous findings, where the
ration of boys to girls with autism was reported as 4.5:1.(Trankasombat, 2002: Jennifer A. et al., 2004). In the
present study the ratio of boys to girls was found to be 3.8:1. Results are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Numbers and percentages of students with autism classified by basic information
Number
Basic information Percentages
(n=145)
Sex Males 114 78.62
Females 31 21.38
Educational levels - Kindergarten 1-3 53 36.55
- Primary (Grade 1-3) 50 34.48
- Primary (Grade 4-6) 31 21.38
- Secondary ( Grade 7-9) 11 7.59
4.2 To survey problematic social skills of students with autism in inclusive classrooms found that
The ten most frequently observed problematic social skills behaviors reported by teachers using the instrument
from 4.1 of the study. Behaviors are ranks from highest to lowest
Unchalee Sanrattana et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 509 – 512 511
Table 2 The 10 most frequently reported by teachers in survey of problematic social skills behaviors of autistic
students classified by educational levels (Note: Repeated numbers indicate the items are of equal percentage)
Early childhood (K) Primary (Grade1-6) Secondary (Grade7-12)

1.Not sharing toys/ articles that they 1. Not able to play a role in a story 1. Doing activities or playing alone
are interested in with beginning, progression, and during leisure time or at lunch time
ending
2. Not asking permission when 2. Not able to play a role by 1. Watching others playing/
leaving the seat imitating such as miming frying mocking each other without taking
an egg on a toy frying pan part
3. Taking others’ articles without 3. Not accepting losing 3. Showing sadness or frustration
asking for permission when others do not understand
their needs
4. Not waiting for their turn when 4.Negotiating when having to 4. Spending too much or too little
playing games/playthings on the follow rules time in doing each activity
playground
5. Not communicating with others 5.Overtaking the line /not waiting 5. Sitting with a group without
who come to speak with them for their turn /not following steps joining the activity
6. Not greeting or showing 5. Not able to manage boredom, 5. Not introducing oneself to the
greetings to others e.g. saying ‘I’m bored’ or ‘I don’t others
like this.’
6. Not looking at the other’s face 5. Not making eye contacts 6. Not comforting friends who are
or eyes sad
7. Showing fear when joining 5. Having no relationships with 7.Not playing with children of the
activities that involve a lot of children at the same age, not same age
people mixing with peers
8.Not conforming to agreements 5. Playing alone, in different ways 7. Standing up and walking away
of class/school from surrounding students from activities
9. Doing other things of interest 6. Not being able to be the first to 7.Not stopping to do an activity at
while doing activities with friends act/ greet/ begin a conversation the agreed time
with others
5.1 The nature of autism – Findings regarding the prevalence of autism in male and female students in Khon Kaen
Province were consistent with those from previous studies. For example, Trangkasombat (2002) and Jennifer A. et
al. ( 2004) found autism more common among boys more than girls in the proportion of 4.5:1. In Khon Kaen
Province, the study population was 145 persons with autism, the majority of whom were males (78.62%). The
proportion of males to females was 3.7: 1. The 145 autistic students were mostly at the primary level of education
(55.86%), whereas the least number was found at secondary school level (7.59%). It should be noted that in the past,
autism was not known to all in many Thai schools and the diagnosis was not clear enough to allow precise
identification. Autism used to be classified as one type of psychological disorder and the majority of parents decided
512 Unchalee Sanrattana et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 509 – 512
to keep their child with autism at home or send them to a special school for disabled children. (The Ministry of
Education, 2008). Changes in the manner in which autistic children are diagnosed and educated, then, provide a
logical explanation for why the younger students appear in greater numbers than those at the secondary level.
5.2 Problematic social skills – The research findings identified the following social skills deficits, each of which
hindered the learning and performance of children with autism in inclusive schools at all of the three levels. Firstly,
the self-control behaviour necessary in conforming to agreements or regulations in the classroom was lacking. For
example, students with autism appeared not to realize that they sometimes had to wait. They often overtook the
others in the line; did not ask for permission when leaving the seat; did not seem to know how to work as a team
member; and frequently spoke or screamed while the teacher was teaching. Secondly, the communications skills
need to interact with others were seldom present in autistic students. They seldom made eye contact with others,
never greeted, never said thank you, never seemed to understand people’s emotions, thinking, or feeling. This made
it difficult for them to create and maintain relationships with others. Finally, working in a team was nonexistent
among the students studied. Students with autism were found not to accept losing. They appeared to not know how
to join a peer group or how to act in a peer group. There was no evidence that they understand how to act in a role
playing situation, and they frequently spent too much or too little time in an activity. These findings were consistent
with those reported by Trangkasombat (2002), Jewpatanakul (2006), Myles & Simpson (2001), and Baker, (2004 ).
6.Acknowledgements
We would like to thank The Thailand Research Fund (TRF) for supporting the funding
7. References
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed).
Washington, DC: Author.
Baker, J. E. , (2004) . Social Skills Training for Children and Adolescents with Asperger Syndrome and
Social-Communications. Kansas: Autistic Asperger Publishing Company.
Government Gazette. (2007). Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E. 2550 (2007).
Jennifer, A. et al .(2004). Developmental stages of developmental screening: Steps to implementation of
successful program. American Journal of Public Health ,95 (11); 1928-1932
Jewpatanakul, P. (2006). Development of Exercises to Enhance Social Skills for Autistic Children. Theses
towards the Doctorate Degree of Education in Special Education Instruction, Graduate School,
Srinakharinwirot University.
Myles, B.S. & Simpson, R. L. (2001). Effective practices for students with Asperger Syndrome. Focus on
Exceptional Children. 34(3), 1-14
National Research Council. (2001). Educating children with Autism. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.
Office of the National Education Commission. (2002). National Education Act 1999 and Amendments 2002
(Second National Education Act 2002). Bangkok:Prigwan Graphic Co.Ltd.
Prasarn, O. & Sanrattana U. (2008). “Development Process of Social Stories for Autistic Students.” Journal of
Education Khon Kaen University. 31(1),65-75
The Ministry of Education. (2008).Education for the Disabled Act 2008. Bangkok: The Express Transportation
Organization of Thailand.
Trangkasombat, U. (2002). Helping an Autistic Child, Handbook for Father and Mother Who Never Gives Up.
Bangkok: Research Center and Family Development Company Limited.
Uthairatanakit, D. (2002). “How do We Know If a Child Has Autism” Proceedings of the Workshop on
Teachers, Physicians, and Father and Mother: Potential Development Dimension of Autistic Persons.
Bangkok: Kasetsart University.
ScienceDirect
Students’ Conative Component about the Environment

In The Republic Of Macedonia
Murtezan Ismailia, Mile Srbinovskia*, & Zoran Sapuricb

a
SEEU, Institute for Environment and Health, Tetovo, 1200, The Republic of Macedonia
b
American coledge, Skopje, 1000, The Republic of Macedonia
Abstract
In this paper we tried to determine the level of students’ conative component about environment in the Republic of Macedonia.
1478 students from 38 primary and secondary schools were included in this research.
The most of the students have shown their willingness for active participation in the situations where their environment is
polluted.
The results of this scientific paper will contribute to more comprehensive explanation of the conditions which lead to positive
attitude of the student to the protection of the environment.
© 2013 The
Selection and Authors. Published
peer review under theby Elsevier Ltd.
responsibility of Open access
Prof. Dr. under
Bayram
© 2013 The
and/or peer-review by Elsevier
of Academic
Keywords: conative component, environmental education, students, primary schools, high school, Republic of Macedonia;
1. Introduction
Conative performances are acts of volition or will. Conation is the state of mind of having purpose, and conative
knowing is choosing or willing to perform in relation to some set of circumstances or state of affairs. It is a state of
knowing – to, as distinct from knowing – that or knowing how. Conative knowing is the state of willingness. But
when a person achieves a state of ‘knowing – how’, it includes all the instances of emotional, imaginable, physical,
physiological as well as linguistic knowing (Mohanty, A.).
One of the main goals of environmental education is to create a new behavior and lifestyle, which means that each
student will engage and act in accordance to the needs of the environment. Srbinovski M. (2005b) defined
environmental education as ”a process of active learning in which individuals and groups attain elementary
knowledge, understanding, and skills for decisive, motivated, responsible, and collective action to achieve and
maintain the dynamic environmental balance”. Evidently, the definition constitutes numerous elements which can
also be found in other sources (Stapp et al, 1969; IUCN, 1970; Belgrade Chapter, 1975; UNESCO, 1978; Lucas,
1980; Ramsey & Hungerford, 1989; Marcinkowski, Volk & Hungerford, 1990; NEEAC & US-EPA, 1996; IEEP
*
Corresponding Author name. Mile Srbinovski, Tel.: +389 44 356 114
E-mail address: m.srbinovski@seeu.edu.mk
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.174
96 Murtezan Ismaili et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 95 – 100
itn.). Hence, the ultimate goal of environmentally responsible behavior from students can only be achieved if the
aforementioned elements are fully integrated in the curriculum.
The willingness of individuals to participate in an activity means "the sum of all his/her characteristics due to which
he/she will act in one way rather than another" (Dictionary of Pedagogy, 1967). This term includes physical,
psychological and moral components.
"Establishing a willing attitude to environmental protection does not depend only on the students' sense of
personality and situational circumstances understood in the narrow sense, but also depends on the society to which
man belongs, and which surrounds it" (Kundacina, 1991). Therefore, Furlan I. (1973/74) argues that "the
development of willing environmental awareness component is more difficult and complicated task than emotional
component, because it is difficult to provide students with positive reinforcement for their actions."
More authors deal with the students’ conative component in the field of environmental education: Abazi et al.
(2008, 2009a and 2009b), Charlesworth (1976), Enrajt & Saterfild (1985), and Matovic and Matic (1989), Zderic
(1983), Kritovac (1989), Radovic (1977), De Zan (1990), Kundacina (1991), Robotti & Hart (1995), Ismaili et al.
(2009a and 2009b), Hoody (1995), McVittie & Chamberlain (2000), Srbinovski (2000, 2001, 2003e, 2004a, 2004b,
2005a, 2005b and 2006), Arbuthnot, J. (1977), Barrett et al. (2002), Chan (1996), Erdogan et al. (2009), Hines et al.
(1986/87), Hsu (1997), Hungerford & Volk (1990), Kuhlemeier (1999), Marcinkowski & Mrazek (1996),
Marcinkowski (2001), McBeth (2006), McBeth et al. (2008), Palmer (1998), Sia (1985), Sia et al. (1985/86), Sivek
& Hungerford (1989/90), Jonuzi (2009) etc. Robotti & Hart (1995) believe that most researches efforts, neglect
historical, social and political aspects in which individuals and groups operate.
2. Methodology
The aim of this study is to determine the students’ readiness to engage in situations when their environment is
threatened. Readiness for action in protecting the environment is defined as the degree of individual’s willingness to
participate in the activities of the ecological character (Kundacina, 1991). It expresses the acceptance of possible
way of students’ engagement when their environment is contaminated.
These results represent willingness on the verbal level, which certainly can not be a complete indicator of the
individuals’ behavior in situations where their environment is in risk. From that, we have not examined the students’
behavior, but their attitudes. It is important to emphasize that what you say and what you do are two different things.
As reported by Brickman, Deutscher and Wicker (cited in Hines, Hungerford and Tomera, 1986), what people
indicate on a questionnaire is often inconsistent with their actual behaviors.
For the credibility of these studies Novosel, P. (1963) supposes, "When our respondents say that in a situation they
will act in a certain way, it still does not mean that it actually happened. It just means that in them there is a certain
degree of readiness to act in that way". Siber I. (1984) argues that this is only a "latent disposition of the action."
There is a base ground for assuming that majority of our students is willing for action in situation when their
environment is threatened. We have constructed the instrument Scale of activation (SA). Scores of this scale
represent different levels of students’ readiness to participate in the activities of environmental protection. On this
scale, responders chose one option that represents their readiness to participate in environment protection in certain
hypothetical situations. These situations are referred to the rehabilitation of negative states in the environment. 10
hypothetical situations were so formulated that it allows us direct measurement of the student’s readiness degree on
the four levels, without a middle category ("forced choice").
Murtezan Ismaili et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 95 – 100 97
Table 1. Action's modalities (Kundacina, 1991).
No Modality/level of students’ readiness for action Points

A Indifferent attitude (students do not think about the situation) 1
B Passive-active attitude (students think, but not engage) 2
C Students do something on their own initiative- active attitude (take action) 3
D Collective attitude (take action and asks others to engage) 4
Metric characteristics of SA are given in the following tables.
Table 2. Metric characteristics of SA.
N. of. question 905 Minimum 10.00 Variance 30.465

Mean 26.426 Maximum 40.000 Skewness -0.939
Confid. – 95% 26.066 Lover quartile 24.000 S. E. Skewness 0.081
Confid. + 95% 26.785 Upper quartile 30.000 Kurtosis 1.469
Median 28.000 Std. deviation 5.520 S.E. Kurtosis. 0.162
Sum 23968 Standard Error 0.183 Miss. Cases 98.000
Thus we have got instruments with relatively good metric characteristics.

We included 1487 students from 38 primary and secondary schools in the Republic of Macedonia from 1999 to
2009. We decided to include final classes, because the students learn environmental issues in all grades, so these
students represent a kind of rounding of an educational level. From that, we can conclude that our sample is
intentional and systematic. It is intentional because we included final classes, and systematic because we chose each
n-th class. Because a range of coincidental moments influenced which students will be found in these classes, we
can consider that our sample is coincidental and representative enough.
The students’ level of preparedness to engage in environmental protection is shown in the following table.
Table 3. Distribution of responses (by situations).
Hypothetical A B C D
Situation f % f % f % f %
1 152 10.66 289 12.13 376 26.37 608 42.64
2 93 6.74 222 16.09 396 28.7 667 48.33

3 195 13.57 432 30.06 349 24.29 458 31.87
4 98 7.34 209 15.64 374 27.99 651 48.73
5 132 10.36 444 34.85 286 22.45 407 31.95
6 132 9.81 307 22.81 329 24.44 572 42.5
7 120 10.84 315 28.46 276 24.93 389 25.14
8 426 30.06 363 25.62 254 17.93 366 25.83
9 192 13.38 514 35.82 263 18.33 457 31.85
10 144 10.11 314 22.04 356 24.98 601 42.18
Legend: A- Indifferent attitude, B - Passive-active attitude, C- takes action, D- Collective attitude
On the basis of these results we can conclude that most students have a positive attitude towards their own
participation in environmental protection. Very important is the fact that about 2/3 of them are ready to engage in
environmental protection. Thus, we accept the hypothesis that students are substantially ready for engagement in
situations where the environment is in jeopardy.
The respondents have not equal attitudes towards offered situations. Their readiness for action depends on the kind
of the problems. They have shown more willingness to act in the school’s activities about environment. This could
mean that they consider themselves as competent authorities for implementation of the activities in the environment.
Indifferent attitude of students was reported in 12.8% of cases. This percentage indicates that their willingness for
action is lower than the needs of the society. This passive attitude of students is determined by large number of
factors from the social and school environment. Some of them influence positively and some negatively, which
leads to student’ disorientation. In this context, some previous studies have not confirmed the dominant position of
the school’s contribution in the field of environmental education (Kundacina 1991, Srbinovska 2001, Srbinovski,
2005b and 2003b). In our opinion, this is the result of a number of weaknesses that characterize the current
education system. In fact, many authors believe that our educational system is still too closed, uniform, slow,
overloaded with tradition, and not sensitive enough and ready for change
Kundacina (1990) found a statistically significant correlation between the willingness of young people to participate
in the environmental protection on the one hand, and environmental atmosphere in the family, urbanization of
residence, social status, financial status of the family, on the other hand. The same author believes that "the students’
activities are determined by a number of factors that can be divided into those who make the internal motivation and
those who do situational circumstances. Readiness for action is the product of the value’s orientation of the
individual and his feelings and beliefs in the need to engage".
Srbinovski M. (2005a, 2005b) on the representative sample of 2154 students found that the conative component is
on higher level among young students than the older ones. The same author found low correlation (0.16 and 0.21)
among cognitive and conative component (Srbinovski, 2005a, 2005b). This means that the conative component can
not be statistically significant develop only through this component. Kundačina (1991) confirmed that the conative
and other students’ environmental qualification are not statistically significant related. On the relationship between
cognitive and conative component indicate McVittie & Chamberlain (2000). Similar results were obtained by
Srbinovski (1997) with students in experimental classes in "J. Rade Korčagin" in Skopje and "Kiril Pejcinovic"-
Tetovo, high schools, (1996b). Stojanovic et al, (1997) found a positive relationship between studying of
environmental content and students' behavior toward nature.
The positive students’ attitude towards their own participation in environmental protection shows that they are
willing to learn the contents in the field of ecology. Unfortunately, content analysis of the curriculum and didactic
materials has shown that there are many weaknesses and gaps in terms of their quality and quantity (Srbinovski,
2001, 2002a, 2002b, 2002c, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c, 2003d and 2003). There are several reasons for this. One of them
is still not fully established right place of environment in the educational system.
4. Conclusion
Bearing in mind previous findings, as well as the average assessment level of students’ readiness for action (62 %),
we can conclude that the most of students are ready for action in the situation where their environment is threatened.
From that, we can partially confirm our hypothesis.
It is an indisputable fact that the younger generation aware of the importance of preserving the environment and they
are adequately prepared to protect it. On the other hand, they are motivated to successfully learn their own
environmental courses. However, at this level is not their educational system.
The need for harmonious action of the school and social factors is greater than ever. Social community must be
aware of the role of educational systems in the field of environmental protection. From that, in accordance to the
environmental goals and principles, we must permanently advancement our educational system, especially in the
field of environment and sustainable development. Just in this way, we could professionally and competently
Murtezan Ismaili et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 95 – 100 99
respond to this social need, particularly as young people showed their awareness and readiness for active
involvement in situations when their environment is threatened. This conative attitude towards the environment
actually has to be one of the ultimate goals of environmental education. And he can only be achieved if the whole
society becomes a powerful educational community.
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ScienceDirect
5th World Conference Educational Sciences 2013- WCES 2013
Survey for describing students’ smoking behavior

Dilek Sultan Kilic a *, Melek Yaman Kasap a
a
Department of Secondary School Science and Mathematics Education, Faculty of Education, Hacettepe University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
Abstract
This study contains information about the survey that was developed to examine smoking behavior of secondary school students
and the factors that influence this behavior. The survey was prepared in accordance with the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB),
proposed by Ajzen (1985). The survey consists of an introduction in which there are questions about demographic information
and the main components of TPB (Behavior, Behavioral Intention, Attitude, Subjective Norm, and Perceived Behavioral Control
Scales) and the sub-components (Behavioral Beliefs, Normative Beliefs and Control Beliefs Scales). By applying this survey to
large samples, it is planned to examine smoking behavior in detail.
© 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Health education, smoking, Theory of Planned Behavior
1. Introduction
One of the most important health problems that the developed and developing countries face today is smoking.
World Health Organisation describes smoking as an epidemic (World Health Organization, 2003). Smoking causes
serious health problems such as cardiac diseases, various cancers – mainly lung cancer, respiratory tract infections,
and asthma in both active smokers and in passive smokers being exposed to the cigarette smoke. This situation
lowers the life quality of individuals on the one hand, and brings a big burden on the economy due to medical
expenses on the other hand.
Recently, such measures as public informing campaigns, raising the taxes and putting bans on cigarette
advertisements have become widespread in many countries so as to reduce smoking. Those precautions helped to
reduce cigarette consumption in developed countries. However, it is still high in developing countries, and
furthermore, it has been rising (World Health Organization, 2008). The rise is widespread especially among the
youth.
Struggling with smoking, one of the most important health problems of present day, loads great responsibility on
individuals and on institutions. Schools and teachers in particular, that have the chance to reach every part of the
society, play a very important role in this respect. Considering the fact that age of starting smoking is 11 on average
in the world (World Health Organization, 2005), the importance of schools’ and teachers’ responsibility becomes
more apparent. It is obvious that Turkey will face great health and economic problems in the future unless the
precautions are not taken mainly in schools so that the young do not start smoking or so that they quit it in our
* Corresponding name:Dilek Sultan Kilic. Tel.: +9-0312-297-8616; fax: +9-0312-297-8600.

E-mail address: dsultan@hacettepe.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.211
Dilek Sultan Kilic and Melek Yaman Kasap / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 298 – 302 299
country, where the number of young population is high. Hence, this study aims to develop a survey to determine the
secondary education students’ smoking behaviors and the factors influencing those behaviors. It is believed that the
survey will contribute to the collection of the data required for preparing the circumstances needed and for planning
the process of teaching in order to prepare students for a life with no cigarettes.
In this study, Theory of Planned Behavior was used to explain smoking behavior. This theory is accepted as one
of the most effective socio-psychological theories that explain behavior (TPB, Ajzen, 1985; 2005). Since its
inception, TPB has been successfully used in various fields, and it has provided the best interpretable results in
terms of behavior and factors affecting behavior intentions. The aim of the theory is to foresee behavior. According
to the theory, the behavior of an individual depends on his or her behavioral intention. Behavioral intention is under
the influence of three variables: Attitude towards behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control.
These variables are the main components that form the first part of the theory, and they are interrelated. Attitude
towards Behavior is the evaluation of a behavior as good or bad by the individual who is going to perform that
behavior. Subjective Norm indicates the social pressure an individual perceives in relation to behaving in a certain
way. Perceived Behavioral Control indicates how easy or difficult one finds to perform a certain behavior. These
main dimensions of the theory are shaped with the effect of the beliefs dimensions, which constitute the second part
of the theory: 1) Behavioral Beliefs: Possible results of a behavior that is important for the individual. 2) Normative
Beliefs: Expectations towards the behavior by the ones whom the individual holds in high esteem. 3) Control
Beliefs: Situations that makes it easy/difficult for the individual to behave in a certain way. Each variable in the
beliefs dimension consists of 2 sub-dimensions which can be called Expectation and Value (Expectation-Value
Theory; Frey et al., 1993). Behavioral beliefs are determined by the predictions of the individual about the results of
the behavior, and by how he or she evaluates these results. Normative beliefs are a combination of the expectations
of the ones whom the individual holds in high esteem and his or her will to meet this expectation. Control beliefs are
determined by examining the internal (skill, knowledge, etc.) and external (money, time, etc.) proficiencies that are
required in order to behave in a particular way (Ajzen, 2005). Taking this into consideration, before moving on with
the analyses, the real values to be used in the study were determined by multiplying the numbers referring to the
answers given to the items in the beliefs section.
Figure 1. The Theory of Planned Behavior (adapted from Ajzen, 2005)

300 Dilek Sultan Kilic and Melek Yaman Kasap / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 298 – 302
2. Method
2.1. Research Sample
The research sample was composed of 388 students attending the two secondary education schools in Ankara in
the 2012-2013 academic year. 164 of the participants (%42) were female students while 224 (%58) were male. They
were in the 14-19 age range, and the average age was 16.5. And their distribution according to grade levels was: 126
of them (%32) were in the 9th grade, 32 (%8.2) were in the 10th grade, 41 (%10.6) were in the 11th grade and 189
(%48.7) were in the 12th grade. 228 students (%59) said that there were smokers in their family whereas 160 (%41)
said that there were no smokers in their family. In addition, 332 students (85.6%) reported that they do not smoke.
The time for starting smoking for the 56 students (%14.4) who said that they smoke was between a few months and
8 years.
2.2. Data Analysis
The data were put to exploratory factor analysis. The decisions as to the compatibility of the data for factor analysis
were made by checking whether or not the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value was above .6 and whether or not the
Barlett’s Test of Sphericity was significant. In determining the factor number, the factors whose eigenvalue statistics
were bigger than 1 were considered to be significant. The factors up to the point where the scree plot takes a
horizontal shape were regarded as the maximum factor numbers to be obtained (Buyukozturk, 2006; Kalayci, 2006).
In deciding to include an item in the scale, it was important that the load value in the item factor was .45 or higher
and that the common variance value was .3 and above. Besides, it was also important that the difference between the
load value which the item received in the first factor and the load value which it received in other factors was .10
and higher (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Thus, the overlapping items which were not clear as to which factor they
belonged to were removed from the scale. The reliability of the scales were checked by calculating the Cronbach’s
Alpha (α) internal consistency coefficient.
3. Findings
The KMO values found for the scales were between .68 and .92. The significance level of Barlett’s Test of
Sphericity was found to be 0.000 (p<0.05) for all the scales. These were the results showing that the data were
compatible with factor analysis. Consequently, the item factor loads in all of the scales were found to be .47 at the
minimum and .93 at the maximum.
The Cronbach’s Alpha value for the behavior directed attitude, one of the main components of the Theory of
Planned Behavior (TPB), was found as .85 while that value was found to be .79 for the perceived behavioral control.
The reliability for the subjective norm measured with 2 items was calculated as .51 through Spearman’s correlation
coefficient (r) by considering the fact that the items did not distributed normally. Following the factor analysis of the
main components of the theory, the items which were formed in order to determine the behavior directed attitude
were found as positive towards smoking (5 items, α = .90) and as negative (2 items, r = .56). The total variance
explained by these two factors was 73%. The subjective norm was measured with two items whose mutual
correlation was .51 whereas the perceived behavioral control was measured with 3 items accounting for the 71% of
the total variance in one factor.
The Cronbach’s Alpha values were .89, .95, and .90 respectively for behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs and
control beliefs scales - the sub components. In consequence of the factor analyses conducted for the sub-
components, the items about behavioral beliefs were grouped under two factors containing the medical (9 items, α =
.94) and psychological (5 items, α = .83) consequences of smoking. These two factors together accounted for the
68% of the total variance. Normative behaviors contained 9 items accounting for the 74% of the total variance in
one factor. Control beliefs, however, were grouped into three factors: 1) The availability of atmosphere suitable for
Dilek Sultan Kilic and Melek Yaman Kasap / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 298 – 302 301
smoking (5 items, α = .88), 2) Responses/punishments for smoking (5 items, α = .79), and 3) Financial potential for
smoking (3 items, α = .88). These three factors accounted for the 67% of the total variance (Table 1).
Table 1: Factor Analysis Results for the Survey for Describing Students’ Smoking Behavior
Number of Percentage of Range of Factor Reliability
TPB Dimension KMO
Items Explained Variance Loadings (α or r*)
Attitude towards Behavior .85

Positive approach 5 .83 73 .67 - .92 .90
Negative approach 2 .82 - .86 .56*
Subjective Norm 2 - - - .51*
Perceived Behavioral Control 3 .68 71 .79 - .88 .79

Behavioral Beliefs .89
Medical consequences 9 .91 68 .61 -.93 .94
Psychological consequences 5 .47 - .81 .83
Normative Beliefs 9 .92 74 .75 - .93 .95
Control Beliefs .90
Suitable atmosphere 5 .72 - .80 .88
Response/ Punishment 5 .87 67 .66 - .79 .79
Financial potential 3 .65 - .86 .88
* The reliability of the scales was checked by calculating the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient (α); but for the reliability of the structures that were
measured with two items, the Spearman’s correlations coefficient (r) was calculated.
Consequently, the “Survey for Describing Students’ Smoking Behavior”, which was formed by reviewing the
field literature and following the instructions for the Theory of Planned Behavior and for which the reliability and
validity analyses were conducted, was composed of an introductory part where demographic information was
presented and 6 scales of 7-pointed likert type: Attitude directed to Behavior (two dimensions, totally 7 items),
Subjective Norm (2 items), and Perceived Behavioral Control (3 items), Behavioral Beliefs (2 dimensions, totally 14
items), Normative Beliefs (9 items), and Control Beliefs (3 dimensions, totally 13 items). An item for each
dimension of the scales and for each scale is shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Survey for Describing Students’ Smoking Behavior – Samples for items
TPB Dimension Sample items
Attitude towards Behavior
Positive approach Smoking is enjoyable to me.

Negative approach Smoking is harmful to me.
Subjective Norm People/institutions that are important to me support my smoking.
Perceived Behavior Control I f I want to smoke, conditions are suitable for that.
Behavioral Beliefs
(results of behavior X evaluation of the results) If I smoke…
Risk of cancer increases for me. X The rise in the risk of cancer is important to
Medical consequences
me.
Psychological consequences My self-esteem increases. X Increase in my self esteem is important to me
Normative Beliefs
My friends expect me to smoke. X My friends’ expectations of my smoking is
(expectations X the importance of expectations for
important to me.
the individual)
Control Beliefs
(perceived conditions X the facilitating effect of
conditions)
Suitable atmosphere People smoke in parties I go to. X This makes my smoking easier.
302 Dilek Sultan Kilic and Melek Yaman Kasap / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 298 – 302
Response/ Punishment I am fined if I smoke in some places. X This makes my smoking more difficult.
My financial potential is sufficient to buy cigarettes. X This makes my smoking
Financial potential
easier.
4. Result and Discussion
A survey was developed in this research so as to explain the smoking behaviors of secondary education students
based on the “Theory of Planned Behavior”. The field literature was reviewed by the researchers for this purpose,
and the variables necessary for specifying individuals’ smoking behaviors on the basis of the Theory of Planned
Behavior were determined. The pilot work for the questionnaire was performed with 388 students attending two
secondary education schools. By using the data obtained for the construct validity of the survey, the exploratory
factor analysis was done. At the same time, by considering the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin sample compatibility test
(KMO) and the results of Barlett’s Test of Sphericity, it was found that the data were compatible with factor
analysis. In the light of the factor analysis results, the number of dimensions of the scales that were determined on
the basis of the Theory of Planned Behavior and the items to measure those dimensions were determined. After
conducting the reliability and validity work, the survey took its final shape and was structured as in the following:
Attitudes (7 items), Subjective norm (2 items), Perceived Behavioral Control (3 items), Behavioral Beliefs (14
items), Normative Beliefs (9 items), and Control Beliefs (13 items). In addition to that, an item for students’
intention to smoke and an item for their smoking behavior were also included. The analyses conducted for the
reliability of the survey showed that the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients were at the acceptable level. The results of
this research support the view that the survey could be used as a reliable and valid tool of measurement.
Survey for Describing Students’ Smoking Behavior may be used by field experts working on secondary education
students’ smoking behaviors and on factors determining their behaviors. Thus, it may contribute to precautions to be
taken for hindering their smoking. At the same time, with the use of this measurement tool-which was prepared to
suit the economic, environmental and social life conditions of Turkey- it will be possible to describe how it differs
from the conditions of societies in which smoking behavior was analysed from the socio-psychological perspective
and in which smoking is less. In the next research, plans are made to apply the survey to larger samples and to
determine students’ smoking behaviors as well as the factors influential in those behaviors in more details. In
addition, to that, variables as to gender, age, whether or not family members smoke will be used and thus the factors
affecting students’ smoking behaviors will be researched from various perspectives. It is thought that the research
will make contributions to taking the measures to remove the factors causing students to smoke, and will shed light
on doing the required regulations.
References
Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. Action-control: From cognition to behavior. Kuhl, J. and Beckmann,
J. (eds.), Springer, Heidelberg. pp. 11-39.
Ajzen, I. (2005). Attitudes, personality and behavior (2nd Edition), McGraw-Hill, Milton-Keynes, England: Open University Press.
Buyukozturk, S. (2006). Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı. Pegem Yayınları, Ankara.
Frey, D., Stahlberg, D. & Gollwitzer, P.M. (1993). Einstellung und Verhalten: Die Theorie des überlegten Handelns und die Theorie des
geplanten Verhaltens. Kognitive Theorien der Sozialpsychologie, Frey, D. und Irle, M. (Hrsg.), Bern:Huber, Band I, s.368-398.
Kalayci, S. (2006). SPSS Uygulamalı Çok Değişkenli İstatistik Teknikleri. Asil Yayın ve Dağıtım, Ankara.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
World Health Organization (2003). The world health report 2003 - shaping the future. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from the web:
http://www.who.int/whr/2003/en/
World Health Organization (2005). The role of health Professionals in tobacco control. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from the web:
http://www.paho.org/english/ad/sde/ra/bookletWNTD05.pdf
World Health Organization (2008). WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008. Retrieved November 21, 2011 from the web:
http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_full_2008. pdf
ScienceDirect
Tablets as primary educational computing devices. An impact

analysis on the educational landscape in an Austrian university.
Birgit Oberer a 1, Alptekin Erkollar b
a
Kadir Has University, Istanbul, Turkey
b
Halic University, Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
In this study, we analyze how tablet devices could be used as educational tools to support innovative educational
practice in a university in Austria. Students and educators were issued tablet devices in 2011 across the full
spectrum of programs. Surveys were used to assess the impact of the tablet devices’ use on motivation, quality of
work, collaboration, achievement, and other factors.
© 2013
© 2013 The
Published byPublished
Authors. Elsevier Ltd.
by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Keywords: mobile technologies, tablet, learning, university
1. Introduction
Mobile technologies, which provide the potential to be used away from a fixed location, can be used to enhance
learning experiences in a number of different ways. Learners’ data and information can be dynamically integrated
over time and space, thereby creating new forms of collaborative and integrative learning for both students and
educators.
In some countries, the use of m-learning for students located in remote places is taken as an advantage for
communication and for media content development. A variety of devices are used and m-learning solutions are
offered in companies and universities. Implementing mobile services in education as mobile learning modules is an
innovative process at many levels of universities (Dykes and Knight, 2012). E-learning developers and course
instructors must be aware of the changing user preferences, technological issues, and the new tools available in
order to be able to determine how to benefit from them (Asabere and Enguah, 2007, Shafique et al. 2010).
2. Mobile devices based learning
The term ‘mobile’ refers to the possibility of taking place in multiple locations, across multiple times, and
accessing content with equipment, such as smartphones or tablets (Keegan et al. 2006; Kurkela 2011). Mobile
learning is learning that is accomplished with the use of small, portable computing devices. Mobile learning can be
used to enhance the overall learning experience for students and teachers. ‘Through mobile support, learners'
1 Corresponding Author
E-mail address: journal@etcop.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.243
478 Birgit Oberer and Alptekin Erkollar / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 477 – 480
throughput rates might be improved and the quality of the learning experience enhanced. Active learning might
immerse where previously inactive studying took place’. The field of wireless technologies is developing
exceedingly fast. Most of the developments contribute to the greater feasibility of mobile learning and to the
richness of the courseware that can be developed for mobile learning. All of this has greatly facilitated the
development of mobile learning and has contributed to the richness and complexity of courseware on mobile devices
(Keegan et al. 2006; Pachler 2007, Sorensen 2009).
The European Commission has funded mobile learning projects with the aim to support vocational education and
training using mobile devices for the delivery of learning content.
3. The Landscape of Austrian Higher Education
Institutions of higher education in Austria have experienced transformational processes in recent years, such as
the transition, for example, to the Bologna system and the internationalization of studies being offered, in which the
rankings are increasingly dominating the public perception of institutions of higher education. All of these factors
have an impact on the overall educational system.
To be successful in a competitive environment, universities have to facilitate and promote academic excellence,
which must be the deciding differentiating criterion for resource allocation within the universities. Qualification of
and support for young academics is absolutely essential; young academics should be given the necessary freedom
and opportunity for research (Hahn 2009).
The Lisbon Agenda has aspired to make Europe ‘the world’s leading knowledge-based economy by 2010’. The
Barcelona European Council of 2002 and the European Council of 2005 relaunched the Lisbon strategy and are
fostering universities as pivotal elements for reaching this objective. If a knowledge-based economy is characterized
by the production, transmission, and dissemination of knowledge, universities are unique in all these processes
(Perez 2009).
‘A comparison of teaching at the university level shows, when compared internationally, that Austrian
universities have an excellent faculty-student ratio when one factors in the other academic staff. With regard to full
professors in Austria, the faculty-student ratio tends to be below average – with a wide range among the universities.
Compared internationally, the percentage of PhD students in the overall student body is high and there are only
small differences between the individual Austrian universities. This indicates that teaching at Austrian universities is
research-oriented to a considerable extent.’ (Steiner 2009).
4. Tablets in higher education
Although the use of computers including laptops is established in schools, the integration of tablet devices is still at
the innovation stage. Considerable debates remain regarding the educational benefits of tablet devices for learners
and teachers. The introduction of tablet devices throughout the mentioned university provides an opportunity for a
research study on the initial impact of tablet devices on learners and teaching; and the social, technical, and
infrastructure related problems arising. To analyze the impact of tablets on education, in 2011 a project was initiated
by an Austrian university, which already has a strong commitment to information and communication technologies.
The main focus was to use tablets in class and evaluate the impact on the educational performance.
The projects consist of a pilot project to be conducted at the university and follow up projects to be conducted.
The pilot project was initiated in 2011 (duration 1 year); the first results are presented in this contribution. Students
and educators were issued tablet devices in 2011 across the full spectrum of programs. Mainly students from
business, economics, technical studies, and information technology contributed to the study. Main courses teaching
with the tablets issued were (1) Introduction to Marketing, (2) Introduction to Economics, (3) Business Process
Management, (4) Enterprise Information Systems, (5) Innovation Management, and (6) Geographic Information
Systems.
Birgit Oberer and Alptekin Erkollar / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 477 – 480 479
For most courses, mobile modules were included in the course topics. With the integration of mobile learning
modules (MLM), the teaching methods primarily used a focus on lectures and MLM, supported by MLM based field
analysis and student projects. For mobile learning modules (MLM), the tables issued were used to reach the learning
goals that were defined. In the Geographic Information Systems course, for instance, students used the tablet for the
whole course to work on their mobile learning modules: this includes working on their individual assignments as
well as on their group projects. A sample group project of the students, who had to work using mobile devices to
support their work, is shown in table 1.
Table 1. Student project including mobile learning modules
Student project: GIS cartography and map production
topic Main question to be answered To do list
1 How can GIS data be COLLECTED? Analyze the primary and

secondary sources
2 What are the principles of MAP DESIGN? Find out the purpose,
available data, map scale, …
3 What are typical MAP COMPOSITION LAYOUTS? Analyze the body, title, scale,
…
Use your tablet and find sample applications and evaluate them.
Use your tablet and prepare a sample base map (choose the design and layout)
Include symbolization and map series
Use your tablet for sharing your designed map with your instructor and the other groups in your course.
For the pilot projects, two different streams were important, the students’ one and the stream considering the use
of tablet devices by educators.
The students’ stream includes the development of course designs, including mobile learning modules and
focusing on collaboration issues and a technology focus. The mission of this project part was that (1) every student
has his/her own learning device, (2) every student uses some kind of technology for every lesson, in class and at
home; and (3) every student can improve his/her learning by using technology.
The educator’s stream focuses on the motivation of educators to use the tablets not only in class for student active
and passive work, but also for educators’ active work, in data collection, preparing course content, presenting course
content, collaboration with students, and collaboration among educators.
5. Results
At the end of the 1-year period, surveys were used to assess the impact of the tablet devices’ use on motivation,
quality of work, collaboration, achievement, and other factors, both for students and educators.
Most instructors created and frequently used a course related circle on Google+ for communicating with all the
students, and sub circles for all the student groups working on projects; Hangouts were used for the online office
hours of instructors, explaining assignments, talking about projects, group work or communicating with students
completing their projects, facing problems, or needing some kind of support. Some instructors used sparks, which is
a customized way of searching and sharing that follows an interest-based approach, to share results with the course
circle or any sub circle or selected students.
480 Birgit Oberer and Alptekin Erkollar / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 477 – 480
More than 98% of all the students worked with their tablets on social media networks, mainly Google+, for group
internal communication, and 40% of them had not used social media networks previously for communicating on
course related issues.
The results of this analysis revealed that 75% of the staff felt that student achievement appeared to have increased
since the introduction of tablet devices, mainly in fine arts and business programs. 98% of the students and 64% of
the faculty respondents felt that the tablet devices helped the students improve the quality of their work significantly.
The majority of educators use tablet devices regularly in their teaching. For IT related programs, the students’
performance did not significantly increase by using tablet devices, but 87% of the responding students of IT
programs felt that their levels of collaborative working improved.
Minor technical issues were faced, mostly due to user error, but were easily dealt with.
The outcomes of this two-year analysis demonstrated the role that tablet devices could play in learning and teaching.
References
Asabere, N.Y. & Enguah, S.E. (2012). ‘Integration of Expert Systems in Mobile Learning’. International Journal of Information and
Communication Technology Research, 2(1), pp.55-61.
Erkollar, A., Oberer, BJ (2011). Trends in Social Media Application: The Potential of Google+ for Education Shown in the Example of a
Bachelor’s Degree Course on Marketing’, Communications in Computer in Information Science. Tai-hoon, K., Hojjat, -A., Haeng-kon, K.,
Heau-jo, K., Kyung, J. K., Akingbehin, K., Byeong-Ho , K. (Eds.): Proceedings: Software Engineering, Business Continuity, and Education.
International Conferences ASEA, DRBC and EL 2011. Held as part of the Future Generation Information Technology Conference, FGIT
2011, in Conjunction with GDC 2011, Jeju Island, Korea, 2011, vol. 257, 2011 (pp. 569-578).
Hahn, J. (2009). ‘Higher Education Research in Austria.: Challenges and Prospects’. In: Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and Research
(2009). ‘Higher Education Research in Austria. Trends, requirements and underlying conditions’, pp. 2-5.
Dykes, G. & Knight, H., United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2012), ‘Mobile Learning for Teachers
in Europe. Exploring the Potential of Mobile Technologies to Support Teachers and Improve Practices’, UNESCO Working Paper
Series on Mobile Learning, France.
Keegan, D., Dismihok, G., Mileva, N., Rekkedal, T. (2006). The role of mobile learning in European education. Work Package 4, 227828-CP-1-
2006-1-IE-MINERVA-M, European Commission.
Kurkela, L.J. (2011). Systemic Approach to Learning Paradigms and the Use of Social Media in Higher Education, iJET, Vol.6, 2011 (pp.14-20).
Pachler, N. (2007), ‘Mobile Learning towards a research agenda’, WLE Centre, Institute of Education, occasional papers in work-based learning,
UK.
Perez, S.E. (2009)., ‘research policy measures for universities in Europe: common trends and challenges’, In: Austrian Federal Ministry of
Science and Research (2009). ‘Higher Education Research in Austria. Trends, requirements and underlying conditions’, pp. 12-16.
Shafique, F., Anwar, M., Bushra, M. (2010). Exploitation of social media among university students: a case study, Webology, vol. 7, issue 2,
article 79, http://www.webology.org/2010/v7n2/a79.html.
Sorensen, A. (2009), ‘Social Media and personal blogging: Textures, routes and patterns’, MedieKultur: Journal of Media and Communication
Research (25:47), pp. 66-78.
Steiner, M. (2009). ‘The Austrian university landscape compared to other countries.’ In: Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and Research
(2009). ‘Higher Education Research in Austria. Trends, requirements and underlying conditions’, pp. 26-31.
ScienceDirect
5th World Conference Educational Sciences WCES- 2013
Teacher Candidates’ Attitudes Towards Reading Habit

(Case of Dokuz Eylul and Pamukkale Universities)
Fatma Susar Kırmızı*, Nevin Akkayab, Eda Bıçakc, Cenan İşçid
a
Faculty of Education, Department of Primary Education, Pamukkale University, Denizli, 20070, Turkey
b
Buca Faculty of Education, Department of Turkish Education, Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, 35390, Turkey
c
Education Science Institute, Department of Primary Education, Pamukkale University, Denizli, 20070, Turkey
d
Social Science Institute, Department of Turkish Education, Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, 35390, Turkey
Abstract
The aim of this study is to examine the reading habit of the teacher candidates at the education faculties of Dokuz Eylul
University (DEÜ) and Pamukkale University (PAÜ) in a contrastive manner. In this study, screening model being one of the
descriptive research methods was used to identify the reading habit of the teacher candidates, obtain quantitative data and
produce statistics related to the research topic. The population of this study is the 3rd year students at the education faculties of
Dokuz Eylul and Pamukkale Universities. By choosing a certain number of classes in various departments of both faculties, a
questionnaire was administered to 1832 students. In the data collection process, “Teacher Candidates’ Attitudes towards Reading
Habit Scale” (TCARHS) developed by Susar Kirmizi (2012) was used. The factor coefficients of the items rang from .80 to .54.
The attitudes of DEU students towards reading habit have a higher level than those of PAU students.
Keywords: Reading habit, Attitudes, Teacher candidates.
1. Introduction
Reading skill is one of the most effective ways individuals use in both their educational and social life. It also
precedes all the other skills. Having such an importance, reading has various definitions. In the information era of
the time, the main purpose of education is to train individuals who are able to think, express it appropriately,
criticize, do research, read, interpret, put the knowledge into practice and convey this to others. About reading that is
one of the most useful tools in teaching, different researchers have various definitions. Reading is one of the four
main skills people use in both first and second foreign language education.
Different definitions of reading can be listed as follows. Reading is seeing figures as a result of moving eyes on the
lines, perceiving their meanings and pronouncing them (Öz, 2001:193). It is the process of interpreting and
evaluating the special symbols people decided on previously among them using sense organs (Yalçın, 2002:47). It is
the process of seeing, perceiving and interpreting a text with its words, sentences, punctuations and other elements
*
Corresponding Author: Fatma SUSAR KIRMIZI TEL:+90 258 296 11 41
E-mail address: fsusar@pau.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.179
128 Fatma Susar Kırmızı et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 127 – 131
(Kavcar, Oğuzkan, Sever, 2005:41). Today, understanding of a good reading is cognitive. This understanding is
based on the way our mental processes work at the time of reading (Calp, 2005:81). It is a process of interpretation
as a result of reciprocal interaction of written and spoken pieces of works, reader and the environment (Akyol, 1997:
26). According to Nunan (1989: 33), reading is not just a coded form of grammar. Good readers make a connection
between their background knowledge and the reading text. P. Ur argues that students should start reading after they
have gained basic speaking skills. According to P. Ur (1992), as cited from Rivers, students who comprehends what
they read “wants to read to get information, to accomplish a task in daily or business life, to play a game, to meet
friends, to understand what happens around the world, and to have pleasure from reading (Rivers, 1981; P. Ur, 1992:
141-142)”. As can be inferred from these definitions, reading is a cognitive process in which symbols are perceived
and interpreted by the help of sense organs. What matters in this process is not reaching the meaning of sentences
one by one, but rather seeing it holistically and comprehending the meaning behind it. Reading also helps learners to
better understand the problems and situations they encounter in life, analyze them, and evaluate them. Gaining
reading habit and developing positive attitudes towards it is a long and challenging process. For this reason, a
suitable environment is needed starting from early ages to have reading habit and make children like reading. The
fundamentals of reading habit are laid in a family environment and it takes a long time (Camp, 2007). Students
having a suitable environment for reading habit at home also want to see it at school. Schools and consequently,
teachers have a great impact on students gaining a reading habit (Applegate & Applegate, 2004; Mckool & Gespass,
2009). In order for the students to be motivated for reading, interesting and encouraging examples should be
presented. Children should see people who are reading around them (Akay, 2009). It is the only way to make them
interested in reading. For that reason, teachers who are the role models for students have a big responsibility. In
order for them to be a good role model, teachers should have a satisfactory level of reading habit. Teachers should
speak to their students about the books they read, the gains of reading to individuals, and how important reading is
for their mental world and the way they think. According to Baccus (2004), experiences of teachers in reading habit
and their guiding students for it have an important role in students’ motivation to read. It is for that reason teacher
candidates should exhibit a positive attitude toward reading habit to have a student profile of effective literacy along
with perceiving the existence of different worlds, questioning, and research skills. The quality of teacher candidates’
interest and habit in reading is quite important to be a model for children and youth (Saracaloğlu, Bozkurt ve Serin,
2003: 150).
Stating that it is a significant aspect of affective behaviors, Oppenheim defines attitude as positive or negative
reaction of an individual towards a stimuli. (Köklü, 1992: 28). Attitude is an inclination forming individuals’
regular behaviors with a psychological object of theirs (Smith, 1968). Attitudes is a state of readiness to a neural
behavior guiding reactions against objects and situations (Ülgen, 1995: 97). Attitude does not come from birth and
the change of an attitude is affected by expertise and reliability. These factors together identify a person’s
believability. Believable sources cause an easy change of attitude. A person who exhibits attitudes in a believable
way is perceived as an honest person, resulting in believability against the person carrying the action increases. For
this reason, in order to train a generation having a reading habit, firstly both teachers and teacher candidates should
have a positive attitude towards reading habit and make their students feel that reading is a philosophy of life.
Reading habit is an attitude that should be taken into consideration for the interpretation of the realities in life, and
one of the best ways to endow a positive attitude in students is the teachers and teacher candidates having the same
attitudes themselves. It can be argued that comparison of teacher candidates’ interests and habits of reading would
contribute to the literature. Reading habit is an attitude that should be taken into consideration for the interpretation
of the realities in life, and one of the best ways to endow a positive attitude in students is the teachers and teacher
candidates having the same attitudes themselves. It can be argued that comparison of teacher candidates’ interests
and habits of reading would contribute to the literature.
2. Method
In the present study, the teacher candidates’ attitudes toward reading habit were examined. In other words, since it
was aimed to examine the issue as it is, survey model was used, as it is one of the qualitative research methods.
(Karakaya, 2011; Ekiz, 2009). This model enable researchers to gather data on the large groups of participants’
views and attitudes, and to describe facts and events.
Fatma Susar Kırmızı et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 127 – 131 129
2.1. Population and Sample
The study was conducted at the education faculties of Dokuz Eylul University (DEU) and Pamukkale University
(PAU) in the 2012-2013 academic year. The scales gathered from 1832 3rd year students (978 female, 845 male)
from various majors were taken into analysis. The scale was administered to randomly selected four classes from
two schooling shifts, i.e. normal and evening (two from each). 990 students (612 female, 378 male) from Dokuz
Eylul University and 842 students (375 female, 467 male) from Pamukkale University participated in the study. The
study was conducted in the following departments of the education faculties: Art Teaching, Music Teaching,
Turkish Language Teaching, Social Studies Teaching, English Language Teaching, Science Education, Computer
and Instructional Technology, Elementary Teaching, Early Childhood Education, Elementary Mathematics
Education, Guidance and Counseling.
2.1.1. Data Gathering Tool

“Teacher Candidates’ Attitudes towards Reading Habit Scale” (TCARHS) developed by Fatma Susar Kirmizi
(2012) was used in the study. The development of the 34-item scale was conducted with 3rd year students (n=784)
at Pamukkale University Faculty of Education. Before applying factor analysis to the data gathered from the
preliminary study, it was examined whether factor analysis is possible. For this purpose, KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-
Olkin) value was taken as a reference (KMO= 0,97). The gathered data was examined with Bartlett test of Sphere
city value (Eroğlu, Kalaycı, 2008). The results revealed that Approx Chi-Square was found as 3994,693 and the
results of the Bartlett test of Sphere city were significant at a 0,05 level. After identifying that the data was suitable
for factor analysis, rotated factor analysis was conducted. According to the results of the factor analysis on
TCARHS, it included three sub-dimensions. The examination revealed a Cranach’s Alpha reliability coefficient as
0,95. The scale included items with factor loading value of 0,45 and higher. The Equal-Length Spearman-Brown
value of the scale was identified as 0,94; Guttman Splitt-half value as 0,94, Unequal-length Spearman-Brown value
as 0,94. 5 of the items in the scale was negative while 29 being positive. Cranach’s Alpha reliability coefficient of
the data gathered at Dokuz Eylul University was calculated as 0,95. In the analysis process, statistical techniques
being arithmetic mean, standard deviations, t-test and ANOVA were used.
3. Findings
In line with the sub-problems of the study, the comparison of the teacher candidates’ attitudes toward reading habit
based on the variables identified in the sub-problems was conducted. T-test was used to identify whether teacher
candidates’ attitudes differ based on the university variable. The results of the analysis are presented in.
Table 1. Teacher candidates’ attitudes towards reading habit based on university variable
Groups N x ss sd t p
DEU 990 119,03 18,13 1830 21,16 ,000
PAÜ 842 92,51 34,18 P<0,05 Significant
When examined Table 1, it can be seen that teacher candidates’ attitudes toward reading differ significantly based
on the university they study at, t(1830)=21,16, p<0,05. Students of DEU have a higher level of attitudes towards
reading habit than those of PAU students. It can be explained by the city’s, i.e. Izmir, cultural-art activities, having a
national library and high number of libraries, book fairs and the university’s high entrance exam points. As to
identify whether owning a library at home show a significant difference in terms of attitudes towards reading habit,
t-test analysis was conducted and the results are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Teacher candidates’ attitudes towards reading habit based on owning a library variable
Groups n x ss sd t p
Owning a library 683 104,87 32,97 1830 -2,18 ,02
No library 1149 108,01 27,71 P<0,05 Significant
As Table 2 shows, teacher candidates having a library of themselves significantly differed from those who do not,
t(1830)= -2,18, p<0,05. Most of the student did not own a library but they had better attitudes toward reading habit
compared to those owning a library. Buying a book is not the only to reach a book. It can be thought that borrowing
books from friends or a public library, getting e-books and magazines made owning a library not a reliable indicator
of the attitudes towards reading habit. In line with the sub-problems of the study, variance analysis was used to
identify whether teacher candidates’ attitudes towards reading habit differ based on major variable. The results are
presented in Table 3 and Table 4.
130 Fatma Susar Kırmızı et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 127 – 131
Table 3. ANOVA results for teacher candidates’ attitudes towards reading habit based on majors
Variance Source Sum of Squares sd Mean Square F p Significant difference
Between groups 108869,20 10 10886,92 13,05 ,000 8-11, 9-11
Within groups 1518821,38 1821 834,05
Total 1627690,59 1831
As can be see in Table 3, there is a significant difference in teacher candidates’ attitudes toward reading habit
based on majors. To further examine which groups caused the significance, Schaffer test was used. The statistics for
majors are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Statistics for teacher candidates’ attitudes towards reading habit based on majors
Major n x Ss
Art Teaching 92 104,16 28,00
Turkish Language Teaching 271 113,48 29,31
Social Studies Teaching 128 109,89 27,05
Computer and Instructional Technology 93 106,38 25,04
Early Childhood Education 261 106,93 30,25
Music Education 76 120,98 20,78
Social Studies Teaching 236 105,76 30,40
Science Education* 132 88,93 31,90
Elementary Teaching* 205 99,62 30,37
Mathematics Education 193 117,25 19,31
Guidance and Counselling* 145 100,60 35,73
Total 1832 106,84 29,81
* The difference between groups is significant.
The results of the analysis showed that there was a significant difference in teacher candidates’ attitudes based on
their majors, F (10, 1821)=13,0; p<0,05. In other words, teacher candidates’ attitudes towards reading habit differ
based on their majors. Focusing on the participants’ attitudes toward reading habit based on their majors, Science
Education students had the lowest level ( x =88,93), and Music Education students the highest level ( x =120,98).
The Schaffer test conducted to see the differences between groups revealed that there is a significant difference
between students studying Science Education ( x =88,93), Elementary Education ( x =96,62), and Guidance and
Counseling ( x =100,60). The attitudes of students studying Guidance and Counseling towards reading habit were
higher.
The subject of both informative and literary texts is human. One of the reasons we read is to get to know ourselves
and other individuals. Aiming to get to know people closely, students studying guidance and counseling would use
the knowledge gained from their readings in their professional lives. They seem to be aware that they can learn more
about people by reading. It can also be said that students studying Science Education are satisfied with a learning
based on scientific knowledge, experiment and implementation. However, it is tragic that Elementary Education
students had a lower mean because their attitude has an effect on their students gaining reading habit. Elementary
teacher are role models to exhibit reading habit in such a critical period.
4. Results, discussion and suggestion
The present study compared the attitudes of teacher candidates studying at DEU Buca Education Faculty and PAU
Education Faculty and examined the difference based on three variables being whether having a personal library,
their majors, and universities. In the university comparison, it was found that DEU students had a higher level of
attitude towards reading habit. On the other hand, the students not having a personal library had a more positive
attitude than those who own, which is an interesting finding of the study unlike the general assumptions. That the
students having a library have a lower attitude can be an indicator of reading being an interactive activity.
Some researchers in the field found that most of the books students chose to read were obtained as course book, or
from friends (Dunlap, 1933; Dökmen 1994). As for the third sub-problem of the study, the participants’ attitudes
differed based on their majors, which is also consistent with the findings of Özbay, Bağcı, Uyar (2008).
Sufficient reading time and environment should be provided to students to be able to talk about many texts in a
meaningful way because school gives a reason to read and variety to read (Gabriel, Allington, & Billen, 2012: 190).
The following suggestions have been put forward based on the results of the study: Sufficient financial support
should be provided to class and school libraries to have contemporary and high quality publications. Educations and
Fatma Susar Kırmızı et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 127 – 131 131
organizers of reading programs should be careful to choose books which are interesting and appropriate to readers’
skills and lives. For this reason, it should be paid attention to choosing books from a wide range of topics. Events
encouraging reading such as seminars, book fairs, and author talks should be organized by universities. Projects and
home works towards their reading and research should be assigned to teacher candidates in order for them to use
libraries effectively and regularly. To help students to develop a positive attitude towards reading habit, assignments
on reading habit should be given in undergraduate courses. Working hours of libraries can be reorganized for
students to use them more. Candidates should be made aware of the importance of their attitudes towards reading
habit on their students. Reading habit is basic skill that should be developed in early ages.
References
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Association. 554-563.
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students’ reading attitudes and efficacy beliefs. United States: Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
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Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, G.Ü. Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara.
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ScienceDirect
5th World Conference Educational Sciences 2013
Teachers’ Creativity: Different Approaches and Similar Results

Dalia Lapenienea*, Audrone Dumcieneb
a
Faculty of Sports education, Lithuanian Academy of Physical Education, Sporto g. 6, LT-44221 Kaunas, Lithuania
b
Faculty of Sports education, Lithuanian Academy of Physical Educatio, Sporto g. 6, LT-44221 Kaunas, Lithuania
Abstract
Analyse teachers’ perceived creativity and factors related to it. Two hundred and sixty one teachers participated in the study.
Participants completed an anonymous questionnaire. Procedures of cluster analysis and linear regression analysis were employed.
The data allow the conclusion to be drawn that it is purposeful to define three types of general education teachers, i.e. teachers
who are highly creative and value driven but work in an environment inhibiting creativity, those who are highly creative,
motivated to work and have sufficient resources, and those that lack motivation, notwithstanding environmental encouragement
for creativity. Creative self-efficacy and positive emotions are predictors of perceived creativity.
Keywords: general education, creativity, self-efficacy, motivation, organizational climate
1. Introduction
Creativity and innovations play an important role in European educational policy. It has been recognized that
schools and initial education play a key role in fostering and developing people’s creative and innovative capacities
for further learning and their working lives. General education teachers have outstanding opportunities to develop
and facilitate the creative abilities of every child. The Definition and exploration of teachers’ creativity has become
an important area of scientific inquiry in behavioural sciences.
The concepts of creative teaching and teaching for creativity are frequently used in current educational
discourse. According to Cremin (2009), creative teaching “involves teachers in making learning more interesting
and effective and using imaginative approaches in the classroom”. Creative teaching is about the teacher’s
personality, personal creativity and its manifestations in everyday practice. Teaching for creativity “is seen to
involve teachers in identifying children’s creative strengths and fostering their creativity” (Cremin, 2009). Teaching
for creativity is one of the most important priorities and is a heavily researched area in the scientific literature
worldwide (e.g. Zachopoulou et al., 2006; Hodges Kulinna, 2008). Teaching for creativity becomes possible only if
teachers are willing to teach creatively. There is an agreement that creative teaching has four features, namely
relevance, ownership, control and innovation (Cremin, 2009). The personal creativity of the teacher is the main
premise of creative teaching (Craft, 2009). Creative teaching manifests itself in the everyday activities of the teacher
(Craft, 2009) and facilitates the personal development of the students in spiritual, moral, social and cultural domains
(Eaude, 2009). Creative teaching is clearly conceptualized but little is known about the preconditions of the
phenomenon.
*
Corresponding Author Dalia Lapeniene. Tel.: +370-673-99455
E-mail address: d.lapeniene@lkka.lt
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.208
280 Dalia Lapeniene and Audrone Dumciene / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 279 – 284
Historically, there is a common assumption that creativity comes from an interaction between personal and
social factors. Little is known about the factors that predict teachers’ creativity. But the evidence points to work
motivation (Lapeniene, 2011; Hong, Hartzell & Greene, 2009), epistemological beliefs (Hong, Hartzell & Greene,
2009), awareness (Tahereh & Mahnoush, 2012), self-confidence (Tahereh & Mahnoush, 2012), organizational
climate (Lapeniene, 2010) and leadership style (Mousavi, Heidary & Khamse Pour, 2011). Personal factors are
considered to be more important than social ones (Lapeniene, 2011), but the data reveal inconsistencies and
complexities. One of the possible answers to the puzzle of factors related to creativity is to distinguish different
types of creative teachers. Unsworth (2001) introduced the classification of creativity types which can be identified
and explored in the workplace. Responsive creativity is “the externally driven, closed-problem field in which the
participant responds to the requirements of the situation and to the presented problem” (Unsworth, 2001). Some
teachers show responsive creativity because of the formal requirements to facilitate students’ creativity. Expected
creativity “is brought about via an external expectation, but with a self-discovered problem” (Unsworth, 2001).
Teachers show expected creativity because it helps to raise motivation and make learning more interesting. At the
same time, formal encouragement for creativity also motivates teaching creatively. Contributory creativity “is self-
determined and based upon a clearly formulated problem” (Unsworth, 2001). Contributory creativity can be shown
when teachers work in teams and try to solve problems beyond the classroom. Collaboration, teamwork, shared
responsibility and commitment are associated with contributory creativity (Unsworth, 2001). Proactive creativity
“occurs when individuals, driven by internal motivators, actively search for problems to solve” (Unsworth, 2001).
Proactively creative teachers use their personal creativity as the key resource for improving educational practice.
Creativity is important and valuable on its own, but not because of reward or school arrangements. Different types
of creativity suggest that different combinations of individual and social factors predict creative teaching.
The claims of Unsworth (2001) and other authors led to the following hypotheses being made:
H1: It is possible to distinguish more than one type of creative teacher using the unique combination of
individual and social factors, related to creativity.
H2: The type of teacher creativity determines which factors predict creative teaching.
2. Methodology
2.1. Subjects
The subjects of the study are teachers of general education working in Kaunas city, Lithuania. Three hundred
and fifty teachers were selected for the study using a random selection method. The goal of the study was explained
to the teachers and they were invited to participate in the study. Two hundred and sixty-one teachers returned the
questionnaires suitable for statistical analysis. 11% of the subjects were men and 89% were women. The average
length of service in the sample was 42 years. The majority of subjects (67%) were qualified as senior teachers.
2.2. Instruments
Twelve scales were used in the study. All the scales were developed by the first author and validated in previous
studies (Lapėnienė & Laskienė, 2009; Lapėnienė & Bruneckienė, 2010; Lapeniene, 2011). The scales measure
perceived creativity and individual factors, e.g. creative self-efficacy, work motivation and emotions, and
characteristics of the school environment, e.g. work group support, organizational encouragement, supervisory
encouragement, sufficient resources, accessibility of supervisors, and perceived co-worker creativity expectations.
2.3. Procedure
The study was conducted by permission of the Education and Training Department Director at Kaunas City
Municipality. All the subjects were informed about the aims of the investigation and were acquainted with the
instructions for filling in the questionnaire. The survey followed the ethical and legal principles of social research. It
was specified when and how it was necessary to return the questionnaire. It was emphasized to all teachers
participating in the study that participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study.
Dalia Lapeniene and Audrone Dumciene / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 279 – 284 281
3. Results
3.1. Results of cluster analysis
Cluster analysis was used in order to distinguish the types of general education teachers and to compare the
differences in factors affecting creativity. Three types of teacher were distinguished. The first type corresponds to
the concept of proactive creativity, introduced by Unsworth (2001). Proactive teachers work in an environment
inhibiting creativity, i.e. managers do not show individual consideration for teachers, which does not encourage
creativity in the workplace. The teachers lack resources for creativity and creative work is not considered to be one
of the priorities at school. These teachers are highly creative; they indicate high levels of creative self-efficacy and
work motivation. Goal internalization motivation is the dominant source of work motivation. The teachers are able
to work creatively and they prefer creative work to conventional methods. The second type of teacher demonstrates
expected creativity (Unsworth, 2001). These teachers are also highly creative, but their creativity is encouraged by
the social environment in the organization. The teachers are encouraged to be creative by their supervisors and
creativity is considered to be a priority in school; sufficient resources are provided for creative work. These teachers
also indicate high levels of goal internalization motivation and positive emotionality. The last type of teacher
indicates contributory creativity (Unsworth, 2001). They indicate lower levels of personal creativity and work
motivation but higher levels of work group support, accessibility of supervisors and supervisory encouragement. It
is possible that the teachers doubt in personal creativity but are committed to working creatively, like their
colleagues.
The three types of creative teacher indicate differently the level of perceived creativity and related factors. The
means of the scales in each group are presented in the table.
Table 1. Means of the scales
Scale Proactively creative Expectedly creative Contributedly creative
teachers sample mean teachers sample mean teachers sample mean
Perceived creativity 4.24 4.23 3.82
Creative self-efficacy 3.66 3.82 3.35
Negative emotions 2.77 2.37 2.96
Positive emotions 3.88 4.01 3.29
Extrinsic motivation 3.41 3.90 3.09
Goal internalization motivation 4.42 4.47 3.87
Perceived co-worker creativity expectations 3.93 3.98 2.97
Work group support 3.17 3.65 3.29
Accessibility of supervisor 3.06 3.75 3.42
Sufficient resources 2.9 4.19 3.57
Organizational encouragement 2.25 3.72 3.01
Supervisory encouragement 2.66 3.99 3.32
The means of the scales were compared using a one-way ANOVA test with Bonferroni criterion. Statistically
significant differences were estimated in three types of teachers in the scales (p<0.05), except for the positive and
negative emotion scales. Comparing the means of the positive and negative emotion scales in the groups of
expectedly creative and contributed creative teachers, no statistically significant differences (p<0.05) were
estimated.
3.2. Regression results
Linear regression was used in order to compare predictive relations in the three groups of teachers. Firstly, it was
important to estimate which factors predict creativity in the group of proactively creative teachers. Using the enter
method, a significant model emerged: F (2,46) = 17,139, p<0.001. The model explains 43% of the variance
(Adjusted R2 = 0.427). Table 2 gives information about the predictor variables entered into the model.
Table 2. The unstandardized and standardized regression coefficients for the variables entered into the model of proactive creativity
Scale Unstandardized Standard Error Standardized Coefficients
Coefficients (B) (β)
Creative self-efficacy 0,343 0,074 0,544
Positive emotions 0,132 0,067 0,232
Only two variables had a significant effect (p<0.05), i.e. creative self-efficacy and positive emotions. Creative
self-efficacy has relatively higher predictive power than positive emotions. The model has little to say about
preconditions of proactive creativity.
For the group of expectedly creative teachers the same method was used. A significant model emerged: F (4.84)
= 38.658, p<0.001. The model explains 63% of the variance (Adjusted R2 = 0.631). Table 3 gives information about
the predictor variables entered into the model.
Table 3. The unstandardized and standardized regression coefficients for the variables entered into the model of expected creativity

Goal internalization motivation 0,453 0,081 0,420
Positive emotions 0,101 0,051 0,152
Sufficient resources 0,105 0,047 0,149
Expected creativity can be predicted using the variables of creative self-efficacy, goal internalization motivation,
positive emotions and sufficient resources. Goal internalization motivation has relatively higher predictive power
than the three other variables. The model shows the importance of individual factors for expected creativity and
discloses the influence of resources on creativity.
For the group of responsively creative teachers, the enter method was also used. A significant model emerged: F
(4.68) = 33.920, p<0.001. The model explains 65% of the variance (Adjusted R2 = 0.647). Table 4 gives information
about the predictor variables entered into the model.
Table 4. The unstandardized and standardized regression coefficients for the variables entered into the model of contributory creativity
Goal internalization motivation 0,757 0,086 0,711
Extrinsic motivation -0,270 0,068 -0,312
Negative emotions -0,125 0,060 -0,155
Contributory creativity can be predicted using creative self-efficacy, goal internalization motivation, extrinsic
motivation and negative emotion variables. In this case, extrinsic motivation and negative emotions have negative
predictive relationships.
4. Discussion/Conclusions
The results of the study confirmed the hypotheses and proved that it is appropriate to define three types of
teachers’ creativity. The first type is proactive creativity. Proactively creative teachers indicate the highest levels of
creativity even when working in a creativity-inhibiting social environment. There is some evidence in the literature
claiming that creativity is related to traits and other non-cognitive personality constructs (Puccio & Grivas, 2009;
Kipper, Green & Prorak, 2010; Davis, Kaufman & McClure, 2011; Prabhu, Sutton & Sauser, 2008). Proactive
creativity is trait-like and rooted in personality variables. Social environment has a minor impact on proactive
creativity but not on expected or contributory creativity. The impact of social environment refers to the difference
between the two types of creative teachers. Teachers showing expected creativity do so not only because of creative
self-efficacy, goal internalization motivation for pedagogical practice or positive emotions. Sufficient resources are
also very important. Expectedly creative teachers indicate the same levels of creativity as proactively creative
teachers, but the presuppositions are different. Proactive teachers do not give prominence to rewards, resources and
policy priorities, but expectedly creative teachers do.
It is claimed that various social contexts facilitate or inhibit personal creativity. The systems model of creativity
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1996) encourages analysis of the systemic nature of creativity and recognizes the fact that an
individual is only a part of the system. The evidence shows the influence of the social environment on creativity at
cultural (e.g. Chen Tsai, 2012; Kola-Bezka, 2011), social (e.g. Venckūnas, 2011) and organizational (e.g. Ohly,
Dalia Lapeniene and Audrone Dumciene / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 279 – 284 283
Kase & Škerlavaj, 2010; Hirst, van Dick & van Knippenberg, 2009) levels. Social influence best manifests itself in
the case of contributory creativity where the intrinsic motivation principle (Amabile, 1996) is fully valid. Teachers
showing contributory creativity are driven by goal internalization motivation and creative self-efficacy, but extrinsic
motivation and negative emotions inhibit their creativity.
The presented study has enriched the understanding of creative teachers and preconditions of the phenomenon.
However, the study has limitations. Firstly, a limited number of variables was measured during the study. There are
many variables which can relate to creativity that were not investigated in the study. Secondly, we used a paper and
pencil test for the measurement of the variables. Self-evaluation may differ from actual behavior. Thirdly, all the
subjects work in Kaunas city, which is the second largest city in Lithuania. These teachers have many opportunities
for lifelong learning, professional development and other facilities which may be inaccessible for teachers working
in different areas. Despite these shortcomings, the study provides valuable insights for future studies.
References
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Westview Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention. New York: Harper
Collins.
Chen Tsai, K. (2012). The Interplay Between Culture and Creativity. Cross-Cultural Communication, 8(2), 15-20.
Craft, A. (2009). Changes in the Landscape for Creativity in Education. In Anthony Wilson (ed), Creativity in
Primary Education, 2nd ed. (pp.5-21), Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd.
Cremin, T. (2009). Creative Teachers and Creative Teaching. In Anthony Wilson (ed), Creativity in Primary
Education, 2nd ed. (pp. 36-46), Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd.
Davis, C., Kaufman, J. & McClure, F. (2011). Non-Cognitive Constructs and Self-Reported Creativity by Domain.
Journal of Creative Behavior, 45(3), 188-202.
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Hirst, G., van Dick, R. & van Knippenberg, D. (2009). A Social Identity Perspective on Leadership and Employee
Creativity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 963-982.
Hodges, Kulinna, P. (2008). Models for Curriculum and Pedagogy in Elementary School Physical Education. The
Elementary School Journal, 108(3), 219-227.
Hong, E., Hartzell, S.A. & Greene, M.T. (2009). Fostering Creativity in the Classroom: Effects of Teachers’
Epistemological Beliefs, Motivation, and Goal Orientation. Journal of Creative Behavior, 43(3), 192-208.
Kipper, D.A., Green, D.J. & Prorak, A. (2010). The Relationship Among Spontaneity, Impulsivity, and Creativity.
Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 5, 39-53.
Kola-Bezka, M. (2011). Interregional Differentiation of Creativity Level in Central and Eastern Europe. Human
Resources – The Main Factor of Regional Development, 5, 169-176.
Lapėnienė, D. (2011). Personal and Social Factors Related to Physical Education and Other Subject Teachers
Creativity in the Domain of Physical Activity (Doctoral dissertation). Lithuanian academy of Physical Education.
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ScienceDirect
Teaching how life skills (anger control) affect the happiness and
self-esteem of Tonekabon female students
Hamidreza Vatankhaha *, Darya Daryabari b, Vida Ghadami c , Ehteram KhanjanShoeibi d
a
Lecturer of Azad University of Tonekabon, Iran
b
MA graduate of Azad University of Tonekabon, Iran
c
MA student of Azad University of Tonekabon, Iran
d
Department of Psychology, Islamic Azad University of Tonekabon
Abstract
The purpose of the current research is investigating the effectiveness of teaching the life skills (Anger Control) on increasing
happiness and self-esteem of the girl students of Shahed high school in Tonekabon. The statistical society of this research
consists of 200 girl students at the Tonekabon Shahed high school out of which 80 individuals were given questionnaire
randomly. Among those who had low scores of the effect of teaching life skills on the increase of happiness and self-esteem,
some were selected as sample and divided randomly into two 15-individual groups as test and witness group. Tool of
measurement is the year's Oxford happiness questionnaire and the year's Cooper-Smith test. In order to study the hypothesis of
the research which is based on the effect of the teaching of the life skills (Anger Control) on the increase of the happiness and
self-esteem of the students, the multi-variable covariance test has been used with the aid of SPSS software. The results showed
that teaching the life skills (Anger Control) is effective on increasing the self-esteem.
2013 The
Ltd.Open
Selection and/or
Selection and peer review under
peer-review underthe responsibility
responsibility of Prof. Dr.World
of Academic Servet Bayram and Research Center.
Education
Keywords: Happiness,Self-esteem, Teaching the skills;
1. Introduction
In the course of life, all individual encounter with the problems and obstacles, but how they confront with the
problems/ complexities is very different. In confrontation with the problems of life, some individuals lack the
required capabilities and this affair leads to their vulnerability. Possessing of the resources and skills which assist the
human to cope with solving his/her problems in the best manner as possible as is very valuable. Every one responses
to the problems through his/her special method. Some, while facing with complexities, try to confront with the
problem or situation through evaluating the situation logically and using the methods, including problem of girl
student of Shahed high school course solving, positive thinking and effective usage of the supporting systems. In
contrast, some others, instead of the incompatibly confrontation with the in efficient problems, avoid to encounter
with problems. Although these methods maybe effective in the short term and calm down the individual temporarily,
they will have very negative consequences in the long term and deprive the individual of having the sense of self-
effectiveness and self-esteem. Teaching of the life skills confirmed by the global organization and the fund of the
children of the United Nations can be implemented in two ways which is of the noticeable importance in the teen
* Corresponding Author: Hamidreza Vatankhah. Tel.: +98-912-351-1146

E-mail address: d.daryabari@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.178
124 Hamidreza Vatankhah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 123 – 126
period: Instruction of the general skills of the life which is to be implemented for the purpose of promotion of the
psychological health and hygiene, creation of the behaviors and the healthy interactions. Instruction of the particular
allocated skills which have been raised with the aim of preventing from a personal damage such as substances
abuse, sexual promiscuity and violence. Generally, those individuals who are skillful to regulate their own
excitements can compensate better their negative exciting states through the pleasant activities, but those individuals
who have problem to regulate their own excitements lack this ability. In the plan of teaching the life skills, skill
means: Capability to create the effective and appropriate inter personal relationships, performance of the social
responsibilities, implementation of the correct decision makings, solution of the aggressions and struggles/ conflicts
without resorting to the actions which cause damage to oneself and others. In other words, the life skills are the
personal and societal skills which the children and teen agers must learn them so that they are able to act effectively,
worthily and certainly regarding oneself, other human beings and the whole society.
Method
Method of the research is of the quasi-experimental type. Method of collecting the data is randomly. In
order to collect the data, 80 girl students who selected from the witness high school course, numbering 200 ones,
were given oxford's happiness questionnaire and Cooper smith's self-esteem questionnaire. Then, 30 individuals
from amongst them who had low happiness and self-esteem (after responding to 2 above-mentioned questionnaires,
it was specified that they have low happiness and self-esteem) were selected randomly.
Then, they were divided randomly into two 15-individual groups, including test group and witness group.
Regarding the testing group, 9-90 minutes session of teaching the life skills (anger control) were executed, while the
witness group received no teachings. After execution of the life skills instructions (anger control) in the test group,
again the same students were presented in order to determine the effect of teaching the life skills. Also, test group, in
the same manner, was given/ presented the above mentioned questionnaires within two steps and the required data
were extracted and analyzed statistically through the covariance analysis.
In the current research, the experimental/ testing method has been used. In this research, there is a chance
equally in order to replace the tests on the different conditions (the test and witness groups). In this research, the
plan of the pretest experiment (test) and post-test experiment has been used together with the witness group.
Table 1, Name of the table
Post-Test Independent Pre-Test Random selection

Test-group T2 T1 RE
×
Control group T2 T1 RC
In the current research, the guidance of teaching the life skills (anger control) has been used in order to
teach the life skills. Therefore, life skills (anger control) in this research mean the subjects, including the self-
recognition and self-abilities (Identification of oneself capabilities), familiarization with the personal and familial
values, familiarization with how to establish a relationship with others, familiarization with the concept of the
society and the social relationships, familiarization with determining the objectives and familiarization with the
concept of the lack of adjustment and the methods of its restraint and familiarization with psychological/ mental
health which were implemented within 9-90 minute sessions.
Oxford's happiness questionnaire: Which is used to measure the happiness. Cooper smith's questionnaire:
Which is used to measure the rate of the self-esteem in the statistical society? With regard to this point that this
research is of testing type, the descriptive and perceptive methods were used, as following, in order to analysis the
data. The data obtained from the test and control groups were studied using the descriptive indexes such as diagram,
average and standard deviation, and the perceptive indexes of the multi variable covariance analysis has been used
with the aid of the SPSS16 soft ware.
Hamidreza Vatankhah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 123 – 126 125
Results
There exists a linear relationship between the random-auxiliary variables and dependent variable.
Relationship between the random-auxiliary variable and dependent variable in each three groups is similar/ alike
(Homogeneity of Regression). With regard to these two matters, the statistical method of the covariance analysis can
be used.
Table 2, The statistical analysis between the life skills (Anger control) and group in the amount of happiness
Resources of changes Total square Degree of Average of square f Significance level

roots freedom roots
Test-group 704.447 1 704.447 109.590 0.0001
Control group 167.128 26 130.337 109.590 0.0001
Table 3, Comparison of the difference of the average between the life skills (Anger control) and test group in amount of happiness
Groups Difference of Standard P Significance level

averages deviation
Teaching of life skills 11.028 1.053 <0.0005 0.0001
On the basis of the results obtained from Table 1 and Table 2 and after the modification of the average of
the protests scores to quantity of 18.27 for the variable of happiness in two test and witness groups, Ben Feroni's
Alpha (0.005) has been used. With regard to the calculated F (0.oo>P), (109.59=F) and (26 and 1= df) (0.808=Eta),
because the significance level is less than the Ben Ferioni's adjusted Alpha (0.005), F is thus significant, therefore, it
can be said that there exists a significant difference between the scores of the happiness post test in two test and
witness groups.
Table 4, Statistical analysis between the life skills (Anger control) and test group in the amount of the self-esteem
Resources of changes Total square Degree of Average of square f Significance level

roots freedom roots
Test-group 130.337 1 130.3337 69.656 0.0001
Control group 48.650 26 1871.337 69.656 0.0001
Table 5, comparison of difference of averages between the life skills (Anger control) and test group in the amount of the self-esteem
Groups Difference of Standard P Significance Level

Average Deviation
Teaching of Life Skills 4.743 0.568 <0.0005 0.0001
On the basis of the results obtained from table No. 3 and 4 after the modulation of the average scores of the
pretest to quantity of 31.27 for variable of self-esteem and considering the calculated F(0.005>P), (69.656=F), F is
thus significant because the significant level is less than Ben Froni's regulated Alpha (0.005). As a result, it can be
said that there exists a significant difference between the scores of the self-esteem post test in two test and witness
groups.
With regard to the significance of the difference of the averages, we express surely up to 0.99 that the
hypothesis of the research based on that instruction of the life skills (Anger control) is effective on the happiness and
self-esteem of the girl students of Shahed high school will be confirmed.
Discussion
The results of this research are in direction/harmony with the findings obtained from the research
conducted by Taremian (1998). In his research, he reached this conclusion instruction of life skills (Anger control) is
effective on the self-esteem.
126 Hamidreza Vatankhah et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 123 – 126
Also, the result obtained from the main hypothesis of research is in direction/harmony with the research
conducted by Mansour Bagheri and Bahrami (2001) the results of the their research were that: Teaching of the life
skills (Anger control) to students has led to created the significant changes in knowledge, out look and self-esteem
of them in the significance level of (P<0.001).
Researches of Taremian (1998), Ramzankhani (2006), Ismaeili (2001), Safarzadeh (2007), Rosenber et al
(1995), Car (2003), Johnson and Keroker (2006) are in harmony with the current research.
The findings of this research are in direction/harmony with the research conducted by Paeizi (2007). In his
research, he reached this conclusion that the average happiness score of the students who have passed the less on of
the life skills is higher than those who have not passed the lesson of the life skills.
Also, findings of this research are in the direction/harmony with the research conducted by Bagheri (2002)
whom he reached this conclusion that execution of the plan of teaching the life skills leads to promation of
knowledge and awareness of students towards the opiate substances as well as their self-esteem. With regard to this
point that the calculated (f) is significant for two variables of (Happiness and self-esteem) and using the following/
chasing test, there exists a significant difference between two (witness and test) groups and the results suggest that
the teaching of the life skills (Anger control) is effective on the increase of the happiness and self-esteem of the
students. At the end, we express surely up to 0.99 that the hypothesis of the research based on that the teaching of
the life skills (anger control) is effective on increase of happiness and self-esteem will be confirmed.
References
World Health Organization (WHO-2000), plan of teaching the life skills. Translated by: Robabeh Noori and Parvaneh Mohamadkhani, Tehran,
Branch of the mental psychological health and prevention from the abuse of the substances, World Health Organization.
Botvin, G. J. and Griffin, K. W. (2004). Life skills tinning empirical findings and future direction, journal of prevention, 25-211- 232.
Chris L. Kelique (2001). Life skills, translated by: Shahram Mohammad khani, Sepand Hend publications, Tehran.
Ghiasfakhri A. (200). Directory of teaching the life skills, Honarabi's publications, Tehran.
Jon Marcal Rio (2005). Stimulation and the excitement, translated by Seyyed mehdi Yahya (2005), Tehran, Institute of edition and publications.
Biabangard and Ismaeli (1992). Methods of the increase of self-esteem in the children and teen agers, Kalini publications.
Taremian F., Mahjouei M., Fathi T. (2005). Life skills, second edition, Tarbiat publications, Tehran.
Taremian F. (2005). Life skills: Definitions and theorical foundations/ bases of the Zherfaye-E-Tarbiat Magazine, first year, No 4, Tehran.
Dardan. C. A; Gazda. G. M. (2005). Life skills and mental health counselling, journal of mental health counseling. 18(2) 8-134.
Nikparvar R. (2004). A survey of the effectiveness of teaching the life skills on the mental health of the students, the second nationwide seminar
of the students' mental health.
Alipour A. and Noorbala A.A. (1999). The initial sudy of reliability and validity of the oxford's happiness questionnaire in the students of the
Tehran's universities, quarterly periodical of the thought and behavior, fifth year, issue No 1 and 2.
Aghajani M. (2002). A survey of the role of teaching the life skills on the control resource and the mental health of the high school level
students, M. A. thesis, Alzahra University, Tehran.
Ramzankhani F. (2006). A study of the effect of teaching the life skills on the reduction of the illogical beliefs and increase of the mental health
of the high-school-level girl students, M. A. thesis, university of the sciences and researches of Tehran.
Safarzadeh M. (2004). A study of the effect of teaching the life skills on the skill of the establishing the effective social relationship in the girl
students who are in grade one of high school, M. A. thesis, Allameh Tabatabaei university.
Elan Car (2003). Positive psychology, happiness science and poteancies of the human, translated by Hassan Pasha Sharifi and Bagher Sanaei
(2006), Tehran, Sokhan publications.
Paeizi M. (2007). A study of the effectivenss of teaching the self-assertion on the happiness and educational improvement of the girl students
who are in grade two of high school (Empirical sciences) of the Tehran's high schools, Psychological studies, issue No 4, Page 25.
Bagheri M. (2002). Role of teaching of the life skills on the knowledge and out look/ vision to wards the opiate substances and self-esteem of the
students, M. A. thesis, Tehran.
ScienceDirect
Terminology standardization strategies towards the consolidation of

the European Higher Education Area
Miguel Ángel Candel-Mora*, María Luisa Carrió-Pastor
Abstract
The implementation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) and the measures taken places special emphasis on the role
of key documents within this process such as degree descriptions and course catalogues. However, previous studies on course
catalogues from several European universities have revealed numerous weaknesses in the users’ input of information and
terminology inconsistencies which confirm the need to develop and implement terminology standardization strategies. This paper
proposes criteria and approaches to serve as the basis for establishing a procedure to harmonize and control the terminology used
during the drafting and translation of EHEA key documents.
Keywords:input,higher education,degree,termionology,harmonize
Introduction
According to the Council of Europe, “The developments within the Bologna Process should serve to facilitate
‘translation’ of one system to the other and therefore contribute to the increase of mobility of students and
academics and to the increase of employability throughout Europe” (“The Bologna Process”, 2011). To this end, the
European Commission has provided guidance, answers to frequently asked questions and examples of best practices
in the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) Users’ Guide. The implementation of this new university context
means that key documents such as the ECTS course catalogue have to be translated and disseminated throughout
European Higher Education institutions in order to facilitate mobility.
Due to the large amount of material to translate, and the need for the optimisation of the process in order to deal
with time and financial constraints without compromising on quality, the proposal described here involves the
translation and standardization of course catalogues using language technology, such as computer assisted
translation systems, terminology databases and specialized corpora .
Electronic corpora allow the translator to make use of computer tools and process information by following
clearly defined parameters: this enables translators to check the use of certain terms or phrases against other
linguistic units in the text, promoting homogeneity and thus improving quality (Laviosa, 2002). In this way,
* Corresponding Author: Miguel Ángel Candel-Mora. Tel.: +34 96 387 70 00 (ext. 75341)
E-mail address: mcandel@upv.es
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.187
Miguel Ángel Candel-Mora and María Luisa Carrió-Pastor / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 166 – 171 167
translators can create their own databases based on real texts and adapt them to computer-assisted translation tools
such as translation memories and terminology management applications.
This paper proposes a detailed analysis of the structure and language features of ECTS course catalogues, with
special emphasis on their terminology and phraseology in order to produce a corpus of course catalogues and
reference material regarding the European Higher Education Area. This corpus will allow the extraction of
terminology and phraseology for use in the construction of databases which will facilitate the drafting and
subsequent translation of course catalogues within an integrated software interface, simplifying and automating their
writing, translation and dissemination throughout the university's global knowledge base.
1. Translation-Oriented Terminology Management

The main difficulty identified by translators in their work is the inadequacy of available reference material, in
terms of its currency, degree of domain specialisation and range of linguistic detail. The most natural tool to use is
an original technical text in the target language, which is from the same subject field and, if possible, of the same
text type. In addition to such parallel texts, we can also make use of basic monolingual dictionaries, lexicons, etc.
Text documentation is crucial because the anticipated finished product coming out of the translation process consists
of language in context. Multilingual dictionaries provide only isolated orientation and control functions, not
vocabulary in context.
The compilation of a terminological database can compensate translators for this exhaustive and time-consuming
task. Therefore, the main reasons for technical translators to compile a terminological database can be summarised
as follows:
- Technical dictionaries generally fail to provide adequate phraseological components. However, technical
collocations, fixed expressions and standard formulations play an especially significant role in technical texts,
and frequently cause translation problems.
- Translators usually work in specific subdomains of subject fields and yet tailor-made glossaries are not
available on the market.
- Large jobs are usually divided among several translators; however, the terminology used by the translator team
must be consistent throughout the whole project.
- Higher education environments are constantly changing and current and up-to-date terminology is needed.
- The terminological entries can contain different types of information.
- Computerised terminology requires database management systems.
Recent advances in information technology has led to the creation of aids and tools which can provide support to
the translator throughout the translation process, in the form of assistance in terminology elicitation, term bank
development, terminology retrieval, multilingual text processing, machine-produced rough translations, the
identification of previous translations, and spell-checking. However, many translators have held back from
becoming involved in practical terminology work because they are uncertain about which computer solution would
be ideal in the long run. Translators should configure their approach for their own environments, keeping in mind
the expanding possibilities of information exchange with other translators, institutions or future projects and
updates.
Thus, based on the literature regarding terminology management and extraction, the overall process and
guidelines for compiling terminology applied to translation encompass the following steps:
168 Miguel Ángel Candel-Mora and María Luisa Carrió-Pastor / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 166 – 171
1. Checking existing resources.

2. Collecting textual material for documentation purposes.
3. Analysing documents. Identifying definitions, synonyms and terms in documents.
4. Structuring the specific domain (concept systems).
5. Compiling terminology records (concept-related data, term related data, other types of information).
6. Intralingua comparison: homonymy, synonymy.
7. Interlingua comparison.
8. Revision.
Sager (1990) adds to this list the need to distinguish between original and translated texts, and the use of running
text to ensure coherence and dating of terms, especially in fields where technology is subject to constant change.
2. Methodology
The need to gradually translate course catalogues, together with the time and financial constraints envisaged for
this type of project, leads to the need to make use of all available resources, in order to make the translation feasible
within the deadlines proposed, for it to be carried out in a standardised way and for it to be compliant with the aim:
to create a common information model for describing course information throughout Europe (European
Commission, 2009).
After a preliminary review of the literature, machine translation technology was identified as a potential field of
study which could throw some light on the issue at hand (Dillinger and Lommel, 2004). However, despite the recent
research into machine translation and the successful examples of institutional use of machine translation, the type of
translation involved in this case requires such a large amount of specialised vocabulary and field-specific
terminology that the design of a machine translation environment was not taken into consideration. However, to
achieve the desired consistency, homogeneity and quality for this type of document, computer assisted translation
needs to be implemented in a project with these characteristics (Candel-Mora, 2012).
This has led us to propose and devise a hybrid method that makes use of machine translation and computer
assisted translation memories, connected to large terminology and textual databases. In other words, the method
proposed involves further developing the concept of the translator's workstation (Hutchins 1998; Melby 1992): a set
of applications that provide reference material as well as an editing interface for technical writers and translators. In
our case, a better denomination would be a translation-oriented workstation, since as well as translators, other users
may benefit from some of the functions of the interface.
The need for translation is a recurring characteristic of course catalogues and, for this reason we decided that an
in-depth analysis of the process of their design was of interest, in order to identify the consequences of integrating
the process of translation with the process of creation and, as suggested by other authors (Spalink 2000:158;
Esselink 2000:3), to make the writer aware of the fact that the text is to be translated and that the message has to be
to simplified.
Most of the literature on translation studies, while comprehensive in the approach to the process of translation,
lacks a global vision of the overall translation task: terminology processing and sources of documentation and
information are an important part of the final translated text, but the three-phase division (pre-translation edit,
translation phase and post-translation edit) usually adopted in translation theory and in the teaching of translation
excludes these documentation and terminology processes.
Since translation is an activity that must be organised according to financial criteria, there exists a constant
tension between the demand for quality and the demand for quantity, both of which are accompanied by
omnipresent time constraints.
In the approach described here, terminology work is seen as the preliminary step in the translation process. One
of the foremost criteria for translation quality must be intelligibility, based on an unambiguous, uniform use of the
appropriate specialised language.
Translators are not usually subject specialists, and they are not expected to become experts in every field they
translate. Therefore, documentation is used by translators for multiple purposes: to immerse themselves in the topic
to be translated, to find the exact equivalents within a given context, and to see how the topic is expressed in a
particular type of text, all of which corresponds to the first stage of the translation process. The information and
communication capabilities of the Internet and especially open up new possibilities for gathering terminological
information and coordinating terminological and translation activities.
3. Analysis and discussion of strategies

A preliminary analysis of the structure of course catalogues revealed several weaknesses in the users’ input of
information in the different sections (Candel-Mora, 2012), which confirmed the need to develop and implement
several phases in order to facilitate the drafting and translation of course catalogues.
3.1. Phase 1: Analysis of the course description structure and sections and identification of target audience
The ECTS Users’ Guide includes the standard forms for student applications, learning agreements, training
agreements, transcripts of records and the outline of the diploma supplement. However, it only provides a checklist
of the recommended contents of the course catalogue and states that the exact format of the catalogue is to be
decided by the institution.
According to the ECTS Users’ Guide, the course catalogue must contain all the items in the "Checklist for the
Course Catalogue". The checklist is divided into three parts:
Part One: Information on the Institution
Part Two: Information on degree programmes
A) General description
B) Description of individual course units
Part Three: General information for students
3.2. Phase 2: Corpus Design
The corpus design phase is structured in terms of 3 sub-stages, in order to extract the targeted terminology,
vocabulary and phraseology from the type of texts included in the corpus: course catalogues and prospectuses and
specific course descriptions.
The first stage in the development of this corpus consists of identifying the topic or discipline of the text to be
translated in order to determine the working field. At this stage, the translator makes contact for the first time with
the linguistic and extra-linguistic features of the text to translate, such as style, target audience, terminology or text
format, among others.
Parallel texts are useful in that they provide examples of how features of the original text are transferred into the
target text as a result of the translation process (Vintar, 2001). In addition, they define the scope of the search for
suitable texts and provide the translator with a valuable reference database for further management of terminological
data. Therefore, the higher the specificity of the source text, the more necessary it will be for the translator to be able
to draw on a reference corpus with which to verify language usage by experts on the topic.
The use of electronic versions of these parallel texts facilitates their efficient exploitation, enabling the
performance of a detailed analysis of textual features and typology to take place. Although not specifically with
translation in mind, Zampolli (1991:186) suggested the elaboration of textual databanks, defined as a collection of
homogeneous texts to be used as a textual resource for a specific task or for a particular language subset.
The second stage of this documentation work consists of the dynamization of the resources for the collection and
further analysis of the reference material, primarily course catalogues from European universities. To this end, in
addition to the compilation of course catalogues and specific course descriptions, the most common search method
consists of locating the material in libraries or on the Internet using specific and advanced search strategies and
criteria. Cabré (1999:19) establishes four types of data sources useful for translators: grammar sources, among
which she mentions grammar books and style manuals; lexicographic sources, consisting of general dictionaries;
170 Miguel Ángel Candel-Mora and María Luisa Carrió-Pastor / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 166 – 171
terminological sources, with information about the specialised field; and specialised sources, such as manuals and
handbooks that provide specific information about a particular field of knowledge.
After the collection of the reference material, the third stage in the organisation of the documents and corpus
design consists of the classification and selection of the material according to certain specific criteria. At this stage,
the texts collected are classified into four different corpora: two monolingual corpora, one with the English texts and
another one with the Spanish texts; one parallel corpus, with aligned segments of the texts in both languages
obtained from translated texts or from texts published in both languages; and finally, a fourth corpus, called the
reference corpus, which will include other source texts that do not meet the requirements to be included in one of the
other types of corpora but which contain relevant information for the terminological work. For example, common
reference documents, which are not specifically course catalogues, will be included in the reference corpus, as they
are useful for the final task of terminology validation.
The next step is the development of the electronic corpus for further data processing. Simultaneously to corpus
design, the different documents are identified using codes that indicate the date, language and source institution or
author of the document. This code, labelled in the terminological file entry as source, will serve to identify the
authority, reliability and validity of the term.
3.3. Phase 3: Elaboration of terminological databases
Finally, stage 3 consists of the exploitation of the resources and elaboration of the terminological databases. The
process for the establishment of the working method in translation-oriented terminology management presented in
this study consists of carrying out an analysis of the main proposals in terminology work up to now and combining
them, in order to select the most pragmatic and functional aspects with which to define an operational structure that
justifies the study of the terminology used in course catalogues.
The main difference between the systematic models and the translation-oriented terminology work approach is
marked by the inherent limitations in the nature of the working environment, especially with regard to deadlines and
the planning of the translation project, which inevitably leads to ad hoc terminology work being carried out in order
to resolve the terminology problems detected during the initial phase of analysis of the original text.
4. Conclusions
The need for the systematization of translation-oriented terminological work in the form of phases as proposed in
this paper is evident in view of the high number of inconsistencies found in the course catalogues studied.
For the establishment of a working method in translation-oriented terminology management, the starting point is
the integration of consolidated procedures and protocols from disciplines with a clear influence on the translation
process. Therefore, the contribution of this proposal comes not only from the analysis of previous terminology
studies, but also from the application of the results of different interactions between terminology and translation in
the work of translators.
The exhaustive analysis of the corpus of course catalogues revealed several other weaknesses in the drafting
stage of course catalogues which go beyond the scope of this study, but which point to a line of research for future
work on translation-oriented terminology.
5.. References
Cabré i Castellvi, M. T. (1993). La terminología. Teoría, metodología, aplicaciones. Barcelona: Antàrtida/Empúries.

Candel-Mora, Miguel A. (2012). Design and Exploitation of a corpus of University ECTS course cataloques for the inplementation of a
hybrid computer-assisted translation Workstation”. In Zybatow, Lew; Petrova, Alena, and Ustaszewski, Michael. (Eds.), Translation Studies: Old
and New Types of translation in theory and practice. Peter Lang: Frankfurt.
Dillinger, M. and Lommel, A., (2004). LISA Best Practice Guide: Implementing Machine Translation. Geneva: Localization Industry
Standards Association. p. 33.
Esselink, B. (2000). A Practical Guide to Localization. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.
European Commission. (2009). ECTS Users’ Guide. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Hutchins, J.(1998). The origins of the translator’s workstation. Machine Translation, 13,4, 287-307.
Laviosa, S. (2002). Corpus-based translation studies: theory, findings, applications. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Melby, A.K. (1992). The translator workstation. In Newton, J. (Ed.), Computers in Translation: A Practical Appraisal (pp. 147-165).
London: Routledge.
Sager, J. C. (1990). A Practical Course in Terminology Processing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.
Spalink, K. (2000). Improving Cost-Effectiveness in the Documentation Development through Integrated Translation. In Managing Global
Communication in Science and Technology, P. J. Hager, and H.J. Schreiber (Eds.), (pp.153-178). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The Bologna Process – building a European Higher Education Area. Retrieved June 22, 2011, from
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/highereducation/ehea2010
Zampolli, A. (1991). Hacia bases multifuncionales de datos léxicos. In J. Vidal Beneyto (Ed.), Las industrias de la lengua (pp. 85-202).
Madrid: Pirámide.
Vintar, Š. (2001). Using Parallel Corpora for Translation-Oriented Term Extraction. Babel 47:2 121-132.
ScienceDirect
The Change of Conception of English-language Teaching of

Taiwanese EFL Student-Teachers after Teaching Practicum
Lim Ha Chan a *
a
Wenzao Ursuline College of Languages, 900 Mintsu 1st Road, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan R.O.C.
Abstract
This study explored the change in English as a foreign language (EFL) student teachers’ conceptions of English language
teaching (ELT) after a year-long ELT practicum. The participants were given surveys about their conceptions of ELT before and
after their teaching practicum (TP). Analysis of the survey data revealed four main categories of conceptions about ELT. After
TP, there were substantial differences in the distributions of responses in the four main categories. The environment that an ELT
practicum fosters could be the key to new insights and knowledge about English teaching.
© 2013 The
Selection Authors.
and peer Published
review under the by Elsevier Ltd.
responsibility OpenDr.
of Prof. access under
Bayram
© 2013 Theand/or
peer-reviewbyunder
Elsevier Ltd. All rights
responsibility of reserved.
Keywords: preservice teachers, English (second language), second language instruction, student teaching
1. Introduction
To be an English as a foreign language (EFL) teacher one must have both a theoretical and practical knowledge
of EFL teaching, besides subject knowledge of the English language itself. Practical teaching experience will
therefore make a difference to someone preparing to be an EFL teacher. Hodkinson and Hodkinson (1999) asserted
that student teachers are particularly interested in real classroom teaching practice. They believed that having real
teaching experience is vital for both their professional and personal growth as they learn to be teachers (Clement,
1999; MacDonald, 1993; Malderez, Hobson, Tracey, & Kerr, 2007; Yeung and Watkins, 2000). Teacher-training
programs commonly provide either a semester- or year-long teaching practicum (TP) as a formal requirement at the
end of their programs. Once they have experienced teaching in a real classroom setting, and have thereby discovered
the gap between theoretical and practical knowledge, student teachers will soon realize what teaching is really all
about (Hascher, Cocard, & Moser, 2004).
Teaching practice has been found to influence student teachers in a positive way. Through such practice student
teachers are exposed to valuable opportunities to acquire professional knowledge, improve their teaching skills, and
gain teaching competence (e.g., Hascher et al., 2004; Kaldi, 2009). Furthermore, after the experience, they have a
more helpful attitude toward learners (Hascher et al., 2004), and they are more conscious of and reflective about
their teaching (Lee, 2005); both of these represent shifts in perception which may bring about changes in their
conceptions of teaching and learning.
* Lim Ha Chan. Tel.: +886-7-342-6031 Ext. 5230

E-mail address: 94079@mail.wtuc.edu.tw
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.193
Lim Ha Chan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 194 – 198 195
What a student teacher believes teaching is about can determine how he/she will teach in the classroom and what
teaching strategies will be adopted, and this may, as a result, affect how learners go about their learning and achieve
their learning outcomes (Gao & Watkins, 2010; Kember & Gow, 1994; Watkins & Biggs, 2001). The accumulation
of an individual’s experiences of a particular phenomenon in a particular environment or context constitutes that
person’s conception (Pratt, 1992)—meaning that the conception of teaching is constructed on one’s own, through
personal experiences. It is unique to the individual, and it is context dependent. Once this conception is formed, it
will affect the actions of the individual. Understanding one’s own conception of teaching provides information about
experiences in a particular context or culture (Gao & Watkins, 2010; Marton & Booth, 1997). Therefore,
understanding EFL student teachers’ conceptions of English language teaching (ELT) may provide information
about their experiences of TP.
A large body of research has explored the conceptions of teaching in the general sense of already-practicing
teachers at the tertiary level. Kember (1997) reviewed a number of studies on teaching conceptions in a Western
cultural context and categorized the conceptions of teaching on the basis of two orientations linked with the notion
of student teacher interaction/apprenticeship: teacher-centered/content-oriented and student-centered/learning-
oriented. The teacher-centered/content-oriented approach includes two notions: seeking to impart information and to
transmit structured knowledge. The student-centered/learning-oriented approach includes two further notions:
attempting to facilitate understanding and conceptual change/intellectual development. Studying physics teachers in
China, Gao and Watkins (2001) similarly identified two orientations for describing teaching conceptions: molding,
which includes knowledge delivery and exam preparation; and cultivating, which includes ability development,
attitude promotion, and conduct guidance.
However, only a limited number of studies have explored the conceptions of ELT in particular. One relevant
example is the recent case study by Li and Shi (2012), which explored the conceptions surrounding oral English
teaching held by two college-level English teachers in China. There have been fewer studies which have
investigated changes in the conceptions of ELT held by student teachers before and after completing their TP. One
previous study found that a short-term practical teaching experience in a 5-day English language summer camp
introduced changes to student teachers’ conceptions of ELT and the learning of EFL (Chan & Chen, 2011). The
question of whether there are changes in student teachers’ conceptions of ELT after a one-year TP and, if so, what
those changes are, is therefore worthy of further exploration.
2. Research Method
The study participants were 90 student teachers in their senior year (72 females and 18 males) who were pursuing
a Bachelor’s degree in Foreign Language Instruction at a college in Southern Taiwan. This degree program aimed to
prepare students to be EFL teachers in Taiwan. Each student was enrolled on one of three identical year-long
English TP classes consisting of three units with elementary learners. At the beginning of the first and second
semesters, the instructor guided all of the student teachers in the design of a 12-week English language program, to
be held at their own college, for local elementary learners. Each teaching group was responsible for teaching three
lessons each semester. After every two consecutive lessons there was a feedback session.
A phenomenographical approach was adopted for this study, as this method is often used to explore the manner
in which people think and learn (Marton, 1986), and in studying conceptions of teaching and learning (Gao &
Watkins, 2010). According to this method, descriptions of experiences of teaching are collected and put into
qualitatively different categories in order to identify different conceptions of teaching (Marton & Booth, 1997).
Prior to the start of the 12-week program in the first semester, a pre-survey asking the participants’ about their
conceptions of ELT was distributed to the student teachers. At the end of the second semester, they were given a
post-survey meant to measure any changes in their conceptions of ELT which might have occurred. All of the pre-
and post-survey data was then analyzed separately by the researcher, using the categories of conceptions of teaching
defined by Kember (1997) and Gao and Watkins (2001) as a reference, with similar conceptions combined into like
categories. A second evaluator was employed and the analyzed data and categories were crosschecked. Agreement
was reached following discussion about any discrepancies encountered during crosschecking. With the categories
196 Lim Ha Chan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 194 – 198
and conceptions thus defined, each idea was counted and the categories were ranked according to the popularity of
the ideas as they appeared in the survey data.
3. Results
3.1. Distributions of conceptions of ELT before and after TP
The survey conducted prior to the TP produced a total of 154 ideas about what ELT entailed. After analyzing the
data, four categories of conceptions of ELT were identified: cultivation (41%), ways of teaching (27%), knowledge
delivery (25%), and nature of teaching (7%). After completing the TP, 83% of student teachers (n = 75) expressed
changes in their conceptions of teaching. The post-survey data of the student teachers included a total of 134 ideas
about what ELT entailed. Analysis of the data revealed the same four categories of conceptions of ELT. Ways of
teaching (54%), however, became the dominant category of the four, followed by cultivation (24%), knowledge
delivery (13%), and the nature of teaching (9%).
3.2. Four categories of conceptions of ELT
3.2.1. Cultivation
Cultivation was the most commonly conceived purpose of ELT of the student teachers before the TP. The focus
of cultivation is on assisting students’ learning. In this study, this category was further divided into four
subcategories: “facilitating students’ ability,” “facilitating students’ ability to apply learned knowledge,” “promoting
attitude,” and “facilitating students’ ability for examinations.” Taking these in turn, for the subcategory of
“facilitating students’ ability”, the student teachers emphasized students’ English language learning outcomes and
considered that the goal of teaching English was to facilitate students’ English language learning or understanding of
the English language. The ideas in the subcategory of “facilitating students’ ability to apply learned knowledge” was
generally concerned with enabling students to use the language, in addition to facilitating students’ English ability.
Many also emphasized the use of English in students’ daily lives. The subcategory of “promoting attitude”
contained ideas about enhancing students’ learning motivation and fostering their interest in learning English. A
small number of ideas fell into the subcategory of “facilitating students’ ability for examinations.” The idea of
helping students prepare for English tests or examinations was mentioned. In the survey carried out after the TP the
number of responses in the cultivation category decreased moderately, from 41% to 24%. Three of the subcategories
(“facilitating students’ ability,” “facilitating students’ ability to apply learned knowledge,” and “promoting attitude”)
and some similar ideas were found, but the responses in the subcategory “facilitating students’ ability to apply
learned knowledge” focused mainly on the use of English in students’ daily life.
3.2.2 Ways of teaching

Ways of teaching was the second most prevalent category of conceptions of ELT among the student teachers in
their responses to the survey prior to completing the TP. It included comments on how to teach. The ideas were
centered on the use of various suitable teaching methods, the use of English or the native language as the medium of
instruction, meeting students’ needs, matching students’ levels of English, attracting students, providing activities,
and so on. The number of responses in this category increased dramatically, from 27% before the TP to 54% after.
This increase rendered the ways of teaching category the most commonly-held conception of ELT among study
participants after the TP. As was the case prior to the TP, the student teachers continued to use this category to
discuss ideas about how to teach. Nevertheless, following the TP, student teachers provided more detailed
descriptions in their responses, which also included new ideas such as being creative, lively, and relating lessons to
students’ everyday lives.
Lim Ha Chan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 194 – 198 197
3.2.3. Knowledge delivery

Knowledge delivery was the third category of conceptions of ELT expressed by student teachers prior to
completing the TP. This conception concerns the transmission of knowledge to students. The student teachers
mentioned four different areas of knowledge delivery: “knowledge delivery in general,” “knowledge delivery
concerning teaching a language in general,” “knowledge delivery concerning teaching English language skills or
elements,” and “knowledge delivery concerning cultures.” The ideas contained within the subcategory of
“knowledge delivery in general” included responses about transmitting knowledge without specifying what areas of
knowledge or whether the said knowledge pertained to a language. In the subcategory of “knowledge delivery
concerning teaching a language in general,” the student teachers expressed ideas about the transmission of
knowledge of a language. The subcategory of “knowledge delivery concerning teaching English language skills or
elements” contains conceptions about the transmission of specific knowledge of English language skills—listening,
speaking, reading, writing—or of English language elements such as vocabulary, spelling, sentence structures, and
grammar. Some student teachers expressed ideas concerning the transmission of knowledge of cultures. These
responses fell into the subcategory of “knowledge delivery concerning cultures.” After the TP, the number of
responses in the knowledge delivery category decreased moderately from 25% before the TP to 13%. The same four
subcategories were identified. Nevertheless, only a few responses were assigned to each subcategory.
3.2.4. Nature of teaching

The fourth category of conceptions of ELT expressed by student teachers prior to completing the TP was the
nature of teaching, but only 7% of participants’ responses were assigned to this category. Comments which touched
upon ideas about what teaching is, or what a teacher is, were assigned to this category. The student teachers
generally thought that teaching was not easy and that teaching itself was a learning process. They also believed a
teacher should be patient, enthusiastic, and proficient in English. The number of responses in the nature of teaching
category remained low after the TP (9%), with only a 2% increase. However, there were some new ideas about what
teaching means or what a teacher is like. The former included teaching being interesting and professional, and
requiring a high degree of responsibility and preparation. The latter included a teacher being energetic and having
the ability to respond spontaneously.
In this study, four main categories of conceptions of ELT were identified—cultivation, knowledge delivery, ways
of teaching, and nature of teaching. Using the models proposed by Gao and Watkins (2001) and Kember (1997) for
understanding the conceptions of teaching, the cultivation category can be classified as oriented towards student-
centered/learning or cultivating, and the knowledge delivery category as oriented towards teacher-centered/content
or molding. These two orientations represent two divergent views of teaching: the constructivist view, in which
teachers attempt to cultivate the learners, and the traditional view, in which teachers transmit knowledge to learners
(Cheng, Chan, Tang, & Cheng, 2009). The categories of ways of teaching and the nature of teaching were singled
out from Gao and Watkins’ (2001) and Kember’s (1997) models, but the participants’ responses for these two
categories were not primarily focused on the transmission of knowledge or cultivating the learners. So, to add to
their models, the ways of teaching category can be described as method- and skills-oriented, whereas the nature of
teaching category can be described as affect-oriented. These two orientations are particular to this study, and the
ways of teaching category could be a unique conception among student teachers, particularly in the period of TP.
Before the TP, the student teachers’ conceptions of ELT were more about cultivation, which is oriented towards
student-centered/learning or cultivating (Gao and Watkins, 2001; Kember, 1997). The participants seemed to be
more concerned with learners’ development at this point. This might reflect the student teachers’ theoretical
backgrounds and personal experiences with ELT before the TP. After the TP, 83% of the student teachers expressed
changes in their conceptions of ELT, and the full distribution of student teachers’ conceptions of ELT was markedly
different from that before the TP. Ways of teaching became the dominant category of conceptions of ELT, and the
conceptions associated with cultivation and knowledge delivery became less significant. In other words, after the
198 Lim Ha Chan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 194 – 198
TP, the student teachers’ conceptions of ELT became more oriented towards methods and skills than towards both
student-centered/learning or cultivating and teacher-centered/content or molding ( Gao and Watkins, 2001; Kember,
1997). The student teachers seemed to be more concerned with practical skills instead—thinking more about how to
teach rather than cultivating students and what to teach. It could be that the student teachers realized the gap
between theoretical and practical knowledge (Hascher et al., 2004). They might have discovered that their previous
knowledge of teaching, which was more about theoretical concepts of ELT, was not enough to help their
performance in real teaching practice, and that ELT skills and techniques were more practical when they needed to
deliver their lessons in real teaching situations. Based on their experience, they constructed new ideas about
teaching. Nevertheless, it is unclear that whether there will be further changes in their conceptions of English
language teaching after they enter the work force becoming a real teacher. A follow-up study would provide more
understanding of this issue.
Furthermore, developers of TP course programs may need to aware that the type of development which the
environment of the ELT practicum fosters could be the key to new insights and knowledge about ELT. The
approach to an ELT practicum should therefore be reviewed thoroughly, as it may affect student teachers’
conceptions about ELT, which may in turn affect the end results for the learners. However, a true cause and effect
relationship cannot be established from this study, since it was a qualitative study in which it was difficult to control
for a number of variables. Furthermore, as conceptions of teaching are context-dependent (Gao & Watkins, 2010;
Marton & Booth, 1997), the results of this study apply only to the particular target school. Further research on
conceptions of ELT in different contexts should be conducted to further our understanding of this issue.
References
Chan, L. H. & Chen, C.-Y. (2011). The impact of short-term teaching experience on the conception of English teaching and learning of EFL
student teachers in Taiwan. Unpublished manuscript.
Cheng, M. M. H., Chan, K. W., Tang, Y. F. S., & Cheng Y. N. A. (2009). Pre-service teacher education students’ epistemological beliefs and
their conceptions of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 319–327.
Clement, M. (1999). Reducing the stress of student teaching. Contemporary Education 70, 20–27.
Gao, L., & Watkins, D. (2001). Identifying and assessing the conceptions of teaching of secondary school physics teachers in China. British
Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 443–469.
Gao, L., & Watkins, D. (2010). Conceptions of teaching and learning. In L. Zhang, J. Biggs & D. Watkins (Eds.), Learning and Development of
Asian Student: What the 21st century teacher needs to think about (pp.13–35). Singapore: Pearson Education South Asia.
Hascher, T., Cocard, Y., & Moser, P. (2004). Forget about theory—practice is all? Student teachers’ learning in practicum. Teachers and
Teaching: Theory and Practice, 10, 623–637.
Hodkinson, H. & Hodkinson, P. (1999) Teaching to learn, learning to teach? School-based non-teaching activity in an initial teacher education
and training partnership scheme. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15, 273–285.
Kaldi, S. (2009). Student teachers' perceptions of self-competence in and emotions/stress about teaching in initial teacher education. Educational
Studies, 35, 349–360.
Kember, D. (1997). A reconceptualisation of the research into university academics’ conceptions of teaching. Learning and Instruction, 7, 255–
275.
Kember, D., & Gow, L. (1994). Orientations to teaching and their effect on the quality of student learning. Journal of Higher Education, 65, 58–
74.
Lee, J. H. (2005) Understanding and assessing preservice teachers’ reflective thinking. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21, 699–715.
Li, Y. & Shi, Y. (2012). Conceptions of oral English teaching: A case study of teacher cognition on oral English teaching and classroom practice.
Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 34, 22–34.
MacDonald, C. J. (1993). Coping with stress during the teaching practicum: The student teachers’ perspective. Alberta Journal of Educational
Research, 39, 407–418.
Malderez, A., Hobson, A. J., Tracey, L., & Kerr, K. (2007). Becoming a student teacher: Core features of the experience. European Journal of
Teacher Education, 30, 225–248.
Marton, F. (1986). Phenomenography: A research approach to investigating different understandings of reality. Journal of Thought, 21, 28–49.
Marton, F., & Booth, S. (1997). Learning and awareness. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Pratt, D. D. (1992). Conceptions of teaching. Adult Education Quarterly, 42, 203–220.
Watkins, D. & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.) (2001). Teaching the Chinese learner: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives. Hong Kong & Melbourne,
Australia: Hong Kong Comparative Education Research Centre & Australian Council for Educational Research.
Yeung, K. W., and D. Watkins. (2000). Hong Kong student teachers’ personal construction of teaching efficacy. Educational Psychology, 20,
213–235.
ScienceDirect
The Comparison of The Wrestlers’ Status of Some Physical,

Physiological and Growth Hormone Status After Resting,
Competition and Sauna Sessions
Kiyici F a *, Ucan I.b
a
PhD. Department of Sport Education, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Erzurum, 25240, Turkey
b
Department of Sport Education, Bayburt,Turkey
Abstract
The aim of this study is to compare some of the physical, physiological, and growth hormone status during the resting, training
and after the sauna sessions (80-100 °C and10-15 % humidity) for wrestlers. Blood samples, for Growth Hormone (GH) were
taken and stored during resting time, before breakfast in the morning, after training and the completion of sauna sessions.
According to the results of the study; in body temperature and during resting and after training and sauna sessions (p<0.01), in
the number of heart beats (NOV), both between resting status and training, sauna sessions and between training and sauna
sessions (p<0.01), in reaction time (with right and left hand) both between resting status and training, and between training and
sauna sessions (p<0.01), in GH both between resting time and sauna sessions, and between training and sauna sessions, results
were stated statistically significant (p<0.01).
© 2013 Theand
Selection Authors.
peer Published by Elsevier
review under Ltd. Open access
the responsibility ofunder
Prof.CCDr.
BY-NC-ND license.
Servet Bayram
Selection
© 2013 Theand/or peer-review
Authors. under
Published byresponsibility
Elsevier Ltd.ofAll
rights reserved.
Keywords: Wrestling, Sauna, Growth Hormone, Reaction, Lung Capacity
1. Introduction
Today sports and exercise is being applied by millions of people in order to move away from stress, raise their quality of life and
uplift the wellness of the body (Tas et al. 2008). Wrestling is one of the oldest sports in the sports history in which different
weight and styles of the sportsman wrestle with each other in certain rules and time. Challenging trainings, diet and sauna
sessions in the period of preparation to competitions are forcing but required components for the sportsmen. As a result of
competitions and preparations wrestlers often exposed to physical, physiological and hormonal changes. These changes are
sometimes planned (weight loss or weight gain), sometimes occurs in the period of intensive training. Coaches and sportsmen
have to think sophisticatedly in order to be successful. Increasing the relative strength by increasing muscle strength, as well as
training sessions, is an important way to success for wrestlers. Sportsmen can lose weight in two ways. These are; training
methods for weight loss, a sauna, or a combination of both methods. Weight loss method in competitions is known to be
commonly used since the 1924 Paris Olympics (Başaran 1998).
* Corresponding Author: Dr. Fatih KIYICI, Phone: +90-533-725 25 03, Fax: +90-442-231 1333,
E-mail: fatihkiyici@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.161
20 F. Kiyici and I. Ucan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 19 – 22
2. Subjects and Methods

To this study, 14 elite wrestlers of Palandoken Municipality Sports Club, age 23:43 ± 4.15 (years), height of 172.86 ± 4.82 (cm)
and weight 74.95 ± 14:56 (kg) participated voluntarily. The aim of the study is explained and written consent of the participants
was taken.
For the purpose of this study, body composition values, pulse, blood pressure, body temperature, the reaction values, lung
capacity, and growth hormone of the participants, were measured at rest before and after sauna sessions and competitions. Three
sauna sessions with 20 minutes sauna and 2 minutes rest in 80-100 ° C and 10-15% humidity was applied. Training competition
was made 3 times 2 min of three stages and the wrestlers were asked to apply for maximum performance. Physical and
physiological characteristics are tested with Tanita TBF-300 device with the BIA method, reaction time is tested with the Simple
Reaction Time and Choice Reaction Time V.3.20, lung volume and capacity are tested with Cosmed Pony FX (Italy brand)
spirometer, of the athletes. Blood samples, for GH were taken and stored during resting time, before breakfast in the morning,
after training and the completion of sauna sessions. Samples taken by specialist nurses, shortly after transferred to the normal
(gel) biochemical tubes centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 5 minutes and the upper portions of the remaining plasma transferred to
eppendorf tubes and were stored at -80 ° C until the day of the analysis made. Samples were analyzed with chemiluminescence
method in Immulite 2000 analyzer.
2.1. Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis of the obtained data were stated with analyzing the arithmetic mean (X), standard deviation (S), one-sided
variance of non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis tests in the package program of SPSS 18:00 for windows, the differences among the
groups are designated by ascertaining LSD test at the 0.01 and 0.05 significance level.
3. Result
Table 1. The Comparison of the wrestlers’ status of some physical, cardiac measurements and GH status after resting, competition and sauna
sessions.
Rest Training Sauna

Variables X2
X± SS X± SS X± SS
Weight , kg 74,95±14,56 74,61±14,21 74,36±13,98 0,111
VKI, kg/m2 24,92±3,42 24,81±3,34 24,72±3,28 0,184
BMR, kcal 1812,43±207,38 1807,79±202,16 1805,00±200,63 0,047
BFP, % 9,207±4,09 9,279±4,41 7,386±3,82 2,042
BF 7,343±4,55 7,414±4,88 5,879±4,03 1,442
FFM 67,61±10,43 67,19±9,72 68,48±10,42 0,288
BWP, % 49,49±7,63 49,19±7,11 50,12±7,63 0,257
TB, 0C 35,84± 0,35 35,53± 0,43 36,87±0,55 24.920**
Systolic P., mmHg 134,86±10,83 141,64±21,29 142,14±24,55 ,950
Diastolic P., mmHg 77,86±6,27 79,86±13,12 79,36±18,29 ,423
Heart rate, beats/min 67,57±12,96 112,93±18,32 96,50±19,17 24,146**
GH, ng/ml 1,52±1,75 3,08±5,78 7,50±5,94 11,921**
BMR: Basal Metabolism Rate, BFP: Body Fat Percentage, FFM: Fat-free Mass, BFP= Body Water Percentage, TB = Body
Temperature, GH: Growth Hormone ** (P<0.01).
Table 2. Lung capacity and reaction values difference of wrestlers
Rest Training Sauna

Variables X2
X± SS X± SS X± SS
FVC 5,35±0,65 5,30±0,64 5,25±0,67 0,225
FEV1 5,25±0,67 4,34±0,59 4,35±0,57 0,033
FEV1/FVC % 80,64±7,62 81,36±7,72 82,6429±7,94 0,250
PEF 9,53±1,95 9,66±1,83 9,9636±1,43 0,500
MVV 181,63±27,94 187,2071±31,84 185,1357±31,24 0,104
Left Hand Reaction 516,56±62,24 815,25±244,99 449,90±449,90 28,468**
Right Hand Reaction 533,79±63,73 809,24±221,81 479,03±479,03 24,622**
FVC= Forced Vital Capacity, FEV1=the amount of air at 1.second in Forced Expiration, FEV1/FVC% =, PEF = Peak Expiratory
Volume, MVV = Maximum Voluntary Ventilation, ** (P<0.01).
4. Discussion
Sauna method which is used by the wrestlers for many years is not only a way of losing weight but it is also used to remove the
fatigue off the body quickly. It is aimed to determine how the Wrestlers’ basic measurements taken at rest, the training event with
F. Kiyici and I. Ucan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 19 – 22 21
full load, temperature and humidity, affect the physical, physiological conditions and certain hormones between the sauna
periods.
Different activities at physical properties BW, in physiological characteristics BMR, BFP, fat mass, fat-free mass and BWP there
were no significant differences in the comparisons between the periods. The overall diagnostic in sports activities, depending on
the type and severity of the activity BW and BMI is affected in a positive direction (Amano et al. 2001, Karacan et al. 2003).
Schmid et al.(2005) stated that there is no significant difference of the wrestlers’ body composition in body weight, body fat
percentages, fat free muscle mass during a competition season.
The highest GH hormone of wrestlers occurs after the sauna session at the same time there is an increase in the resting period
after the competition. It can be said that this increase was associated with increasing body temperature and correlated with some
literature studies.
M. Vigas et al. (2000) stated that in 26 and 36 0C water, trained wrestlers and untrained volunteers swim and there is a significant
increase in GH with body temperature. As a result of the study, increased GH secretion is directly happened by the stimulation of
increased body temperature. In this study, the highest GH hormone of wrestlers occurs after the sauna sessions, but also
according to the state of rest there is an increase after competitions. It can be said that this increase was associated with increased
body temperature correlated with some literature studies.
Thermoregulatory mechanisms of athletes are very important to be strong. Though the temperature is in a level that body can
tolerate, if the body's thermoregulatory system is not normal, bad results are inevitable (Kiyici 2009). In this study, body
temperature average after the training competition, is higher level at the post competition values but lower level at the post sauna
sessions and significant differences were found comparing these periods.
During the resting heart rate can vary from person to person, even the inspections carried out in the same person at different
times, can vary. But still, 72 beats / min is considered to be an average heart rate. In the study carried out by Çimen and friends
on table tennis players; it is detected the resting heart rate as 75.5 beats / min, 13.0 cmHg systolic blood pressure and diastolic
blood pressure as 07.07 cmHg (Cimen et al. 1997). In a study carried out by Cicek and friends on football players, heart beats of
the first league players is detected as 162 beats / min (Cicek et al. 2004)
Bostancı and friends detected the resting heart beats as 79.63 beats / min after exercise 141.89 beats / min, systolic and diastolic
blood pressure 90 mm Hg and 134 mm Hg. The findings of this study are consistent with findings in the literature (Bostanci et al.
2004). Lung volumes and capacities varies according to person to person, age, gender, body surface area, whether they are
trained or not. Therefore instead of vital capacity, it is more accurate to assess the respiratory function according to the results of
MVV. In addition, FEV1/FVC ratio should not be less than 80%. Because, if FEV1/FVC is below 80%, it shows there is a
problem with expiration (Gunay et al. 2004). In the study on national and university wrestling teams, FEV1/FVC values at
national team are identified as % 86.95 and % 90.10 at university team. The results of this study are similar to the results of the
literature (Alpay and Hazar 2006).
5. Conclusion
As a result of this study there is an increase in growth hormone with increased body temperature, but it can be said that is an
acute effect. As there is no pre-competition period in which weight loss is changed, that there are no serious physical and
physiological changes between the periods. In the different studies, comparative studies may be conducted after training
competition and normal competition.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express his appreciation to Dr. Hüseyin Eroğlu for his help in data collection and staffs at Biochemistry
Laboratory for sample analyses.
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ScienceDirect
The design of web-based learning model using collaborative

learning techniques and a scaffolding system to enhance learners’
competency in higher education
Kwanjai Deejring *
Department of Computer Education, Faculty of Science and Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat University,30000, Thailand
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to design a web based learning model using collaborative learning techniques and a scaffolding
system to enhance learners’ competency in higher education. The research and development methodology is employed in this
work. In the phase of designing the web-based learning model shown in this paper, the target group consists of experts. Several
methods used in designing the web-based learning model are as follows: 1) Examining and analyzing the principles and theories,
2) Exploring the instructional context concerning about instructional design and learning environments, 3) Synthesizing a
framework of designing the web-based learning model, 4) Designing the web based learning model and 5) Evaluating the
efficiency of the web-based learning model. Many learning principles and theories are related to this study such as constructivist
learning theory, collaborative learning techniques and principles about instructional design. The results are revealed as follows.
Firstly, the web-based learning model using collaborative learning techniques and a scaffolding system to enhance learners’
competency in higher education composes of 5 components that are: (1) Problem base, (2) Resources, (3) Related cases, (4)
Scaffoldings and (5) Community for collaborative learning. Secondly, the design of the model evaluated by 4 experts complies
with learning principles and theories and the experts accept the model in a high level at 72.56% overall.
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Instructional design, Web based learning, Constructivism, Collaborative learning, Scaffolding;
1. Introduction
In the era of globalization, web based learning is attractively and widely applied in Thai education system. The
environments of web based learning are unlimited dimensions with distance and thus it supports learners to access
diverse kinds of information and knowledge resources. Also it provides a space for learners to share experiences and
knowledge as well as corporate with peers without the limitations of time and distance – learning and without
boundary (Palmieri, 1997). Even though the web based learning supports the flexibility of learning among learners,
there are research results indicating that learners are still playing the role of knowledge consumer in the traditional
* Corresponding Asst.Prof.Dr. Kwanjai Deejring. Tel.: +668-6248-0505

E-mail address: deejring@hotmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.236
Kwanjai Deejring / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 436 – 441 437
didactic teaching instead of constructor. Today, several educators advocate the learner-centered approach in
education, that is currently, it is focused on construction of knowledge which is favored in educational settings
rather than the transmission of knowledge (Spiro et al., 1995; Amornsinlaphachai et al., 2012). In higher education,
our students are facing multiple problems in workplace. We are charged with preparing our students for life in the
real world. This is consistent with the Thai National Education Act 1999 and Amendment Act (No. 2) 2002 which
state that the education will be based on the principle that all learners are capable of learning and developing
themselves and the students are considered as the most important.
The learning process must focus on skills of thinking process to face the situation and to apply knowledge to
solve Ill-structured problems in the real world based on learners’ cognitive. The use of collaborative learning
techniques and a scaffolding system is able to enhance this competency of learners in higher education (Deejring et
al., 2012). The collaborative learning techniques help the students to exchange their knowledge for multiple
perspectives and prevent students from misconception; hence we should encourage the students to builds their
knowledge and the concept (Driscoll, 2000). This web based learning model based on constructivism learning
environments of Jonassen's Model (Jonassen, 1999) can help students to construct knowledge more than transfer
knowledge to students. The scaffolding system based on the principle of Zone of Proximal Development: ZPD
(Vygotsky, 1978) is able to improves students’ competency. Apart from above, the characteristics of media and a
media symbol system meet students' knowledge construction and the use of the media on a network has the features
of a hyperlink, hypertext and hypermedia. Thus the media symbol system is influencing in students’ cognitive
process while they are learning (Kozma, 1991; Chaijaroen, 2005).
From the reasons mentioned above, the researcher realized the need to study and design a web-based learning
model, using collaborative learning techniques and a scaffolding system to enhance learners’ competency in higher
education, based on the theoretical framework and various researches. The model encourages students to construct
knowledge and enhance students’ competency by using collaborative learning techniques and a scaffolding system.
This will be useful for effective learning as well as the professional in higher education.
2. The Purposes of Research

2.1 To design a framework of a web based learning model using collaborative learning techniques and a
scaffolding system to enhance learners’ competency.
2.2 To synthesize a theoretical framework of this study.
2.3 To study experts’ opinions of this study.
3. The Scope of Research

3.1 The target group used in this design phase consists of 4 experts to evaluate content, media and design
3.2 The scope of content used in this study is a part of the subject of 414210 System analysis and design for
education studied at Nakhonratchasima Rajabhat University, Thailand.
3.3 The research variable studied in this work is the web based learning model using collaborative learning
techniques and a scaffolding system to enhance learners’ competency in higher education.
4. Methodology
The research and development methodology used in this work consists of the following steps.
4.1 Instruments of research
The instruments of the research are as follows.

1. The opinionaire of instructional context used to survey opinion of the lecturers and students about learning
context composes of open-ended questions. The issue is related to designing the web based learning model
using collaborative learning techniques and a scaffolding system to enhance learners’ competency.
438 Kwanjai Deejring / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 436 – 441
2. The document analysis record form consists of 3 aspects that are the instructional design based on CLEs
(Jonassen, 1999), a collaborative learning technique and a scaffolding technique based on social
constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) and media theories. These aspects create the theoretical framework and
the designing framework for designing the web based learning model using collaborative learning
techniques and a scaffolding system to enhance learners’ competency.
3. The effectiveness evaluation of the web based learning model created from the designing framework
comprises of the principle of assessment in web-base learning (Khan et al., 1997) and the principle of
evaluation in learning environments. This evaluation uses open-ended questions comprising of 3 major
issues that are content, media on web and learning environments model and design.
4.2 Data collection
The study was conducted to collect data as the following details.

1. Opinion survey in the context of learning about the condition of teaching and learning context.
2. The review of literatures and the analysis of document.
3. The synthesis of literatures and opinions to create a conceptual design of the model.
4. The data derived from the effectiveness evaluation of the web based learning model.
4.3 Data analysis
The data is analyzed as follows.

1. Acquisition of the contextual conditions on learning and teaching of students by using descriptive
analytical and summary interpretation. The data was derived from the opinionaire about education.
2. Acquisition of the theoretical framework by using data analysis to describe and summarize analytical
interpretation derived from information about principles, various theories related to the research and
document analysis.
3. Designing framework acquisition by using data analysis to describe and summarize analytical interpretation
from the data recorded in the document analysis record form.
4. Acquisition of expert assessments about the web based learning model by using data analysis by
summarizing interpretation. The expert assessments include learning content, media and design.
5. Results
The results of this study are as follows.
5.1 Synthesis of theoretical framework
The basic theoretical framework consists of importance four major theories as shown in Figure 1. These theories
are as follows. Firstly, the pedagogy focuses on the instructional design along with constructivism learning
environments (Jonassen, 1999) and social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978). Secondly, the contextual principles
compose of learners’ personal characteristics, level of using ICT and internet related experience, graduate desirable
features, guidelines for teaching, and the essence of the analysis and design courses. Thirdly, the web-based learning
technology includes multimedia and information technology. Finally, the cognitive factor in web based learning
design consists of the fundamental in message design and media symbol system.
Figure 1. The theoretical framework to design the web based learning model
5.2 The study of context
The study of context revealed the condition of Computer education program as follows. The learning experience
of students will emphasize on lectures which the students will write down the contents. The lecturers show slides of
presentation with content. Students are divided into small groups to present reports in front of the class. The students
in the computer have to learn with various software programs including Microsoft office and search-engine on the
Internet. Furthermore, the students have no experience of using social network application in learning. However
teachers have to transfer knowledge in the traditional didactic teaching. The students have no experience in
collaborative learning to solve problems and do not have any scaffolding system to help them. It is also found that
students have no learning experience with activities that promote the web based learning model using collaborative
learning techniques and a scaffolding system to enhance learners’ competency in higher education
5.3 The synthesis of the design models’ concept
The synthesis of theory, philosophy, pedagogy, psychology of learning, media symbol system and technology
leads to a fundamental for designing this web based learning model as the following.
1. The cognitive conflict, to activate cognitive structure, including the situation in problem analysis and design
of various systems based on the basic framework of Jonassen (Jonassen, 2004) helps to design and present problems
in the real world context. These encourage students to solve problems and prepare themselves when they encounter
various problems at workplaces, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Framework designed to activate cognitive structure
2. The supporting cognitive equilibrium consists of (1) Resources and (2) Collaboration as the following details.
Resources are based on the design principles for multimedia presentations (Mayer, 2005) by organizing information.
Information processing of the students uses animation, visual and audio to get more effectiveness than lecture does.
For collaboration, students are divided into small groups to solve the problems based on concept of Vygotsky
440 Kwanjai Deejring / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 436 – 441
(1978), Honebein (Honebein, 1998) and Palloff (Palloff et al., 2005) to allow students to interact with each other
and provide the opportunity to articulate for multiple perspectives as well as discuss with teachers and experts.
These can avoid misunderstanding or misconception as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Framework designed for supporting cognitive equilibrium
3. To promote and assist the students who are under the zone of proximal development based on Social
constructivist theory (Vygotsky, 1978), the components of enhancing learners’ competency and knowledge
construction are (1) Related cases, (2) Scaffolding consisting of Metacognitive Scaffolding, Strategic Scaffolding,
Conceptual Scaffolding and Procedural Scaffolding and (3) System Analyst Community, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Framework designed to support construct knowledge and enhance learners’ competency
5.4 The efficiency of the web based learning model
The web based learning model derived from the design framework comprises of (1) Problems, (2) Resources,
(3) Collaboration, (4) Related Cases, (5) Scaffolding and (6) Community. Examining the quality of the model
through the various experts found the following issues. Firstly, the content is accurate and appropriate to the level of
learning among students. In addition, the content looks interesting, up to date and timely today. As well as the
content is subject to extensively study. The resources use suitable theory. Secondly, the use of up-to-date
technologies and multimedia can help the students to understand information easily. Thirdly, the design of the web
based learning model is exactly consistent with the principles and theories used as the fundamental for design.
Overall, the model is appropriate to enhance the learners’ competency.
6. Summary and Concluding Remarks
The web based learning model using collaborative learning techniques and a scaffolding system to enhance
learners’ competency in higher education consists of 6 components that are (1) Problems, (2) Resources, (3)
Collaboration, (4) Related Cases, (5) Scaffolding and (6) Community. The result of this study is to design the
elements of the web based learning model that enhances learners’ competency by using collaborative learning
technique and a scaffolding system. There is a theoretical basis, as following: (1) Pedagogy focusing on instructional
design along with constructivism learning environments (Jonassen, 1999) and social constructivism (Vygotsky,
1978), (2) The contextual principles such as learners’ personal characteristics, level of using ICT and internet related
experience, graduate desirable features, guidelines for teaching, and the essence of the analysis and design courses,
(3) Web-based learning technology and (4) Cognitive factor in web based learning design such as the fundamental
in message design and media symbol system.
The experts who evaluate this model found that the content of the model is accurate, right up to date timely.
Design can encourage students to construct knowledge and enhance learners’ competency by using collaborative
learning for learners’ multiple perspective and the scaffolding system can help learners who learn below the zone of
proximal development. This is because the design of the model is based on a theoretical basis (Instructional Design
theory). This theory leads to the practice. To construct the knowledge based on constructivism learning
environments and social constructivism, a problem situation will be used to activate students to be disequilibrium in
concept. This will encourage students to solve problem leading to equilibrium in the concept and enhance students’
competency via collaborative learning in a community to exchange multiple perspectives. These cause the students
improve their competency.
Acknowledgements
The publication of this work was supported by Nakhonratchasima Rajabhat University, Thailand.
References
Amornsinlaphachai, P. and Deejring, K. (2012). "Developing the Model of Web-Based Learning Environment Enhancing Problem-Solving for
Higher Education Students." American Journal of Scientific Research 52(2012): 21-32.
Chaijaroen, S. (2005). Educational Technology and Instructional Development. Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University.
Deejring, K. and Chaijaroen, S. (2012). "The constructivist learning environments model enhancing cognitive flexibility for higher education:
validation phase." Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 46(2012): 3764 - 3770.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction, Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Honebein, P. C. (1998). Seven Goals for the Design of Constructivist Learning Environments. Constructivist Learning Environments Case
studies in Instructional Design, New Jersey :Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs: 11-24.
Jonassen, D. H. (1999). Designing Constructivist Learning Environments. Instructional-Design Theories and Models. C. M. E. In Reigeluth, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2: 215-239.
Jonassen, D. H. (2004). Learning to solve problems: An Instructional design guide. San Francisco, CA., Pfeiffer/Jossey-Bass.
Khan, B. H. and Vega, R. (1997). Factors to consider when evaluating a web-based instruction course: A survey. Web-Based Instruction.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Educational Technology Publications: 375-380.
Kozma, B. R. (1991). "Learning with Media." Review of Educational Reseach 62(2): 179-211.
Mayer, R. E. (2005). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning, New York: Cambridge University press.
Palloff, R. M. and Pratt, K. (2005). Collaborating Online Learning Togaether in Community, San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.
Palmieri, P. (1997). "Technology in education. . . Do we need it?" ARIS Bulletin 8(2): 1-5.
Spiro, R., Feltovich, P., et al. (1995). "Cognitive Flexibilty, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Random Assess Instruction for Advanced Knowledge
Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains."
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
ScienceDirect
The Effect of National History Courses in Turkey and

Other Countries on the Formation Process of National States
Dr. Mahmut Bolat*, Assoc. Prof. Bengül Salman Bolat**

* Ahi Evran University / Department of Atatürk’s Principles and Revolution History, Kırşehir / Turkey
** Ahi Evran University Education Faculty Department of Social Sciences Teaching, Kırşehir / Turkey
Abstract
Many European states tried to establish their own nation-states by making the people internalize the new values and new state
understanding emerging in this formation process of nation states at the 19th century, in particular. These states which attached a
great importance to the process of placing these new values and state understanding in the minds of the people and conveying
them to the future generations used many different methods to fulfill their goals. Without doubt, the most important means used
by the states to this end has become the national history courses. With the Turkish Revolution led by Atatürk, similar
developments were also observed in Turkey and it was aimed at creating awareness in Turkish community in this respect through
the national history courses and developing a national identity for the Turkish people and establishing the targetted national state.
Selection
by Elsevier ofunder
Dr. Servet Bayram
BY-NC-ND license.
© 2013 The
Selection Authors.
and/or Published
AllAcademic
rights reserved.
Keywords:

;
1. Introduction
The nation-state understanding has been based on the nationalism which started to spread as of the 19th century.
This movement led to the collapse of kingdoms and establishment of separate states for each nation in Europe. This
new order was defined as modernization and it started to spread to the whole world from Europe (Çelik, 2009: 145).
It can be expressed that the most important characteristics of nation states which came out depending on the
developments in Europe and is still the most common state model are “Being a centralized and constitutional state”,
Corresponding Author: Mahmut Bolat -Bengül Salman Bolat Tel: +23 444747839
Email: Mahmut Bolat -Bengül Salman Bolat @gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.246
Mahmut Bolat and Bengül Salman Bolat / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 492 – 496 493
“Administration with an Assembly through a parliamentarian functioning”, “Being based on a national community”
and “Following a secular policy” (Köken, 2002: 64).
When Europe was heavily hit by nationalist uprisings at the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire which was seen as
the dominant power of the Islam World considered these events as internal affairs of Europe and did not follow
these developments closely (Çelik, 2009: 146).
2.Nation State- National History
Following the nationalist movements which started to spread after the Enlightment and French Revolution
triggered by a series of events including Geographical Discoveries, Renaissance and Reform in Europe, a cultural
change has taken place as in all other fields. During the formation of nation states, Western communities displayed
their cultural differences and started to discuss their national histories intensely (Köken, 2002: 31).
The concept of nation state refers to a community which actually started with the establishment of national
monarchies at the end of the Middle Age and has been organized and integrated in accordance with the
nationalizations principle in its modern sense. Although it appeared at the end of the Middle Age, it can be said that
this state model has been shaped completely as a new phenomenon at the 19th century with industrializations and
capitalizations following the collapse of feodalism in Western Europe (Köken, 2002: 66).
National state needs a cultural integrity which will give prominence to the integrity sense of a socially and
politically integrated community to survive. Thus, national states had to lean over the history in order to reveal the
roots of national culture and to find out a legitimacy basis appropriate for the nation desired to be formed. Therefore,
national history gained more importance at the 19th century during which nationalism and democracy ideas spread
rapidly, empires dissolved and nation-states were established. As a result, resorting to the national history has
become a common method for each country aiming at enhancing national integrity and spiritual power as well as
taking new steps. One of the most important factors integrating a community is the common history consciousness.
Besides, the fact that the Italians, the Germans and the Slavic people wrote their national histories even before
establishing their political, national integrities shows that history is one of the most important factors to develop a
national identity (Köken, 2002: 78–79).
3. National History Understanding in Turkey and Other Countries
The most fundamental characteristic of French history writing at the 19th century has been the intense impact of
French Revolution. This impact has affected the nationalist viewpoint, in particular. Contemporary history writing
also started in line with nationalist approaches of the 19th century in the Ottoman Empire. The modern Turkey can
not be kept out of this generalisation. In Moden Turkey, the establishment of nation-state and re-writing of the
history are also concurrent (Behar, 1996: 19).
Throughout the world, it has been a common method to resort to history as a means of benefiting from history to
deepen the nation-state understanding or revealing the legitimacy of the revolution. For instance, many countries
ranging from America to Asia formed books out of speeches and statements of leaders and published them to create
such an impact. The first one of these books included speeches and statements of Washington, the first president of
the U.S. and was published in 1837 (http://www. archives. gov/nhprc). Another example is France where the date of
French Revolution, the 14th of July, was proclaimed a fete and a revolution history chair was established in
Sorbonne University several years later. Besides, in Russia, museums were opened to introduce the Bolshevik
Revolution dated 1917 to the community (Oral, 2001: 323). In Turkey, it is also seen that Revolution Institutes were
established in 1933 and 1942 with the similar purposes.
494 Mahmut Bolat and Bengül Salman Bolat / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 492 – 496
Likewise, during the 20th century, history became the biggest and most important guide and power source of the
independence wars of many state leaders including Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey,
Theodore Roosevelt, a president of the USA, English Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Mahatma Gandhi, the
founder of India. All of these leaders attached immense importance to the history education and researches in their
own countries. On the other hand, lately, the American leader Ronald Reagen and English Margaret Thatcher
interfered with the curriculum of history education in the schools in accordance with their policies and tried to prove
the legitimacy of their policies to some extent (Aslan, 2006: 163).
At the second half of the 19th century, history education increased in directly proportional to the increase of
nationalism in Europe. At this period, history started to draw attention as a scientific discipline in the academic
world. In other words, history education has become a way of creating and enhancing a national identity in Europe
(Behar, 1996: 20–21).
In 1824, Leopold von Ranke stated in the preface of his first book “The History of Latin and Teutonic Tribes”
that: “History was commissioned to judge the past and direct the present time in favor of the future…”. Mustafa
Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Modern Republic of Turkey, explained his reason of writing his book “Nutuk” as
such: “I intend to write down my memories by arranging the written and preserved documents of the events which
took place as of that date, addressingg the events of the day when I left Istanbul completely separately. I accept this
a duty for the next generations and the history of Turkish Republic.” With such remarks, Ranke and Atatürk
emphasized the mission attributed to the history as well as the expectations from it (Behar, 1996: 21; Speeches and
Statements of Atatürk, 1997: 99).
The strict relationship between history and nationalism in Europe was firstly formulated in the history
understandings in Germany and France. These two states provided inspiration for the other European countries as
well as the other countries in the world. For instance, the French impact on the attempts to re-write the history of the
first ten years of the republic in Turkey is so intense and clear. Similarly, at the second half of the 1930s, the
German understanding of history which gives an epical chacteristic to the state power became effective on the re-
writing process of the Turkish history with the effect of the importance attached to the culture policies (Behar, 1996:
22). It is possible to say that the four-volume book titled “General Outlines of Turkish History” was prepared to be
lectured at the secondary education institutions in line with this effect.
At the beginning of the 20th century, C.Seignobos emphasized how important the history education could be as a
tool in political education and stated that the history explains the community to the students with its transformations
and criticism. According to him, the course of history was commissioned to introduce the nations, state and
governments to the students and had a mission of preparing the students for political life and responsibility (Behar,
1996: 32). At this point, it can be expressed that Turkish politicians and historians have been affected by these
opinions. For instance, one of the important politicians of the first years of the Turkish republic, Recep Peker
specified his expectations from such courses of history in a similar way to Seignobos: “Our expectation is to instill
the enthusiasm and excitement which were the strongest stimuli lying at the spirit of people who lived the Revulution
period and paved the way for that period into the young Turkish generations who will put these factors into practice,
to train them with the revolutionary principles which are the product of that period and to prepare them for their
duties and tasks… The aim of the Turkish Revolution history courses given to the university and higher education
students is to instill the main wisdom of Turkish state into the young citizens and to enable them to internalize this
wisdom. We should convey the heat and excitement of our independence and resurrection period from generation to
generation.” (Eroğlu, 2008: 4-5).
Likewise, Ernest Lavisse who was also contemporary with Seignobos, is named as national primary school
teacher in France and is known as the founder of the French nationalist ideal considered history as a guide for
political education which aims at raising national awareness (Behar, 1996: 33).
Mahmut Bolat and Bengül Salman Bolat / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 492 – 496 495
In addition to Western Europe, the close relationship between the science of history and nationalism was also
proved in the Eastern Europe countries. Examples of these countries are Slavic countries and Hungary. Furthermore,
Polish, Czechoslovakian and Hungarian historians revealed and explained their histories by investigating their
primitive ages. Therefore, the historians of these countries comprehended the educative role of history to some
extent (Behar, 1996: 38-39).
In the Turkish Republic which was established following the revolution led by Atatürk, it was also attempted to
infuse the stages of the Turkish revolution and the regime into the nation with the help of national history courses as
in many other countries.
It was attempted to infuse the consciousness of Turkish revolution into the Turkish nation which got rid of the
bad memories of the past by establishing a new state through the revolution history courses (Mumcu, 1996: 147).
At the 1930s, in particular, Atatürk started to attach a peculiar importance to the culture policies. This situation
can be explained by the fact that Atatürk considered culture policies as a means of infusing the revolution and
reforms into the people. In line with this purpose of Atatürk, Turkish Historical Society was established on the 15th
April 1931, Turkish Community Centers were established on the 19th February 1932 and Turkish Language Society
was opened on the 12th July 1932 (Akşin, 2007: 205-207). Activities carried out especially in the field of history in
the Turkish Republic based on a single nation can be listed among the activities on which Atatürk concentrated at
most. With these activities and studies, the centuries old Anatolian history was enlightened and, to some extent, they
paved the way for the birth of a national culture (Mumcu, 1996: 148-149).
The aims of the Revolution History courses which are currently lectured in the Turkish education institutions are
to provide correct information about Turkish Independence War, Atatürk’s Principles and Reforms, Ataturkist
Ideology and the History of Turkish Republic, to gather the Turkish youth around national targets in an indivisible
integrity with its country, nation and state in line with Atatürk’s Principles and Reforms and Ataturkist ideology and
to train students accordingly (Köstüklü, 1991: 36).
Thus, the overall purpose is to help the people internalize the new state and nation understanding which appeared
during the formation process of the Turkish Republic and convey this understanding to the future generations by
constantly emphasizing the contributions of the heterogeneous community which consists of equal and identical
citizens and is defined as Turk.
Conclusion
The concept of nation states emerged at the 19th century as a new phenomenon with industrialisation and
capitalisation following the collapse of feodalism in Western Europe. The national history gained more importance
in this period during which nationalism and democracy ideas spread rapidly, empires collapsed and nation states
were established.
In Europe, at the second half of the 19th century, history education increased in directly proportional to the
popularity of nationalist movements. History education has become a means of creating and strengthening a national
identity in Europe. The strict relationship between history and nationalism was firstly formulated at the history
understandings of Germany and France in Europe. These two states set model for the other European countries as
well as the other countries in the world.
Thus, the Turkish Republic which was established under the leadership of Atatürk also followed a similar
understanding in history writing. It was aimed at infusing the new nation and state understandings into the Turkish
community with the new books as well as the revolution history courses which are still lectured in the schools.
496 Mahmut Bolat and Bengül Salman Bolat / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 492 – 496
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Thesis, Süleyman Demirel University, Social Sciences Institute, Department of History, Isparta.
Köstüklü, Nuri, ,(1991) “Certain Opinions About the Issues of Atatürk’s Principles and Revolution
History”, Ata Journal, N: 1
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Bookstore, İstanbul,
Oral, Mustafa, (2001) “Turkish Revolution History Institute (1933)”, Atatürk Yolu, N: 27–28,
ScienceDirect
The Examination of Pre-School Teachers' Towards Liking of

Children
Zeliha Yazici a *
a
Akdeniz Üniversitesi Educational of Faculty, Antalya , Turkey
Abstract :
Preschool is a period that basic developmental and pedagogical needs have been supplied until primary school. In this process,
the most basic requirements, which should be addressed, are affection and care. In preschool period, firstly children should be
loved and motivated in order to enable successful education. Especially educators, who study with preschool children, should
love children so as to be patient, have contact, set a bridge between children and have good relationships with them. In this study,
we aimed to investigate the aptitude of preschool teachers’ liking of children that has great importance on children’s basic
learning and every developmental field. The Study group consisted of 150 preschool teachers, who are working in state schools
in Antalya. As a measuring instrument, Barnett liking of children scale. According to the findings of this study, as to age it was
determined that teachers who are between 37 and over age group have the highest level of liking of children. As to marital status,
it is determined that married teachers have the highest liking of children scores; single teachers have the lowest level of liking of
children.
Keywords:training crosses, education / learning languages of languages, of speciality French, approaches by task, TICE.
1. Introduction
The most effective occupational area in a country’s progress, development, individuals’ preparation to
social life, transferring culture and values of society to next generations, and raising qualified human power is
teaching. In every society, the most important job in educating individuals falls on the shoulders of teachers. In
that sense, teaching, besides undoubtedly being an occupation that is widely inclusive, it has an important role of
raising people from every occupational group (Çermik et al., 2010). From teachers that take an important duty
upon themselves for the development of societies, it is expected firstly to become individuals who can understand
the change and development, interpret, and internalize the quality in education (Kavcar, 1999). In lots of
researches, it is emphasized that as well as using their cognitive skills for teachers to practice a quality education,
they need to like working with children (Lasley, 1980; Veenman, 1984; Marso and Pigge, 1994, Downing et al.,
2000). Teachers’ liking working with children will insure a higher level of motivation in learning environments. In
* Corresponding Author name Zeliha Yazici. Tel.: +90-242 310 66 61

E-mail address: z.zeliha@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.188
Zeliha Yazici / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 172 – 176 173
such environments, which have higher level of motivation, children will have the chance of fondly and
entertainingly learning.
Pre-school education, especially, is a critical educational step in terms of children’s learning potential’s
development. Pre-school years provide an opportunity of building the foundations of a healthy personality
development and preparation to social life while providing child to gain information, skills and values which are
necessary for child’s next educational step. Therefore, individual features as well as professional performance of
teachers, who especially are working in pre-school education, are important for children to acquire information,
skills, values and behaviors. It is one of the top features of teacher to like the child, who is just in the maturation
and development phase (Gelbal & Duyan, 2010). Liking of children helps to meet the needs and interests of them
in the classroom, to have effective classroom management, and to create a joyful and entertaining learning
environment.
The main purpose of this research is to investigate pre-school teachers’ towards of liking of children.
Having this main purpose in mind, in the research, variables like teachers’ term of office, the state of whether they
have child(ren), and age have been analyzed in terms of whether these create difference in teachers’ towards of
liking children.
2. Medhod
2.1. Study Group
The research is in general scanning model and it is practiced by using quantitative research technique.
Study group is the teachers, who are working in state schools in Antalya, Turkey, in the educational year of 2011-
2012. Among the total 449 teachers (MEB, 2012), who are working in the city centre, the data has been collected
voluntarily from 210 teachers. However, only 150 teachers’ forms have been included by keeping the ones that
have missing demographical information out of evaluation.
2.2. Data Collection and Analysis
As data collection tools, personal information form, which has been prepared with respect to the aim of
research by researcher, and Barnett’s Liking of Children Scale (BLOCS) have been used. Personal information
form: It includes questions about teachers’ some socio-demographic features like age, term of office, gender, and
the state of having children.
Barnett’s Liking of Children Scale (BLOCS): Scale’s, which was developed by Barnett and Sinisi (1990)
with the aim of measuring the attitudes of people for children, reliability and validity study for Turkey has been
done by Duyan and Gelbal (2008). Scale has been made of 14 items and it is asked from individuals to state their
opinions by choosing one of seven degrees which range from “Totally agree” to “Totally disagree”. Scale’s test-
retest reliability score is 0.854 and Cornbrash’s alpha is 0.92. Getting higher points from the scale means higher
level of towards of liking of children, and low points mean lower level of tendency of liking of children.
In the analysis of research data, parametrical and non-parametrical statistical techniques have been used
with respect to the structures of variables and features of data. Points gained from the liking of children scale are
continuous variables and have been dealt as dependent variable of the research. Teachers’ demographical features
have been constituted the independent variable of the research. The means of points gained from the liking of
children scale with respect to demographical features of teachers have been compared. In the comparison, when
there are two categories of independent variable, the “t” test; when there are more than two categories the “F” test
have been used. When the significant difference has been found in the “F” test, “TUKEY-b” test has been used for
dichotomous comparisons.
174 Zeliha Yazici / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 172 – 176
3. Results
Findings of the research has been analyzed in two sections as teacher demographical features and towards
of liking of children with respect to the demographical variables. 100% of teachers, who joined research, are
women. 67,7% of teachers are married, 29,3% of them are single. 24% of teachers are between 25 and 30 years
old, 55,3% of them between 31and 36 years old and 20,7% of them are 37 years old and over. 52,7% of teachers
have children, and 47,3% of them have not got any child.
Research findings about pre-school teachers' state of liking of children with respect to the socio-
demographic variables such as age, marital status and the state of having children, have been given in Table 1.
Table 1. Pre-school Teachers' State of Liking of Children with Respect to Their Demographical Features
Study Groups Liking of Children Score

N Means (X) Std. Deviation (SS) Statistics
Age
Between 25-30 ages 31 69,10 5,82
Between 31-36 ages 83 70,03 6,69
37 age and over 36 77,13 5,797 F=23,214**
Total 150
Marital Status
Married 105 73,44 5,46
Single 45 66,04 6,99 t=6,975**
Total 150
Status of having children
Yes 79 72,53 6,82
No 71 69,77 6,61 t=2,507*
Total 150 72,53 6,82
When Table 1 is analyzed and looked at teachers' liking of children according to their age, it is
determined that towards of liking of children points have been differed (F=23,214; p<0,001). It has been seen that
teachers in the age group of 37 and over (n=36; X=77,13) has the highest points, and this is followed, respectively,
by teachers in the age groups of 31-36 (n=83; X=70,03), and 25-30 (n=31; X=69,10). It has been seen that the
lowest points gained by teachers’ liking of children is in the age group of 25-30 (n=31; X=69,10). As a result of
multiple comparisons between 37 and over age group and 25-30 and 31-36 age groups with the aim of deciding
between which groups this difference is, it has been seen there is a significant level of difference between points of
liking of children in favour of 37 and over age group (p<0,001).
Zeliha Yazici / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 172 – 176 175
When looked at marital status, it has been decided that there is a (significant) difference (t=6,975; p<0,001)
in terms of liking of children status with respect to marital status of teachers. It has been determined that married
teachers' liking of children points are higher as to the singles (n=105; X=73,44). When looked at the status of
having child(ren), it has been stated that there is a (significant) difference (t=2,507; p<0,05) in terms of liking of
children status of teachers who have child(ren) (n=79; X=72,53) and teachers who have not (n=45; X=66,04) in
favour of the teachers with child(ren).
4. Discussion
It can be said when the age increases, teachers' towards liking of children status increases, as well, with
respect to the findings obtained from the research. It has been decided that the towards of liking of children is
differed with respect to the age status of pre-school teachers included into the research. It has been seen that liking
of children points of 37 and over age group teachers, who are developmentally in middle age period, are higher as
to other age groups, who are in the young adolescence period. In their work, in which they investigated towards of
liking of children of primary school teachers, Gelbal and Duyan (2010) decided age is a variable that effects the
tendency of liking of children, and the towards of liking of children of teachers in middle age period is higher than
the teachers in young adolescence period. These results support the findings of this research. In the natural process
of life, the experiences, which are gained increase when the age grows. These gained experiences change
individuals' points of views to events and situations. Individuals in middle age period may have been realized
expectations of performancing developmental tasks like job, partner, reproduction, getting organized together in
the entertainment fields, and providing sufficient development opportunities to next generations as to individuals
in young adolescence period. Thus, they may have much tolerance against other people, events and situations. As a
result, as Gelbal and Duyan (2010) stated, tendency of liking of children of teachers in middle age period is being
high as to teachers in young adolescence period, has shown consistency in terms of developmental point of view.
It has been determined that towards liking of children points of married teachers, in terms of marital status,
are higher than points of single teachers. As it has been understood from the feature of sample, all of the teachers
joined the study are women, and 52,7% of them are mothers. Therefore, mothers may have a warmer and tender
point of view to children. A mother who has (a) child(ren) naturally enjoys spending her time with children, and
she can generalize this feeling to all children. Because they have children, these teachers may approach much
sympathetically, emotionally and emphatetically to their students. As a result having a child can be a decisive
factor about liking of children.
Consequently, teacher is one of the key elements of any quality and successful education. On the basis of
information, skills and values that teacher has, liking of children has an important and very special place. It might
be suitable for individuals', who are performing teaching, positive features to be supported and developed, to be
encouraged to play the games with children to understand children's worlds or daily events.
References
Çermik, H., Doğan, B. ve Şahin, A. ( 2010). Sınıf öğretmenliği öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğini tercih sebepleri. Pamukkale
Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 28(II): 201-212
Downing, J. E., Ryndak, D. L., ve Clark, D. (2000). Paraeducators in inclusive classrooms: Their own perceptions. Remedial and Special
education, 21, 171-181.
Duyan, V. ve Gelbal, S. (2008). Barnett Çocuk Sevme Ölçeği’ni Türkçeye uyarlama çalışması, Eğitim ve Bilim Dergisi. 33:40-48.
176 Zeliha Yazici / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 172 – 176
Gelbal, S. ve Duyan, V. (2010). Examination of variables affecting primary school teachers’ state of liking of children. Hacettepe Üniversitesi
Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 38: 127-137.
Kavcar, C., (1999). Nitelikli öğretmen sorunu. Eğitimde yansımalar, V. 21. Yüzyılın eşiğinde eğitim eistemi. Ulusal sempozyumu. Ankara.
Lasley, T. (1980). Preservice teacher beliefs about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 31(4), 38-41.
Marso, R. N. ve Pigge, F. L. (1994). Personal and family characteristics associated with reasons given by teacher candidates for becoming
teachers in the 1990’s: Implications for the recruitment of teachers. A paper presented at the annual conference of the Midwestern
Educational Research Association. Chicago, October 12-15.
Veenman, S. (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of Educational Research. 54 (2), 143-178.
MEB. (2012). Milli Eğitim İstatistikleri/ Örgün Eğitim (National Education Statistics- Formal Education.
http://sgb.meb.gov.tr/istatistik/meb_istatistikleri_orgun_egitim_2011_2012.pdf (05.11.2012)
ScienceDirect
The Explanation of structural model of academic achievement based on

perception of classroom structure and use of motivational strategies in
middle schools of Tehran
Hanieh Badieea*, Narges Babakhanib, Kianoush Hashemianc
a
Department of Educational Sciences, Young Researchers and Elite Club, Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran
b
Department of psychology, Roudehen Branch, Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran
c
Department of psychology, Roudehen Branch, Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran
Abstract
The purpose of the present research was to test a comprehensive and Pervasive model to predict the amount of mathematics achievement in
students. The achievement goals and Self- efficacy, as mediators, relations between perceptions of classroom structures and mathematics
achievement. The population studied in this research was the students in the third grade of the intermediate school of Tehran sample size 360
(180 girls, 180 boys) have been choose among them with the aid of a random multistage cluster sampling by answering to a series of
questionnaires. The instruments used in this study were: *scale of perceptions of classroom structure (Blackburn, 1998) containing motivation
tasks, mastery evaluation, autonomy support, *scale of achievement goals (Midgley, C. & Middleton, M., 1997) Containing mastery goals,
performance goals tendency and avoidance goals, * scale of mathematical self- efficacy (Midgley, C. & Middleton, M., 1997). The mentioned
questionnaires reliability verified with Cronbach’s coefficient alpha. Result of structural equating modeling reveals that, suggested modeling
was acceptable and fit index (GFI= 0.97, RMR=0.04, χ2=67/85 and RSMEA=0.04). Also all the suggested modeling route coefficients were
significant (P<0.01). Thus mathematic achievement well predicted and Explained via perceptions of classroom structures by students and
achievement goals and self- efficacy. About Gender differences study, result of one-way analysis variance test showed that, there wasn’t major
difference between girls and boys in performance goals, mastery evaluation and autonomy support (P>0.05). But boys prove their Excellence in
self- efficacy, motivation Tasks, mastery goals and mathematics achievement than girls (P<0.01).
© 2013 and
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Authors. Published
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Servet under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Bayram
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of Academic
Keywords: perceptions of classroom structures, achievement goals, Self- efficacy, mathematics achievement
1. Introduction
The most important goal of educational systems is recognizing effective factors on academic achievement and improving
them. Math has been focused on more. Because educating problem-solving skills and creative thinking facing real life problems
on the part of learners is the aim of mathematics instruction (Ngee Kiong, 2007).
Different factors may affect academic achievement, specifically math. We can mention some of them as follow: motivational
(self-efficacy and goal orientation), contextual factors and learners' perceptions of them (perception of classroom environment).
One of the most important predictors in effective learning and scientific improvement is applying motivational strategies. So an
extensive body of research has been done and all have found positive effect of applying motivational strategies on academic
achievement and success.(Beyrami et al,2010; Yunus, & Wan Ali, 2009; Hejazi et al,2008; Young, 2005; Greene et al, 2004;
Aghadelavarpour,2008; Karimzadeh,2006; Naghsh, 2006; Mohsenpour, 2005).
Goal orientation is one of motivational components, and achievement goals are considered a construct in goal orientation
theory (Pintrich & schunk,2002), which means student cognitive representation about norms used for judging and evaluating
performance that includes the reasons related to achievement-related behaviors (Pintrich,2000). According to Eliot et
al(1997,1999). review, achievement goals are divided to three categories as follow: mastery, approach-performance and
avoidance- performance goals. Mastery goals emphasize learners' mastery in lesson contents, sole attention to learning, facing
and welcoming challenging situations, but performance goals concentrates on learners' behaviors in learning the lessons such as
being interested in competition , showing abilility, trying to act better than others (Chan& Lai, 2007; Was, 2006; Lawson, 2005)
and avoidance goals is the desire to avoid performing more poorly than others (Pintrich & schunk,2002) do. Another
motivational component is self-efficacy. Albert Bandura (1997) has defined self-efficacy as one's belief in one's ability to
*Corresponding Author: Hanieh Badiee, Tel.: +9809125140815

E-mail address: haniyeh_badiee@yahoo.com , haniyeh_b3000@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.229
398 Hanieh Badiee et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 397 – 402
succeed in specific situations. He believes that self-efficacy affects the quality of students' math performance. That is, students
with high self-efficacy tend to try more and persevere in math problem-solving process. In contrast, students with low self-
efficacy show less effort in math learning process and give up trying to learn math confronting a problem in this learning process
(Bandura, 1989; Vinberg et al, 1979; According to Rive, 2005, seyedmohammadi translation, 2010).
Moreover, motivational components may mediate the links between environmental and contextual factors with academic
achievement. Classroom environment which consists of classroom characteristics(Church et al, 2001), setting evaluation (Patrick
et al, 2007), affective-academic support (Ryan et al, 1998), affect different motivational variables and make students choose
various motivational models and achievement goals(Sungur & Gungoren, 2009; Greene et al, 2004; Naghsh, 2006; Mohsenpour,
2005; Ames,1992). Appropriate perceptions of learning tasks, evaluating methods and supporting autonomy increase motivation
in students and finally lead to their academic achievement (Ames, 1992). Thus, through presenting and testing a conceptual
model the present study is to show those students' perceptions of classroom environment including motivating tasks, mastery
evaluation and supporting autonomy as well can allow students to select suitable motivational strategies such as self-efficacy and
achievement goals in order to succeed in math.
2. Method
In the present study causal relations were assessed using structural equation model. Subjects consisted 360 (180 male and 180
female) guidance school students grade 3 who were selected using cluster random sampling. Then they completed the following
self-reported inventories:
2.1. Perceptions of classroom environment scale
Perceptions of classroom environment scale provided by Blackburn (1998) consist of three components: motivational tasks
(10 items), supporting autonomy (5 items) and mastery valuation (11 items). In this study, validity was reported .70 for
motivational tasks factor; .62 for mastery evaluation;. 73 for supporting autonomy, and for all 26 items (a= .85).
2.2. Achievement goals scale
Achievement goals scale by Middleton & Midgley's (1997) consist of three components: Mastery goals (5 item), performance
goals (4 items), and avoidance ones (3 items) were used in the research. Internal consistency for the scales used in the present
study was acceptable. Cronbach’s alpha for the scales described above was for mastery goals (.75), performance goals (.82), and
avoidance goals (.77). Total alpha for 12 items is (a = .78).
2.3. math self-efficacy Scale
Middleton & Midgley's math self-efficacy Scale included 4 items (a = .81). Math achievement was assessed through the
students' mean of grades across the year and their first semester exam grades.
3. Results
Descriptive indices of subjects' performance appear for each observed variable regarding gender in Table 1. Table 1 show that
both males and females are significantly different in self-efficacy, motivational tasks, choosing avoidance and mastery- oriented
goals with math achievement. But no significant difference was found between choosing performance goals, perceptions of
mastery evaluation and supporting autonomy (P >. 05).Figures.
Table 1. Descriptive measures ANOVA results for each gender
variable Group Mean

F Sig.

Mathematics Achievement Girl 13.9 2.89 8 20

Boy 14.74 3.33 8 20

Total 14.30 3.14 8 20
Performance goals tendency Girl 7.07 3.58 4 20
Boy 7.05 3.47 4 18
Total 7.06 3.52 4 20

Avoidance goals Girl 6.77 3.40 3 15
Boy 5.90 3.17 3 15
Total 6.33 3.31 3 15
Mastery goals Girl 9.64 4.01 5 25
Boy 11.77 4.26 5 24
Total 10.70 4.27 5 25
Hanieh Badiee et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 397 – 402 399
Efficacy Girl 7.61 3.50 4 20

Boy 8.90 4.04 4 20
Total 8.25 3.82 4 20

Motivational Task Girl 31.25 7.19 17 49
Boy 33.42 7.66 18 48
Total 32.33 7.50 17 49
Evaluation mastery Girl 27.60 5.86 17 46
Boy 28.75 6.15 15 43
Total 28.17 6.03 15 46
Supporting autonomy Girl 13.62 4.15 5 24
Boy 14.49 5.50 5 25
Total 14.05 4.89 5 25
Table 2 shows two by two correlations of observed variables in the research.
Table 2: Correlation matrix for observed variables
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1.Mathematics Achievement 1
2. Performance goals tendency 0.08 1
3. Avoidance goals 0.05 **0.23 1
4. Mastery goals **0.32 **0.31 **0.15 1
5. Self-efficacy **0.29 **0.24 *0.11 **0.53 1
6. Motivational Task **0.79 *0.11 0.10 **0.32 **0.30 1
7. Evaluation mastery **0.72 0.07 0.008 **0.24 **0.20 **0.59 1
8. Supporting autonomy **0.75 0.06 0.08 **0.31 **0.33 **0.71 **0.63 1
The highest rate of correlation coefficient was found in relation between motivational tasks and math achievement in
(p<0.01) level. In other words, the more are motivating the math class tasks, the better will students' math performance be. The
lowest correlation coefficient belonged to the relation between mastery evaluation and avoidance goals that is not significant.
Also there is a positive and significant relation between mastery goals, self-efficacy perception, motivational tasks, mastery
evaluation and supporting autonomy with math achievement. That is, the more students' perception of classroom environment
(including motivational tasks, mastery evaluation and supporting autonomy) is, the better their math performance will be. Also
the relation between the three components of achievement goals including mastery, performance-approach and performance-
avoidance is significant (p<0.01). There is a positive and significant relation between components of perception of classroom
environment with mastery approach goals but no relation was observed with avoidance goals. Perception of self-efficacy is
positively and significantly related with all observed variables.
Correlation matrixes of latent variables appear in Table 3, and path standard coefficients and their significance as well are
reported in Table 4.
Table 3: Correlation matrixes of latent variables
Latent variable Mathematics Perceptions of the Achievement goals Self-efficacy

Achievement classroom
Mathematics Achievement 1
Perceptions of the classroom **0.80 1
Achievement goals **0.62 **0.58 1
Self-efficacy **0.50 **0.35 **0.24 1
Table4: path standard coefficients
Standardized SE t Square multiple

estimate path coefficient correlations (R2)
path
The direct effect of perceived classroom structure Mathematics achievement
Direct and indirect effects of perceptions of classroom Mathematics achievement
Conception of classroom structure on achievement goals

Conception of classroom structure on the efficacy
Mathematic Achievement on the development goals
Efficacy on Mathematics Achievement
Data in table 4 indicate that coefficients of all path diagrams (γ) in the model are significant (t>2). The least amount of
coefficient (γ) belongs to effect of perception of classroom environment as an exogenous variable on self-efficacy and the most
to effect of perception of classroom environment on achievement which are significant at .05 and .01, respectively. Perception of
classroom environment effect on achievement goals is significant at .01. Also math achievement is significantly influenced by
achievement goals and self-efficacy at .01. Therefore these two variables can be mediated between classroom environment and
academic achievement.
Achievement goals
0.46(**5.55) 0.52(**6.97)
Perceptions of the Mathematics

classroom 0.70(**11.64) Achievement
0.24(2.30)
0.29(*2.90) 0.38(**4.01)
Self-efficacy
Figure 1. Conceptual model with path coefficient
Furthermore, multiple correlation coefficients (R2) show that almost .68 of math achievement variance is explained by direct and
indirect effects of classroom environment mediated by achievement goals and self-efficacy which show 4 percents of this
belongs to mediating variables. 29 percents of variance of achievement goals as exogenous variable and 21 percents of variance
of self-efficacy as endogenous are explained by perception of classroom environment.
The fitting indices were examined in the model. Table 5 obviously shows that all indices in the fit model indicate an
appropriately fit model and the goodness of fit appears.
Table 5: Fit indices
Fit statistics χ2 df χ2⁄df CFI GFI RMSEA RMR

Conceptual Model 67.85 39 1.73 0.98 0.97 0.04 0.04
4. Conclusion
Our findings confirmed the main research hypothesis showing that students' perception of classroom environment affects
directly, and mediated by achievement goals and perception of self-efficacy on students' math achievement. In explanation we
can say that classroom environment affects students' perceptions, beliefs, attitude and behavior. If math tasks are challenging for
students, they will become more involved in learning and choose some goals that help them succeed. Moreover, students'
perception of how they are evaluated is effective in their math performance. If they perceive that they are evaluated in process of
math problem solving based on mastery level, they will become mastery- oriented, on the contrary, if they perceive that ultimate
answer and the grade given for is evaluated more important than learning process of problem solving, then they will become
performance-oriented and get less involved in learning, which is in accord with previous studies (Badrigargari, 2010; Sungur &
Gungoren, 2009; Yunus, & Wan Ali, 2009; Lau & Lee, , 2006; Naghsh, 2006; Greene et al, 2004; Blackburn, 1998; Blumenfeld,
1992; Ames,1992).
Implicit results made it obvious that mastery and performance goals are not contradictory so that self- regulated students set
goals according to learning situations, and also act more successfully than their counterparts who follow just one goal. Students'
perception of classroom environment is correlated with math self-efficacy belief which leads to academic achievement,
especially when they are allowed to choose math tasks based on their ability and plan to do it independently, then they feel a
sense of responsibility, their self –efficacy increases and anxiety decreases. As a result they act more successfully. This finding is
Hanieh Badiee et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 397 – 402 401
in accord with previous studies, too (Babakhani, 2011; Karasel et al, 2010; Sungur & Gungoren, 2009; Yunus, & Wan Ali, 2009;
Direh et al, 2009; Kareshki, 2008; Karimzadeh, 2006; Naghsh, 2006; Mohsenpour, 2005).
Moreover the findings showed a significant positive relation between achievement goals and self-efficacy belief. This is in
accord with previous findings (Elliot, 1999; Beyrami et al, 2010; Naghsh, 2006). Student's goal-setting is influenced through
student's self-efficacy belief, so he takes some goals that bring him success. But among the goals, it is mastery goals that are
affected more by self-efficacy belief. Findings in this area are also in accord with previous studies (Beyrami et al 2010; Naghsh,
2006; Andermen & Midgley, 1997). But on the other hand, performance goals are affected by self-efficacy only in certain
situations such as examination time which is effective in student's achievement. This finding is not in accord with the studies
(Beyrami et al, 2010) which show a negative relation between performance goals and self-efficacy belief but in accord with
Midgley et al (1995), and Midgley & Ardan (1995). On gender differences, the study showed that males and females are
important in self-efficacy, motivational tasks, choosing avoidance goals and mastery as well. Self-efficacy in males is stronger,
maybe it is due to some specific cultural reasons in the under study population. This finding was in accord with previous studies
(Babakhani, 2011; Yukselturk & Bulut, 2009) that showed more self-efficacy in males than females. It was shown that females'
math achievement was less than males. This is also in accord with literature (Yukselturk & Bulut, 2009) . Moreover the findings
indicate that males perceive tasks valuable, challenging, various and motivating compared with females which leads to their math
achievement. This is also in accord with literature(Yukselturk & Bulut, 2009) . Moreover, the findings showed that males are
more mastery-oriented than females in goal orientation and get more involved in tasks taking more motivating tasks which reach
a higher level of achievement than females. On the contrary, females choose avoidance goals and give up solving math problems
because of anxiety they have and lack of appropriate perception of class activities so that all these lead them to gain less success
than males in math, which is congruent with previous studies (Beyrami et al, 2010). But the findings showed that males and
females are not significantly different in choosing approach goals. There was no significant gender difference in between mastery
evaluation and supporting autonomy of classroom environment. This finding is also in accord with the previous studies
(Babakhani, 2011) that had found no significant gender difference between students' perception of classroom environment.
Finally it is suggested that math educators motivate students to improve their math performance providing an appropriate
atmosphere in math class. Educators can also encourage their students to replace avoidance goals with mastery goal setting by
providing the mastery environment. Moreover, it is proposed that teachers pave the way for students to have choice
opportunities, decision-making and cooperation in class so that students can improve academic adjustment and achievement as
well through perception of autonomy provided in the class.
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ScienceDirect
The influence of social communication style on the attitudes

towards the learning process at mental deficiencies preadolescents
Roxana Urea*,
Bucharest University, 90 Panduri Street, District 5 Bucharest, P.O. 050663, Romania
Abstract
Each of us has a unique style of communication that facilitates the process of social adaptation The ability to communicate one
with another will develop in time in what is called the social communication style and will influence all the human activities,
especially the learning process. Taking into consideration the main features of mental deficiency’s personality, this paper tries to
reveal the influence that the social communication style has on pupils ‘attitude towards the learning process.
Keywords: communication style, learning process, mental deficiency, preadolescents.
1. Theoretical background
One of the major characteristic of the human being is the ability to communicate and each person has a
specific communication style.Communication style consists of individual characteristic features reflected in the
communication act, and it refers to: specific ways of receiving / decoding messages; personal qualities of processing
/ interpreting messages; specific ways of expressing the response; personal particular traits of feedback. The
communication style relies on three elements: 1. the person’s attitudinal process –the constant report of the subject
to the others and themselves;. 2. the models of acquired communication tools: assertive, non-assertive, and
aggressive (with its passive-aggressive variant), manipulative; 3. temperamental constitution.Specialists in the field
of communication have revealed four communication styles: non-assertive, aggressive, manipulative, and assertive.
The non-assertive style is characterized by the tendency to hide or to run away, rather than face people. It can
manifest itself through excessive kindness and conciliation, the tendency to postpone the decision-making process,
handing over the right to decide to other people, and a morbid fear of being judged by others; an intense anger is felt
at the prospect of possible failure – individuals prefer avoidance and obedience to others’ decisions. The aggressive
style is characterized by the tendency to be always present, to have the last word, to win at any cost, even if it causes
damage or grief to others. The manipulative style is characterized by the preference for a backstage role, by the
tendency to wait until the opportune moment comes, and by the tendency to look for any hidden intentions behind
others’ statements; The assertive style is characterized by the ability of self-assertion, honest and direct approaches
in personal speech, accompanied by ability to provide straightforward opinions without aggression and without
harm to others, pursuing their interests without violating the others’ needs.
*
Corresponding Author: Roxana Urea, Tel.: +040728087836; fax: +04031-425.34.46
E-mail address: roxanaurea@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.191
186 Roxana Urea / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 185 – 188
Each style will define a person especially in areas such as learning, working, and social activities.
Around 1974, Thomas and Killman developed a theory in the human resources field, stipulating that in each
activity a person will develop five types of behaviours/attitudes: competition, collaboration, compromise,
avoidance and accommodation. Based on this theory and taking into consideration that learning is one of the four
types of human activity, starting with 2006, in Romania research has been performed focusing on those types of
attitudes throughout the training process with different types of pupils. (Urea, R. 2008).
2. Research investigation
The experts from special education have revealed the main characteristics of personality at person with mental
deficiency: specific heterocronie, genetic viscosity, pathological inertia, rigidity, fragility of verbal conduct, fragility
of personality. These characteristics put the finger on all the personality’s traits and all the behavioural manifestation
at persons with mental deficiency; even the educational influences shape the intensity of those influences. The
situation has raised the following question: How does communication style as a feature of personality influence
the mental deficiencies preadolescents’ attitudes toward the learning process?
To answer this question, we performed psychological research aiming at revealing the influence of the
communication style on attitudes towards the learning process at pupils with mental deficiencies; the wider goal was
to thus design special strategies that will determine a better school performance at pupils with mental deficiencies,
and will reduce their failure in social environment.
In our research we had two major objectives: investigation of mental deficiencies preadolescent’s
communication style; investigation of the preadolescent’s type of attitudes towards the learning process. We started
from the following hypothesis: taking into consideration the mental deficiencies personality’s features, we assume
that we shall find specific influences of communication style upon attitudes towards learning process.
Our research had an initial testing procedure on 25 preadolescents with mental deficiencies and the Cronbach
Alpha index (α= .674) obtained allowed us to proceed to an extended psychological research that had two stages: a)
the investigation of mental deficiencies preadolescent’s communication style; b)the investigation of mental
deficiencies preadolescent’s attitudes towards learning process.
We performed our research on 80 subjects, with ages ranging between 12 and 14 years old, 32 boys and 48 girls
from Special School no.5 and from Special School no. 3 - Bucharest with I.Q between 50- 70- medium level of
mental handicap. The schools were selected because: a) each provides educational services to 3500 families whose
children have learning disabilities and to 1100 families that have children with mental disabilities; b) both schools
have enrolled over 200 students with moderate and severe mental deficiency .
In our research we have used the following psychological methods: The Questionnaire SC (Analysis of
Communication Style) - built by S. Marcus, a Romanian psychologist with important contributions, especially TO
studying the empathic phenomenon, and adapted, by R. Urea in 2009 for Romanian preadolescents with mental
disability (fidelity index: . 684), The Thomas-Killman’s Questionnaire adapted in 2009, by R. Urea for Romanian
preadolescents with mental disability (fidelity index: . 705).
2.1. Investigation of mental deficiencies preadolescent’s communication style.
Using a specific psychological questionnaire, we revealed the dominant type of social communication style at
each mental disable preadolescent. The information is presented in Table no 1.
Table no. 1.The mental deficiencies preadolescent’s communication style
Type of subjects Types of communication style

Non-assertive Aggressive Manipulative Assertive
Roxana Urea / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 185 – 188 187
Pupils from 6 grades 23% 6% 34% 37%
Pupils from 7 grades 22% 12% 23% 43%

Global profile 21% 9% 28% 42%
.We can see that the dominant type among our mental disable preadolescent is the assertive one. It appears that
these subjects are able of an honest and direct approach in personal speech, of providing straightforward opinions
without aggression and without harm to others, of pursuing their interests without violating others’ needs. In reality,
it is a specific assertive communication style to mental deficiency person, because they have the abilities of pursuing
their immediate needs without awareness the consequences, without a proper using of personal resources in relation
with the contextual tasks.
We also notice that the evolution of dominant communication style from mental disable preadolescents from 6th
grades to 7th grades , reflects the educational influences that the preadolescents with mental deficiency get through
the therapeutically programs.
We can say that the communication style at mental disable preadolescent is influenced by the fragility of their
personality and it is shaped by educational and therapeutically programs.
2.2. Investigation of pupils’ attitudes toward the learning process
We used Thomas-Killman’s Questionnaire for investigating the attitude towards the learning process among
Romanian preadolescents with mental deficiency. This instrument focuses on revealing the following types of
attitudes: competition, collaboration, compromise, avoidance and accommodation.
The data collected are presented in Table 2.
Table2. The types of attitudes toward the learning process at pupils with mental deficiency
Type of Dominant types of attitudes towards the learning process

subjects Competition Collaboration Compromise Avoidance Accommodation
Pupils from 6 10% 25% 25% 15% 25%
grades
Pupils from 7 18`% 18% 32% 23% 9%
grades
Global profile 14% 21% 29% 19% 17%
From the data collected in Table 2, we see that most of our investigated mental disable preadolescents developed
the compromise attitudes in a dominant manner in their learning process. It appears that our subjects have
negotiating capacity for achieving learning goals. We actually talk about those attitudes that allow these subjects "to
stand out" regardless of the actual context and the social rules. Although knowing the rules of the learning process,
our subjects are unable to design long-term learning activities, however on short term they are able to comply the
tasks of learning activities. This creates a cyclical cause -effect relation manifested in attitudes towards learning
process.
On the second position, we notice the presence of collaborative attitudes thorough the learning process. These
attitudes are done on an affective background and don’t involve efficient strategies for reaching common goals.
On the third position, we notice the presence of avoidance attitudes through the learning process and it reflects
running of intellectual effort.
188 Roxana Urea / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 185 – 188
We can say that attitudes towards learning process are a mark of specific heterocronie and of the narrowness of
proximal development.
3. Conclusions.
The purpose of our research was to analyse the influence that the communication style has on attitudes towards
learning process at mental disable preadolescents.
In our investigation adapted psychological tests for mental disable Romanian preadolescents were used.
With the help of statistical analysis, we found that the Cronbach’s Alpha index is .783.
Based on the statistically processed data we have found the following typology:
a) Type A is represented by mental disable preadolescents who have the assertive communication style and
manifest during the learning process the compromise attitudes;
b) Type B is represented by mental disable preadolescents who have the manipulative communication style and
manifest during the learning process the collaborative attitudes;
c) Type C is represented by mental disable preadolescents who have the non-assertive communication style and
manifest during the learning process the avoidance attitudes;
Taking into account the typology revealed by the investigated subjects, we can develop special programs for
developing differential learning techniques that will allow these pupils to increase the operational level of
communication skills for a suitable social integration.
References:
Marcus, S., David, T., Predescu, A. (1987). Empatia și relația profesor-elev. București: Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România
Neacsu, I. (2010). Psihologia educației și dezvoltării. Iași: Polirom.
Şoitu, L. (2001). Pedagogia comunicării. Iaşi: Institutul European.
Urea, R. (2012). The influence of the teacher’s communication style on the pupils’ attitude towards the learning process. Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 47/2012,p.41-44.
Verza, E., Verza, E.F. (coord.) (2011). Tratat de psihopedagogie specială. București: Editura Universității din București.
ScienceDirect
The Pedagogical Content Knowledge Exploration from the Thai

Expert Physics Teacher’s class
Tarntip Chantaranima a *, Chokchai Yuenyong b
a
PhD candidate, Science Education Program,Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen Unversityi,Thailand
b
Assistant Professor Doctor, Science Education Program,Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen Unversityi,Thailand
Abstract
Nowadays, many science educational researchers in Thailand focus their attentions on improving teachers’ classroom knowledge.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge is one of particularly interesting methods. The aim of this study is to improve the understanding
of the PCK elements used by an expert physics teacher. The research question is: What are the elements of PCK which can be
revealed from interactions between this expert teacher and his students in the context of a 5E stages approach to teaching? The
topic of the teaching was “Ohm’s law” and the lessons were planned in accordance with the 5E teaching model. The lessons were
conducted with 32 students over four hours. Semi-structured interviews were developed based on a Loughran, Berry and
Mullhall’s (2006) Content Representations (CoRes). The framework of CoRes allowed in-depth information of the teacher’s
ideas for planning, designing, and presenting his lesson plans to be examined. Moreover, classroom observations were collected
and analysed for events that demonstrated PCK. Exemplary excerpts were selected and reviewed with the teacher. Interpreting
through semi-structured interviews, lesson plan analyses, and classroom observations enabled an identification of the teacher’s
PCK.
Selection and
Selection peerpeer-review
responsibility Dr. ServetWorld
of Academic BayramEducation and Research Center.
Keywords: Pedagogical Content Knowledge, expert Physics teacher, Ohm’s law;
1.Introduction
One of my teachers that I will never forget is my first Physics teacher who taught me in secondary school.
He was inspiring, and because of him, my friends and I grew to enjoy studying Physics. He had a well-developed
PCK and used experiments, games, and video clips while other teachers used only chalk and the black board in their
classrooms. Because he holds an academic title of associated professor, I will refer to him as an expert teacher in the
context of this study
Shulman (1987) originally defined Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) as “the blending of content and
pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and
* Corresponding Author: Tarntip Chantaranima. Tel.: +66-8539-0915-4

E-mail address: fhon_tc@hotmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.227
390 Tarntip Chantaranima and Chokchai Yuenyong / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 389 – 393
adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learning, and presented for instruction” and elaborated “the particular
form of content knowledge that embodies the aspects most germane to its teachability.”
The differences between general teachers and expert teachers may be explained using the concept of PCK. There
are a number of studies about the PCK of pre-service or naïve teachers but not so many studies about the PCK of
expert teachers. From the PCK concept defined by Shulman, particularly the knowledge domains that appear to
contribute to a teacher’s PCK, many related research have been conducted. For example, Gess-Newsome (1999)
proposed two models of teacher knowledge. In the integrative model, PCK is the result of the inclusion of General
Pedagogical Knowledge (GPK), subject matter knowledge (SMK) and General contextual knowledge (GCK) (PCK
as a ‘mixture’). In the transformative model, PCK is the result of the synthesis of these three components of teacher
knowledge (PCK as a ‘compound’). Gess-Newsome considered both models as the extremities of the PCK
spectrum. Lee and Luft (2008) recommended that the integrative model may represent the PCK of pre-service
teachers, while the transformative model may portray the PCK of in-service teachers. A recent study of student
teachers’ PCK supported this assumption (Nilsson, 2008) based on the five elements proposed by Magnusson et al.
(1999) which was built on Grossman’s (1990) idea that envisaged PCK as a transformation rather than a blend of
knowledge. The proposition was that this originated from three rather than two knowledge domains which she
identified as: (1) subject matter knowledge and beliefs, (2) pedagogical knowledge and beliefs, and (3) knowledge
and beliefs about context and in their work went on to propose five elements of an experienced teacher’s PCK:
- orientations towards science teaching

- knowledge of curriculum
- knowledge of assessment
- knowledge of students’ understanding of science
- knowledge of instructional strategies
Since the basic notion of PCK created many and varied responses, it has been interpreted in different ways
which demonstrated a complex nature of PCK. Consequently, specific tools are required to explore teachers’ hidden
PCK. De Jong and Halim (2009) suggested that some common tools for exploring PCK are questionnaires and
interviews, the interest method, the critical incident method, the memorable event method, incident vignette method,
stimulated recall method, CoRe and PaP-eRs method, and story-line method. The CoRe and PaP-eRs methods were
used in this research to verify and test the PCK of an expert physics teacher and reported recognizable applications
of PCK through the teacher’s interactions with his students.
Since 2007, the 5E approach was introduced to Thai science teachers by the Institute for the Promotion of
Teaching Science and Technology (IPST). The 5E cycle is the key to enhance students’ capacity (Sinmann, 2009).
The approach is an instructional model based on constructivist approach to learning. In this approach, it is believed
that learners can build or construct new ideas base on their old ideas (De Jong & Halim, 2009)., 2011). Many 5E
professional development programs were provided for in-service and pre-service teachers by IPST. The subject of
this research attended this program many times. In addition, 7E approach was introduced to Thai master education
student in the last few years which was during his time in graduate school. For this research, he also used 7E cycle
in the classroom.
2. Methodology/Experimental design
The contact with this expert physics teacher was convenient because he works in the same city as the
researcher and is also the researcher’s neighbour (born in the same town). In Thai culture, it is easy for people from
the same area to keep in touch. One of reason is because of the language. Apart an official Thai language that every
Thai can understand, people also speak different dialects in different parts of Thailand. Another reason that the
expert teacher was willing to provide his time to be involved in the research is because he hoped this study will help
other teachers in some ways.
Firstly, the semi-structured interviews based on Loughran, Berry and Mullhall’s (2006) Content
Representation (CoRe) were conducted to understand the teacher’s ideas for planning, designing, and presenting her
Tarntip Chantaranima and Chokchai Yuenyong / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 389 – 393 391
lesson plans. A recorder was used during the interviews and afterward the transcripts and documents were analyzed.
The topic of “Ohm’s law” was selected as an appropriate topic for this research. The preliminary data indicated that
this expert used the 5E cycle in this topic and the lesson plans are in accordance to the curriculum goals, relevant
assessment, and an instructional strategy which reflected the elements of PCK. Data triangulation was used to
identify consistencies between lesson plans and learning and teaching in the classroom. The classroom observation
took about four hours. In some cases extra data triangulation from documents, transcripts and re-interviews were
required to confirm the data before reporting the observation.
3. Context
Mr.K, an expert Physics teacher who won the Thai Science teaching award (the highest national award) for
physics teachers in secondary schools in the north-eastern Thailand that has approximately 2,600 students. He is 56
years old, has taught for 35 years and is the only teacher in the school who has won this award. The researcher
observed a year 12 class of 32 students (both male and female) for one topic over four hours. The teacher used the
7E approach in this topic. In the following sections, the result and discussion are summarized in terms of 7E stages.
4.1 Elicitation phase
The goal of this phase is to verify the student prior understandings.

Students were asked a question. “In your daily life, what relates to electricity?” Most of them talked about
electrical equipments such as television, refrigerator, washing machine, and so on. The teacher kept asking. “Where
does electricity come from and how?” Some students said. “We can produce electricity from a dam but I don’t know
exactly how.” Other students tried to explain how electricity was generated. “A big turbine was installed in a dam
when water passes through it the turbine turns the motor.” Because this class is a special class as every student has
to pass an exam to enter and because they are 12 graders and the topic electricity has previously been introduced,
they can answer the questions quite well. This kind of general questions asked by the expert teacher indicates the
expert‘s knowledge of students’ understanding of science. He prepared the students for this topic by asking simple
questions and let them think about their prior knowledge. It is also a good way to keep them interested in the next
phase.
4.2 Engagement phase
The goals of this phase are to provide students with experiences of the phenomenon or concept and to
present the students with questions to test their understanding.
In this stage, video clips about electric eels and electric current from YouTube were shown. When each clip
was over, students were asked to debate about what they saw in the clip and how it happened. The student were
fascinated by the video clips and tried to explain what they think. They were asked about electricity and the
relationship between electric current and electron. However, from the classroom observation, the students were
asked to repeat equations involving electricity. This is like a kind of memory test from the content taught in previous
classes. Although the lesson plan indicates the teacher expert’s knowledge of instructional strategies and classroom
management, the aspects were not clearly shown from the classroom observation.
4.3Exploration phase
The goals of this stage are to examine an alternative idea and collect information about the involved
phenomenon by many ways such an experiment, a field trip and a computer simulation of literature data from
various sources. The information is required for the next phase.
After finishing engagement phase, students were separated into groups of four to five students. Each group
did an experiment by following the direction laboratories and then brainstormed to complete answers for the post
392 Tarntip Chantaranima and Chokchai Yuenyong / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 389 – 393
experiment questions. The teacher read direction laboratory out round and walked to each group to give suggestions.
Some groups can work by themselves and finished their experiment quickly. Because of the teacher knowledge
about student understanding, each group was allowed to do the experiment in their own speed such that the groups
which can finish their experiment quickly do not need to wait for other groups. When the group has finalized their
ideas, the teacher provided them with papers for them to fill in the post experiment questions.
4.4 Explanation Phase
The goals of this stage are to introduce conceptual tools that can be used to interpret the evidence and
construct explanations of the phenomenon, construct multi-modal explanations, justify claims in terms of the
evidence gathered, compare explanations generated by different students/groups and consider current scientific
explanations.
The student handouts about metal conductor current were given to every student. Then the teacher explains
how to calculate the current and gave examples. The explanations were given in a local dialect. This shows teacher
knowledge about student understanding and the knowledge of instructional strategies.
4.5 Expansion Phase
The goals of this stage are to use and apply concepts and explanations in new contexts to test their general
applicability. Reconstruction and extended explanations are used and so as an integration of different modes, such as
written language, diagrammatic and graphic modes, and mathematics.
Students were assigned to plot a graph between current and voltage (I&V) by starting with the definition of x
and y axes. After finishing the graph, the teacher asked for a trend of I&V graph and every group had the same
trend. Then, another handout was given to every group with more exercise for students to complete. After that, the
teacher and the students drew the experimental conclusion and made the Ohm’s law representation by using a
cartoon animation. Moreover, Ohm’s biography was introduced which attracted great interests from students. This
indicated the teacher knowledge about student understanding and knowledge of instructional strategies.
4.6 Evaluation Phase
The goals of this stage are to provide an opportunity for students to review and reflect on their own
learning and new understandings and skills, and to provide evidence for changes to their understandings, beliefs and
skills.
More exercises in English version were supplied to students. This indicates the teacher’s knowledge of
purposes and goals for teaching science because his school is preparing to be an ASEAN School which requires one
of his school goals to be enhancing students’ language skills by integrating English into teaching Physics.
4.7 Extension Phase
The goals of this stage are to provide opportunities for students to apply what they have learned to make
the application on a daily life and encourage students to apply the knowledge gained to create their new knowledge.
The students’ group task was to find information about daily instruments which use the theory of electric
current, conductor and Ohm’s law then compile it in their own term. They have one week to finish it. Ten minutes
before the class is over, students did a post-test. This indicates the teacher’s knowledge of instructional assessment.
5. Conclusion
The following conclusions are drawn based on the findings of the study. The teacher’s PCK elements
indicated in this case study confirms his expertise in the teaching of science as indicated in the following table.
Tarntip Chantaranima and Chokchai Yuenyong / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 389 – 393 393
Table 1: Five PCK elements (Magnusson, et al. 1999) and 7E Stages of Teaching
7E stages orientations curriculum assessment Student Instructional

understanding Strategies
1.Elicitation √ √
2.Engagement √
3.Exploration √
4.Explanation √ √
5. Expansion √ √
6. Evaluation √
7. Extension √
Furthermore, student understanding is the element which this expert teacher always keeps in mind. Other studies
also indicate that to develop PCK, teachers need to think about learners first, then to focus on their teaching
(Schneider and Plasman, 2011). This expert thinking is based on constructivism and concerns about learning the
nature of science. Students can develop an understanding of the nature of science by doing science, and they thereby
construct their knowledge in a social context. This expert teacher would not answer students directly but would
answer by asking another question. Moreover, there were many hands-on activities in his class which maintained the
students’ interest, indicating that this expert teach has a sound knowledge about the learners.
A goal of the next study is to find the patterns of how PCK develops over a teacher’s career, and then design
programs and experiences that move teachers into advanced levels of PCK.
Acknowledgements
T. Chantaranima would like to thank the IPST and the Thai government for providing the Project for promotion
of Science and Mathematics Talented Teachers (PSMT) scholarship since the bachelor’s degree.
References
De Jong, O. & Halim, L. (Eds.) (2009). Teachers’ Professional Knowledge in Science and Mathematics Education : Views from Malaysia And
Abroad. Malaysia: Selangor.
Gess-Newsome, J. (1999). Pedagogical content knowledge: an introduction and orientation. In J. Gess-Newsome & Leaderman, N. G. (Eds)
(1999). Examining Pedagogical Content Knowledge (pp. 3-17). Dordrecht/Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Hume, A.& Berry, A. (2011). Constructing CoRes—a Strategy for Building PCK in Pre-service Science Teacher Education.Res. Sci. Educ.
41:341–355
Loughran, J. (2006). Developing a pedagogy of teacher education: Understanding teaching and learning about teaching. London: Routledge.
Loughran, J., Berry, A., &Mullhall, P. (2006) understanding and Developing Science Teachers’ Pedagogical Content
Knowledge.Rotterdam/Taipei: Sense publishers.
Magnusson, S., Krajcik, J., &Borko, H. (1999). Nature, sources, and development of pedagogical content knowledge. In De Jong, O. &Halim, L.
(Eds.) (2009). Teachers’ Professional Knowledge in Science and Mathematics Education : Views from Malaysia
And Abroad. Malaysia: Selangor.
RatchadaSinmann. (2009). An Application of Learning Activity through Cycle (5E ) to Develop Science
Competency of Mathayomsuksa III Students at Thairatwittaya Klongluang 69 School, Patumthanee Province.Master Thesis, M.Ed.
(Educational Research and Statistics).Bangkok : Graduate School,Srinakharinwirot University.
Schneider, M. R., & Plasman, K. (2011).Science Teacher Learning Progressions: A Review of Science Teachers’ Pedagogical
ContentKnowledge Development. Review of Educational Research, 81(4):530–565
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1): 1-21
Uno, G. E. (1990). Inquiry in the classroom. BioScience, 40(11): 841-843
ScienceDirect
The Perception Levels of The Novice Teachers’ Problem-

Solving Skills
Türkay Nuri Toka*, Şükran Tokb, Sevda Doğan Dolapçıoğluc
a
Pamukkale University, Faculty of Education, Denizli, 20700, TURKEY
b
Pamukkale University, Faculty of Education,Denizli, 20700,TURKEY
c
Hatay Provincial National Education Directorate, Hatay, TURKEY
Abstract
This study aims to determine the perception levels of the novice teachers’ problem-solving skills as well as to what extent these
skills change according to independent variables. This research is a general survey type research. The participants of the working
group are 51 novice teachers. In this research Problem Solving Scale has been used. It has been understood that the novice
teachers within the scope of the research do not have the characteristics mentioned. In other words, they do not rely on their
problem solving skills and they think they are inefficient in that topic. Also, it has been determined that there is not a meaningful
discrepancy among the views according to gender and choosing teaching.
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Novice teacher, problem solving, problem solving skill.
1. Introduction
Dewey defines problem as anything which confuses human mind, challenges human mind and makes the belief
indistinct (Gelbal, 1991). Individual success depends upon individuals’ solving the problem without being
captivated by the problems they face in their daily lives, analyzing the problem realistically and identifying the
underlying reasons realistically (Güçlü, 2003). Although problem solving had been used as a conception for a long
time, it was systematized firstly by John Dewey, US Educator. Problem solving is generally making plan to answer
a question, offer satisfying reply to a hard task, find a solution or declare interest (Mark, 1994, cited in Yenice).
Problem-solving is a cognitive, affective and behavioral process which includes finding effective ways to deal with
the problems faced in daily life (D’Zurilla and Nezu, 2001). Heppner and Krouskpf (1987) define the problem
solving as the harmony of complicated internal and external motivation and desire for the cognitive and effective
behaviorial processes, Bingham(1998) defines it as a process requiring as a series of efforts to eliminate the
difficulties encountered when trying to reach a certain target. Also, individual’s turning to problem-solving is
* Corresponding Author name. Türkay Nuri Tok Tel.: +0-000-000-0000

E-mail address: author@institute.xxx
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.232
416 Türkay Nuri Tok et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 415 – 420
associated with his or her psychological well-being, courage, motivation and self-condifence (cited in Demirtaş &
Dönmez, 2008). Heppner and Petersen (1982) consider problem-solving as synonym of ‘dealing with problem’.
Even if the behavioral category of the problem-solving process requires differs from the problem to problem
and from the individual to individual, problem-solving process has its own certain, basic stages. As a rule, the
models used for the problem-solving processes are rarely modified models of John Dewey’s having been used since
1910. The way of problem-solving is a method of thinking and implementing activities such as understanding and
defining the problem, designating a theoretical way of solving it and testing this type of solution until a satisfying
evidence has been found (Oğuzkan, 1993; cited in Güçlü , 2003).
Problem-solving develops skills of a person such as forming democratic manner and attitude, critical thinking,
making a decision, questioning and reflective thinking. (Demirel, 2004) People who see themselves as effective
problem-solvers are people who are ‘self control’-based, have self confidence in deciding, can give appropriate
answers to the interpersonal and environmental demands. Also, it has been said that they feel responsible for
elements which creates negative effect, and that they believe that their personal decisions affect their health. People
who solve problems inefficiently relates problems to the outer bases and cannot keep the situation under control.
(Baumgardner, Heppner, and Arkin, 1986).
As well as being an important skill which everybody living in a society should have, problem-solving skill has
been viewed as much more important for the people in some types of profession, especially for the people who are
in the professions where they help humanbeings (Hamamcı and Çoban, 2009). One of these professions is teaching
job. Today, we need people who have some characteristics which are available in people who have problem solving
skill. These people carrying these characteristics are individuals who have critical thinking skills, do researches,
question, are creative, internalize universal values, improve oneself, think independently, are productive and
constructive and who integrate with democratical values. Concordantly, education systems are expected to raise
manpower with these characteristics. (Saracaloğlu and Kaşlı, 2001; Saracaloğlu, 2003) Undoubtedly, teachers and
prospective teachers should have these certain qualities in order to get children and young people to acquire them
(Saracaloğlu, Yenice and Karasakaloğlu, 2009).
There are many studies having been done in terms of teacher, administrator and prospective teachers. In their
study Demirtaş and Dönmez (2008) find out that high school teachers perceive their problem-solving skills at
intermediate level. However, Güçlü’s study (2003), shows that the problem solving skills of high school principals
are high; also in Serin’s study (2006), the problem-solving skills of female teachers are higher than those of male
ones. Correspondingly, Arlı, Altunay and Yalçınkaya (2011), in view of prospective teachers’ problem-solving
skills, find meaningful differences in favour of female teachers. Genç and Kalafat (2010) in a similar study find no
differences in problem-solving abilities of prospect teachers.
Teachers face many problems in classroom environments and they need to be able to make effective and
objective decisions, must be able to produce the best solution in every condition and for all these, his or her
problem-solving ability must be well-developed . Given the problems at schools like conflict, violence, school
absenteeism, failure, drug addiction, the teachers whose problem-solving abilities are developed will be needed
(Arlı, Altunay and Yalçınkaya, 2011). Figley (1985) states that the experience and professional time of the teachers
affect their attitude in solving the problems (cited in Pehlivan, Konukman, 2004). Determining the perception levels
of the novice teachers’ problem-solving skills beforehand may yield important benefits in earning the qualifications
they need to have in the fairly early years of their professions. Moreover, in literature study no study regarding the
perception levels of the novice teachers’ problem-solving skills has been found.
This study aims to determine the perception levels of the novice teachers’ problem-solving skills as well as to
what extent these skills change according to independent variables. Specifically, the following research questions
were investigated:
Specifically, the following research questions were investigated:
1. What is the perception levels of the novice teachers’ problem-solving skills?
2. Do the skills of the novice teachers differ according to the independent variables (gender, the order of his or
her professional preference -of becoming teacher)?
Türkay Nuri Tok et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 415 – 420 417
2. Method
This research which aims to determine perception levels of novice teachers’ problem-solving skill is a general
survey type research. The participants of the working group are 51 novice teachers on duty in their first year in
Hatay Province in Turkey. In this research Problem Solving Scale (PSS), developed by Hepppener and Peterson
(1982) has been used. Taylan (1990) did validity and reliability study of the inventory by citing from Happner. PSS
is a scale of Likert Type made up of 35 items marked from 1 to 6. Items 9, 22 and 29 are excluded from scoring.
Scoring is done with 32 items. The range of score that can be achieved in this inventory is 32-192. Accordingly,
scale is as follows: “I always act like that” 1, “I usually act like that” 2, “I often act like that” 3, “I sometimes act
like that” 4, “I rarely act like that” 5, “I never act like that” 6. In the marking low marks show effectiveness in
problem-solving, high marks, on the other hand, show not being able to find solutions when encountered with the
problems (Taylan, 1990; Keleş, 2000, cited in Güçlü, 2003). The muchness of the marks that were taken from the
scale shows that the person evaluates himself as inefficent in problem-solving skills and that they show avoidance
and they do not feel self control (Abaan and Altıntoprak, 2005).
Factors analysis works show that PSS are made up of three sub-scales. These are "The Trust in Problem-Solving
Skill (item 10)", “Approaching-Avoiding (item 13)” and "Personal Control (item 5)” (Taylan, 1990, cited in Güçlü,
2003). The variances every sub-factor explains are 44, 37, and 45 respectively. The Cronbach and Alpha values are
.81, .84, and .70 (Güçlü, 2003). First sub-scale’s factor load values vary between .47 and .82 and its total
correlations of items vary between .30 and .73 ; second sub-scale’s factor load values vary between .41 and .71 ,and
total correlations of items vary between .32 and .59. And the third sub-scale’s factor load values vary between .65
and .82 and total correlations of items vary between .40 and .65. (Keleş, 2000, cited in Güçlü, 2000) As a result of
the studies which were held, Cronbach Alpha internal consistency parameter for the whole scale is 90 (Savaşır and
Şahin, 1997, cited in Güçlü, 2003). In the analysis of data, frequency, mean, standart deviation, one-way variance
analysis (ANOVA) and independent samples t-test have been used.
3. Findings and Results
3.1. Novice teachers’ perception levels of problem-solving skills

The results of descriptive statistics which were held to assess which level the novice teachers’ perception levels
of problem-solving skills were in have been given in Table 1.
Table 1. The descriptive statistics results of novice teachers’ perception levels of problem-solving skills
Sub-dimension of Problem Solving Inventory N X SD

The Trust in Problem-Solving Skill 51 47.22 7.78
Approach-Avoid 51 57.88 8.91
Personal Control 51 19.57 3.25
According to Table 1, in the sub-dimensions of PSS the mean of points "The Trust in Problem-Solving Skill”
X=47.22; in the sub dimension of "Approach-Avoid" is X=57.88, and in the sub-dimension of “Personal Control” is
X=19.57.
There ten items at The Trust in Problem-Solving Skill factor and the total points obtainable from this dimension
can differ from 10 to 60. The mean of the points of the novice teachers attending this research is X=47.22. When
this value is taken into consideration, it can be said that the novice teachers perceive themselves as inefficient.
The mean of "Approach-Avoid" sub-dimension of novice teachers is X=57.88. It can be said that to apply in the
future the first the problem-solving skill of the novice teachers of this factor which means the necessity to do
effective research to revise the efforts of problem-solving is low.
The mean of the sub-dimension of "Personal-Control" is X = 19.57. The total score obtainable from 5 items in
this dimension is from 5 to 30. It can be said that the skills of problem-solving of the novice teachers belonging to
this factor stating the ability to maintain personal control when in problematic situations is low.
3.2. The comparison of novice teachers’ perception levels of problem solving skills according to the gender
The results of t-test which was held for the discrepancy according to the gender variable of novice teachers’
perception levels of problem solving skills are given in Table 2.
Table 2. T-test results of novice teachers’ perception levels of problem solving skills according to the gender.
Factors Sex N X SD df t p
The trust in Female 36 46.47 8.18 49 1.058 .295
problem-solving skill Male 15 49.00 6.61
Approach-Avoid Female 36 58.30 7.83 49 .522 .604
Male 15 56.86 11.32
Personal Control Female 36 19.44 3.38 49 .419 .667
Male 15 19.86 2.99
When Table 2 is analyzed, it has been understood that novice teachers’ perception levels of problem solving
skills do not show meaningful discrepancies according to the gender in the dimensions of "The Trust in Problem-
Solving Skill” [t(49)= 1.058, p>.05], "Approach-Avoid" [t(49)= .522, p>.05] ve “Personal Control” t(49)= [.419,
p>.05] .
3.3. The comparison of novice teachers’ perception levels in problem solving skills according to the order of
preference of teaching profession
The results of ANOVA which was held for the discrepancy of problem solving skills of novice teachers who
attended to the research according to the order of preference of teaching profession are given in Table 3.
Table 3. ANOVA results of teachers’ perception levels of problem solving skills according to the order of preference of teaching profession
Factors Order of preference N X SD df F p

The trust in First choise 16 49.06 5.65 2 1.212 .306
problem-solving skill 2 - 5th choice 19 47.63 6.81 48
6th and over 16 44.87 10.21 50
Approach-Avoid First choise 16 60.87 8.89 2 3.027 .621
2 - 5th choice 19 58.89 7.88 48
6th and over 16 53.68 9.00 50
Personal Control First choise 16 19.81 3.20 2 .300 .742
2 - 5th choice 19 19.10 3.39 48
6th and over 16 19.87 3.26 50
ANOVA results in Table 3 have shown that novice teachers’ perception levels of problem solving skills do not
create any meaningful discrepancies in the sub-dimensions of "The Trust in Problem-Solving Skill” [F (2, 48) =
1.212, p > .05], "Approach-Avoid" [F (2, 48) = 3.027, p > .05], ve “Personal Control” [F (2, 48) = .300, p > .05]
according to the order of preference of teaching profession.
Studies that were held present that people who think they are efficient problem solvers see themselves more
systematic in problem solving, that they understand the problem better, that they act against problems in a much
planned way and they see themselves as people who address the problem. (Abaan and Altıntoprak, 2005). It has
been understood that the novice teachers within the scope of the research do not have the characteristics mentioned.
In other words, they do not rely on their problem solving skills and they think they are inefficient in that topic. Also,
it has been determined that there is not a meaningful discrepancy among the views according to gender and choosing
teaching.
Türkay Nuri Tok et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 415 – 420 419
When studied the views in “The trust in Problem-Solving Skill”, which is one of the sub-dimensions of Problem-
Solving Skills, it has been realized that the novice teachers’’ faith in the ability of problem solving is weak. In fact,
novice teachers need to be able to solve the problems they face and to overcome the difficulties which are faced in
life because, as Dündar indicates (2008), people can be successful as long as they can overcome these difficulties.
People who can solve their problems cling to life much more than the others. In addition, people who have self
confidence can solve their problems more easily than people who are not self confident. (Baumgardner, Heppner
and Arkin, 1986)
As for the “Approach-Avoid” sub-dimension, another dimension taken into account in the research, which
exhibits the behaviors to face the problem or to avoid it, it has been found out that the novice teachers tend to avoid.
According to Johnson and Johnson’s conflict and problem solving strategy, turtles withdraw into their shells to
avoid the conflict. They easily give up their goals. They stay away from the issues in which the conflict occurs and
from the people related to the conflict. They believe it is desperate to struggle for the solution of the conflict. They
feel miserable and they believe that staying away from the conflict is easier to do rather than facing the conflict
(cited in Öğülmüş, 2001). It is not desirable for teachers like turtles to stay away from the problems, to be reserved
against the difficulties, to be ready for accepting the failure without struggling.
It has also been realized that the results acquired from the sub-dimension “Personal Control” which is defined as
people’s ability to keep their control in problematic situations (Savaşır ve Şahin 1997) are negative as well. This
situation reveals that novice teachers cannot find alternative ways for solution to the problems that they may
encounter in the future, and they couldn’t improve themselves in terms of keeping their control, and they cannot act
independently while making a decision. As a result, thanks to the information taken from the sub-dimensions, it can
be inferred that novice teachers do not trust their problem solving skills, that’s why they avoid looking for solution
to the problems, and they feel personal control less.
It has been understood that novice teachers’ perception levels of problem solving skills in sub-dimensions do not
show meaningful discrepancies according to the gender. In the studies that were held by Demirtaş and Dönmez,
(2008) Saracaloğlu and others, (2009) and Taylan (1990), meaningful discrepancies could not be found between
problem solving skills and gender. Hence, research findings are coherent to these studies. Karabulut and Bulut
(2011), Katkat (2001), Şahin and Şahin (1993) found meaningful discrepancies between problem solving skills and
gender. The difference between the results might be because of the different research groups and the characteristics
of the people involved in the studies.
One of the results taken from the research is that there is not a meaningful discrepancy between the order of
choosing the profession and problem solving skills. Preferring the profession in the former options or latter options
does not have an effect on problem solving skills.
According to the other results of the research in view of sub-scale scores of problem solving skill of the novice
teachers don't change according to gender and the order of professional preference of becoming a teacher. In the
light of these findings, the following can be said:
1. It is significant for teachers to have problem solving skills in their first years of working, the years when
leaving the job is often. That’s why in service training programs including methods of problem solving can be
organized for novice teachers. Also other experienced teachers at school, school directors and education supervisors
can lead the problem solving skills to be improved and can be the models.
2. Studies that were held show that the educations taken for the sake of problem solving process will be
efficient to improve problem solving skills. (Olgun, Öntürk, Karabacak, Aslan and Serbest, 2010). So, teacher
candidates who believe that they can solve the problems they face, who are self confident, who do not give up
against the difficulties, who have high problem solving skills can be trained in teacher education programmes. With
this purpose, activities such as debate, open forum, problem solving, case study, discussion and project works can be
organized to improve skills of critical and reflective thinking and to increase problem solving skill.
3. Prospective teachers can face different problems when they are giving lessons in the practice teaching
period. Both supervising teacher and cooperating teacher can lead them in order to make them gain confidence in
their first problem solving experience.
4. Qualitative researches can be held deeply related to the problem solving behaviors of novice teachers by
using other variables, too.
References
Abaan, S. and Altıntoprak, A. (2005). Nurses’ perceptions of their problem solving ability : Analysis of self apprasials. Journal of Hacettepe
University School of Nursing). 62–76.
Arlı, D., Altunay, E., Yalçınkaya, M. (2011). The relationship of emotional intelligence, problem solving and academic success of preservice
teachers, Journal of Academıc Sıght, 25, 1-23.
Baumgardner, A.H. Heppner, P.P. and Arkin, R.M. (1986). Role of causal attribution in personal problem solving. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 50(3), 636-643.
Demirel, Ö., (2004). Öğretme Sanatı. Ankara: Pegem Yayıncılık.
Demirtaş, H. and Dönmez, B. (2008). Secondary school teachers’ perceptions about their problem solving abilities. Inonu University
Journal of the Faculty of Education. 9(16), 177-198.
Dündar, S. (2008). Analyzing the relationship between hopelessness level with problem solving skills of police officers. Turkish Journal of
Police Studies, 10 (3), 77-92.
Gelbal, S. (1991). Problem çözme becerisinin öğretimle geliştirilmesi. Eğitimde Arayışlar 1. Sempozyumu, Eğitimde Nitelik Geliştirme.
İstanbul: Özel Kültür Yayınları.
Genç, S. Z. ve Kalafat, T. (2010). Prospective teachers’ problem solving skills and emphatic skills, Kuramsal Eğitimbilim, 3, 135-147.
Güçlü, N. (2003). Lise Müdürlerinin Problem Çözme Becerileri, National Education, 160, 272-300.
Hamamcı, Z. and Çoban, A.E. (2009). The effect of psychodrama on the perceptions of problem solving skills of counselors. Ondokuz
Mayıs University Journal of Education Faculty. 28, 63-74.
Heppner, P. P., Petersen, C. H. (1982) The development and implications of a personal problem solving inventiory. Journal of
Counselling Psychology, 29, 66-75.
Karabulut, E.O and Pulur, A. (2011). A comparison of the problem solving skills of the representatives of juveniles from youth centers by
different variables. Spormetre Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 9(2), 71-80.
Katkat, D., (2001). Öğretmen adaylarının problem çözme becerilerinin çeşitli değişkenler bakımından karşılaştırılması,Atatürk
University, (Unpublished master’s thesis), Erzurum.
Olgun, N., Öntürk, Z.K., Karabacak, Ü., Aslan, F.E. and Serbest, Ş. (2010). Problem solving skills of the nursing students: results of
the one year observation problem solving skills of the students. Acıbadem University Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi. 1(4).
Öğülmüs, S. (2001). Kişilerarası sorun çözme becerileri ve eğitimi. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım.
Pehlivan, Z., Konukman, F. (2004) Comparing the physical education teachers and the other branch teachers in the in the aspect of problem
solving, Beden eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 2, 55-60.
Saracaloğlu A.S., Yenice, N. and Karasakaloğlu, N. (2009). The relationship between communıcation and problem solving skills and
reading interest and habits of candidate teachers’. Yüzüncü Yıl Journal of Education Faculty 6(2), 187-206.
Saracaloğlu, A. S. (2003). 21. Yüzyılda öğretmen adaylarının nitelikleri. Atatürk ve Cumhuriyete Armağan.
Saracaloğlu, A. S. ve Kaşlı, A., (2001). The relationship between attitudes toward computers and computer achievement of prospective teachers .
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(Unpublished master’s thesis), Ankara,
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ScienceDirect
The relationship of e-learner’s with studies strategies to support

learning
Maria de Fátima Goulãoa *
a
Unidade de Investigação e Desenvolvimento em Educação e Formação,
Universidade Aberta, Rua da Escola Politécnica, 147, Lisboa, 1269-001, Portugal
Abstract
Research in the learning/study strategies field has shown an association between these variables and academic results. Our
goal was to identify students’ study strategies in a virtual learning environment. The results show, in general, an awareness of
how to work in these contexts. In terms of communication students seek to use the potential of the system to contact teachers
and colleagues. However, they don’t use the potentialities of communication for the preparation of presential tests. In online
learning there is a particular interest in students acquiring and knowing appropriate study strategies to self-regulate their
learning.
Selection
© and Authors.
2013 The peer review under theby
Published responsibility
Elsevier Ltd.of Prof.
OpenDr. Servet
access Bayram
under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Keywords: studies strategies; self regulated learning; online learning
Keywords: studies strategies; self – regulated learning; online learning
1. Introduction
Research in the learning/study strategies field has shown an association between these variables and academic
results. Different studies in the field of learning strategies,and learning self-regulation as well, point out to
benefits of students knowing their potentialities, as well as the mechanisms they use to build their knowledge
(Hacker, Bol & Keener, s.d; Azevedo & Cromley, 2004; Azevedo, 2005). Self-knowledge, the ability to reflect
on their learning course, defining learning objectives and the ability of developing self-regulations plans to attain
their own objectives are extremely important to achieve academic success. According to Zimmerman (1990) self-
regulated learners view acquisition as a systematic and controllable process, and they accept greater
responsibility for their achievement outcomes (p.4). The metacognition is another construct to bear in mind on
this area. In other words, the students ability to reflect about their knowledge, the way they're produced and the
human ability of being aware about its mental processes (Flavell, 1976). For Doly (1999) the metacognition, (...)
situates the student in an epistemological relation with knowledge making of him a builder and not a consumer
of knowledge, what gives an autonomy regarding the self-progress and, consequently, to the apprenticeships. At
the same time, it secures the survival of the culture guaranteeing its transmission and its renovation (p.20).
The e-learning promotes autonomy in students. The flexibility of these systems allows students to choose
study strategies according to their characteristics and needs. In online learning there is a particular interest in
students acquiring appropriate study strategies and knowing them to get self-regulate their learning (Goulão,
2009; Mooij, 2009).
* Corresponding Author name. Maria de Fátima Goulão; Tel.: +351 966050021

E-mail address: fatimapgoulao@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.222
Maria de Fátima Goulão / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 362 – 367 363
We live in a society that appeals to these skills, which allow individuals to adapt quickly and effectively to
new challenges. For this reason, current research has shown the importance of encouraging our students to
control their learning process. The impact of a more personal, social and participative pedagogy is distinguished.
(McLoughlin & Lee, 2010).
Learning virtual environments promote a more active role of students in their construction of self-knowledge
(Goulão, 2010). These environments bear different formats that support learning, which allow students an
adequate choice, according to the contents adressed and their own learning styles.
Azevedo and Cromley (2004) research point to the consequences that the design of learning
environments have on learning.
Therefore we conclude, on the one hand, professors’ need to acknowledge this situation and attempt to coach
students so that they can regulate their own learning. On the other hand, designers of these environments need to
create structures that allow students to self-regulate their learning process.
2. Purpose of the Study
Our goal was to identify students’ study strategies in a virtual learning environment.
3. Research Methods
3.1. Sample
Our study sample was 82 online students. All of them were students’ workers, with very different
professional backgrounds. About the gender of the subjects of the sample, 21% were males and 79% were
females. Their age was between 27 and 65 years old., Average age was 41.2 years old. The average years in
online education were 3.5 years.
3.2. Instrument
Data collection was made through a questionnaire composed of 2 mains parts. The first one is about students’
α =.885)†. In this second part we have 8 sub-scales
identification. The second part is about the Study Strategies (α
but we only present the results of 5 of them.
Table 1. Sub-scales and reliability
All variables (α
α =.885)
I. Self II. Frequency of III. Time IV. V. General
confidence virtual class management Communication strategies of study
α .725 .727 .639 .575 .701
In each part we had a set of questions and students had to answer in a scale of five items (1 always to 5 never).
4. Results
4.1. General results
4.1.1. Sub-scale: Self Confidence
In this sub-scale we have 4 questions about confidence in their learning

In general, the answers point out to a high level of self-confidence. Statistically, in this part the mode was
number 2. We can see the distribution of the points in the following Table.
†
Adapted to Study Habits Checklist available in www.lehigh.edu/~inacsup/cas/pdfs/StudySkills_Checklist.pdf.
364 Maria de Fátima Goulão / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 362 – 367
Table 2. Sub-scale Self-confidence results (%)
I’m confident about what I can do with my learning

1 2 3 4
25.6 46.3 26.8 1.2
I’ve a positive and optimistic perspective about my learning
1 2 3 4
35.4 51.2 11.0 2.4
I define realistic goals and work to achieve them
1 2 3 4
31.7 41.5 26.8 __
I know my strengths and how to use them to achieve success
1 2 3 4
23.2 52.4 24.4 ___
4.1.2. Sub-scale Attendance of virtual class
This sub-scale is composed by 2 questions. Results can be found in the following Table.
Table 3. Sub-scale Attendance of virtual class results (%)
I access regularly to my virtual classroom

1 2 3 4 5
46.3 26.8 19.5 6.1 1.2
I’ve a positive and optimistic perspective about my learning
1 2 3 4 5
22.0 35.4 35.7 11.0 __
We can verify that most students access their virtual class regularly. However, regarding their
accomplishment of reading exercises the situation is different. Most of the scores go to 2 and 3 having 4 a
considerable position.
4.1.3. Sub-scale Time management
Questions related to timing and organization of study time are part of the 5 item sub-scale Time management.
Table 4. Sub-scale Time management results (%)
I have a study schedule with set times to study each subject

1 2 3 4 5
6.1 30.5 32.9 22.0 8.5
I balance my study time with a time of recreation and leisure
1 2 3 4 5
14.6 31.7 41.5 8.5 3.7
I have a schedule, per semester, where I note the dates of the assessments
1 2 3 4 5
75,6 15.9 7.3 1.2 __
I keep a weekly schedule of my activities
1 2 3 4 5
20.7 32.9 29.3 12.2 4.9

I study on weekends
1 2 3 4 5
45.1 37.8 12.2 2.4 2.4
The results of this sub-scale point out to some fragility in time management. Despite most of these students
declaring having a biannual calendar to note their tasks in that period, the situation is a bit different when it
comes to manage time or tasks in a more specific way. Hence, we can verify some difficulty in managing time
bearing in mind several specific tasks on different matters, as well as, handling study time with leisure.
4.1.4. Sub-scale Communication
Table 5. Sub-scale Communication results (%)
I seek help from teachers when I need

1 2 3 4 5
22.0 34.1 28.0 12.2 3,7
I communicate also with my colleagues to share ideas and help
1 2 3 4 5
11.0 31.7 37.8 12.2 7.3
According to these results, communication isn’t a valuable element to many of these students. Nevertheless,
there’s a bigger proximity to their teacher than to their colleagues.
4.1.5. Sub-scale General strategies of study
Table 6.1. Sub-scale General Strategies results (%)
I program with plenty of time to fulfill the tasks

1 2 3 4 5
15.9 25.6 47.6 11.0 __
I fulfill all tasks on time
1 2 3 4 5
28.0 26.8 37.8 7.3 __
The results presented in Table 6.1 point out to an absence of task sheduling, which can be the main reason for
their unfullfilment on time.
I use a notebook to annotate the most important information

1 2 3 4 5
36.6 19.5 20.7 15.9 7.3
I work in the first place, the subjects in which I have more difficulty
1 2 3 4 5
9.8 25.6 46.3 9.8 8.5
366 Maria de Fátima Goulão / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 362 – 367
Despite the fact that the majority affirms “I use a notebook to annotate the most important information”
which can imply an apprehesion in sistematizing learning contents, the answers given to the question “I work in
the first place, the subjets in which I have more dificulty” point out to a lack of hierarquization on priorities.
I define specific goals for each study session

1 2 3 4 5
9.9 23.5 45.7 16.0 4.9
I have a specific place to study, away from distractions
1 2 3 4 5
51.2 24.4 13.4 7.3 3.4
The results exposed on Table 6.3 agree with the ones obtained with question 15, namely the absence of
defining specific goals in study sessions, although mostly allege having a specific local to study away from
distractions.
I do breaks when I study

1 2 3 4
39.0 40.2 13.4 7.3
I use my best learning style when I study
1 2 3 4
23.2 48.8 26.8 1.2
I understand where, when and how to study better
1 2 3 4
35.4 45.1 17.1 2.4
I have my notebook and my stuff organized to easily find what I need
1 2 3 4
48.8 31.7 15.9 3.7
Most of these students affirm to know when and how to study better. However, there seems to exist a clearly
contradiction bearing in mind that the results to the question “I use my best learning styles when I study” don’t
agree with this trend.
The answers given to question “I have my notebook and my stuff organized to easily find what I need”
express a preoccupation in keeping the study materials organized in order to easily find what is needed.
5. Conclusions
As we’ve said in the beginning, our goal was to identify study strategies used by a group of students that
attend higher education in the e-learning system.
We noted that, although these students present a high degree of self-confidence in their abilities and their
learning goals, it doesn’t always mean they use the adequate strategies to reach them. That is more noticeable in
time managing, in using communication means available and, also, on their study orientation to matters that
bring more difficulties. It is also clear that there’s an absence of regulation and definition of goals to study
sessions.
As we’ve also said previously, this kind of learning environments promote students responsibility on their
learning process.
It’s the professors’ duty to diversify the means of knowledge appropriation and to encourage working styles
that allow every student to feel integrated in the learning community. This must be done trough the contents’
curricular design, as well as the supporting materials (Goulão, 2012).
Study results confirm the existence of a strict association between students’ perception about the courses
quality and the learning style adopted by them in these same courses. In other words, the study approach depends
on how the contents are perceived, their context and learning tasks (Richardson, 2005).
References
Azevedo, R. (2005). Using hypermedia as metacognitive tool for enhancing student learning? The role self-regulated learning. Educational
Psychologist, 40(4), 199-209
Azevedo,R. & Cromley, J.G., (2004). Does training on self –regulated learning facilitate student’s learning with hypermedia?. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 96, (3), 523-535
Cerezo, R. et al (2011). Programas de intervención para la mejora de las competencias de aprendizaje autorregulado en educación superior.
Perspectiva Educacional, 50(1), 1-30.
Doly, A.-M., (1999). A Metacognição, um apoio ao trabalho dos alunos (tradução). Porto: Porto Editora
Flavell, J.H., (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In Resnick, L.B. (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp.231-235). Hillsdale,
N.Y.:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Goulão, Mª F. (2009). Metacognition, Learning Styles and Distance Education. In Subhi-Yamin,T.. Excellence in Education 2008: Future
Minds and Creativity. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the International Centre for Innovation in Education (pp.224 – 232).
Ulm- Germany: ICIE
Goulão, Mª F. (2010). How ICTs are changing the educational field. In Conference Interactive Conference on Computer Aided Learning -
ICL2010 Proceedings (CD-Rom). Hasselt – Belgium, September 15 -17, 2010, pp.1-8
Goulão, Mª F. (2012). Ensinar e aprender em ambientes online: Alterações e continuidades na(s) prática(s) docente(s). In Moreira,J. &
Monteiro, A.(orgs).Ensinar e Aprender online com tecnologias digitais: Abordagens teóricas e metodológicas (pp.15-30). Porto: Porto
Editora
Hacker, Bol & Keener (in press). Metacognition in Education: A focus on calibration. In J. Dunlosky & R. Bjork (Eds) In Handbook of
Memory and Metacognition. Mahwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
McLoughlin, C. & Lee, M. (2010). Personalised and self regulated learning in the web 2.0 era: International examplars of innovative
pedagogy using social software. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26(1), 28-43
Mooij, T. (2009). Educatioan and ICT-based self-regulation in learning: Theory, designe and implementation. Educational Informational
Technology,14, 3-27
Richardson, J. (2005). Students’ perceptions of academic quality and approaches to studying in distance education. British Educational
Research Journal, 31(1), 7-27
Zimmerman, B. (1999). Self-Regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3-17
ScienceDirect
The Teaching-Training Of Chemistry In Moroccan High

Schools: Obstacles And Areas For Improvement
a a a,b
El Hassane Touli , Mohammed Talbi , Mohammed Moutaabbid and Mohamed Radid a,b*
a
ORDIPU Hassan II-Mohammedia University Faculty of Sciences Ben M'sik Casablanca Morroco
b
Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Materials Hassan II-Mohammedia University Faculty of Sciences Ben M'sik Casablanca Morroco
Abstract
Our research is at the crossroads of educational research conducted on education systems and lines of improvement.
We are interested in the teaching and learning of chemistry, one of the most important disciplines that contribute to
the scientific training of students. Our thinking is essentially based on: literature searches, the findings of our field
studies and our experience as teachers of physics and chemistry. The obstacles that we faced involve almost all
components of the teaching-learning system and the different priorities for their improvement revolve around the
following factors: improving curriculum content and textbooks, improving the language used in teaching chemistry,
orientation of teaching chemistry to an experimental approach, changing thoughts on chemicals and teacher training
and “promotion” of their profession. Therefore it is critical to build collaboration and coordination of efforts of all
partners in the education system and the teaching-learning of chemistry in high schools in Morocco.
Selection and
Selection peerpeer-review
responsibility Dr. Servet World
of Academic Bayram.
Education and Research Center.
Keywords: obstacles, chemistry, teaching-learning
1. Introduction
In this study, we are interested in the teaching of chemistry, one of the fundamental pillars of teaching. It focuses on
the teaching and learning of this discipline in schools in Morocco. It proposes an analysis of this system of teaching
and learning of chemistry in order to highlight, in particular, weaknesses that hinder the achievement of the
objectives assigned to the education and teaching of learners.
While education and chemistry courses in high schools are not for the teacher but for students, it would be useful to
examine whether these courses are able to meet their aspirations and awaken their curiosity and thirst for knowledge
and motivation to meet the requirements and objectives established for the education system in schools.
Our present research aims principally not just at the identification of sources of discomfort which hinder the
achievement of what is expected, but especially at identifying remedies and process that are likely to improve the
teaching-learning of chemistry in high schools in Morocco.
* Corresponding Author name. El Hassane Touli Tel.: 00212-663-193-790

E-mail address: mradid@yahoo.fr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.224
374 El Hassane Touli et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 373 – 376
2. Frame of reference
The problems in the teaching and learning of chemistry suggest the need for a redefinition of its trajectory to enable
students to gain an understanding of why and how models are constructed and why a particular process is used
(Eduran and Duschl 2004). Recent educational research has shown that students have an incomplete understanding
and limited role and function notions and chemical models. However, they do not usually come to discern clearly
the ideas and models, content models and experimental data that support or refute the validity of utility models
(Grosslight et al., 1991). They usually consider models as toys or miniatures of real objects, and only a minority of
them understand why models are used in science (Ingham and Gilbert 1991). Other confusions were also identified
at the student representative of the transformations and chemical reactions. Similarly, the programme focuses on
conventional chemistry which provides students with conceptual information and declarative knowledge on models
(Duschl et al., 1997; Erduran, 2001).
In this traditional framework, we neglect the motivation, strategies and arguments to understand the why, the how
and the evolution of chemical phenomena and their modelling. We are of the opinion that "if students are involved
in a process of modelling, understanding contributes to the development of their models and allows an evolving
understanding" (Penner et al., 1998; Roth, 1998). In response to this situation, several teaching strategies have been
developed. This is especially true about the integration of model-based tasks in education (Gobert and Pallant 2004),
involvement in an online history of the development of the model (Justi and Gilbert 1999), and the design of a
model-based, computer-aided conceptual understanding to encourage and promote the development of a skills-based
reasoning model (raghavan and Glaser 1995) and therefore chemistry.
3. Research questions and hypotheses

Our concern is how to make our education system and teaching-learning an appropriate and consistent process to
meet these challenges and make the teaching of chemistry in schools a Moroccan lever of development of science
and scientific research faced with a lack of human and material.
How should we disseminate scientific culture within a population of students who live in an environment of phase
with this culture? How can we solve the problem of motivation and ambition, all motor development among both
teachers and students, as leaders in educational action?
In this vein, what has happened to the effectiveness of the current teaching of chemistry? And to what extent
teaching succeed in mission to reorganize and enrich the conceptual domain of students, especially in the basic
concepts of chemistry, mainly chemical reactions? What practices and methods are used for the teaching of
chemistry in Moroccan high schools? Do these practices manage to introduce the students involved to the modeling
process and provide for their perceptions and representations correctly? What structure is suitable for teaching and
learning through which students can learn to properly use models and modeling in chemistry? Students they differ
empirical models and register. Do they distinguish between a chemical change and chemical reactions that allowthe
model? Do students verify that they sense that evolution under the criterion is consistent with the initial empirical
situation?
The paradox that should be clarified in this context is the extent to which the teaching of chemistry can achieve its
noble mission of reorganization and enrichment of the conceptual domain of the students?
These questions lead to the formulation of the following hypotheses:
- Physics and chemistry teachers do not take into account or ignore voluntarily or involuntarily barriers to students'
learning of chemistry;
- The teacher-student relationship denotes a dysfunction that adversely affects the quality of learning and the
"relationship" with the student discipline taught. The improvement and redefining of these links could play a role in
the process of quality education and enable the achievement of objectives;
- The student does not participate in the construction of his knowledge.
- Manuals and programmes imposed do not meet the aspirations of teachers and learners;
- The phase difference between theory and practice is not conducive to effective teaching and its improvement is
likely to contribute effectively to the success of the teaching and learning of chemistry.
El Hassane Touli et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 373 – 376 375
4. Research approach and methodology
In order to understand these issues fully, we adopted an approach and research methodology based primarily on a
literature review and fieldwork.
The approach we followed was the research design. This involves the design of a teaching-learning process,
accompanied by a set of expectations that support how the process should take place and why it should work
according to such expectations.
Innovation at this level is an initial reference process and the goal is the use of practices and techniques that were,
for many years, dedicated to the field of business management. These include our use of benchmarking, the
evidence for which is well established and has been, since its invention, a powerful development of many large-
scale projects. This is actually a calibration technique that has its foundation in marketing techniques and quality
management.
This is an ongoing process of research, analysis, adaptation and implementation of best practices to improve process
performance in an organization.
Along with this technique, we used statistical analysis and factor analysis’, especially for the study of the results of
fieldwork questionnaires, interviews, discussions and observations in the classroom.
5. Results and recommendations:

It appears through this study that the barriers to the teaching and learning of chemistry spare no appearance and no
continent. The multitude of weaknesses and disparities indicate the complexity of such a mission and confirm our
previous assumptions and our concern. However, areas for improvement and would inevitably be possible to solve
this problem gradually for more effective and efficient teaching and learning.
Any action in this regard should include the following factors of development:
- Improve the content of programmes and textbooks: improvements at this level should focus on the content and the
language used, and the shape and design should be more attractive;
- Improvement of the language used in the teaching of chemistry in general;
- The orientation of the teaching of chemistry to an experimental approach: practical sessions should be scheduled,
and as the sessions progress, schools and laboratories should be rehabilitated;
- Changing thoughts on chemicals through innovative pedagogy that makes the student a major player in the
construction of their knowledge and not a passive spectator;
- Training of teachers and "promotion" of their profession: more specific technical training in business.
- Integrate modules capable of developing the intellectual and behavioral development of teachers; innovative
modules allowing the teacher to improve his personal qualities and interpersonal skills as well as know-how can
make the teacher a responsible framework able to manage conflict, and create an absorbing atmosphere and
attractive conditions for the smooth running and success of his actions.
6. Conclusion
Improving science education, including chemistry, in high schools in Morocco requires collaboration and the
coordination of efforts at all levels.
Similarly, we hope to establish a reconciliation of schools with their economic, industrial and social order to prepare
a path of development that tomorrow's men can follow with expertise and perseverance.
Reconciliation means opening schools in their environment through a marketing approach aimed at three levels:
creating collaborative relationships and dialogue with social partners, the economic and political development of its
relations, and especially maintaining relationships.
This would help to establish in the minds of learners a strong correlation between the theoretical and the practical
world.
Obviously it is inconceivable to see a person work as a doctor without having trained in this work. Just like the
doctor's work, the actions that we propose require specific training to leave nothing to chance, unpredictable and
376 El Hassane Touli et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 373 – 376
uncertain. The collaboration of renowned experts is indispensable for the development of an ambitious and effective
action plan.
We also hope to see more research in the field of teaching and learning and extend to all scientific knowledge
literary and artistic challenges.
References
Duschl, R. A., & Al. (1997). Strategies and challenges to changing the focus of instruction and assessment in science classrooms. Educational
Assessment, 4(1), 37-73.
Erduran, S. (2001). Philosophy of chemistry: An emerging field with implications for chemistry education. Science & Education, 10(6), 581-593.
Erduran, S., & Duschl, R. A. (2004). Interdisciplinary characterizations of models and the nature of chemical knowledge in the classroom.
Studies in Science Education, 40, 105-138.
Gobert, J. D., & Pallant, A. (2004). Fostering students’ epistemologies of models via authentic model-based tasks. Journal of Science Education
and Technology, 13(1), 7-21.
Grosslight, L. Unger, C. Jay, E., & Smith, C.
(1991). Understanding models and their use in science: Conceptions of middle and high school students and experts. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 28 (9), 799-822.
Ingham, A. M., & Gilbert, J. K. (1991). The use of analogue models by students of chemistry at higher education level. International Journal of
Science Education, 13, 193-202.
Justi, R., &Gilbert, J. K. (1999). History and philosophy of science through models: The case of chemical kinetics. Science and Education, 8,
287-307.
Penner, D. E., Lehrer, R.,& Schauble,L. (1998). From physical models to biomechanics: A design-based modeling approach. The Journal of the
Learning Sciences 7, (3-4), 429-449.
Raghavan, K. & Glaser, R. (1995). Model-based analysis and reasoning in science:. Science Education, 79(1), 37-61.
Roth, W.M. (1998). Designing communities. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

ScienceDirect
The Use of Simple-Sample Explanations for Math Education

Yusuf Tayfun Tepedeldirena, Ayten Özkana
a
Department of Mathematics, Davutpasa 34210,Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
The Math lessons for students have always been difficult if we speak generally. The students think they memorize the math
formulas and just take the exams but no applications at all . Is there any way to teach math in a more compact form. Yes there is,
the name of it is simple-sample explanation. In this study we will see the properties and use of simple-sample explanations to
some algebraic problems. The students can see many of the properties of a certain formula in one form. This makes the student to
remember all the necessary properties without memorizing. This new technique also makes you gain time in the learning process.
This helps the teacher to make much more applications. This is what we need as a teacher. This method also develops the
learners analytic thinking capabilities.
Keywords: Simple-Sample Explanation, A Compact Formula, Conditional Form
1. Introduction
Although the term is new, the use of Simple-Sample Explanation is not a new concept for math education. As
We can see in McCarthy’s studies the concept has opened a great variety of problem solving methods. Some of the
formulae may contain the conditional forms defined as compact manner and have many advantages for
understanding complex math formulae. A compact formula means a formula having many properties in one formula.
This formula also contain all of the properties for a certain arithmetic operations. Is this applicable to all arithmetic
operations? In this study we will not answer this question, instead we will give the explanation how to construct the
Simple-Sample Explanations.
2. Methodology
If you know the basic arithmetic operations and their properties you are ready to apply The Simple-Sample
Explanations. These explanations are not for the instructor but are for the students. Our main aim is to make the
Corresponding Author: Yusuf Tayfun Tepedeldirena, Tel: +23 554747831
Email: yusuftayfun@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.183
150 Yusuf Tayfun Tepedeldiren and Ayten Özkan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 149 – 151
students to understand these formulae and properties in one formula. We will use conditional expressions and some
basic operations for doing it. Now we are ready to construct a family of Simple-Sample Explanations.
2.1. Definition
If m is a natural number we show its successor as m+ and we show its predecessor as m-. These functions are
called basic base functions. While constructing other functions we will use conditional forms in McCarthy’s way.
McCarthy had formed a very different method to construct new functions from the old ones. These are also all
functional since they use functions for their domains. It is a kind of a change affect to form new functions from the
old ones.
In McCarthy’s study The predecessor function is derived from the function successor. In this case The Successor
is the base unique base function.
2.2. Definition
The functions derived from the successor and processor functions are called compact and the formula of a
compact function is called a compact formula. The functions derived in this method form a strong set.
Now we are ready to form new arithmetic functions using the base functions.
2.3. Definition
If m and n are naturals numbers, the summation of them is given as m+n=(if n=0→m , D→m++n-).
Note that the formula has a mechanism of conditional form. This conditional form is easy to understand.
Whenever you are faced with the first true proposition you get the desired result.
2.4. Example
3+2=(if 2=0→3 , D→4+1)=4+1

4+1=(if 1=0→4 , D→5+0)=5+0
5+0=(if 0=0→5 , ……….)=5 The result is 5. What you see in this example is easy to understand. All of
the properties of the summation are seen in this formula.
Now understanding the method you can establish the difference of two natural numbers in this manner.
2.5. Definition
If m and n are natural numbers, the difference of them is given as m-n=(if n=0→m , D→m--n- ).
You can have more arithmetic operations and more functions in this way.
2.6. Definition
The functions derived using the base functions are called Simple-Sample Explanations. A group of Simple-
Sample Explanations is called a family of Simple-Sample Explanations.
3. Conclusion
In this study, We have tried to explain how to construct a family of Simple-Sample Explanations. These
Explanations are useful to understand a compact formula and its properties at the same time. You see all of the
Yusuf Tayfun Tepedeldiren and Ayten Özkan / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 149 – 151 151
properties of certain arithmetic operations in one formula and you can easily understand them. You can also easily
construct new formulae from the old ones. These functions will be functional since they use functions as their
domains. It is a kind of a new method to have functional using appropriate functions.
Referencences
McCarthy, J., (1967). “A Basis For a Mathematical Theory of Computation”, Western Joint Computer Conference, 10:30-69
Myers, T.J., (1988). Equation, Models and Programs, Prentice-Hall International, Colgate University, Hamilton
Tepedeldiren, Y.T.,Özkan, E.M.,Ünal H.,(2011) “Geometrical and Algebraic Aproach to Multiple Representations”, Procedia-Social and
Behavioral Sciences,15:72-75.
Tepedeldiren, Y.T.,(1996).Lojik Fonksiyon Modlu Tasarım Yöntemleri, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ege Üniversitesi,İzmir.
ScienceDirect
Third person anaphoric reference by Turkish speakers of French

Mustafa MAVASOGLUa *
a
Cukurova University, Faculty of Education, Adana 01130, TURKEY
Abstract
Rather than being a random sequence of unrelated sentences and clauses, a text must have solid sense relations between its units
to be logically and semantically consistent for the reader-hearer. This logical and semantic consistency relating to the
construction and configuration of sense in a text is called coherence by text linguists. Coherence is vital for a complete meaning
and understanding of a text. As a cohesive device, reference, especially anaphoric reference, has been examined in many studies
in recent years. This study aims to investigate anaphoric expressions by Turkish speakers of French in their spontaneous speech.
29 undergraduate students (23 females and 6 males) with 22-25 age range studying at a French language department in Turkey as
well as five native speakers of French (three females and two males) with 35-55 age range participated in the study. French
dubbed version of an animated cartoon, A Christmas Carol (Mickey et la Magie de Noël), was used as material in this study. The
participants were asked to watch and then comment on various themes in the cartoon. Results revealed an overuse of third person
pronouns, almost cumulative, in students. Possible reasons of this aggregate usage were then discussed in light of other studies in
literature.
Keywords: Cohesion, anaphora, spontaneous speech.
1. Introduction
Oral or written discourse is not comprised of randomly sequenced sentences. Intelligibility of discourse is closely
related to strength of logical, semantic and structural connections between sentences. Elements of a discourse are
linked to each other in different ways. For a complete understanding and interpretation of an utterance, the
reader/hearer needs to link sentences to each other. In utterance (1) that follows, the reader/hearer would have no
difficulty to make a logical connection between tardiness and traffic jam and consequently would relate two
sentences to each other by cause effect relationship
(1) This morning, there was a big traffic jam in the city. She was late for work
Logical and semantic connection between the two sentences in utterance (2) is also supported by a grammatical
relation. In previous example, cause-effect relationship is established by a logical inference while in the present
example, this relationship is made by a grammatical particle, the conjunction because and thus coherence is
obtained.
(2) She was late for work because there was a big traffic jam in the city this morning
Halliday and Hasan (1976) define cohesion as a semantic relationship between two textual elements in which one
is interpreted by the other. In their seminal work Cohesion in English, they identify five general categories of
* Corresponding Author name. Mustafa MAVASOGLU Tel.: +0-90-5079417721

E-mail address: mmavas@cu.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.202
246 Mustafa Mavasoglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 245 – 249
cohesive devices that create coherence in texts: a) reference, b) substitution, c) ellipsis, d) conjunction and e) lexical
cohesion.
1.1. Reference
In its broad sense, reference is a grammatical cohesion device in a text that can only be interpreted with reference
to some other parts of the text. Without links to others sentences, a sentence within a discourse risks being
incoherent, thus incomprehensible. Reference has two parts: the referring item (the presupposing element) and the
item that it refers to (the presupposed element; antecedent). For a perfect understanding and interpretation of a
reference, the antecedent has to occur somewhere in the text before. Depending on the places of referring items,
there are two types of reference; anaphoric and anaphoric.
1.1.2. Anaphora and cataphora

The term anaphora is derived from the Greek word anaphorein (ana- = backwards, - phorein = carry) which
literally means “carrying back”. Linguistically speaking, this term designates “a process where a word or phrase
(anaphor) refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation” (Richards &
Schmidt 2002, 36). The reference of an anaphora can only be ascertained by interpreting its antecedent (Bussmann
1996, 58). In utterance (3) that follows, the third person pronoun She refers back to the proper noun Cécile in the
first sentence.
(3) I took Cécile to the airport this morning. She was late.
She is the referring item and Cécile is the item to which She refers. In other words, Cécile is the antecedent of the
referring item. Anaphora is often contrasted with cataphora where referring items precede antecedents as in the
utterance (4).
(4) When I saw her, Cécile was arguing violently with a taxi driver in the street.
In this utterance, the object pronoun her refers forward to the proper noun Cécile in the sentence. In other words,
the referring item her precedes the antecedent, Cécile. In the present study, we will only focus on anaphoric
reference and make no attempt to examine other types of references.
1.1.2.1. Types of anaphoric expressions

Following Riegel et al. (2004), we identify two mains types of anaphoric expressions for this study with reference
to French: pronominal and nominal anaphora.
1.1.2.1.1. Pronominal anaphora

Being a special case of anaphora, pronominal substitution contributes to organization of text by avoiding
repetition of a noun or noun phrase as well as to thematic progression of text, especially by the use of third person
pronoun which functions as marker of thematic continuity. For Riegel et al. (2004), pronouns may differently
represent a noun phrase; third person pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, relatives and indefinite pronouns. In the
present study, we will only focus on third person pronouns.
1.3.2. Nominal anaphora

Nominal anaphora includes definite determiners such as definite articles and possessive or demonstrative
determiners. Riegel et al. (2004) classify four types of nominal anaphora; anaphore fidèle (“faithful anaphora”),
anaphore infidèle (“unfaithful anaphora”), anaphore conceptuelle (conceptual anaphora) and anaphore associative
(associative anaphora). During this study, our focus will only be on the two first types of nominal anaphora.
Anaphore fidèle consists to repeat the name with a simple determinant change. It’s restricted to cases in which the
referent is not recategorized (Willemse et al. 2009). Resumption of noun phrase is carried out by replacement of an
Mustafa Mavasoglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 245 – 249 247
indefinite determiner by a definite determiner (definite article, possessive determiner or demonstrative) as in

examples (5) and (6) that follow.
(5) Le dessin animé se passe dans un chateau. Dans le chateau, il y a une fête pour Noël (NNS-Y2/9)†
(6) Donald Duck ..a vu un rêve. Dans son rêve, il a vu son futur (NNS-Y2/12)
Contrary to anaphore fidèle, the referent is recategorized with lexical changes in anaphore infidèle. Anaphoric
noun phrases contain elements which are different from their antecedents. The repetition of name may be
synonymous or equivalent to the first item as in the example (7).
(7) Plus tard dans la nuit, le premier esprit fait son apparition en sortant Scrooge de son sommeil, c’est le
fantôme des noëls passés (NS1)‡
2. Research questions
This paper aims to investigate anaphoric expressions by Turkish speakers of French in their spontaneous speech
and then to compare these expressions with those of native speakers of French. For this purpose, following research
questions were stated:
1) What types of anaphoric expressions are used by both Turkish speakers majoring French and native
speakers of French?
2) What particular reference type(s) dominate(s) the spontaneous speech of both groups, and why?
3) To what extent do the oral narratives of both groups display similarities and/or contrasts in terms of
anaphoric reference use?
3. Participants
The participants in this study are categorized into two groups. In the first group, there are Turkish students of
French studying at the French Language Teaching Department, University of Çukurova (TG), all being trained to be
prospective French teachers (n=29; 23 females, 6 males; 22-25 years of age range). The other group consists of five
native speakers of French (CG), three females and two males, of 35-55 age range, all university graduates.
4. Instruments
The material used in this study is an animated cartoon, A Christmas Carol dubbed into French (Mickey et la
Magie de Noël). The participants were asked to watch and then comment on various themes in the cartoon. This
cartoon was chosen due to its relatively small number of characters (Ebenezer Scrooge, Bob Cratchit -Scrooge's
overworked employee and the ghosts, being the major persona), and the relatively less complex plot. Thus,
commenting on the themes in the movie proved easy not only for nonnative speakers but also for the natives.
The distribution of frequencies of reference forms and their percentages in the oral narratives of TG members
appear in Table 1 below. As noted, the total number of reference forms in narratives of TG is 203.
†
In non-native speakers’ utterances, NNS-Y2/9 means respectively: Non-native Speaker, Year 2 and subject 9.
‡
In native speakers’ utterances, NS1 means respectively: Native Speaker and subject 1.
248 Mustafa Mavasoglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 245 – 249
Table 1. Distribution of reference forms in the narratives of TG
Reference Types Frequency %

Personal Pronouns 167 82
Anaphore fidèle 33 16,5
Anaphore infidèle 3 1,5
Total 203 100.0
As shown in the table, the dominant preference in using an anaphoric reference form is for pronouns; 167
pronouns constituted about 82% of the total anaphoric references. The second most frequent type of anaphoric
reference is anaphore fidèle, 16,5 in the total distribution. The least used reference type is anaphore infidèle, having
1,5 value (only 3 occurrences). Bearing in mind that the participants were commenting on a movie, we think that the
dominance of the pronouns in the narratives should not be surprising because it is the characters that first come to
mind when the issue is a movie.
Regarding the pronouns that are the most employed reference forms, TG members seem to have mastered the
difference among third person pronouns (il/elle; ils/elles) although Turkish is a pro-drop language with a unisex
third person -singular-pronoun. We, nevertheless, should emphasize that the issue handled is not as simple as the
difference between four third person pronouns in French. Researchers in SLA have conducted studies to observe the
effects of changing parameters in the acquisition of second and third languages. White (1985), for instance, tested 73
adults learning English, 54 of whom were native speakers of Spanish a [+pro-drop language] and 19 native speakers
of French a [–pro-drop language]. When subjects were asked to judge the grammaticality of 31 written sentences,
Spanish speakers were less successful than French speakers, which proved, according to White, that Spanish
students did show evidence of [+pro-drop] carry over into English and that although the [+pro-drop] parameter is the
marked form, Spanish speakers will continue to use the marked form until they have received negative evidence of
[-pro-drop] in the L2. At first sight, Turkish speakers succeed in mastering [-pro-drop] parameter and this is highly
promising for their L2 acquisition struggles. A parallelism has been observed between non-native and native
speakers in terms of anaphoric reference forms. The distribution of frequencies of reference forms and their
percentages in the oral narratives of CG members appear in Table 2.
Table 2. Distribution of reference forms in the narratives of native speakers (CG)
Reference Types Frequency %

Personal Pronouns 87 73
Anaphore fidèle 21 18
Anaphore infidèle 11 16
Total 119 100.0
As shown in the table, for native speakers too, the dominant anaphoric reference form is pronouns; 87 pronouns
constituted about 73% of the total anaphoric references. The second most frequent type of anaphoric reference is
anaphore fidèle, 18 in the total distribution. Although anaphore infidèle is also the least used reference type in NSs
(16%), it is ten times more frequent than in NNSs’.
With regard to third person anaphoric pronouns, at first glance, it may seem that there is no difference between
native and non-native speakers in terms of distribution of anaphoric reference types. However, both groups are
different in terms of quantities and qualities of utterances they produced. That is to say, 29 students in TG totally
produced 4584 words in their utterances whereas five native speakers generated 3629 words in total; the average
number of words created per student in TG is 159 while on the contrary it is 726 in CG. In other words, considering
Mustafa Mavasoglu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 245 – 249 249
word count-speech size ratio, we can say that third person anaphoric pronouns were stacked in heaps in oral
narratives of NNS while this is not the case for NS. This stacked use of person pronouns may be accounted for by
the fact that NNS had difficulties in joining sentences in different ways by different elements. In utterance (8) that
follows, NNS chose to create sentences separately instead of combining them by, for instance, the relative pronoun
qui and thus had to use several times third person pronouns il/ils.
(8) Donald Duck est un ..un homme avare. Il ne ..n’aime ..il ne ...il ne l’aime personne. Il ajoure [injure] ..tout
les mondes (NNS-Y3/7)
As for native speakers, it has been observed that they economically used third person pronouns by linking
sentences with the relative pronoun qui. An example for this is shown in utterance (9).
(9) ..c’est l’histoire d’un ..d’une personne qui est avare, …et qui a des remords et qui.. décide de changer
complètement de comportement à la fois vis-à-vis de sa famille, de ses amis et de ses employés. (NS4)
Many students did not drop person pronouns after the conjunction et connecting two sentences with same subject.
Not elliptically used, these pronouns might be the cause of intensive use of anaphoric person pronouns. Utterance
(10) illustrates this phenomenon.
(10) Et après ce après ce ..ce cauchemar il ..il changeait soi-même et il commençait à un bon homme et il
commençait à aider les others (NNS-Y3/7)
As opposed to NNS, NS dropped third person pronouns in coordinate clauses as follows.
(11) Et en voyant cette scène Monsieur Scrooge regrette effectivement comprend ses erreurs et regrette d’avoir
laissé tomber son ancienne amoureuse (NS1)
This paper, aiming to study anaphoric expressions in oral narratives by Turkish speakers of French compared to
those by native speakers, draws our attention, as French teachers, to the tendency of our students to make a
extremely successive and frequent use of third person pronouns in their spontaneous speeches. We believe that
students’ ability to authentically produce oral narratives in French is hampered by this stacked use of third person
pronouns. When teaching the relative pronoun qui;
a) Importance of this relative for authentic production of person pronouns has to be clearly expressed.
b) Logic in use of this relative should be analyzed by examples from oral narratives by native French speakers
c) Students should often be encouraged to use the relative pronoun qui in their oral narratives.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by Cukurova University Department of Scientific Research Project (Project
Number: EF2012BAP3).
References
Bussmann, Hadumod (1996) Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (translated and edited by Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzazi) Routledge
Halliday, M. A. K & Hasan, R. (1976) “Cohesion in English” Longman Group Ltd Hong Kong 1976
Huang, Y. (2000) “A cross linguistic study” Oxford University Press lnc, New York 2000
McGregor, William B. (Ed. 2009) The Expression of Possession Mouton de Gruyter, Germany
Richards Jack C. & Schmidt, Richard (2002) Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Third edition Pearson
Education Limited
Riegel, M., Pellat, J.-C. & Rioul, R. (2004) Grammaire Méthodique du Français, PUF, France
White (1985) “The pro-drop parameter in adult second language acquisition”, bildiri “the Annual Boston University Conference on Language
Development”’ Boston 7-9 Ekim 1983
Willemse, Peter, Davidse, Kristin & Heyvaert, Liesbet (2009) English possessives as reference-point constructions and their function in the
discourse in McGregor, William B. (Ed. 2009) The Expression of Possession Van der Geer, J., Hanraads, J. A. J., & Lupton R. A. (2000).
The art of writing a scientific article. Journal of Scientific Communications, 163, 51-59.
ScienceDirect
Transforming Research-Learning Performance With Professional

Lifelong Learners
Tony Walla *
a
Centre for Work Related Studies, University of Chester, Chester CH1 4BJ, United Kingdom
Abstract

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Keywords: practitioner research, pedagogy, lifelong learning; workplace learning; professional development;
1. Introduction
In Europe, universities have delivered accredited professional development opportunities for some time now, and
often promote it as a key strand of their lifelong learning commitment. These opportunities may be referred to as
work integrated programmes, workplace learning programmes, service learning, or work based learning degree
programmes (Wall, 2010). Within the UK, the latter of these terms is used, and attract busy professionals in full
times jobs, and this paper is written from one of the largest centers of negotiated work based learning programmes in
Europe (Wall, 2012).
The center has found that the attraction of these programmes is that the busy professional learner can integrate
accredited study alongside their work and family commitments, in areas that have direct relevance to their
programme of study (Nixon, 2008). Yet the center has also found that within this context, learning about research
methods can be problematic to the busy professional learner across industrial sectors; to them, from their
perspective, it can feel dis-located from practice, and in some cases, unworthy of the energy and effort it takes to
understand the area – it can be seen as a purely academic pursuit.
* Corresponding Author name. Tony wall Tel.: +44-1244-512299

E-mail address: t.wall@chester.ac.uk
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.192
190 Tony Wall / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 189 – 193
Though the tensions of the ‘relevance gap’ of universities and the ‘real world’ have been known for some time,
and continue to be reported (Starkey and Madan, 2001; Mintzerg, 2004; Wedgewood, 2008) – but the pedagogic
responses to deal with this continue to be stark in the literature. The purpose of the study was therefore to practically
tackle this situation at the pedagogic level: to enhance the professional's experience and learning performance in
research methods, in the context of work based learning Bachelor's and Master's degrees.
2. Method: Action Research

A team of academics within a medium sized UK university adopted a cyclical action research methodology to
research their pedagogic practices (including the author as the principal investigator). The particular focus was
within the delivery of a research training and preparation course (named ‘Designing Practitioner Research’), which
features as one of the final courses in work-based learning undergraduate and Master’s degrees within the academic
department. This action oriented research approach aligned with the pragmatic orientation of the work-based
learning department (learning through action rather than the classroom), and focused on authentic changes in the
reality of the context.
Together, the academic team took cycles of planning-action-reflection-re-planning, acting as critical-peers to
challenge observations during each cycle (Brannick and Coghlan, 2009). This included reflecting-in-action (Schön,
1992) during interactions; direct instruction to groups during a ‘Designing Practitioner Research’ workshop, and
interactions after the workshop. The particular interactions after the workshop specifically included paying attention
to the questions raised by the professional learners and the coaching that was required to facilitate learning. And
finally, it included reflecting-on-action, which involved: reviewing each learner’s draft proposals for practitioner
research, formal assessment of the final versions of these proposals by academics, and critical-peer debriefings
amongst the academics.
To analyze the experiences and reflections of the team, a grounded, emergent strategy was used, enabling
common themes to be identified from practice, which then formed the basis for re-planning and development of
pedagogical practices (Brannick and Coghlan, 2009; Creswell, 2009). For each cycle, academic performance was
externally scrutinized and ratified within standard quality assurance procedures by external examiners. These are
highly specified assessment criteria used by all academics within the team and the external examiners, and have
been in operation for over 5 years.
This provided a procedure for independent validation (or otherwise) of the outcomes being created through the
pedagogic practices being implemented (James, Slater and Bucknam, 2011). The initial cycle started in 2010, and
the team has undertaken four full action research cycles since then. The most important themes and practices are
reported below.
3. Findings and Outcomes: An Accelerated Practitioner Research Approach (APRA)
A key outcome for APRA has been a significant change in the level and consistency of the learning achievement
in the Designing Practitioner Research course, as measured by academic grades and feedback on the learner’s final
proposals, by the academic team. Most professional learners now achieve what is recognized as a ‘Merit’ in the
grading system, which is one classification below the highest grade boundary (the ‘Distinction’).
In comparison to other courses, this is a higher level of achievement, but has been consistently validated by the
external examiners. Less measurable, but noticeable for the team, was a shift in focus from a ‘nice to know’ type of
academic research to strategic pragmatic research which is focused on addressing important organisational
challenges or opportunities.
For example, rather than the learners attempting to generalize about the use of human resource planning in small
businesses (perhaps more of an academic interest), all of the professional learners are now focused on their own
strategic issues, such as trying to understand and improve the sales performance of particular products. In turn,
Tony Wall / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 189 – 193 191
though not discussed here, this has led to more strategic changes and impacts within organisations, when the
learners actually implement their practitioner research design.
The pedagogic practices that have influenced these outcomes include: a new course design (for Designing
Practitioner Research) which embeds a new practitioner research process; coaching questions which directly link to
this process; heuristics to help communicate options and possibilities through the process; and new assessment
criteria for the course, to emphasize the nature of practitioner research for learners and markers. The process, along
with key pedagogic practices, is outlined below.
3.1. Stage 1: Specifying Focus
This stage facilitates the professional learner to focus on an issue of importance. Typically, learners tended to
start the course with a method without a clear issue or development to focus on – they wanted to do a questionnaire
or focus group, for example. The questions and concepts in this stage resist thinking about method, and instead,
focus on change or development. The questions are:
0. What alternative perspectives or positions are available here?

1. What needs to change or develop in my setting?
2. ‘Who’ has said ‘what’ about addressing my focus?
3. What do I want to achieve in my situation?
4. How can I approach this?
5. What specifically do I need to find out?
A detailed discussion of each question is beyond the scope of this paper, but there are some important points to
note. Question 0 is about the professional learner developing a critical awareness of their assumptions and choices
throughout; it encourages critical thinking and acts as an ethicality check at each decision point, along the points of
beneficence, autonomy and justice.
For question 2, learners focus on reviewing professional and academic literature to inform and illuminate a
solution to the change/development specified in question 1, rather than academic theory determining their focus.
Typically within academic research, the task would be to find a gap in the literature, but within this form of
practitioner research, an academic gap is not a concern. The focus is more on a change or development in practice.
Within question 3, we use the heuristic to hone in on, and be precise about, the professional learner’s purpose for
the research: we ask them to finish off various sentences such as “To identify recommendations…”, “To
enhance…”, “To recommend a course of action…”. This is not to constrain; it is a pedagogic scaffold from which to
start or shape thinking. This then represents the Research Purpose to which all methodological decisions relate to;
the terms ‘research aims’, ‘objectives’ or ‘outcomes’ have been remove to aid clarity and focus.
In question 4, we use the heuristic of seeing approaches as researching something ‘before’ action is taken,
‘during’ action, or ‘after’ action has been taken. These imply particular methodological choices, but their intention is
to enable learners to think quickly about broad alternatives such as decision analysis, action research, or evaluation
research. And finally, the answers to all of these determine question 5; the Research Questions.
3.2. Stage 2: Specifying Methodology
A great emphasis is placed on getting clarity in Stage 1 before progressing into Stage 2. We still find much time
and effort is spent in this stage, and is likened to internal consulting processes. Stage 2 is about considering
alternative methodological options, and then clearly specifying methodological choices. The questions here are:
192 Tony Wall / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 189 – 193
6. What data do I need?

7. How will I collect the data?
8. How will I interpret or analyze the data to create action?
9. How will I ensure ethicality?
10. ‘Who’, will do ‘what’, ‘when’?
Question 6 encourages the professional learner to consider the actual data that are needed which will then be
collected and analyzed in questions 7 and 8. This continues to be challenging, but enables the learner to be clearer
about the specific methods of data collection and analysis (questions 7 and 8).
Within APRA, we found that many professional learners started their journey conceiving ‘research’ simply as
question 7, but through the above process, emphasized a much wider process of strategic thinking. Similarly, we
found many professional learners would not think in depth about question 8, but rather focus on methods for data
collection.
In question 8, the academic team continue to encourage the professional learner to think of analysis in terms of
‘what else needs to happen’ to the data to meet the actionable outcomes of the Research Purpose above. The final
two questions are final checks for ethicality and a specific action plan to implement the practitioner research. The
professional learner, usually as an insider researcher, must be aware of the ethical implications of every
methodological choice they make.
4. Implications
APRA has proven outcomes for professional learners in an attempt to improve their learning experience (from
their perspective) and enhance the learning performance according to the achievement of learning outcomes. In this
way, professional learners are also learning how to make a difference to business practices through research, and
also benefit from doing so, through academic reward – a key characteristic of work based learning programmes.
It is especially relevant for those educational establishments working with professional learners in real world
contexts, such as professional development and work based learning. Educational center in the Netherlands and
Austria have been adopting the processes and tools identified in this paper, and have translated into their own
contexts. Yet others may want to explore how they can integrate the pedagogic practices into their own facilitation
practices.
Though not designed for other learning contexts, other communities have expressed an interest in APRA,
including traditional teaching contexts, and more radically, organisational consultancy and organisational
development. APRA embeds the capability for professionals to investigate strategic issues, using both practitioner
and academic theories and research, to make a difference. This is an emergent practice which will be important to
consider over the next decade.
Yet it is important to continue the action research cycles to further refine and develop pedagogic practices. A
particularly interesting theme that seems to be emerging in current practice is how to facilitate reflective
methodologies within the context of busy professional learners whose first language is not English. Reflecting
critically in a second language is a challenging task in itself, but when this is being facilitated and formally assessed
though through English language, additional challenges arise. This is a new line of enquiry which the team hopes to
enhance the experience and learning performance of professionals.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by faculty at the Centre for Work Related Studies, and the University of Chester’s
Research Student and Supervisor Training Resource Development Grant.
Tony Wall / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 189 – 193 193
References
BIS (2009) Higher Ambitions: the future of universities in a knowledge economy. London, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills.
Bolden, R., Hirsh, W., Connor, H., Petrov, G., & Duquemin, A. (2010) Strategies for Effective HE-Employer Engagement. London: Department
for Innovation, Universities and Skills.
Brannick, T. and Coghlan, D. (2009) Doing Action Research in Your Own Organization, 3rd ed, London: Sage.
Creswell, J. (2009) Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches (3rd ed.). London: Sage.
James, E.A., Slater, T. and Bucknam, A. (2011) Action Research for Business, Nonprofit, and Public Administration: A Tool for Complex Times,
London: Sage.
Leitch, (2006) The Leitch Review of Skills: prosperity for all in the global economy – world class skills. Norwich: HMSO.
Mintzerg, H. (2004) Managers not MBAs: A Hard Look at the Soft Practice of Managing and Management Development, San Fancisco: Barret-
Koehler.
Nixon, I. (2008) Work Based Learning Impact Study, York: The Higher Education Academy.
Schön, D. (1992) The Reflective Practitioner, 2nd ed., San Francisco CA: Jossey Bass.
Starkey, K. and Madan, P. (2001) Bridging the Relevance Gap: Aligning Stakeholders in the Future of Management Research, British Journal of
Management, 12, pp 3-26.
Wall, T. (2010) University models of work based learning validation, in Mumford, J. and Roodhouse, S. (eds.) Understanding Work Based
Learning, London: Gower.
Wall, T. (2012) Transforming Prior Learning Policy & Practice: APL, PLA, RPL, San Francisco CA: CreateSpace.
Wedgewood, M. (2008) Higher Education for the Workforce - Barriers and Facilitators to Employer Engagement, London: Department for
Innovation, Universities and Skills.
ScienceDirect
Understanding Biology Teachers’Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Teaching “The Nature of

Organism”
Suriya Chapooa*, Kongsak Thathongb, Lilia Halim c

a
b
c
Faculty of Education, University Kebangsaan, Malaysia
Abstract
Effective and experienced teachers have the capacity to transform and enact subject matter into
forms that can be understood by students. The capacity to transform depends on the blending of
content and pedagogy and it is conceptualised as pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). The
purpose of this study is to investigate the understandings and practices that comprise a biology
teacher’s PCK. In this research, the research participant demonstrated her PCK through writing a
content representation (CoRe), teaching in the classroom, and discussion during the interview.
The researcher determined the extent and nature of her PCK in relation to the Magnusson et al
(1999). The findings expose the teacher’s understanding and practice of PCK supported teaching
and learning science based on constructivism. The teacher had strong, clearly articulated views
on the NOS which she implemented all components of PCK confidently into her teaching.
Selection andpeer-review
Selection and/or peer review under the responsibility
under responsibility of Academic Worldof Prof. Dr.
Education Servet Center.
and Research Bayram
Keywords: Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), Content Representations (Cores), Biology
Teachers, Experience Teachers;
1. Introduction
The Thai National Education Act B.E. 2542 seeks to improve the quality and relevance
of education throughout the Thai education system (ONEC, 1999). The Act focuses on a
teaching and learning reform through an implementation of a student-centered approach as a new
method of teaching and learning. The success of educational reform depends on the quality of
* Corresponding Author Suriya Chapoo. Tel.: +0-088-572-8767

E-mail address: chakreeya@gmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.241
teachers and their cooperation (Jurawatanaton, 2003). The role of the teacher as facilitator and
the learner-centered approach, based on constructivist-based teaching and learning perspectives,
will contribute to the success of learning reform in Thailand (OEC, 2004). The National Science
Education Reform advocates that science teachers should engage students in doing and thinking
about inquiry, and renew emphasis on teaching about the nature of science (Institute for
Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology [IPST], 2002b). Some science teachers attempt
to acquire knowledge for teaching, that is pedagogical content knowledge [PCK], because this
knowledge helps them to create constructivist classrooms and provides the opportunity for their
students to learn science through an inquiry approach. PCK has been described as the hallmark
of teaching and PCK has become a central focus in learning how to teach particular subjects. It
shows that teacher is the expert teacher and the professional teacher.
Exploring PCK to learn about teaching

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) was originally introduced by Shulman (1987) to
enclose a category of teachers’ professional knowledge determined to each individual teacher.
Shulman (1987) originally defined PCK as “ the blending of content and pedagogy into an
understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and
adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learning, and presented for instruction” (p.8) and
“the particular form of content knowledge that embodies the aspects most germane to its
teachability” (p.9).
PCK also is “...knowledge of the transformation of several types of knowledge for
teaching (including subject matter knowledge), and that as such it represents a unique domain of
teacher knowledge” (Magnusson, Krajcik and Borko, 1999: 95). In addition, PCK is a unique
knowledge processed only by individuals within the profession of teaching, and consequently the
concept of PCK is useful to help teachers’ understandings what teachers know, what teachers
ought to know, and how they might develop it (Baxter and Lederman, 1999; Park, 2005).
Geddis (1993) argued that science teachers with well developed PCK are effective
teachers because they realize the importance of students of understanding science concepts and
were able to utilise a range of effective and appropriate teaching methods and instruction
strategies to develop students’ science concepts.
Magnuuson et al. (1999) conceutualized pedagogical content knowledge for science
teaching as consisting of five components :
- orientations towards science teaching (since teacher’s knowledge and beliefs related to
their teaching goals and approaches will influence their classroom practice)
- knowledge of curriculum
- knowledge of assessment (since what is to be assessed, how and why, also influences a
teacher’s practice)
- knowledge of students’ understanding of science
- knowledge of instructional strategies
Loughran et al. (2006) try to construct explicit correlation that is available between the
knowledge of content, teaching and learning for science teacher. Content Representation (CoRe )
as originally devised, represent conceptualizations of the collective PCK of expert teachers
* Doctor student, Science education Program, Faculty of Education, Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
e-mail: schapoo@hotmail.com
around a specific science topic, including “the key content ideas, known alternative conceptions,
insightful ways of testing for understanding, known areas of confusion, and ways of framing
ideas to support student learning” (Loughran et al. 2008, p.1305). In essence CoRes try to
portray holistic overviews of teachers’ PCK related to the teaching of a specific science topic.
Presented in the format of Resource Folios, the CoRes are accompanied by
Pa-PeRs, which illustrate how specific aspects of the topic aligned to the CoRe are brought to
life in teaching by expert teachers. PaP-Rs are narrative accounts designed to illustrate specific
instances of that PCK in action.
2. Purpose of the study
This study examines the nature of a biology teacher’s pedagogical content knowledge
(PCK). The research objectives is expressed through the research question:
- What are the understandings and practices that comprise a biology teacher’s PCK?
- To what extent did the content of CoRe reflect the components of PCK as identified by
Magnusson et al. (1999)?
3. Methodology/Experimental design
This study constitutes a report of case-study method used to look at how mentor science
teachers conceptualised their own PCK that impacted their teaching practice. According to
Merriam (1998), this research method is the best vehicle for providing ‘intensive descriptions
and analyses of a single unit or bounded system such as an individual, program, or group’ (p.
19). By employing case-study methods, our intent was to represent the teachers’ understanding
of the situation and share their meaning with all involved in the research.
Participant
The participant in this study was a biology teacher who was teaching at the secondary
school level (grade 10) in public school under Secondary Educational Service Area Office 20. To
protect her privacy she was given pseudonyms, Ms. Pat.
Ms. Pat, who was 45 years old, has Master’s degree of Science Education. She has been
teaching biology for 15 years. There were 52 students per classrooms and she taught 4
classrooms and she taught for 12 hours per week. Her expectations for teaching biology is that
when students get the knowledge and skills from learning biology, they can take the knowledge
and skills to use in their life and they have knowledge that can be the basis for further study at
higher levels.
Data Collection
The researcher introduced CoRe template to Pat, we talked and discussed about the
CoRe template. More specifically , the researcher took the example of CoRe that is a
representation of PCK for the topic Circulatory System (John Loughran et al. 2006) to Pat. We
discussed about the topic that Pat need to write in CoRe. The topic she chose was on “The
nature of organism”. After one week, the research observed and video recorded teaching in her
classroom. When she finished teaching, the researcher interviewed 52 students in classroom. The
researcher used the interview form that the students need to write. After that, the research
interviewed Pat by using a semi-structured interview and voice recorded the interview. In this
research, classroom observation, and interview were used as research methods to provide
opportunities for participant and the researcher to generate an understanding for a particular
situation. The researcher used the extent and nature of PCK in relation to the Magnusson et al.
(1999) model as illustrated in the CoRe content and her comments in interviews.
Orientation to Teaching Science
Pat’s understanding about articulating goals and purposes for teaching science was rich and
consistent with educational reform and science education as highlighted for Scientific Literacy.
As she wrote, in expectations for teaching biology form: “The students should understand
science content in biology. They can conduct experiments by science process skills, and apply
science knowledge into their daily lives. The students can explain how to get science knowledge
or understand the nature of science. As shown below:
Researcher : Could you describe me more about the nature of science?
Pat : Science knowledge is fact, theory, or law that can explain natural phenomena and
science process skills are used for gathering the knowledge. The science knowledge can be
changed if there was new evidence.
Researcher : What else do you think your students should learn from your class?
Pat : Students can present and discuss what they learn through inquiry activities with
other students. They can use this knowledge to make decision for their daily lives such as buying
food, solving pollution in their community or maintain their high quality of lives in society.
(Pat’s Interview)

Pat’s understanding about student’s understanding of science is captured through the
scientific process. Students learning science concepts is acquired through experimentation and
the practice of scientific skills in constructing scientific knowledge. Pat understanding as showed
in CoRe;
“students surveyed the features of organisms found in the nature. For example, students
surveyed the asexual reproduction organism found around school and they took the example of
asexual reproduction organism to discuss in their group and present in classroom.”
With regard to Pat’s teaching , she used instructional media inside and outside classroom.
She used them to provide a variety of learning activities that motivated students’ learning. She
used Microsoft office powerpoint programme to present the frog’s reproduction, the budding of
hydra and yeast, binary fission of Euglena and amoeba reproduction. She realized the different
needs of students and the ability of the students. She understood that is students’ is learning
through sharing, working and discussing with other students. The following evidence as shown
in the interview;
Pat : I think working as group is the best way for students to learn how to interact with
each other. I usually teach students in groups because they can help each other.
Researcher: That is a good point. What do you think about the influence of interaction on
student’s learning?
Pat: I think when students learn together, they have interaction with their friends I think
if I can organize students’ learning through group work. They were conceptualized to learn about
social interaction. They should be good citizens for the community, society, and the nation.
Researcher: How many students per group?
Pat: There are about 4-5 persons per group and the group has mixed ability and gender
students, students would get intellectual influence. They can share any knowledge that they have
at different levels. (Pat’s Interview)

Pat understood about instructional strategies that are consistent with educational reform.
She focused on the different needs of students and she realized that a student’s prior knowledge
was very important to her teaching. In her teaching , it was shown that Pat had understanding of
students’ prior knowledge. She stimulated students’ curiosity using questioning, discussing, and
interacting with real things. The teacher used a picture of the growth of starfish and the
regeneration of tail house gecko. The teacher and the students together discussed about picture.
As the following;
Teacher: What are the similaraties and differences in picture A and picture B?
Student 1: It is the same, it can regenerate.
Teacher: What is the difference between picture A and picture B?
Student 2: In picture B, there is no increase in the number of body.
Teacher: What is the opinion of other students?
Student 3: When the house gecko has generatde, it is still one but when the star fish has
generated, it has two body.
Teacher: The starfish separate in two pieces but the house gecko has generated tail, it is
still the one. Which the regeneration of two animals is the reproduction?
Every students said: The star fish.
Teacher: why do you tell me is that the star fish?
Student 4: Because the star fish separates in two pieces and they are generation to 2 star
fish, so it can increase the number.
Teacher: Does it look like the original star fish?
Student 1: Yes, it is the same.
Teacher: So, the picture A is the reproduction because they have the progency with the
same parent and increase the number. The picture B is not the reproduction but it is repairing the
body. (Pat’s classroom observation)
The findings of Pat’s teaching demonstrated her understanding of teacher’s role for
inquiry-based teaching and learning based on constructivism. In CoRe, she designed the
investigation to encourage students to survey about asexual reproduction pattern that is found in
nature around the school. The students can observe that the animal and plant exist in variety in
the nature. She told to the students “you have 15 minutes to survey and for you to collect the
sample of asexual reproduction organisms. Which the sample that you choose shows the asexual
reproduction pattern? And you have to discuss in your group, and you are to present the data in
the classroom.”
Knowledge of science curriculum

Pat’s understood about science curricular that her school has developed the curriculum
which was refereed from the standard curricular that was created by the Institute of Promotion
of Science and Technology Teaching (IPST). Pat is the head of department in her school. She
was one of the member of school-based science curriculum developers. She had experience of
developing the school-base science curriculum . As she mentioned during the individual
interview,
“...The way I developed school-based science curriculum was based on the national
science curriculum and combined with school and community contexts. I use school-based
science curriculum as my reference for teaching and learning science because it was related to
teaching and learning goals for the school. I think that the goals and purpose for teaching and
purpose for teaching and learning science” Mostly, in her CoRe, she provided the topic concept
about the nature of organism was what is Biology? What is the organism ? and biology with
activity in daily lives. These topics are relevant to the school-based science curriculum.
Knowledge of assessment of science

The results from CoRe, interview and classroom observations showed that Pat’s
understandings about assessment of science. Her understanding of formative assessment, shown
through her comments in that assessment of student learning is an ongoing process occurring
throughout learning and teaching activities. As she said “Students were assessed at the beginning
or the end of the teaching class and the assessment methods should be variety for assessing
student learning in the classroom. Students should be evaluated and assessed through many ways
and by many persons, not only teacher. Especially, authentic assessment should be integrated
into class.”
With regard to Pat practices as shown in CoRe, she used various types of assessments
methods such as multiple choice tests, observation during student activities, member checking,
written journal, drawing, practical homework or concept mapping to evaluate students’
understanding science.
During the classroom observation, Pat planned for the students to survey the asexual
reproduction of plant and animal around the school and discussed in their group and work
cooperatively. To assess student learning outcomes, Pat used multiple choice tests but she also
asked students about reason. In addition, she also used observation during student activities, she
asked questions to assess the students to know about their learning in the topics that was taught.
She developed worksheets related to asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction ; provided a
chance for students to assess their group members in aspect of sharing and working in a group,
and assigned students to do practical homework.
4. Conclusion
The findings of the understanding of the component about biology teacher who has PCK
to teach the topic “The nature of organism” showed the teacher has own PCK. The teacher’s
awareness of the nature of the components that serve as the foundation for PCK (Magnusson et
al., 1999) ; The results of the case study teacher indicated that she had good understanding and
practices of PCK that supported her to be more confident in integrating the various aspects of
PCK ie. orientation to teaching science, knowledge of science curricular, knowledge of students’
understanding of science, knowledge of instructional strategies, knowledge of assessment of
scientific literacy in her classroom practices.
5. Implications for teaching science through integrating PCK.
The results of study suggest several aspects need to be addressed for science teachers to
be successful in integrating PCK in their teaching of science. First, the science teacher needs to
hold the goals and purposes that focus on student learning with respect to science knowledge,
science process skills and scientific attitude. Second, strong subject matter knowledge would
make it easier for the science teacher to teach science through inquiry-based teaching and
learning and the students should be taught science by inquiry approach. Third, the science
teachers have to construct a good relationship with students. Finally, science teaching and
learning should refer to school and community context as learning resources.
Acknowledgements
The researcher would like to express my deepest thanks to my advisor Associate

Professor Dr.Kongsak Thathong, Professor Dr. Lilia Halim and Dr. Anne Hume for their
meaningful suggestions and tremendous encouragement throughout the research.
References
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Knowledge. In J. Gess-Newsome and N. Lederman. (eds.). Examining Pedagogical
Content Knowledge: The Construct and Its Implications for Science Education. The
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 95-132.
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Institute of National Education Committee.
Loughran, J., Berry, A., & Mullhall, P. (2006). Understanding and developing science teachers’
pedagogical content knowledge. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
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science teacher education. International Journal of Science Education, 30(10), 1301-
1320.
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pedagogical content knowledge for science teaching. In J. Gess-Newsome & N. G.
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implications for science education (pp. 95–132).
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(Bangkok, office of the National Education Commission).
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Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard
Educational Review, 57(1), 1-22.
ScienceDirect
Understanding of Basic Science Concepts:

Does Taking More Science Courses Matter?
Sibel Kayaa*
a
Kocaeli University, School of Education, Department of Elementary Education, 41380 Kocaeli, Turkey
Abstract
This study aimed to examine and compare pre-service elementary and science teachers’ understanding of basic science concepts.
A total of 353 fourth-year elementary and science education majors (272 female and 81 male), from a large public university in
northwestern Turkey, participated in the study. A Scientific Knowledge Test, which was compiled from the National Science
Foundation’s Survey of Public Attitudes Toward and Understanding of Science and Technology, was used as the data collection
instrument. Results showed that science education majors scored significantly higher on the Scientific Knowledge Test.
Participants from the two programs had similar views on astrology and human evolution. Approximately 89 percent of them rated
astrology as ‘scientific’ and only 24 percent endorsed human evolution. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to examine
their views on these two topics. Interview findings showed that pre-service elementary and science teachers have similar
misconceptions about astrology, evolution, and nature of science. It was concluded that although taking more science courses
provides better understanding of basic science concepts, there are still critical misconceptions to overcome and teacher education
programs need to adress these issues.
Keywords: Public understanding of science, basic science concepts, elementary science, pre-service teachers
1. Introduction
As the world has become more science and technology driven, it is crucial for citizens to become more
scientifically literate, in order to be competitive in the international arena (National Science Foundation, 2010). It is
also important for K-12 teachers to be well-equipped when providing quality science instruction in the 21st century
(National Science Teachers Association, 2011). Being scientifically literate requires not only a knowledge of
science, but also a knowledge of how science functions, evolves and how it relates to society (Lederman, 1992).
Scientifically literate people should be able to act in a scientific manner in everyday life, and should be able to think
critically about pseudoscience and non-science (Martin, 1994). With this notion, teachers, especially science
teachers, are expected to be informed about pseudoscience, such as astrology and intelligent design, when teaching
the general public.
Investigating teachers’ views on pseudoscience and evolution is important, because teachers have a large-scale
influence on society, and their beliefs influence their own instructional practices (Eve & Dunn, 1990; Trani, 2004).
* Corresponding Author Name. Tel.: +90-262-303-2454

E-mail address: sibel.kaya@kocaeli.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.184
Sibel Kaya / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 152 – 157 153
Therefore, it might be useful to examine their understanding of scientific concepts, as well as pseudoscientific
views. This study attempts to examine if increased science instruction makes any difference in pre-service teachers’
scientific knowledge, and their views on astrology and evolution.
There is a widespread acceptance of pseudoscience, such as the belief in astrology, ‘intelligent design’, and
alternative cures among the public (Losh & Nzekwe, 2011; Preece & Baxter, 2000). In the 2008 Survey of Science
and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding, 37% of Americans regarded astrology as ‘scientific’ or
‘somewhat scientific’. The percentage was lower among college graduates (22%). Fewer Americans see astrology as
‘scientific’ compared to previous years. Respondents who were more likely to perceive astrology as scientific, were
less likely to understand the concept of science and inquiry (NSF, 2010). Losh and Nzekwe (2011b) reported that
students, who reject pseudoscientific claims, are more often the ones who also follow scientific media (e.g.
newspapers, magazines) more frequently.
As popular as pseudoscience is, evolution has been deeply unpopular in most parts of the world. The negative
attitudes toward evolution, among science teachers, is a recurring problem in different countries (Curry, 2009;
Deniz, Donnelly, & Yilmaz, 2008; Hokayem & BouJaoude, 2008; Kim & Nehm, 2011; Kutschera, 2008; Peker,
Comert, & Kence, 2010). Few studies investigating elementary teachers’ views on evolution yielded similar results
(Losh & Nzekwe, 2011a; Rice & Kaya, 2012). Among the few studies with Turkish samples, Peker and colleagues
(2010) found that only 28% of the college students accepted evolution. The number is very similar to the Turkish
public’s view, which is 25% (Martin et al., 2006). In another study, Deniz and colleagues (2008) found the
acceptance of evolution levels to be ‘low’ among Turkish pre-service biology teachers. There are currently no
studies examining Turkish elementary teachers’ beliefs about evolution, let alone comparing them with those of
science teachers.
Among the reasons for rejecting evolution, religiosity (Evans, 2008; Eder et al., 2011; Hokayem & BouJaoude,
2008; Kim & Nehm, 2011) and lack of nature of science (NOS) knowledge (BouJaoudea et al., 2011; Lombrozo et
al., 2008; Trani, 2004) emerge as the influential factors. In terms of education, studies found a positive correlation
between the amount of formal education and the acceptance of evolution (Brumfield, 2005; Eder et al., 2011).
Therefore, it was hypothesized that science education majors would have higher rates of belief in evolution. The
present study aimed to examine the following questions:
1. Are there any differences between pre-service elementary and science teachers’ levels of scientific
knowledge?
2. Are there any differences between pre-service elementary and science teachers’ views on astrology and
evolution?
2. Method
2.1. Participants
The participants of this study were 353 fourth-year students, 202 of whom were enrolled in elementary
education, and 151 were enrolled in science education programs at a large public university in Western Turkey.
There were 272 females and 81 males, and the participants were at an average age of 22. After the administration of
the Scientific Knowledge Test, 35 of these participants (21 from elementary education and 14 from science
education programs) were selected on a voluntary basis and interviewed to elaborate on some of their answers, such
as the answers regarding astrology and the theory of evolution.
Pre-service elementary teachers at the current university had taken 5 science courses throughout their 4-year
program. These were: General Biology, General Chemistry, General Physics, Science Laboratory, and Science
Teaching Methods. The pre-service science teachers had completed over 100 credits of science courses, including
such courses as, Nature and History of Science, Genetics and Biotechnology, Astronomy and Evolution.
154 Sibel Kaya / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 152 – 157
Data was collected between 2009-2011. A 26-item Scientific Knowledge Test compiled from the National
Science Foundation’s (2010) Survey of Public Attitudes: Toward and Understanding of Science and Technology,
which is also given to a representative sample in the U.S. approximately every two years, was used as a data
collection instrument. The test included life, earth and physical science questions. Nine of these questions were
added to the survey in 2008. Test items were translated into Turkish and checked by two language specialists. The
test was administered to a group of 30 students, before administering to the larger study group, to ensure that each
item was well understood. Based on the feedback from the smaller group, minor changes were made in some of the
statements. The questions were in True/False, short answer, multiple choice and open-ended formats. The highest
possible score on the test was 27, with one of the open-ended items worth 2 points. The KR-20 reliability of the test
was found as 0.77. For each cohort, the test was administered by the author; the test administration time was
approximately 15-20 minutes.
For the purpose of the current study, the following items in the test were analyzed separately:
• Astrology is: (A) Scientific (B) Sort of scientific (C) Not at all scientific
• Human beings as we know them today developed from earlier species of animals.
For the second part of data collection, semi-structured interviews were conducted. Interviews were audio-taped
with participants’ consent and were transcribed afterwards. Each interview lasted between 8-10 minutes. Interview
questions were listed in the Results section.
All quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS-15. Descriptive statistics were computed for the Scientific
Knowledge Test and responses for the astrology and evolution items. Comparative analyses were conducted through
t-test and Chi-square test. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in order to receive detailed information on
pre-service teachers’ views of astrology and evolution. Descriptive codes identified through the question topic
revealed commonalities among responses (Bogdan & Biklen 2003). Responses were coded by two researchers and
the codes resulted in the emergence of specifically defined classifications.
3. Results
As seen in Table 1, science education students received significantly higher scores (M=22.00) than the
elementary education students (M=18.66) on the Scientific Knowledge Test (p < 0.001). Among elementary
education majors, correct responses were below 50% on questions related to lasers, antibiotics, atmospheric
pressure, and experimentation. For science education students, correct responses to all Scientific Knowledge Test
items were above 50%.
Table1. T-test of the Scientific Knowledge Test Scores by Major
Major n Mean SD Df t
Elem. Ed. 202 18.66 2.77 351 11.83**
Sci. Ed. 151 22.00 2.41
** p < 0.001
Student responses for astrology and evolution were tallied as ‘1’ and ‘0’. Participants who rated astrology as ‘not
at all scientific’ received 1, while others received 0. For evolution questions, respondents, who marked the statement
‘Human beings as we know them today developed from earlier species of animals’ as ‘true’, received 1 and the
others received 0. Eighty eight percent of elementary and 91% of science pre-service teachers rated astrology as
either scientific or somewhat scientific. These numbers are overwhelmingly high compared to 22 percent of US
college graduates, who perceived astrology as being scientific (NSF, 2010). Seventy eight percent of elementary
education and 70 percent of science education students did not accept the statement that humans descended from
earlier animals. According to the crosstabulation Chi-square test, these percentages were not significantly different
(p = 0.051). In other words, the views on astrology and evolution were similar among science education and
elementary education majors.
In order to further examine participants’ responses to the astrology and evolution items, 35 participants
(aprroximately 10% of the participants) were interviewed on voluntary basis. Of these 35 participants, 21 were from
elementary education and 14 were from science education program.
Following questions were asked during the interview sessions:
1. Is astrology scientific? Why?

2. What is your position regarding evolution?
3. Have you had any instruction on evolution in school?Do you support teaching of evolution in schools?
On astrology, all but two students perceived astrology to be scientific or somewhat scientific, Some excerpts
include:
“I don’t really believe in astrology but I think it is somewhat scientific because it uses scientific terminology”.
“There is a lot of research about it, it is not proven yet but moon, stars, and planets affect peoples’ mood and
behavior”.
The two students, who rated astrology as ‘not scientific at all’, mentioned that they attended a workshop on
astronomy:
“I think most people confuse astrology with astronomy. The difference should be emphasised at schools and
people should be educated. Our professors at the astronomy workshop clearly explained the difference and told
us that there is no way astrology can be scientific”.
When asked about their position regarding evolution, almost all students mentioned they reject human evolution
due to their religious beliefs. Some participants stated that they do not have adequate knowledge on the topic. The
lack of knowledge on evolution and nature of science (NOS) was apparent in participants’ answers, especially those
of elementary education majors, such as:
“Theory of evolution has not been proven 100 percent yet, there are a lot of gaps in the theory”.
“There are not enough fossils to support the theory (evolution). There aren’t any transitional fossils, for
example”.
None of the 35 participants who were interviewed received any instruction on human evolution throughout their
K-12 and undergraduate education. They mentioned that their teachers always skipped that topic in school or asked
them to study themselves. Science education majors received the Evolution course during their fourth year in the
program. However, students indicated they never discussed topics on human evolution in this course. Most science
education majors indicated that they feel ill-prepared to teach evolution and they wished to have learned more on the
topic.
All but two of the participants supported the teaching of evolution in schools; however, they were wary of it, such
as:
“Teachers should not be imposing anything on students, they should be objective about evolution. Rather than
focusing on human evolution, they should be emphasising other aspects of evolution”.
4. Conclusions
This study examined the differences between elementary and science education seniors in their scientific
knowledge, and their views on pseudoscience and evolution. Given the amount of science courses taken, it was
expected that science education majors would have higher scientific knowledge scores, lower rates of belief in
pseudoscience and higher rates of belief in evolution. Results showed that science education majors scored
significantly higher than elementary education majors on the scientific knowledge test. However, there was no
difference between majors in terms of their responses to the items related to astrology and evolution.
As highlighted by several researchers (e.g. Kallery, 2011; Losh & Nzekwe, 2011b; Martin, 1994),
pseudoscientific beliefs have become an epidemic, which is too serious to be neglected by the scientific community.
It is known that teachers carry their beliefs into their classrooms, and knowing these teachers could pass on their
faulty beliefs about science and pseudoscience, is concerning - especially as young children are easily affected by
156 Sibel Kaya / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 152 – 157
their teachers’ views (Kallery, 2011). It was clear from the interviews that prospective teachers are probably
confusing astrology with astronomy, or consider astrology as a branch of astronomy. Through critically evaluating
their students’ views, science educators can help understand these two terms; and also, what ‘scientific’ means and
how ‘scientific method’ works.
Similar to a previous study (BouJaoudea et al., 2011), prospective teachers in this study, too, had conflicting
views on evolution, religious beliefs, and teaching evolution in classrooms. Most of them stated that they reject
evolution because of their religious beliefs and admitted (or indicated) that they have inedaquate knowledge on the
topic. Teacher education programs often fail to educate science teachers on the topic of evolution. Therefore, they
hold many misconceptions regarding evolution (Smith, 2010). Evans (2008) stated that people are often confused,
rather than resistant, about evolution, due to their religious beliefs; such was the case in this study. In fact, several
pre-service teachers in the current study, stated that they are open to learning more about evolution in their
classrooms. Interview findings showed that prospective teachers have more positive attitudes toward the aspects of
evolution, which does not include humans, but includes rather plants and other animals. However, it seems that even
these aspects are not being taught in Turkish K-12 public schools.
While investigating the underlying factors of pre-service teachers’ views on astrology and evolution, the current
study has found that prospective teachers have inadequate knowledge of NOS. Many believed that theories should
be ‘proven’ in order to be valid and widely acceptable, and that the theory of evolution lacks evidence,
experimentation and ‘has not been proven’ yet. Similar findings have been reported by BouJaoudea and colleagues
(2011), even for professors of science. These findings suggest that teacher education programs should focus on
explicit teaching of NOS in their science courses and provide opportunities to experience and evaluate ‘real’
science.
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ScienceDirect
Using Comparative Literature In The ELT Classroom: Underlining

The Post-Modern Sister Carrie In Some Girls: My Life In A Harem
Esin Kumlu*
Esin Kumlu, Dr. Dokuz Eylül University- Faculty of Education. İzmir- T
urkey 35540
Abstract
Using comparative literature in the ELT classroom is a powerful tool to teach both the history of different cultures
and to foster creative abilities. An example of such a comparative analysis is Theodore Dreiser’s masterpiece Sister
Carrie(1900) and Jillian Lauren’s novel Some Girls: My Life in a Harem(2010). Through a comparative analysis, it
can be ascertained that Dreiser’s protagonist Caroline Meeber, Sister Carrie, symbolically intersects with Lauren’s
narrator. Like a post-modern Sister Carrie, Lauren’s narrator underlines the historical, social, cultural and
psychological forces behind becoming a woman through focusing on the binary opposition between ‘the real and the
unreal.
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Key Words: Sister Carrie, Some Girls. My Life In A Harem, Comparative Literature, City, Theodore Dreiser, Jillian
Lauren.
As Matthew Arnold (1857) underlines; “Everywhere there is connection, everywhere there is illustration. No single
event, no single literature is adequately comprehended except in relation to other events, to other literatures”(1857).
Stemming from Arnold’s comment, it can be assumed that the power of comparative literature gains significance
when used in order to better analyze literary texts. Theodore Dreiser’s Sister Carrie(1949) and Jillian Lauren’s Some
Girls. My Life in A Harem(2010) are marvelous examples of comparative analysis. Although the two texts were
written in different historical periods, they address common social issues, allowing the two texts illuminate each
other. Lauren’s narrator, as a post-modern Sister Carrie builds a strong relation with Dreiser’s Carrie, who serves as
a basis for a sisterhood, well deserving the symbol of a timeless character who can be used to illuminate other
historical periods. Therefore, Sister Carrie symbolically intersects with Jillian’s 20th century narrator who although
displaying certain differences, shares many common points with Carrie. Therefore, 1890’s and 1990’s come
together around the concepts; ‘city,’ ‘the material,’ ‘power-desire,’ ‘prince’ and ‘real-unreal.’ Through focusing on
* Corresponding Author: Esin Kumlu Tel.: +90-532-546-48-56

E-mail address: esinkumlu@yahoo.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.248
Esin Kumlu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 502 – 508 503
these common concepts, both authors examine female protagonists who are the flesh and blood symbol of their ages.
As a result, comparative literary analysis of the two texts enables a deep understanding of the two different historical
periods and cultures in question and the inner motives of the female protagonists as encompassing common
patterns.As highlighted by Susan Basnett(1998), “The simplest answer is that comparative literature involves the
study of texts across cultures, that it is interdisciplinary and that it is concerned with patterns of connection in
literatures across both time and space”(1998, p.1). In terms of time and space, Dreiser’s and Lauren’s texts
encompass a connection that illuminates the story of women in the 19th and 20th century worlds. Although, as both
writers are American meaning, meaning that the two texts would not usually be read as a study of opposing cultures.
However, as the texts do symbolically highlight two cultures, the study of the two texts could not usually be read as
a study of texts across cultures, they do symbolically highlight two different cultures that are historically and
spacidly disparate, this creates a virgin territory for literary analysis. It can be assumed that reading the two texts
side by side means “….the comparison of one literature with another or others, and the comparison of literature with
other spheres of human expression”(Remak,1961, p.3). Therefore, Dreiser’s and Lauren’s texts serve as a perfect
model for the meeting and divergence of space and time. As a naturalist writer, Dreiser’s main objective in creating
Carrie, Caroline Meeber is to create a social document to illuminate the space and time of the 19th century America
rather than a story per se. As a result, Sister Carrie turns into a social document, a kind of scientific experiment, in
the literary domain, through which the reader sees the forces that motivate her. Lauren’s protagonist, an
autobiographic self-portrait, intersects with Dreiser’s story at this point. She also uses her protagonist as a social
document to display the outcomes of her decisions and her transformation through her internal journey.
The intersection of Carrie and Jillian begins with the starting point of their psychological journeys. Caroline Meeber
as a young girl leaves her town and her family to go to Chicago “…Caroline Meeber boarded the afternoon train for
Chicago, her total outfit consisted of a small trunk, a cheap alligator-skin satchel, a small lunch in a paper box, and a
yellow leather snap purse…”(Dreiser, 1987, p.3). Like Carrie, Jillian leaves her family and moves to Brunei with a
“green flowered suitcase”(Lauren, 2010, p.3). As the two young girls leave their homes for a better future, Carrie’s
‘yellow purse’ signifies decay while Jillian’s baggage illustrates hope, peace and wisdom in the color ‘green.’ In
addition, in the prologue, Lauren associates her story with the story of Scheherazade: “This is, of course, the story of
Scheherade. It’s the story of the storyteller….We are looking for the story that will save our lives. One thousand and
one nights nearly three years. That’s about the span of this story. Will you listen? It’s almost morning”(Lauren,
2010, p.2). She gives the reader the clue that just like Scheherazade she will succeed in surviving and she will meet
a prince who forces her to become stronger than before. Caroline Meeber goes to Chicago and in order to climb the
social ladder, she uses Drouet and Hurstwood, who are wealthy men of the city. At the end of her story she has
become famous actress in Broadway yet she is depressed and unhappy as a woman who finds herself lost in the
material world. In a choice just like Carrie’s, Jillian uses the harem of the Prince of Brunei in order to climb the
social ladder. Also like Carrie, she sacrifices her body. However, unlike Carrie, at the end of her story survives and
achieves happiness while Carrie loses control of her life. Jillian returns to New York, gets married and has a son,
symbolizing the power she has, unlike Carrie at the end of her psychological journey.
In both novels, the psychological and so, to some extent, the spiritual journeys of two women begin with
the ‘city.’ In 19th century America, a new beginning, a new life was associated with the ‘city’ a symbol of
opportunity. The world was becoming more and more industrial and everything had begun to depend upon capital.
“In America this period witnessed the rapid growth of cities, the rise of corporate business, the influx of immigrant
labor, and the spread of wretched working conditions”(Lehan,1998,p.194). In 20th century America a new
beginning also meant the city, however, this time, it meant passing beyond the borders of your life through
experiencing it in different cultures and nations in the post-modern world, which “…is a slippery character, at home
either in deep cyberspace or the flickering of TV monitors, or in the lofty and esoteric towers of the Academy that
invented and institutionalized it….the present seems already to be the future”(Smethurst, 2000, p.4). Therefore, the
starting point of both novels begins with the city. “..as literature gave imaginative reality to the city, urban changes
in turn helped transform the literary text(“Lehan, 1998, p. xv). In relation with that both authors chose the city as
the setting of their texts. It can be assumed that in the city
The crowd contains the potentiality for experience: meeting a lover or a friend or experiencing a spectacle. But the
flaneur is discontented because the city offers more experience than he can assimilate. He always feels that he is
504 Esin Kumlu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 502 – 508
missing out even in the process of experiencing: his state of mind is restless dissatisfaction, aimless desire, qualities
we find in many of Dreiser’s and Fitzgerald’s characters.( Lehan, 1998, p.74).
The term ‘city’ can be read as a psychological and social space in which characters are both tested by and also test
its limits. Hence, the space, the city, is turned into a living character, as is the time in which they perform their
stories. As underlined by Michel Foucault; “Did it start with Bergson or before? Space was treated as the dead, the
fixed, the undialectical, the immobile. Time, on the contrary was richness, fecundity, life, dialectic”(Foucault, 1980,
p. 70). ‘Time’ which can be read as dynamic part which sometimes enlightens and sometimes darken the
protagonists’ lives. It serves as the metaphor for the city in which the characters develop, transform and change. As
a result of that, Dreiser’s narrator, who has a strong, powerful and objective voice, underlines at the very beginning
of the text: ““When a girl leaves her home at eighteen, she does one of two things. Either she falls into saving hands
and becomes better, or she rapidly assumes the cosmopolitan standard of virtue and becomes worse”(Dreiser, 1987,
p.3) as “there was the great city”(Dreiser, 1987, p.3) who is waiting for her. Dreiser frequently alludes to the city as
a symbolic living thing which “…has its cunning wiles, no less than the infinitely smaller and more human tempter.
There are larger forces which allure with all the soulfulness of expression possible in the most cultured
human”(Dreiser, 1987, p.3). Even a cultured human can be allured by the cunning wiles and beauty of the city.
Threfore, it will not be a surprise that Caroline Meeber who is “Bright, timid”(Dreiser, 1897, p.3) will be entrapped
by it. The beginning of Carrie’s entrapment begins when she goes to Chicago, to her sister’s house. On the train she
meets a young gentleman, a salesman, which is one of the most popular jobs of the age, called Drouet. Although at
first she rejects the idea of giving him her address, the material needs of city life forces her to meet him. When they
meet in Chicago, at the center of the city, “Drouet selected as table close by the window, where the busy rout of the
street could be seen to see and to be seen as he dined” (Dreiser, 1897, p.54) As she feels the wealth, power and
comfort of the city, for Carrie “Already the hard rumble of the city through the open windows became pleasant”(
Dreiser, 1897, p.346). It is apparent that she had been immediately seduced by the city.
While Carrie tries to survive in Chicago, Jillian is in New York. As the narrator of her own story she is
much stronger than Carrie, both physically and psychologically. As a post-modern Sister Carrie says: “And life in
New York costs money and a kidney, and that was way more than I was making a terrible cocktail waitress at the
Red Lion on Bleecker Street”(Lauren,2010, p.29). Therefore, unlike Carrie, she is aware of the fact that the more
materialism the city offers, the less moral it forces an individual to become. That is the reason why in Brunei, which
just like Chicago, is a symbol of wealth and power, she comments: “Beautiful got thrown around so”(Lauren 2010,
p. 213) she continues: “the realities of self-sufficiency began to erode my ideals. Neither art nor activism had any
place in my Brunei world, which, as the months wore on, was becoming my real world”(Lauren 2010, p. 199).
Hence, the illusion of the city as a simulacra cannot deceive her like Carrie which is “green sticky, overgrown,
ancient green”(Lauren 2010, p. 76).
The seductive cities, Brunei, the symbol of wisdom with its ancient green, and Chicago, with its lights
symbolizing illusion, create an abstract space in which the characters develop, transform and change. As Samethurst
comments on the issue, “Time here is predominantly, although not exclusively, future-oriented, and space is
predominantly abstract, homogeneous and expansive”(Smethurst,2000, p.2). Hence, the city forces characters to live
a future-oriented life in which an illusionary abstractness exists as a social space, and in ‘the city’ the future means
having a life that builds upon the material. As highlighted by Fisher; “For Dreiser the energy of promise, erotic
energy of the will or of masculine power, and the energy of the Money which he described in Sister Carrie as
‘honestly stored energy’ were convertible. At some point they converged and were indistinguishable.(Fisher,p.225).
The energy, the power of the material, the money, is the very center of Carrie’s story. On the train, as a penniless,
jobless young girl, when she meets Drouet, the narrator comments: “Good clothes, of course, were the most
essential, the things without which he was nothing”(Dreiser,1987, p.5-6). It is apparent that Carrie is entranced by
the good-looking appearance of Drouet. That’s the reason why Dreiser’s narrator believes that “A woman should
someday write the complete history of clothes. No matter how young, it is one of the things she wholly
comprehends”(Dreiser,1987, p.6). As a result of that, Carrie not only accepts the friendship of Drouet but also his
money because when winter comes, she has no winter jacket or shoes and the ability to shop becomes desirable to
her. While she is searching for job, she falls ill and materialism wins out over morality. She begins to dwell upon to
the jewelry departments more and more, and she visits the shops as if they were a holy space. When a young
gentleman promises her wealth, the narrator reflects Carrie’s point of view: “There it was, the admirable, great city,
so fine when you are not poor”(Dreiser,1987, p.65). The materialism of the city dominates Carrie so much that in
time shopping begins to be not enough for Carrie that is the reason why, she decides to leave her sister’s house and
begins to live with Drouet, because the location and the luxury of your home were the reflectors of social status in
19th century America, just they are today. Due to her new decision, the narrator says: “She was again the victim of
the city’s hypnotic influence”(Dreiser, 1987, p.74). Dreiser’s emphasis upon the material is quite strong: “In a
material way, she was considerably improved”(Dreiser, 1987, p.134) and Dreiser wants the reader to add; ‘morally
she was considerably reduced.’
As a post-modern Sister Carrie, Jillian’s story is similar to Carrie’s but due to her insight, power and wisdom, the
desire for the material cannot captivate her for so long. She comments:
“The Southeast-Asian sultanate of Brunei was a country I had only recently heard of. My job description was
elusive at best, but I fantasized that I might arrive and find a wild adventure, a pile of money, and an employer who
was no less than Prince Charming”(Lauren, 2010, p.11).
Like Carrie, she becomes a member of the Prince’s harem. The only difference is the metaphoric harem of Carrie is
a reality in Jillian’s case. She says: “Things were carefully orchestrated to preserve the illusion of a regular life, in
which every need or want was fulfilled practically before they even knew they had it” (Lauren, 2010, p.148).
Therefore, in Carrie’s and Lauren’s case ‘harem’ is a simulacra designed by the male world in order to captivate
women through promising ‘the material.’ Like Carrie, Jillian underlines “Rolexes and Bulgari sets”(Lauren, 2010,
p.154).
When faced with such despair, a girl can always shop. We hit the Yaohan with travel goggles on, the kind that make
every little thing look irresistible because it’s exotic and the money makes no sense and you feel like you’re in a
video game with tinny Asian pop songs and smiling wide-faced shop girls who speak to you in rhymes and giggle at
your strangeness.(Lauren, 2010, p.135)
Both women devote their lives to the material. Jillian’s life is surrounded by “Chanel, Hermes, Versace, Dior,
Armani, Gucci”(Lauren, 2010, p.181) Carrie’s life is also surrounded by shopping windows and jewels. However,
there is a big difference between the two. While Carrie only unconsciously falls into consumerism, Jillian is very
aware of her desire to consume. That is the reason why she associates herself with 19th century women in Carrie’s
age: “I braised my hair and imagined myself a tragic consumptive character out of a Jane Austen novel”(Lauren,
2010, p.230). While Carrie is unaware of that danger, Jillian strictly underlines “I was aware of my rabid
consumerism. What about the eight-year-old slaves in China who stitched these ridiculously priced rags together?
Entire countries besieged by poverty and famine?”(Lauren, 2010, p.181). Hence, she will have the chance of taking
control of her life while Carrie will remain as a captive. In relation, the metaphoric Harem of both women is the
material world that seduces them.
As both women are seduced by the materials of the city, they need ideal wealthy male figures in order to climb the
social ladder. It will mean that instead of looking into the shop windows from outside, they will enter into them and
get the material. To facilitate this, they need a prince, who can come and rescue them from poverty:
Spencer’s First Principles serves as a key to understanding Dreiser’s first novel, Sister Carrie. It is an exercise in the
principle of matter in motion Carrie illustrating the move toward completion; Drouet, a form of stasis or
equilibrium; and Hurstwood, a process of dissolution. The main force at work in the novel is that of the city, seen
first in a less complex form (Chicago), and then in a more complex, heterogeneous form (New York).(Lehan, 1998,
p.198-199).
While Carrie’s symbolic princes meet her needs, in Jillian’s case she meets a real prince, the Prince of Brunei. Like
Carrie, Jillian is immediately attracted by the appearance and expensive clothes of the prince. “There was something
promising in the entire material prospect he set forth. There was something satisfactory in the attention of this
individual with his good clothes”(Dreiser, 1987, p.7). Just like Carrie’s view of Drouet, Jillian interprets the prince
as “The prince was charming, dynamic, enigmatic, a polo player, a playboy, the minister of finance”(Lauren, 2010,
p.98). The thing that Jillian finds in the Prince is not a romantic relationship as she believes that “romantic love was
a conspiracy employed by the capitalist establishment as a marketing tool and by the media as a Cinderella
soporific”(Lauren, 2010, p.33). As a result, she just expects luxury, which is enough for her. Carrie like a little child
also loses her control over life, which is underlined by the narrator. Drouet’s pocket is “filled with slips of paper…It
impressed her deeply”(Dreiser, 1987, p.8). “He loved fine clothes, good eating”(Dreiser, 1987, p.40). The material
prospect of Drouet, the city, seduces Carrie so much that she begins to ask for more from life. Drouet is only a
salesman however, Hurstwood becomes the new ideal man for Carrie, one who can help her to climb the social
ladder with greater ease. When she meets Charles Hurstwood who is both the manager of a company and a friend of
Drouet, she is immediately attracted. As by the increased prospects he represents Hurstwood is the ideal man for
Carrie who can help her to climb the social ladder easier than Drouet.
The significant point is the fact that the male world forces women to focus on outward display and climbing the
social ladder. As Dreiser’s narrator asserts: “It is so easy to do this when the thing opined is in the line of what we
desire. In his hearty way, he insisted upon her good looks”(Dreiser, 1987, p.93). It is true that Drouet always
underlines Carrie to the need of choosing good clothes and being elegant. The more he demands beauty in terms of
clothes the more Carrie descends into the material. The case is the same for Jillian. The Prince gives limitless credit
cards to the members of his harem. It is evident that the social space Carrie inhabits in the 19th century, a symbolic
harem, has become a real one for Jillian in the 20th century world. As Luce Irigaray asserts,
For woman is traditionally use-value for man, exchange-value among men. Merchandise, then. This makes her the
guardian of matter whose price will be determined by “subjects”: workers, tradesman, consumers, according to the
standard of their work and their need-desire.(Irigaray, 1981, p.105). In our protagonist’s stories, they are use-value
for men which are forced to be consumers. The patriarchal oppression of “good look” and “consumption” causes
female characters to define having money as an indictment of power that turns into a desire. In relation, both
protagonists build a bridge between concepts of ‘power and desire.’
For Jillian power means to have a “desirable body”(Lauren, 2010, p.137) and she underlines that “Being wanted and
being somewhere so strange was almost magical”(Lauren, 2010, p.157). As her beauty and elegance are demanded
by the patriarchal power for the sake of desire, the power Jillian feels is in fact a weakness. As Jillian is not as
powerless as Carrie, she strictly comments: “Need was an illusion. There was only wanting, and the strong could
live with wanting and not having”(Lauren, 2010, p.138). Jillian recognizes the fact that while her elegant female
body is present, her identity becomes invisible, therefore, it is sacrificed for the material desire. That must be the
reason why she notes that she is both “present and invisible at the same time”(Lauren, 2010, p.146). Although Jillian
defines herself as a persona:
But it’s more than the money. There’s a persona you create to fill in for you on stranger’s laps all day….This
persona is…bolder, wilder, and inevitably feel less pain than the real you. If she doesn’t, you haven’t done a very
good job inventing her. So maybe you start to visit that persona once in a while when you’re not at work.(Lauren,
2010, p.299).
Unlike Carrie, she is aware of the fact that her life is a form of entrapment. Carrie is not as strong as Jillian as she is,
“bright, timid, and full of the illusions of ignorance and youth”(Dreiser,1987, p.3). She frequently remarks: “I want
to see something”(Dreiser,1987, p. 51). ‘Something’ refers to her limitless desire for power as she is always “lured
by desire” (Dreiser,1987,p.63). Due to her pathologic weakness toward addiction for desire she begins to use each
man like a stepping-stone. Just like she uses Drouet when she meets Hurtswood, who is “the superior
man”(Dreiser,1987,p.102) and “the man of money”(Dreiser,1987, p.118) Carrie views him as a stepping-stone.
Because Carry “wanted pleasure, she wanted position”(Dreiser,1987, p.133) she leaves Drouet and begins a
friendship with Hurstwood. However, Carrie cannot resist Hurstwood’s power and begins to live with him in New
York. In the interim, the only thing Carrie cares about is marriage because she always asks him “Will you marry
me?”(Dreiser,1987,p.256) and the frequent response she gets is “we’ll be happy”(Dreiser,1987, p.263).
Unfortunately, they cannot be happy. Hurstwood cannot find a job in New York and in order to survive Carrie
begins an acting career. Step by step she turns into a star. “For once she was the admired, the sought-
for”(Dreiser,1987, p.175). This is a turning point for Carrie, she achieves survival in the male world while
Hurstwood is in his “rocking-chair”(Dreiser,1987,p.317). The rocking-chair is quite symbolic in the sense that he
cannot move one step further. It is right that “Carrie was still with him, but not helpless and pleading. There was a
lilt in her voice which was new. She did not study him with eyes expressive of dependence”(180) . Carrie as an
independent actress reflects Jillian’s qualities as an actress, while Carrie chooses the stage on which to act out
different lives, and gives significance to “The glamour, the tense situation, the fine clothes, the
applause”(Dreiser,1987, p.145), Lauren writes:
The thing I miss most about doing theater isn’t the applause. It’s the experience I have onstage of being completely
present. For me, something about the limited world, the adrenaline, and the lights banishes any sense of self-
consciousness. My mind empties out, my body grows balanced, and my heart opens.(Lauren, 2010, p.291)
In conclusion, with regard to acting, while Carrie defines acting as a desire to be applauded, Jillian defines it in
terms of presence, that means of attaining a noticeable presence in the male world.
After highlighting the desire for power the protagonists come to the ending of their stories, encompassing the core of
all the concepts the reader juxtaposes: real-unreal. In their materialistic world both women choose similar paths but
the endings are different. Jillian lives the binary opposition of real-unreal in a different way. At the beginning of her
story she writes: “The girl I was in New York might be closer to the real me, but the girl I’d been in Brunei had been
purposeful, at least. I had felt powerful”(Lauren, 2010, p.298). As a result, she is always aware of the fact that there
is a difference between the material Jillian, the unreal, and her true-self; the real. And at the end, she decides to
leave the harem returns to the states, gets married and has a son. On the other hand, as is seen at the end of her story,
Carrie keeps saying: ““but it always makes me feel as if I wanted something”(Dreiser, 1987, p.497). The thing she
keeps wanting is unclear even for her. She has everything a woman needs in life, yet she is not happy. The narrator
reminds the reader: “they would be happy”(Dreiser, 1987, p.189) However, the more gentlemen she meets, the
unhappier she becomes.
And now Carrie had attained that which in the beginning seems life’s object, or, at least, such fraction of its as
human beings ever attain of their original desires. She could look about on her gowns and carriage, her furniture and
bank account. Friends there were, as the world takes it-those who would bow and smile in acknowledgement of her
success.(Dreiser, 1987, p.453).
The more materially she prospers, the unhappier she becomes. Hence, while Carrie remains still and sits on her
rocking-chair, Jillian writes down her story. As supported by Luce Irigaray(1981):
writing is precisely the very possibility of change, the space that can serve as a springboard for subversive thought,
the precursory movement of a transformation of social and cultural structures.... It is by writing, from and toward
women, and by taking up the challenge of speech, which has been governed by the phallus, that women will confirm
women in a place other than that which is reserved in and by the symbolic, that is, in a place other than silence.
Women should break out of the snare of silence. They shouldn't be conned into accepting a domain which is the
margin or the harem. (1981, p.283)
It can be assumed that although both novels were written in different historical periods, they share common
social and psychological issues. The comparative analysis of both novels underlines the fact that Dreiser’s
protagonist “Sister Carrie” is an umbrella term for all women like Carrie, appears again as a post-modern one in the
20th century world. In relation, both female characters illustrate how they develop, transform and change throughout
their stories. While Carrie keeps rocking in her chair, Jillian starts a new life in which there is only the real.
SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

Grade: Undergraduate
Subject: Analyzing Sister Carrie and Some Girls: My Life in A Harem through using comparative literature
Goal: 1. Students will be able to recognize patterns between novels of American literature through focusing on
comparative perspective (The students should have already read the texts.)
2. The teacher will give background information about comparative literature and how it will be used in the
ELT class.
Procedures:
1. Focusing on the historical period: As an example of comparative literature the two texts must be read together.
The teacher will analyze the historical periods of the two texts, and the similarities and the differences between the
cultural periods. The teacher will ask for student responses about the similarities and differences between the novels.
Student’s responses will be written down on board.
2. Analyzing the characters: Divide the students into different groups and ask them to draw a diagram of
characters which have similarities and differences with each other. Write down the responses of the students on
board and then summarize the topic
3. Analyzing common symbols: The teacher will ask students to find out the most significant common symbols of
the two texts. The teacher will write down the symbols on board and discuss them with the class.
4. Analyzing the ending of the novels: The teacher will ask students to discuss the endings of the novels and how
the protagonists’ ending differ. The teacher will discuss the endings with the class.
References
Arnold, M. (1857). On the Modern Element in Literature, Inaugural Lecture derived in the University of Oxford, 14 November.
Bassnett, S. (1998). Comparative Literature. Massachusetts: Blackwell.
Cixous, H. (1983). "The Laugh of the Medusa." In Ed. Elisabeth Abel and
Emily K. Abel (eds). The Signs Reader: Women, Gender and Scholarship. Trans. Keith Cohen and Paula Cohen. Chicago: U of Chicago P
Dreiser, T. (1987). Dreiser: Sister Carrie, Jennie Gerhardt, Twelve Men. New York: Classics of the United States, Inc.
Fisher, P. “Theodore Dreiser: Promising Dreamers” in The New Pelican Guide to English Literature: 9. American Literature, p. 255.
Frost, R. (1979). Departmental. In William Harmon (Ed.), Oxford book of American light verse (pp. 280-281). New York: Oxford University
Press.
Irigaray, L. “This Sex which is not one.” In Marks and Courtivron (eds.) New French Feminisms Anthology. (pp. 99-107). Sussex: The
Harvester Press.
Lauren, J. (2010). Some Girls. My Life In A Harem. New York: Penguin.
Lehan, Richard (1998). The City in Literature. An Intellectual and Cultural History.
California: University of California Press.
Michel, F. (1980). ‘Questions on Geography,’ in C. Gordon (Ed.), Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, trans.
Colin Gordon, Brighton: Harvester Press.
Remak, H.(1961) ‘Comparative Literature, Its Definition and Function,’ in Newton Stalknecht and Horst Frenz (eds), Comparative Literature:
Method and Perspective, Carbondale:Southern Illinois Press.
Smethurst, P. (2000). The Postmodern Chronotope. Reading Space and Time in Contemporary Fiction. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
ScienceDirect
Validating the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge appropriate for instructing

Students (TPACK-S) of pre-service teachers

Varongsri Saengbanchonga*, Nonglak Wiratchaib, Suchada Bowarnkitiwongc
a
Ph.D. Student bProfessor Emeritus cAssociate Professor
Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Payathai, Wangmai, Patumwan,Bangkok 10330 THAILAND
Abstract
Based on Mishra & Koehler’s idea of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), a student component had been
added to form the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) appropriate to instruct student model (TPACK-S) as
a useful frame to grasp complete teacher knowledge. The primary purpose of the present study was to validate the newly
developed TPACK-S measurement model consisting of 15 components. Data for this pilot study were collected using the five-
level Like scale questionnaires from a sample of 135 student teachers, analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis, and estimated
psychometric properties. The research results indicated that the TPACK-S measurement model fit the empirical data. Internal
consistency between the individual factors was also strong. The implied policy implication is that the teacher equipped with
TPACK-S would enhance students’ achievement.
Selection and peer
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge appropriating for students (TPACK- S), model
validation, pre-servic teachers, student teachers
1. Introduction
Mishra and Koehler (2006) had developed the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)
framework consisting of seven cognitive tools deriving from a critical synthesis of the knowledge employed by most
of the effective teachers, and had further elaborated the framework as a way to develop the specialized knowledge,
skills, and understanding that teachers must have to become effective classroom teachers towards the 21st learning
of students (Mishra, Kohler and Henriksen 2011). In the TPACK framework (see Figure 1A), there are three main
components of Technological Knowledge (TK) referring to basic and advance technologies, Pedagogical Knowledge
(PK) referring to instructional method process and practices, and Content Knowledge (CK) referring to the subject
matters the students should have learned; and the four integrated components as a results of the interactions among
TK, PK, and CK, consisting of Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), Technological Content Knowledge
(TCK), Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) as
the central component of all. The framework has been conceptually developed and assessed to signify it as a perfect
guideline for the development of the pre-service teachers.
* Corresponding Author name. Varongsri Saengbanchong Tel.: +6-681-145-0757

E-mail address: varongsris@hotmail.com
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.252
Varongsri Saengbanchong et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 524 – 530 525
Recently educators in general and educational technologists in particular have been trying to empirically proved
the validity of the of the seven-component TPACK measurement model of the teachers’ knowledge (Koehler ,
Mishra & Yahya, 2007; Hsu, 2012; Kafyulilo, 2010; Schmidt, Sahin, Thompson & Seymour, 2008; Jang, 2012;
Chai, 2011). Almost all of those efforts used exploratory factor analysis, and consequently, yielded different
numbers of TPACK components. For example, Archambault and Barnett (2010) found only three components, Lux
(2011) found six factors, and Koehler, Shin, and Mishra (2011) and Lee and Tsai (2010) and Chai (2011) discovered
five components. The differences in those research findings could be explained either by variations in the studied
samples, contents, measures, or the limitation of the data analysis compared to the confirmatory factor analysis.
(Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1996; Hair, Black, Babin and Anderson 2010). Being aware of the analytically limitation,
Saengbanchong, Wiratchai and Bowarnkitiwong (2012) have attempted using second order confirmatory factor
analysis to validate the TPACK measurement model developed based on Schmidt, et al. (2009), and successfully
found that the developed TPACK model has been strongly and significantly fit to the empirically data.

Figure 1A. TPACK framework Figure 1B. TPACK-S framework

Note: SK = Student Knowledge, CK = Content Knowledge, PK = Pedagogical Knowledge, TK = Technological Knowledge, PCK =
Pedagogical Content Knowledge, TCK = Technological Content Knowledge, TPK = Technological Pedagogical Knowledge, CK-S = Content
Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, PK-S = Pedagogical Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, TK-S = Technological
Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, TPACK = Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge, PCK-S = Pedagogical Content
Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, TCK-S = Technological Content Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, TPK-S =
Technological Pedagogical Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, TPACK-S = Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
appropriate for instructing Student
The idea of applying the TPACK framework to the practical program in teacher education has inspired us for
further extending the TPACK model. As the Thai Educational Reform Act, 1999 has focused on “student-centre
instruction”, we have decided to add one more component of the Student Knowledge (SK) referring to knowledge
concerning the students in term of their learning readiness and needs, and the integrated component with the existing
seven component of the TPACK model. Based on the TPACK model development by Mishra and Koehler (2006),
we proposed the extended TPACK model, or the TPACK-S model the teacher should have in order to transfer
required knowledge appropriate for instructing students individually. Hence, our proposed extended model
consisting of four main components of TK, PK, CK, and SK; and eleven integrated components of the four original
526 Varongsri Saengbanchong et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 524 – 530
TPK, TCK, PCK, TPACK components, and the new seven integrated components of the Content Knowledge
appropriate for instructing Student (CK-S), Pedagogical Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student (PK-S),
Technological Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student (TK-S), Pedagogical Content Knowledge appropriate
for instructing Student (PCK-S), Technological Content Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student (TCK-S),
Technological Pedagogical Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student (TPK-S), and Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student (TPACK-S) (see Figure 1B). There were two points worth
mentioning, firstly, the initial model name was the S-TPACK, and had been revised using Mishra’s abbreviation
style as TPACSK, and finally fixed as TPACK-S which represented the true meaning of the model. The second one
was the combination of the 15 components into 4 constructs of SK, TK, PK, and CK; we decided to employed Smith
and Ragan (1999); Dever and Hobbs (2000); Cheng, Moc and Tsui (2001) which emphasized the technological and
pedagogical knowledge sufficient to apply to the selected content for instructing the students based on the student-
centre principle. As a result, our model contained one component in SK, two components in CK, four components in
PK and 8 components in TK constructs. This TPACK-S Framework should help developing the essential qualities of
teacher knowledge that they should have learned in order to be an effective instructor in developing, adapting, and
applying the technological and pedagogical knowledge necessary for instructing the selected content to the students
individually and improving their learning relevant to their readiness and needs.
2.1. Participants
Participants consisted of 135 pre-service teachers in academic year 2012 from the Faculty of Education,
Bangkaen and Kamphaengsaen campuses, Kasetsart University, which was randomly selected from public
universities in Bangkok
2.2 Research Instrument
The data was gathered through the TPACK-S survey questionnaire. The questionnaire composed of 180 items
on the pre-service teachers’ knowledge in instruction, the 15 components of which used a Like-type scale with five
response choices: “1 = strongly disagree,” “2 = disagree,” “3 = neither agree nor disagree,” “4 = agree,” and “5 =
strongly agree. ”Cranach’s alpha coefficient reliabilities of all 15 components ranged from .699 to .905 (see Table 1)
indicating highly reliable instruments.
2.3 Data Analysis
To analyze the data, first a descriptive statistics was used to present the means and standard deviations. Second,
confirmatory factor analysis was used to validate the TPACK-S measurement model.
3. Result
The correlation matrix indicated that there were quite strong positive and significant correlations among all 15
components, with the correlation coefficients ranging from .201 to .937, as shown in Table 1. The 15 measures of
sampling adequacy on the diagonal of the matrix ranged from .834 to .971, all of which were greater than the criteria
of 0.600 confirming that the 15 components were highly correlated (Hair, et al., 2010). The results were confirmed
by the overall measure of sampling adequacy of .935, Bartlett’s test of sphere city = 2680.102, p = .000 indicating
that the correlation matrix was far from equivalence with an identity matrix, which confirmed the strong relationship
among all 15 components.
The confirmatory factor analysis results indicated that the hypothesized measurement model of TPACK-S was
fit to the empirical data with Chi-Square = 64.743, df = 60, P = .315, RMSEA= .024, GFI = .939, AGFI = .879,
RMR = .010, CFI = .999, NNFI = .998, all of these statistics meet the criteria set by Hair, et al. (2010). All variables
in the first order confirmatory factor analysis had positive and significant loadings, ranging from 0.81 to 1.00 which
signified strong weights of each indictor in the model. The SKC factor was measured only by one indicator SK with
factor loading of 1.00 implying quite strong reliability measured of this factor. Considering CKC factor, the
indicator having the highest factor loading was CK-S (.92). On the contrary, the two indicators of the PKC factor
had quite similar factor loading with PCK (.89) and PCK-S (.89). For TKC factor, the indicator having the highest
factor loading was TPACK (.98). The second order confirmatory analysis in TPACK-S Factor, the indicator highest
factor loading variable was PKC (.97), followed by CKC (.72), TKC (.72) and SKC (.39), as shown in Table 2 and
Figure 2. The correlation matrix indicated that there were quite strong positive and significant correlations among all
5 constructs, with the correlation coefficients ranging from .281 to .986 (see Table 2).
Table 1. Correlation matrix, means and standard deviations of S-TPACK or TPCASK’s components

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
SK .834
CK .567** .
852
CK-S .627** .719** .
918
**
PK .344 .559** .599** .
944
** **
PCK .353 .625 .607** .828** .873
PK-S .421** .468** .555** .765** .762** .933
PCK-S .347** .476** .553** .740** .830** .782** .930
** ** ** ** **
TK .242 .391 .453 .602 .570 .701** .679** .940
** ** ** ** ** **
TCK .259 .360 .477 .605 .590 .655 .649** .868** .949
TPK .325** .437** .541** .660** .654** .663** .723** .855** .884** .960
TK-S .244** .201* .424** .506** .456** .620** .621** .764** .814** .789** .929
** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
TPACK .268 .326 .463 .589 .515 .660 .616 .873 .905 .868** .899** .939
** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
TCK-S .279 .356 .473 .604 .553 .651 .659 .850 .918 .895 .844** .900** .955
TPK-S .298** .298** .473** .590** .543** .671** .672** .812** .876** .856** .920** .915** .898** .960
TPACK-S .310** .330** .488** .591** .540** .680** .656** .843** .888** .865** .894** .937** .888** .920** .971
Mean 3.174 3.315 3.217 3.265 3.362 3.267 3.281 3.227 3.199 3.228 3.096 3.166 3.177 3.128 3.168
SD 0.506 0.454 0.426 0.459 0.471 0.479 0.419 0.515 0.544 0.516 0.618 0.563 0.555 0.597 0.567
Reliability 0.743 0.799 0.699 0.762 0.855 0.814 0.776 0.827 0.899 0.871 0.905 0.879 0.890 0.887 0.851
Note: 1) **p<.01 *p<.05
2) Bartlett's Test of Spheri city = 2680.102 KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy. = .935, df = 105, p = .000
3) Diagonal elements are KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy for each variable.
4) SK = Student Knowledge, CK = Content Knowledge, PK = Pedagogical Knowledge, TK = Technological Knowledge, PCK =
Pedagogical Content Knowledge, TCK = Technological Content Knowledge, TPK = Technological Pedagogical Knowledge, CK-S = Content
Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, PK-S = Pedagogical Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, TK-S = Technological
Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, TPACK = Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge, PCK-S = Pedagogical Content
Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, TCK-S = Technological Content Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, TPK-S =
Technological Pedagogical Knowledge appropriate for instructing Student, TPACK-S = Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
appropriate for instructing Student
Table 2. Factor loading and Correlation matrix of TPACK-S measurement model
Factor Loading
R square
Variable SKC CKC PKC TKC
Beta b(SE) FS Beta b(SE) FS Beta b(SE) FS Beta b(SE) FS
SK 1.00 1.00 1.57 - - - - - - - - - 1.000
CK - - - .81 .37 1.17 - - - - - - 0.655
CK-S - - - .92** .40(.04) 1.88 - - - - - - 0.845
PK - - - - - - .90 .41 .68 - - - 0.803
PCK - - - - - - .89** .42(.03) .33 - - - 0.796
PK-S - - - - - - .86** .42(.03) .43 - - - 0.732
PCK-S - - - - - - .89** .37(.03) .70 - - - 0.791
TK - - - - - - - - - .91 .47 .29 0.823
TCK - - - - - - - - - .95** .53(.03) .48 0.902
TPK - - - - - - - - - .94** .50(.02) .55 0.889
TK-S - - - - - - - - - .94** .58(.04) .63 0.880
TPACK - - - - - - - - - .98** .54(.03) -.06 0.917
TCK-S - - - - - - - - - .95** .53(.03) -.03 0.893
TPK-S - - - - - - - - - .96** .57(.03) .31 0.919

TPACK-S - - - - - - - - - .94** .53(.03) -.23 0.874

Traits Factor loading of TPACK-S Constructs
Beta b(SE)
SKC .39** .12(.05)
CKC .72** .72(.10)
PKC .97** .97(.09)
TKC .72** .72(.09)
= 64.743; df = 60; p-value = .315; RMSEA = .0243; GFI = .939; AGFI = .879; RMR = .010; CFI = .999; NNFI = .998
Correlation Matrix 1 2 3 4 5
Traits
SKC 1.000
CKC .281 1.000
PKC .383 .712 1.000
TKC .281 .522 .713 1.000
TPACK-SC .389 .722 .986 .723 1.000
Note: **p<.01 *p<.05
Figure2. The measurement model of TPACK-S from a confirmatory factor analysis

Overall, the analysis results suggested four conclusions. Firstly, the confirmatory factor measurement model of
TPACK-S was strongly and significantly fit to the empirically data, with each observed component showed high
indices of consistency as judged by the experts and significantly high reliability measures. Comparing this model to
the measurement model developed by Archambault and Barnett (2010), Lux (2011), Koehler, et al. (2011), and Lee
and Tsai (2010), the result of which indicated that there were three, six and five indicators measuring TPACK, it
could be seen that this study yielded more accurate result because of the confirmatory analysis used to validate the
TPACK-S measurement model. The study results then gave strong support in confirming the validation of the
TPACK framework created by Mishra and Koehler (2006). Secondly, judging from the factor loadings of the four
constructs, it was perfectly in accord with our hypothetical proposition in terms of great importance of the three
constructs in consecutive order of loadings: PKC (.97), TKC (.72), and CKC (.72), but unexpectedly contradicted to
the SKC construct with rather moderate loading of only .39. The small loading of the SKC construct offered two
issues for further support from empirical study whether it had been the outcome due to the insufficient training of
the student knowledge construct in the teacher training program or the teacher students’ inabilities to transfer the
theoretical student knowledge into practice, or the disadvantages of this SKC construct on its only one component.
Thirdly, the coefficient of determination for each of the components, known as construct reliabilities (Joreskog and
Sorbom, 1996) ranged from 0.655 to 1.00 which indicated quite satisfactory results. Finally, considering the
loadings of the fifteen components into the four constructs, the eight components of the TKC, the four components
of the PKC, the two components of the CKC as well as the one component of the SKC showed very high loadings.
What we had learned from our empirical study to validate the TPACK-S framework which had been extended
from Mishra and Kohler’s (2006) TPACK framework, had indicated the three following arguments. Firstly, the
TPACK framework had been intentionally created to display the significant role of technological knowledge (TK)
as the important core component of the knowledge that the efficient teacher should have in order to deliver the
effective teaching (PK) of the selected subject matter (CK). Similarly, our TPACK-S framework aimed to extend the
effective role of TPACK framework for the efficient teachers to focus their role on students. The question had
emerged concerning the significant role of the TPACK construct in the TPACK-S model, because the TPACK had
been attenuated into only an observed component in the TPACK-S model. Consequently, this TPACK-S model has
not been perfect and required further modification. Secondly, the measurement of the SK component in our model
was not satisfied with an ideal measure, because we did not include sufficient teacher role concerning the class and
student management part. With only one component for the SKC construct, there should be more items on
measuring the teacher behaviour on student management, the result of which would increase the factor loading of
this construct in the TPACK-S model. Finally, for the implication, our study had limitation about gathering data
only from the student teachers in the pre-service teacher training program because we aimed to derive the
insufficient area of training that could be improved and promoted. Following this study, we planned to continue our
investigation on the in-service teachers in order to obtain the policy guidelines to improve teacher education
curriculum.
In conclusion, we had confirmed the conceptualization of the TPACK model as well as the TPACK-S model,
and empirically confirmed the significant role of the TPACK-S model but not the TPACK model which would be
further studied. This study, in terms of the research implication, could be said to mark the beginning of the
construction and the development of the reliable and valid measurement model of the TPACK-S model for the
measurement of an effective teacher’ knowledge. Further studies were necessary to obtain the standards and norms,
to diagnose the teachers’ weak-points in their knowledge and to improve them as well as to strengthen their strong-
points, all of these efforts would help increasing student learning and achievement.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to gratefully acknowledge the financial support by Graduate School, Chulalongkorn
University, Thailand.
References
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Hershey, Pennsylvania, 17033, USA), 16-31.
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ScienceDirect
Values education through literature in English classes
Feryal Cubukcua *
a
dokuz Eylul University, Ugur Mumcu sokak, No.5 Buca, Izmir,35150 Turkey
Abstract
Schools are not value-free or value neutral zones of social and educational engagement, but they are about building character as
much as equipping students with specific skills, and values education is an explicit goal aimed at promoting care, respect and
cooperation.Values education is a way of conceptualising education that places the search for meaning and purpose at the heart of
the educational process. It recognises that the recognition, worth and integrity of all involved in the life and work of the school,
are central to the creation of a values-based learning community that fosters positive relationships and quality in education. The
research aims to explore the values pre-service English language teachers have. The results of the research may add an additional
level to the understanding of students’ functioning in class and real life. One hundred and twenty pre-service English language
teachers participate in this research. To accomplish the aim, the teacher trainees will be given a semi-structured interview
based on Carl Rogers (1969) and Paulo Freire (1998) to test how they address the moral dilemmas in the literary texts they have
studied in literature classes.
Keywords: Values education, literature, pre-service teachers, dilemmas
1.Introduction
Recent world events have such as the embassy attack in Binghazi, or the Arab Spring has an inclination to be
more aggressive and fatal, which leads people and educators to think more on ethics and values education. Another
indication of this need is the increase of bullying at schools. The inculcation of moral values through education is
considered to be an urgent but a controversial subject. The way in which moral education is conducted varies
depending on nationalities . All socities expect their citizens to behave ethically, morally and responsibly. In
democratic societies mindful of imposing unwanted beliefs on others, teacher educators face the dilemma of whether
moral education should be inculcated implicitly within the hidden curriculum of the school or formally and
explicitly positioned in the taught curriculum (Narvaez & Lapsley, 2008).
According to Rest (1983) and his co-workers (Narvaez & Rest, 1995), moral functioning consists of four
components: moral judgement, moral sensitivity, moral motivation and moral action. In the classroom, teachers may
choose to nurture these attributes through the processes of perspective taking, storytelling, cultural transmission,
moral dilemmas, responsible decision-making, service learning and community involvement.
In perspective taking, teachers create opportunities for students to put themselves in the shoes of others, to
understand other people’s viewpoints and feelings, and to predict how their behaviour may have an impact on
* Corresponding Author: Feryal Cubukcu: 90 232 31012179

E-mail address:feryal.cubukcu@deu.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.206
266 Feryal Cubukcu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 265 – 269
others. This is a strategy to promote altruism and empathy, and to develop both moral cognition and moral affect.
Koh (2012, p.86) believes that storytelling is particularly effective for the development of personal beliefs through
narratives and the identification and clarification of values. Cultural transmission is especially valuable in a
pluralistic society as it allows socially desirable cultural values to be nurtured. Students are encouraged to share their
cultural practices and traditions, hence promoting an ethos of tolerance and respect. Values transmission is thus not
limited to a vertical transfer from one generation to the next within a particular culture, but it can also occur across
cultures, providing the individual with the opportunity to experience a plurality of values.
The aim of this study is to investigate the level of students’ moral reasoning with regard to the plays studied in
Drama class involving 5 plays : Oedipus by Socrates, Othello by Shakespeare, She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver
Goldsmith, Major Barbara by Shaw, and The Room by Edward Albee.
2.Literature review
2.1.Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning
Kohlberg’s (1958) theory of development of moral judgement was put forth to deal with one of his central
concerns: ‘How does man become moral?’ Kohlberg’s framework consists of six stages of moral reasoning, grouped
into three developmental levels: • pre-conventional (stages 1 and 2 where an individual describes moral judgement
based on physical consequences affecting self, such as avoidance of punishment or pursuit of reward),• conventional
(stages 3 and 4 where the focus of moral reasoning turns to what benefits others and is expected and approved by
them and the focus is on the adherence to societal rules and laws.),• post-conventional (stages 5 and 6 where moral
reasoning goes beyond the dictum of authority to one based on social contract orientation and a democratic stance is
adopted for decision-making, with the objective of achieving the greatest good for the majority or for society).
2.2.Freire’s Values
It is necessary to claim that teaching is values-laden (Brady, 2011, p. 56-57). In one sense teachers are inevitably
social and moral educators and whatever institutional restraints exist within a school, teachers are faced with taking
positions on a variety of social and emotional issues, and are therefore developing values that are informed by these
challenges. The danger for an ideal set of teacher values for effective teaching is the tendency to confuse
personality with ‘character’ (values), and personal values with professional values. One attractive image is that of
the teacher who is approachable, charming, enthusiastic and possessing a strong sense of humour. It may well be
however that some students prefer a teacher who exhibits the opposite, that is, one who is distant, phlegmatic and
humourless, as this teacher may produce better results. Carr (2010, 64-5) argues that while certain desirable qualities
(like enthusiasm and charm) may contribute to professional expertise, such personality traits are only ‘contingently
contributory.’What is essential is the integration of the professional and personal values. Freire’s (1998)
‘Indispensable Qualities of Progressive Teachers’ also portray the essentially ‘human’ and emotionally responsive
teacher :
--Humility – knowing our own limitations, and embracing a democratic rather than an authoritarian classroom.
--Lovingness – loving both students and teaching, and practising ‘armed love’ (fighting for what is right).
--Courage – overcoming one’s own fears.
--Tolerance – respecting difference but not ‘acquiescing to the intolerable.’ (p.42).
--Decisiveness – making often-difficult choices for the best, yet being careful not to ‘nullify oneself in the name of
being democratic.’ (p.42).
--Security - confidence in one’s actions
--Wisdom -living the tension between patience and impatience – preserving the tension between the two yet never
surrendering to either.
--Joy of living – committing to both teaching in particular, and life in general.
2.3. Four approaches to values education:
2.3.1.The Trait Approach
Feryal Cubukcu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 265 – 269 267
The trait approach is based on the view that values education should comprise predetermined traits or qualities
that can be taught. Kohlberg (1975, 673) referred to the approach pejoratively as ‘the bag of virtues approach’.
While often cited desirable virtues include honesty, loyalty, tolerance, trustworthiness, service and compassion, the
implicit question is ‘what values’ and ‘determined by whom’. So the approach is based on values absolutism: certain
prescribed values are deemed more worthy than others.
2.3.2.Values Clarification
The approach involves students identifying their values and beliefs . This reflection process to clarify the
confusion, proponents claim, makes the student more purposeful and productive, less gullible and vulnerable, a
better critical thinker, and more socially aware. Values clarification is based on the notion of values-relativity, that
is, in contrast to the trait approach for which values are prescribed (values absolutism), students are encouraged to
adopt their own values, providing they are personally meaningful. The approach does not focus on the imposition of
a set of prescribed values, but the process of acquiring them.
2.3.3.The Cognitive Developmental Approach
This approach is called ‘cognitive’ because it bases values education, like intellectual education, on the active
thinking of students about values. It is ‘developmental’ because it views values education as the movement through
stages. These stages define ‘what (a person) finds valuable….how he defines the value, and why he finds it valuable,
that is, the reasons he gives for valuing it’ (Kohlberg 1975, 672). This distinction between ‘structure’ and content
indicates that we are located at a particular stage according to the nature of our reasoning and not its content. For
example, two people might justify two completely opposite stances, say for and against euthanasia respectively
(different content), and be reasoning at the same stage level (the same ‘structure’). The focus of the cognitive
theorists is therefore to improve reasoning and facilitate movement through the six stages identified by Kohlberg
(1975) towards moral autonomy, rather than to differentiate between right and wrong decisions.
2.3.4.Role-Playing
Shaftel (1967, 84) provides an early definition of role-play as ‘the opportunity to explore through spontaneous
improvisation…typical group problem situations in which individuals are helped to become sensitive to the feelings
of the people involved’. Typically, two students selected as the players react spontaneously to each other in dialogue
to explore solutions to a presented problem. In assuming the role of another person, students step outside their
accustomed role and adopt the role of another person. In this way, they are required to become less egocentric, and
as a result, they develop insights into themselves and others. The following six steps in conducting a role-play are
derived from the author’s observation and demonstration teaching of over 100 role play lessons.
3.Method
3.1.Participants
120 pre-service teachers, 95 females and 25 males, at the Language Teaching Department of the Faculty of
Education, who took Drama class participated in the semi-structured interview about these five plays where they are
given some situations involving some moral dilemma and their ideas are asked.
3.2.Procedure
The survey items were adapted from Freire (1998) amd used the written form of the interview, whereby the
interview questions were compiled into a survey that was given to the participants. The pre-service teachers were
instructed to respond to the questions in writing. This method was chosen in lieu of oral interviews as it facilitated
the collection of data from a larger number of subjects and in a shorter time. The students were given assurance that
their responses would be treated with confidentiality and were informed that there was no right or wrong answer to
the questions. They were encouraged to respond honestly and to seek clarifications from the survey administrators if
necessary. The scenarios on the issues of conscience and morality were written and the survey participant
encounters a moral dilemma, a conflict between two moral issues. The participant’s responses to the moral
judgement interview items thus reflect their moral reasoning. The scorer’s first task was to determine the issue
chosen by a survey participant for a particular dilemma. Each of the respondent’s answers was then matched with
268 Feryal Cubukcu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 265 – 269
the corresponding criterion judgement and allocated the relevant stage score in accordance to the guidelines of the
standard issues scoring manual by Kohlberg.
4. Results
The first moral dilemma is given to students to test “decisiveness” regarding Oedipus in line with his choice. The
dilemma is if they were the judges to trial Oedipus (who killed his father at the crossroad and married the Queen,
his mother after solving the riddle of Spynx), what would their verdict be? Pre-service teachers answers range from
28.8 % “ innocence” to 53.8 % “guilty”. Those who said both guilty and innocent was 11%.
The second dilemma is given to test “tolerance “ about Othello. Pre-service teachers are asked what they would
do if they had the suspicion that their spouses cheated on them. Most said they would walk away (44.4 %), 13.2 %
declared they would cheat as well to induce in their spouses the same feeling. Those who prefer talking to
understand what has happening is 33 %, which shows that they need an argument to be persuaded that they should
stay together.
The third dilemma concerns the issue regarding “wisdom”. The similar question was posed : if the principal of
the school asked to punish the students and if they are against punishment, what would they do? They said that they
would try to compromise and persuade the principal (44.7 %) while 10% prefer to give the punishment themselves
and 19 % would do nothing in that sitaution 18 % would never let the principal do such a thing in the class.
The fourth dilemma is concerned with “ courage” . If they saw that their neighbour was abused by her husband,
what would they do? Most said they would talk to the neighbour and understand the situation 43.8% and those who
would call the police are 15 % , some said they would not interfere 9 %.
The fifth dilemma is about “humility”, they were asked if they learned that their work project had failed, how
they would react. Most would try again (44 %), 20% would do nothing, 16% would be terribly sad showing they are
unable to strive hard or do something to change the situation and 6% would blame the boss/teacher directly.
However, None would change their strategy or learn better, which shows that they do not feel ready to accept any
responsibility.
5. Discussions and conclusions

The findings show that most of them are at Stages 3 and 4. This trend in the development of moral reasoning is
in line with earlier studies (Colby, Kolhberg, Gibbs & Lieberman, 1983). Parents and teachers are thus likely to look
for processes or strategies that promote students’ progress to these higher stages but it is important to note that
higher-stage reasoning implies a higher complexity in thought process rather than the generation of a morally
superior solution to the issue or problem at hand.
Apart from certain select values that may relate more specifically to a particular discipline, several of the eight
values are particularly important for the teaching of all curriculum areas, and may be taught directly and/or
modelled. For instance, contemporary classroom approaches to teaching and learning view knowledge as co-
constructed by students and the teacher in an equally active and dialogic relationship that involves the teacher
scaffolding by planning activities, and engaging in the more spontaneous contingent interactions with students in
collaborative dialogue. It is believed that teacher trainees could benefit alot if the teachers focus on:
--nurturing an appreciation of the teacher’s self, including self-esteem, initiative and care for others.
--encouraging an understanding of the teacher’s role and relationships in society, particularly with the local
community and parents.
--focusing on the valuing of people and a commitment to their betterment.
--fostering a respect for the uniqueness of individuals.
--promoting an awareness and responsibility for the teacher’s role in ‘touching’ the lives of students.
Feryal Cubukcu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 265 – 269 269
--creating a passion for knowledge and an appreciation that such knowledge is not neutral.
--attaching an increased importance to relationships.
--developing a respect for the autonomy of individual students.
References
Brady, Laurie (2011) Teacher Values and Relationship: Factors in Values Education, Australian Journal of Teacher Education: 36: 2, 5, 56-66.
Brady, L. (2006). Collaborative learning in action. Frenchs Forest, Sydney: Pearson
Brophy, J. E. and Good, T.L. (1974). Teacher-student relationships. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Freire, P. (1998). Teachers as cultural workers: letters to those who dare teach. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press.
Koh, C (2012) Moral development and student motivation in moral education:a Singapore study, Australian Journal of Education:56: 1,7,83-101
Kohlberg, L. (1958). The development of modes of moral thinking and choice in the years 10–16.Unpublished PhD thesis,University of Chicago.
Kohlberg, L. (1975). The cognitive developmental approach to moral education. PhiDelta Kappa. June. 670-677.
Narvaez, D., & Rest, J. (1995). The four components of acting morally. In W. Kurtines & J. Gewirtz (Eds.), Moral behaviour and moral
development: An introduction (pp. 385–400). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Rest, J. (1983). Morality. In P. Mussen (Series Ed.), J. Flavell & E. Markham (Vol. Eds.), Manual of child psychology: Vol. 3. Cognitive
development (pp. 556–629). New York, NY: Wiley.
Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to learn. A view of what education might become.Columbus, Ohio: C.E. Merrill Pub. Co.
Shaftel, F. R. (1967). Role playing for social values. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
ScienceDirect
Vocational identity status among Turkish youth: Relationships

between perfectionisms and decision making style
Demet Erol Öngen a *
a
Akdeniz University, Antalya 07058, Turkey
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relations between vocational identity status, perfectionism and decision making
style in a sample of 317 Turkish university students and university graduates. The Vocational Identity Status Assessment (VISA;
Porfeli et al., 2011), the General Decision Making Style Inventory (GDMS; Scott and Bruce, 1995), the Almost Perfect Scale-
Revised (APS-R; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001) were used for data collection. As hypothesized, the regression
analyses revealed that, high standards and order were the positive predictors of career exploration and commitment while
discrepancy was the negative predictor of commitment. High standards and order were found to be the negative predictor of
reconsideration while discrepancy was the positive predictor of reconsideration. The regression analyses revealed that dependent
and rational decision making styles were the positive predictors of career exploration and rational and intuitive styles were the
positive predictors of commitment. The avoidant style was the positive predictor of reconsideration while intuitive style was the
negative predictor of reconsideration.
Selectionand/or
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Vocational identity status, perfectionism, general decision making style
1. Introduction
Erikson (1959) assigns a leading role to vocational identity development in the overall process of identity
formation and argues that the inability to settle on an occupational identity disturbs young people, primarily. In that
vein, Vondracek and Porfeli (2006) indicate that being a productive worker is one of the central tasks of adulthood,
and it is during adolescence and early adulthood that the processes of vocational development conclude.
The construct of decision making refers to set of processes that are used when individuals are trying to
figure out how to accomplish particular goals (Byrnes, 2006). Decision-making abilities improve over the course of
adolescent years, with gains continuing into the years of youth. Decision making style has been defined as an
individual’s typical model of interpreting and responding to decision making tasks (Haren, 1979). Scott and Bruce
(1995) refined self-report inventory, the General Decision Making Style Inventory (GDMS) has five decision
making styles: a rational style characterized by a thorough search for and logical evaluation of alternatives; an
intuitive style characterized by the use of hunches and feelings in decision making; a dependent style characterized
by a reliance on the advice of others, and avoidant style characterized by attempts to avoid decision making,
*
Corresponding Author: Demet Erol Öngen. Tel.: +0-090-2423102072
E-mail address: demetongen@akdeniz.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.242
Demet Erol Öngen / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 472 – 476 473
spontaneous style characterized by a sense of immediacy and desire to complete decision making as soon as
possible.
Perfectionism, described as ‘striving for flawlessness’ (Flett & Hewitt, 2002) must be considered as a
multidimensional, rather than unidimensional construct and a distinction must be made between neurotic
perfectionism, which is maladaptive and normal perfectionism, which is adaptive (Frost et al, 1990; Hamachek,
1978). According to Hamachek, normal perfectionism allows for the setting of realistic goals and feelings of
satisfaction when these goals are achieved. Neurotic perfectionism, on the other hand, involves the setting of
unrealistically high standards and the inability to accept mistakes. The neurotic aspect of perfectionism may be
driven by the fear of failure, rather than the desire to achieve, and may lead to negative feelings about oneself due to
the inability to achieve true perfection (Mitzman, Slade, & Dewey, 1994).
The relationships of vocational identity to personality traits have received little attention in the empirical
literature. The main purpose of this study was to examine the predictive value of decision making styles and
perfectionism on vocational identity statuses on Turkish youth.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Participants were composed of 317 Turkish students enrolled in a pedagogical formation certificate program at
Akdeniz University, a publicly financed state university in the Mediterranean region of Turkey. Of this total 162 of
them were university students from various departments of Faculty of Arts and Sciences and 155 of them were
graduate students of Faculty of Arts and Sciences (Mean age= 24 years, Median age= 23, Mode age= 20, SD= 4,
33). The sample was %67 female.
2.2. Procedure
The students completed the questionnaires during a class period under the supervision of the researcher. In order
to standardize the procedures, the questionnaires were administered to all participants in the following order: The
Vocational Identity Status Assessment (VISA; Porfeli et al., 2011), the General Decision Making Style Inventory
(GDMS; Scott and Bruce, 1995) and the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, &
Ashby, 2001). There was a guarantee of confidentiality in relation to fellow students. The students participated
voluntarily. No reward was given for participating in the study. Anonymity was guaranteed.
2.3. Instruments
Vocational Identity Status was measured by the Turkish version of the Vocational Identity Status Assessment
(VISA), developed by Porfeli et al. (2012), which consists of 30 items. All VISA subscales employed a five point
Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 strongly agree. The adaptation of the scale into the Turkish
culture was conducted in this study. The scale was translated from English into Turkish by the researcher, and the
Turkish version was back translated into English by a researcher with a Ph. D. degree in Psychological Counseling
and Guidance. Small dissimilarities between the original scale and the back translated version were resolved by the
researcher, the back translator and by an English Language Teaching graduate researcher. Measures of internal
consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) were conducted to examine the reliability of the total scale and the sub-scales of the
VISA. Internal consistency of the total scale and the exploration, commitment and reconsideration sub-scales were
.78 .84, .86, and .86 respectively.
Perfectionism was measured by using a Turkish version of the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R; Slaney
et al., 2001), which consists of 23 items. Participants respond to the items using a five point Likert rating scale
ranging from 1= “strongly disagree” to 5= “strongly agree”. The APS-R has three factors: The high standards factor,
474 Demet Erol Öngen / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 472 – 476
order factor and discrepancy factor. There are 7 items indicating the high standards factor (e.g., “If you don’t expect
much out of yourself you will never succeed”) and 12 items indicating the discrepancy factor (e.g., “Doing my best
never seems to be enough.”) and 4 items indicating the order factor (e.g., “Neatness is important to me.”). The
Turkish version of the scale had sufficient reliability and construct validity (Öngen, 2009). Internal consistency of
the total scale and the high standards factor, order factor and discrepancy factor sub-scales were .88, .91, .83, and
.93 respectively.
Decision making was measured by using a Turkish version of the General Decision Making Style Inventory
(GDMI) developed by Scott, S. G., and Bruce, R. A. (1995), which consists of 25 items. The participants were asked
to indicate their degree of agreement on a 5- point scale ranging from 0= “this is a very bad description of me” to 4=
“this is a very good description of me”. The GDMI has five factors: the avoidant decision making style (e.g., “I
avoid making important decisions until the pressure is on.”), the rational decision making style (e.g., “I make
decisions in a logical and systematical way”) the spontaneous decision making style (e.g., “When making decisions
I do what I think first.”), the dependent decision making style, (e.g., “I rarely make important decisions without
consulting other people.”) the intuitive decision making style (e.g., “When making decisions, I trust my inner
feelings and reactions”.). The Turkish version of the scale had sufficient reliability and construct validity (Ongen,
2012). Internal consistency of the total scale and the avoidant decision making style, the rational decision making
style, the spontaneous decision making style, the dependent decision making style and the intuitive decision making
style sub-scales were .88 .84, .78, .81 .79 and .78 respectively for this sample.
3. Results
Three separate multiple regression analyses were conducted for the whole sample using the high standards
subscale, the order subscale and the discrepancy subscale scores of the APS-R as independent variables and the
Vocational Identity Status subscale scores (career exploration, commitment and reconsideration subscales) as the
dependent variables. Five separate multiple regression analyses were conducted for the whole sample using the
avoidant subscale, the rational subscale, the spontaneous subscale, the dependent subscale and the intuitive subscale
scores of the General Decision Making Style Inventory as independent variables and the Vocational Identity Status
subscale scores (career exploration, commitment and reconsideration subscales) as the dependent variables. The
descriptive statistics and correlations for the variables included in the study are presented in Table 1. The zero order
correlation between discrepancy and reconsideration is positive and significant. The zero order correlations among
high standards and exploration and commitment are positive and significant. The zero order correlations among
order and exploration and commitment are positive and significant while order is negatively correlated with
reconsideration. The zero order correlations between spontaneous style and commitment are negative and significant
while spontaneous style is negatively correlated with commitment. The zero order correlations among dependent
style and exploration and reconsideration are positive and significant. The zero order correlations among rational
style and exploration and commitment are positive and significant. The zero order correlation between avoidant
style and reconsideration is positive and significant. The zero order correlation between intuitive style and
commitment is positive and significant while intuitive style is negatively correlated with reconsideration.
Table 1. Correlations and descriptive statistics of the study variables
M SD 2 3 4 5 6 7t 8 9 10 11
1. Discrepancy 29.73 11.30 -.09 .24** .19** .28** .04 .48** .11 .02 -.03 .37**
** ** ** ** ** ** **
2. Order 15.44 4.41 .27 -.15 .08 .34 -.21 .17 .30 .30 -.18**
** * ** **
3.High standards 26.09 6.34 -.02 .09 .34 .01 .13 .41 .42 -.095
4. Spontaneous 11.53 4.35 .07 -.23** .27** .25** -.08 -.11* .13*
** ** * **
5. Dependent 16.55 4.16 .23 .46 .14 .17 .09 .12*
** ** **
6. Rational 19.96 3.53 -.04 .23 .40 .31 -.07
7. Avoidant 11.55 4.83 .12* -.03 -.07 .27**
Demet Erol Öngen / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 472 – 476 475
8. Intuitive 18.68 3.66 .08 .18** -.13*

**
9. Exploration 37.11 6.543 .46 -.04
10. Commitment 42.18 8.51 -.45**
Note. N=317
* p< .05.
**p< .01
The results of the multiple regression analyses testing the effects of high standards, order and discrepancy on
dimensions of Vocational Identity Status are given in Table 2. As reported in Table 2 standardized beta coefficients
showed that high standards and order were statistically significant positive predictors of exploration. High standards
scores explained 37% of the variance for exploration, and order scores explained 19% of the variance for
exploration. Standardized beta coefficients showed that discrepancy was the negative predictor of commitment and
explained %11 of the variance for commitment. Standardized beta coefficients showed that high standards and order
were the positive predictors of commitment and explained the 40% and 18% of the variance for commitment
respectively. Standardized beta coefficients showed that high standards and order were statistically significant
negative predictors of reconsideration and explained 17% and 10% of the total variance respectively on
reconsideration scores while discrepancy was the positive predictor of the reconsideration. Discrepancy scores
explained the 40%of the variance for reconsideration.
Table 2. Multiple regression analyses for the discrepancy, high standards and order predicting vocational identity status dimensions
Discrepancy High Standards Order
B SE B β B SE B β B SE B β R R²
Exploration
-.03 .030 -.06 .38 .056 .37** .28 .079 .19** .46 .21
Commitment
-.08 .039 -.11** .54 .072 .40** .35 .10 .18** .48 .23
Reconsideration
.29 .038 .40** -.21 .071 -.17** -.19 .09 -.10* .43 .19
Note. N=317
* p< .05.
**p< .01
The results of the multiple regression analyses testing the effects of the avoidant subscale, the rational
subscale, the spontaneous subscale, the dependent subscale and the intuitive subscale scores on dimensions of
Vocational Identity Statuses are given in Table 3. As reported in Table 3 standardized beta coefficients showed that
dependent and rational decision making styles were statistically significant positive predictors of exploration.
Dependent style scores explained 12% of the variance for exploration, and rational scores explained 25% of the
variance for exploration. Standardized beta coefficients showed that rational and intuitive styles were the positive
predictors of commitment and explained the 25% and 14% of the variance for commitment respectively.
Standardized beta coefficients showed that avoidant style was the positive predictor of reconsideration and avoidant
style scores explained the %25 of the variance for reconsideration. Standardized beta coefficients showed that
intuitive style was the negative predictor of reconsideration intuitive style scores explained the %19 of the variance
for reconsideration.
Table 3. Multiple regression analyses for the spontaneous. dependent, rational, avoidant and intuitive decision making styles predicting
vocational identity status dimensions
Spontaneous Dependent Rational Avoidant Intuitive
B SE β B SE β B SE β B SE β B SE β R R²
B B B B B
476 Demet Erol Öngen / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 472 – 476
Exploration
.02 .09 .01 .19 .10 .12* .69 .11 .37** -.09 .08 -.07 -.03 .10 -.02 .41 .17
Commitment
-.16 .12 -.08 .10 .13 .05 .60 .14 .25** -.13 .11 -.08 .33 .13 .14* .35 .12
Reconsideration
.21 .11 .11 .05 .12 .02 .01 .14 .01 .43 .11 .25** -.42 .13 -.19** .33 .11
4. Discussion
This study was designed to investigate the predictive value of adaptive/maladaptive perfectionism and
decision making styles on vocational identity statuses among Turkish university students and graduates. It was
hypothesized that adaptive perfectionism namely, high standards and order would predict career exploration and
commitment. As hypothesized adaptive perfectionism was found to be the positive predictor of both career
exploration and commitment, while the negative aspect of perfectionism namely discrepancy was found to be the
negative predictor of commitment. The correlations between high standards and career exploration/commitment
were moderate. As hypothesized adaptive perfectionism was found to be the negative predictor of reconsideration
while discrepancy was the positive predictor of career reconsideration. The correlation between discrepancy and
career reconsideration was moderate. As hypothesized rational decision making style was found to be the positive
predictor of both career exploration and commitment. Dependent decision making style was found to be the positive
predictor of career exploration while intuitive decision making style was found to be the positive predictor of
commitment. On the other hand, intuitive decision making style was found to be the negative predictor of
reconsideration. As expected, avoidant decision making style positively predicted reconsideration.
References
Byrnes, J. P. (2006). Cognitive development during adolescence. In Adams, G. R., & Berzonsky, M. D. (Eds.), Adolescence. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing.
Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. New York: International Universities Press.
Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 14,
119-126.
Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2002). Perfectionism and maladjustment: an overview of theoretical, definitional, and treatment issues. In Flett
G. L., & P. L. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory research and treatment (pp.5-32). Washington, D.C: APA.
Hamachek, D. E. (1978). Psychodynamics of normal and neurotic perfectionism, Psychology, 15, 27-33.
Haren, V. A. (1979). A model of career decision making for college students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14, 119-133.
Mitzman, P. F., Slade, P., & Dewey, M. E. (1994). Preliminary development of a questionnaire designed to measure neurotic perfectionism in the
eating disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50, 516-522.
Ongen, D. E. (2009). The relationship between perfectionism and multidimensional life satisfaction among high school adolescents in Turkey.
Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development. 37, 52-65.
Öngen, D.E (2012). Adaptation of the General Decision Making Style Inventory into the Turkish culture. VI. International Turkish Culture, Arts
and Cultural Heritage Sympossium, Milan, Italy.
Porfeli, E. J., Lee, B., Vondracek, F. W., & Weiggold, I. K. (2011). A multidimentional measure of vocational identity status. Journal of
Adolescence, 34, 853-871.
Scott, S.G., & Bruce, R. A. (1995). Decision-making style: The development and assesment of a new measure. Educational Psychological
Measurement, 55, 818-831.
Slaney, R. B., Rice, K: G., Mobley, M., Trippi, J., & Ashby, J. S. (2001). The Revised Almost Scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling
and Development, 34, 130-145.
Vondracek, F. W. & Porfeli, E. J. (2006). The world of work and career. In, G. R. Adams & M. D. Berzonsky (Eds.), Adolescence. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing.
ScienceDirect
Web 2.0 Tools and Educational Usage Self-Efficacy: A Scale

Development Study
M. Barış Horzum a , Zeynep Aydemir b*
a
Assist. Prof. Dr, Sakarya University
b Res. Assist., Marmara University
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to develop a valid and reliable scale for Web 2.0 Tools and Educational Usage Self-Efficacy. The
experts were consulted for content validity. However a factor analysis was held for structure validity. The considering the 57-
item scale in total, the scale was found to have an eight-factor structure. The factor loading of 57 items changes between 0.62 and
0.88. The eight factors of the scale explain 76.09% of the total variance. To examine the reliability of the scale, internal
consistency coherence is calculated. The internal consistency of the 57-item Web 2.0 Tools Self-Efficacy Belief Scale was 0.97.
These values show that the scale is reliable and it validates.
Selectionand/or
peer-review under the responsibility
responsibility of Prof.
World Servet Bayram
Key Words: Web 2.0 Tools, Educational Usage, Self-efficacy.Introduction
1.Introduction
Web 2.0 is a concept which is used to express the second generation web tools that differ from the first generation
of web tools with different features. The concept of Web 2.0 appeared in a conference session and the first one was
used by Tim O’Reilly (O’Reilly, 2005) O’Reilly revealed the Web 2.0 as the new instruments which make people
use the internet actively in a participated/contributed space and structure. The professionals, experts, students and
ordinary citizens can contribute to Wiki by adding content, may participate in social networking, create digital video
and music and contribute to blogs (Nelson, Christopher and Mims, 2009). Today, it can be observed that more than
50% of the internet users of Asian countries, almost 30% of the internet users of U.S.A and 20-25% of the European
internet users are using the tools such as weblogs, wikis, podcasting, online games and social bookmarks (Pascu,
2008) .
In Anderson’s (2007) study, it is seen that the use of Wiki provides the students an opportunity of reflecting others
and their own studies and making comments on them. In Ramanaua and Geng’s (2009) research, the using rate of
Wikis were found pretty low, students prefer personal diaries instead of Wikis and it is also observed that students
use Wikis more than the social bookmarking tools. The students in Hartshorne and Ajjan’s research (2009)
expressed that some of Web 2.0 applications are effective on increasing the of the course satisfaction, learning,
writing skills and the level of interaction with the other students. Kamel Boulos and Wheeler (2007) defined 30
various Web 2.0 sites which consist of social networks, file sharing and gaming sites those are used by students in
* Corresponding Author name. M. Barış Horzum Tel.: +90 0216 345 47 05 (2 lines)
E-mail address: zeynep.aydemir@marmara.edu.tr
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.239
454 M. Barış Horzum and Zeynep Aydemir / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 453 – 458
their research. Again, it is found that the students who participated in the research -except only two of them- use
more than one of Web 2.0 tools.
Some sort of cognitive and personal characteristics are required while using Web 2.0 tools, particularly Wikis.
Writing and editing, group processes and web skills stand out among the cognitive abilities while self-regulation,
integrity and openness stand out among the personal characteristics (West and West, 2009). Besides all these
variables above, self-efficacy is one of the most significant of all which enables these tools to be used. According to
Bandura (1997), self-efficacy is the capability belief towards the actions those are required in managing and editing
lessons which bring skills. Measuring self-efficacy presents us the information about how people think, feel, behave
and motivate themselves. In addition to that, this gives an opportunity to make an inference about a better
understanding the results of the behaviors, persevering, resistance, effort, thought patterns, elements which influence
the choices and emotional reactions (Bandura, 1997). In related literature, limited number of self-efficacy scales
for Web 2.0 tools are encountered. Davis, Wright, Coleman and MacCall (2007) used a Likert type scale which
consists of an adaptation of the computer self-efficacy scale –developed by Compeau- to weblogs. Davis (2009)
adapted Compeau and Higgins’s self-efficacy scale for technology in order to define self-efficacy belief for Web 2.0
tools. This scale is intended to determine library science students’ self-efficacy beliefs towards Web 2.0 tools.
Klassen (2004) found in his research which covers 20 studies that self-efficacy belief is influenced from culture. In
this respect, it can be assumed that scales which are developed in a particular culture cannot be functional in every
culture type.
A tool is needed that measures how much Web 2.0 tools, which have many benefits in terms of educational
aspects, are used by teacher candidates and measures what their self-efficacy beliefs are. It is also needed to examine
the results those are obtained from this tool which is mentioned above. The purpose of this research; developing a
scale to determine teacher candidates’ self-efficacy beliefs for Web 2.0 tools and revealing teacher candidates’ level
of use of these tools.
2. Method
2.1. Sample
Of 2885 pre-service teachers at Sakarya University Faculty of Education, 577 of them were selected as a sample.
575 of scale were completed by the teacher candidates and they were included in the research data. The sample
consisted of 334 (58.1%) females and 241 (41.9%) males. As it was seen approximately 50 % of teacher candidates
stated that they have never used Podcast, RSS, and SMT. While the usage of weblog and wiki were lesser, IM,
Facebook, and ISS were mostly used as it was expected.
2.2. Instrument
"Web 2.0 Tools for Self-Efficacy Scale” was developed by the researchers. While developing scale, first of all the
item depository was created by making a literature review and interviews with teacher candidates. Item depository
was consisted of 60-items using a 5-point Likert-type scale, which are “I strongly agree (5), I agree(4), neutral(3), I
disagree (2) and I strongly disagree(1)”.
In the reliability and validity studies, experts were assigned who are consulted for context and aspect. The scale was
presented to 8 academicians of Educational Technology, Measurement and Evaluation in Education and Turkish
Language departments and their opinions were taken. In accordance with opinions and critics of these experts,
necessary corrections and substitutions were made and scale was constructed with 58 items and validity and
reliability studies were conducted with these items.
For structure validity and reliability studies, the scale was applied to study group. Firstly exploratory factor analysis
was conducted with the data obtained from the scale for the construct validity. Item-factor structure which is
obtained from exploratory factor analysis (EFA) has been tested for model consistency with confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA). Reliability of the scale was examined with the internal consistency coefficient and test-retest.
In this research, data were obtained from “Web 2.0 Tools for Self-Efficacy Scale”. Scales were collected by hand
and applied to teacher candidates face-to-face by researchers. Data collected from 575 teacher candidates were
entered into SPSS 13.0 package program. After analyzing the data, exploratory factor analysis, internal consistency
coefficients, test-retest and inter-item correlation coefficients were calculated by using SPSS 13.0 package program
and for confirmatory factor analysis LISREL 8.54 package program was used.
M. Barış Horzum and Zeynep Aydemir / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 453 – 458 455
3. Findings
3.1. Exploratory Factor Analysis
For construct validity of Web 2.0 Tools for Self-Efficacy scale first of all, exploratory factor analysis was
conducted. In order to do this, first of all KMO test was checked to test efficacy of samples. KMO value was found
to be .96. According to Green and Salkind (2007), since this value is greater than .70, factor analysis can be done
using these data. Secondly, by examining Barlets’ Sphericity test (χ2 = 34406.307, p.=.000), data were accepted as
appropriate to make factor analyses because it shows significant differences.
In factor analyses, it was paid attention 58 items to have eigen values equal to 1, factor loadings of items to be at
least .30, items to load in a single factor and at least .10 point difference to occur if any item is loaded in two
different factors. Meanwhile, 25 decrees varimax rotation was done while analyzing construct validity. The results
of validation study indicated that there are eight domains/factors in the scale.
Exploratory factor analysis revealed that the number of factors that have eigen values greater than one in the
scale, as it can be seen in the scree plot graph, is eight. Eight factor structure was preferred after the examination of
scree plot graph since the values were not close to each other in the graph and the breaking points were different.
After deciding the factors in the scale, the factor loadings of the items were investigated. Since the first item of the
scale has loadings in both first and eighth factor and the factor loading difference is less than .10, this item was
dropped from the scale and explanatory factor analysis was conducted with 57 items again.
As a result of exploratory factor analysis that was conducted with 57 items, KMO value was found to be .96.
Since the KMO value is greater than .70, it was concluded that the factor analysis can be performed with the data.
Bartlett Sphericity test results (χ2 = 33730.813, p.=.000) also indicated that factor analysis can be conducted over the
data collected. In factor analysis, taking in to consideration both 57 items to have eigen values equal to 1 and
principle component analysis results, 25 decrees varimax rotation was done. Validity analysis results also revealed
that the scale has eight factors.
Self-efficacy belief regarding Web 2.0 tools scale is composed of eight factors. The first factor contains the
following items, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14. An example item for that domain/factor is “I can create
a personal page with blogs”. The factor loadings of 13 items included in that domain, change between 0.66 and
0.81. This factor explains 37.6% of the total variance was titled as “weblogs and educational usage”.
The second factor contains the following items, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43 and 44. An example item for that
domain/factor is “I can support collaborative learning by instant messaging”. The factor loadings of 9 items
included in that domain, change between 0.80 and 0.84. This factor explains 12.13% of the total variance was titled
as “Instant messaging and educational usage”.
The third factor contains the following items, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23. An example item for that
domain/factor is “I can share information about various topics in wikis”. The factor loadings of 9 items included in
that domain, change between 0.68 and 0.77. This factor explains 7.24% of the total variance was titled as “Wiki and
educational usage”.
The fourth factor contains the following items, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 and 35. An example item for that
domain/factor is “I can collect students’ products on a single page with RSS”. The factor loadings of 7 items
included in that domain, change between 0.76 and 0.84. This factor explains 5.66% of the total variance was titled as
“RSS and educational usage”.
The fifth factor contains the following items, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49 and 50. An example item for that domain/factor is
“I can conduct classroom discussions by using facebook”. The factor loadings of 6 items included in that domain,
change between 0.81 and 0.88. This factor explains 4.46% of the total variance was titled as “Facebook and
The sixth factor contains the following items, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28. An example item for that domain/factor is “I
can transfer audio data that was downloaded via podcasts to portable devices”. The factor loadings of 5 items
included in that domain, change between 0.81 and 0.88. This factor explains 3.56% of the total variance was titled as
“Podcast and educational usage”.
The seventh factor contains the following items, 55, 56, 57 and 58. An example item for that domain/factor is “I
can organize a bookmark with social marking tools”. The factor loadings of 4 items included in that domain, change
between 0.80 and 0.82. This factor explains 2.87% of the total variance was titled as “social marking tools and
The eighth factor contains the following items, 51, 52, 53 and 54. An example item for that domain/factor is “I can
present sample videos for lesson in Video-sharing sites”. The factor loadings of 4 items included in that domain,
change between 0.62 and 0.84. This factor explains 2.57% of the total variance was titled as “image sharing sites
and educational usage”.
Considering the 57 items scale in total, it was found the scale to have eight factor structure. Factor loadings of 57
items change between 0.62 and 0.88. The eight factors of the scale explain 76.09% of the total variance. These
results indicate that the scale explains well the pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy belief regarding Web 2.0 tools.
Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to investigate the goodness of model data fit.
3.2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Fit indexes of the 57 item scale that contains eight factors were tested by confirmatory factor analysis.
Confirmatory factor analysis was carried out with the first and second order analysis. Web 2.0 Tools Self-Efficacy
Belief Scale’s first order confirmatory factor analysis results presented the following fit indexes, χ2= 4167.47
(df=1511, p.= .000), χ 2/ df=2.76 RMSEA= 0.055, GFI= 0.80, AGFI= 0.78, CFI= 0.93, NFI=0.89 and NNFI= 0.92.
According to modification suggestions obtained after the first order confirmatory analysis, it was decided to do the
suggested modifications between the following items, 2 and 4, 5 and 6, 15 and 16. The fit indexes were χ2= 3862.15
(df=1508, p.= .000), χ2/df=2.56 RMSEA= 0.052, GFI= 0.82, AGFI= 0.80, CFI= 0.93, NFI=0.90 and NNFI= 0.93
after doing the aforementioned modifications. Modifications done in the model improved χ2 and fit indexes.
As a result of the second order CFA, when it is considered whether factors defined explain the self-efficacy belief
regarding Web 2.0 tools latent variable, it was found all the factors to explain well the latent variable which is self-
efficacy belief regarding Web 2.0 tools. The fit indexes found after the analysis are as follows, χ2= 4571.53
(df=1531, p.= .000), χ2/sd= 2.99 RMSEA= 0.059, GFI= 0.78, AGFI= 0.76, CFI= 0.92, NFI=0.88 and NNFI= 0.92.
According to modification suggestions obtained after the second order confirmatory analysis, it was decided to do
the suggested modifications between the following items, 36 and 37, 43 and 44, 49 and 50. The fit indexes were
χ2=3918.78 (df=1525, p.= .000), χ2/df=2.57 RMSEA= 0.052, GFI= 0.82, AGFI= 0.80, CFI= 0.93, NFI=0.90 and
NNFI= 0.93after doing the aforementioned modifications. Modifications done in the model improved χ2 and fit
indexes.
Several fit indexes were considered such as χ2, RMSEA, GFI, CFI, NNFI while deciding whether the data fits to
models constructed by CFA (Anderson & Gerbing, 1984; Sümer, 2000). If χ2/df ratio is equal or less than 5, it can
be concluded that the model fits the data well. Similarly, RMSA value equal or less than 0.08 can be treated as an
indication of model data fit. Byrne (1998) indicated that for good model data fit, RMR and SRMR values should be
equal or less than 0.10. Similarly obtaining .90 or greater values for CFI, NFI and NNFI indicates a good model.
Moreover, .80 or greater values for AGFI; .85 or greater values for GFI are an indication of a good model data fit
(Anderson and Gerbing, 1984; Sümer, 2000). When fit indexes of the scale are investigated it was observed that the
fit indexes are in an acceptable range. According to these results it can be concluded that the scale has construct
validity. Internal consistency and test-retest correlation coefficients were calculated in the reliability analysis.
Sensitivity, consistency and stability of the Web 2.0 Tools Self-Efficacy Belief Scale were investigated in the
reliability analysis. For sensitivity of the scale expert opinion were taken. The expert opinion results indicated that
the scale is sensitive enough in measuring the quality that it was purposed to measure. Internal consistency
coefficient (alpha) was investigated for consistency of the scale and test-retest procedure was followed for stability
of the scale.
Internal consistency of 57 item Web 2.0 Tools Self-Efficacy Belief Scale was .97. Internal consistency
coefficients for the domains/factors were as follows: “Blogs and educational usage” .96, “instant messaging and
educational usage” .96, “Wiki and educational usage” .95, “RSS and educational usage” .97, “Facebook and
educational usage” .95, “Podcast and educational usage” .95, “Social marking tools and educational usage” .95,
“Visual sharing sites and educational usage” .92.
Test retest procedure was followed for stability of the scale. The data related to test retest reliability were
collected by administering the scale to 70 students two times where second administration of the scale was two
weeks later than the first administration. Data obtained from 70 students were analyzed by Pearson Product Moment
correlation analyzes. Correlation coefficient was .91 which is a high correlation and presents that the stability of the
scale is high.
M. Barış Horzum and Zeynep Aydemir / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 453 – 458 457
3.3. Correlation Coefficients among Factors of the Scale

The correlations among Web 2.0 Tools Self-Efficacy Beliefs Scale and its factors were analyzed by Pearson
Product Moment correlation analyzes. It was observed that the correlations among the total scale point and factors’
total points change in between .50 and .82 and correlations were significant at .01 level. Moreover, the correlations
among factor points were changing between .13 and .63 and correlations were significant at .01 level.
Nowadays, Web 2.0 tools are among quite common utilized internet tools. Use of Web 2.0 tools in education has
become rather common tools. Increasing the use of Web 2.0 tools in education has teacher candidates require
knowledge and skills directed towards these tools. The self-efficacy that is intended for these tools constituted the
foundation of the knowledge and skills. The self-efficacy of teachers and teacher candidates for Web 2.0 tools can
be obtained with the scale that is formed personal reporting like the other self-efficacy (Bandura, 2001).
When the literature is examined, two studies for Web 2.0 about self-efficacy scale for Web 2.0 tools are seemed.
Both of them adapted self-efficacy scale for computer technology to Web 2.0 tools. With this aspect, a self-efficacy
which deals with Web 2.0 tools’ features and use in educational environments were needed to develop. Another
reason of development of the new scale instead of adapting the existing scale is the emergence of differences among
cultures in terms of self-efficacy (Klassen, 2004). Because of the fact that the existing scales have been developed in
Western culture and self-efficacy in non-Western culture societies give different results from Western culture, the
new scale was developed.
For the self-efficacy scale that is intended for Web 2.0 tools, the first eight-factor structure was obtained with
exploratory factor analysis. The structure that was obtained by exploratory factor analysis, the model consistency
with confirmatory factor analysis has been tested. In/on Reliability and validity of the scale, aspect, scope, and
construct validity, sensitivity, consistency, reliability of stability are ensured. The scale that was developed is seen as
a more comprehensive scale that includes both the scale when it was compared to the scales in the literature. The
self-efficacy for the weblog in research of Davis, Wright, Coleman and MacCall has quality to meet a factor that
was developed in his study. The self-efficacy scale of Davis (2009) for Web 21.0 tools includes the Weblogs, Wiki,
social networking, video sharing, social tags, social bullet and social cataloging factors. The developed the scale
does not involve only the social cataloging. The reason is that Davis (2009) research is a scale developed for
students of librarianship. The developed valid and reliable scale has quality to be used as a scale for measuring the
self-efficacy for Web 2.0 in the literature. Being put forward the belief of the self-efficacy for Web 2.0 tools using
the scale is thought to be used to examine whether it is different in terms of demographic factors.
References
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maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis. Psychometrika, 49, 155-173.
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Retrieved October 05, 2010 from http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/techwatch/tsw0701b.pdf
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ScienceDirect
Why combining interrelated subjects does not make a global subject

– Lessons learnt from the latest curriculum reform of Austrian
commercial schools
Bettina Greimel-Fuhrmann a *, Christiane Schopf b, Doris Buchmaier c
a, b, c
Vienna University of Economics and Business, Institute for Business Education, Augasse 2-6, Vienna A-1090, Austria
Abstract
In order to enhance students’ understanding of the interrelationships between business administration, business mathematics and
accounting, the recently developed curriculum of Austrian commercial schools comprises one global subject in which the
contents of these three subjects have been combined. A second subject called “business practice” has been introduced to provide
sufficient time to apply the acquired business knowledge to practice-oriented tasks. The results of a formative evaluation study
show that several teachers have considerable difficulties to put the main ideas of these two subjects into practice and that many
students find it hard to understand the identity of these two subjects.
Selectionand/or
World Servet Bayram
Keywords: Global subject, curriculum reform, business education, formative evaluation;
1. Introduction and Objective
For many years, business administration, accounting and business mathematics have been three separately taught
subjects at Austrian commercial schools (“Handelsschule”, short HAS in the remainder of the text). In order to
enhance students’ understanding that these three subjects are interrelated, the recently developed new curriculum of
Austrian commercial schools comprises one global subject in which the subject matters of the formerly three
subjects have been combined. However, the global subject is not called “business” but “business administration,
accounting and business mathematics” (“Betriebswirtschaft, Wirtschaftliches Rechnen, Rechnungswesen”, short
BWRR). Moreover, the curriculum itself mainly consists of a list of contents to be covered that does not take the
interrelationships between the various fields of business into account. The concept of business education at
commercial schools is completed by a second subject called “business practice” (“Betriebswirtschaftliche
Übungen”, short BWUF). This subject is intended to provide teachers and students with sufficient time to apply
* Corresponding Author: Dr. Bettina Fuhrmann. Tel.: +43-1-31336-5072

E-mail address: Bettina.Fuhrmann@wu.ac.at
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.244
482 Bettina Greimel-Fuhrmann et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 481 – 485
what has been taught and learnt in the global subject BWRR to real-life problems, business cases and practice-
oriented tasks.
During the academic year 2011/12 a pilot project was initiated by the Austrian ministry of education in which 22
schools put the new curriculum into practice in order to gain experience on how to implement it and how to teach
the newly developed subjects. It has been the objective of a formative evaluation study (Bortz & Döring, 1995) at
seven of these schools to see how the implementation process actually works and is perceived by teachers and
students (Greimel-Fuhrmann et al., 2012). This paper focuses on the evaluation results concerning the subjects
BWRR (“business administration, accounting and business mathematics”) and BWUF (“business practice”).
Section two of this paper is dedicated to explaining the characteristics of Austrian commercial schools and the
main features of the newly developed curriculum. The evaluation design and the research methods used are
thoroughly described in the third section, followed by the presentation and discussion of research findings in section
four. Based on these results, section five concludes the paper by generally discussing the ideas underlying the
concept of teaching a global subject (rather than separating distinctive fields of a subject and teaching them
separately) and of creating a subject for the mere application of knowledge that has been acquired in another subject.
2. Austrian commercial schools and their recently developed curriculum

The Austrian commercial school is a three-year school type that combines general and vocational education and
is finished by passing a final exam. Its main intention is to prepare students for working in all fields of business, e.g.
as assistant or accountant. Therefore the curriculum has consisted of a number of business-related subjects for many
years: most importantly of business administration and accounting, but also of business mathematics, business
informatics and business practice including running a virtual enterprise (Greimel, 1998). In many discussions with
teachers on the shortcomings of the education at HAS, they complained that students often fail to see the
interrelationships between these subjects. Therefore it is one of the main elements of the latest curriculum reform for
HAS to introduce a global subject called “business administration, business mathematics and accounting”. While
this subject mainly is intended to focus on the students’ knowledge acquisition, the practical application of this
knowledge to practice-oriented tasks can be achieved in a second subject called “business practice”.
A closer look at the new curriculum reveals that the global subject BWRR comprises eight different fields of
competency that have to be achieved in the course of three years at school – one for business mathematics, six for
business administration and one for accounting. For each of these fields a number of learning objectives (ranging
from two to seventeen) are defined, for example: “In the field of competency “business mathematics”, students are
able to make basic calculations by applying percentages and interest rates”, “In the field of competency “dealing
with sales contracts” [which is part of the content of business administration], students are able to detect contract
violations by the seller and react appropriately” and “In the field of competency “accounting”, students are able to
conduct regular records for the statement of revenues and expenditures.” Only very few of these learning objectives
refer to more than one field of competency. Despite its intention to be interrelated, the curriculum itself extensively
fails to provide appropriate learning objectives. The contents to be taught in the three years of HAS are also
structured in a very similar way. In the first year three separate topics have to be taught: business mathematics,
dealing with sales contracts and preparing a statement of revenues and expenditures. The topic sales contract
comprises the following contents: “basic legal knowledge; contents, initiation and negotiation of a sales contract;
materials management und purchase marketing; purchase principles; correct fulfillment of a contract and contract
violations; commercial correspondence”. For the subject BWUF some additional learning objectives are defined
which focus on knowledge application in specific situations, but there are no additional teaching/learning contents.
Therefore, a teacher who decides to teach the three fields business mathematics, business administration and
accounting consecutively – and hence separately – would still comply with the specifications of the curriculum. One
could even argue that the specifications of the curriculum suggest that it should be done like that. Also the structure
of the textbooks used for teaching BWRR mainly reflect the structure that is given in the curriculum. So the
integration of the three fields remains to be achieved by the teacher. And the evaluation study described in this paper
has examined how well teachers can tackle this task.
Bettina Greimel-Fuhrmann et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 481 – 485 483
3. Evaluation design and research methods
Based on a design that integrates the principles of triangulation of perspectives and methods, qualitative and
quantitative data were analysed which allow a thorough insight into different perspectives on the implementation of
the curriculum. “lt is conventionally assumed that triangulation is the use of multiple methods in the study of the
same object” (Denzin, 1989, p. 236), but it represents even more: Triangulation comprises the combination of
different methodologies, different investigators, different data sources and theories as well as different settings of
time and place (Flick, 1995).
Triangulation of perspectives consists in combining different empirical sources in order to gain as many different
perspectives of a research object as possible. The major objective is not primarily to improve the study's objectivity
but to reveal the complexity of research objects to get the whole picture instead of a single view. “We should
combine theories and methods carefully and purposefully with the intention of adding breadth or depth to our
analysis, but not for the purpose of pursuing objective truth” (Denzin, 1989, p. 246). The evaluation design therefore
comprised the perspectives of students, teachers and principals as well as project coordinators at school.
Each method of social research has its own characteristics, its strengths and weaknesses, its potential for gaining
information and its limitations. By applying one single method the researcher cannot overcome the method's
weaknesses. Only by combining different methods (triangulation of methods) can the deficiencies of one method be
counterbalanced by the strengths of another and vice versa. This is because "methods are like the kaleidoscope:
Depending on how they are approached, held and acted toward, different observations will be revealed. This is not
to imply that reality has the shifting qualities of the colored prism, but that it too is an object that moves and that will
not permit one interpretation to be stamped upon it" (Denzin, 1989, p. 235). By combining several methods the
information gained about the research object will be more complete. In the case of the evaluation study semi-
structured interviews (Mayring, 1993 and 1996) and focus groups were combined with essays and a questionnaire.
Seven commercial schools, ranging from small (40 teachers) to large schools (135 teachers), situated in Vienna
and Lower Austria were involved in the project. At different points of time throughout the pilot school year two
headmasters, six project coordinators and 25 teachers were interviewed. 174 students completed an online
questionnaire, 208 students delivered a written essay and 48 students participated in focus group sessions.
4. Research findings
This section of the paper summarizes the analysis of students’ and teachers’ perspectives on the subjects BWRR
and BWUF. The results show that there are several teachers who have considerable difficulties to put the main ideas
of these two subjects into practice and that many students find it hard to understand the identity of the newly
developed subjects as well as the difference between them.
4.1. Teachers’ perspective
Although almost all interviewed headmasters, coordinators and teachers welcomed the idea of combining
business mathematics, business administration and accounting to create one global subject BWRR, most teachers
admitted that they have had (at least initial) problems putting the idea into teaching practice. This is particularly true
for those teachers who look back on many years of experience in teaching (only) one specific subject. Finding the
right balance between the three subjects in a rather large number of lessons seems difficult because many teachers
tend to emphasize one subject – according to their experience – while neglecting the others. Due to the large number
of lessons, the global subject is usually taught by at least two teachers. However, there are various ways to jointly
teach this subject. Different schools have developed different concepts as the respondents described:
1) A parallel structure seems to be the most common concept. Business mathematics, business administration
and accounting are taught simultaneously, but very rarely in one and the same lesson – either topics are
changing weekly or a certain number of lessons per week is dedicated to each of the topics. Some teachers
who teach as a team have decided to divide the topics between them, enabling each teacher to focus on one,
which in the end led to a teaching practice very similar to conventional teaching of three separate subjects.
2) Another approach was the modular structure. Business mathematics, business administration and accounting
are taught consecutively as separate subjects.
484 Bettina Greimel-Fuhrmann et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 481 – 485
3) Only in one of the seven schools a concept was developed and applied that really integrated the three topics
into one subject by teaching “only business”.
Most teachers realize that the first two concepts do not fully comply with the idea of a global subject. In the
interviews they explain why they think this is the case: A lot of students attending the first year of HAS lack
indispensable prior knowledge of mathematics as well as of languages. When they start learning business
mathematics, business administration and accounting – which are subjects that they have not had before – it is very
important to start from the very beginning and train the basics thoroughly. It is more important to focus on these
basics than on revealing the interdependencies of the topics being taught. At the earliest in the second or third year
of HAS it seems possible and useful to connect these topics and interrelate them to create a whole picture of
business. Furthermore – so the teachers argue – not only the topics but also the required learning processes are
different, which supports the approach of an initial separation of topics.
As far as grading is concerned, teachers realize that students with difficulties in one single field (e.g. accounting)
benefit from being taught a global subject, because they can compensate their poor performance in accounting with
better performances in other fields.
The large number of lessons dedicated to BWUF is appreciated by all interviewed teachers. They notice that the
second subject allows redundancy which supports the learning process and results in better learning outcomes.
Nevertheless the strict separation into a theory-oriented subject BWRR and an application-oriented subject BWUF is
criticized by a high percentage of the teachers.
Schools have developed different concepts to allocate time and teachers to these two subjects:
1) BWRR is either taught by one teacher, by two teachers alternately or by two teachers in a team.
2) BWUF is always taught by two teachers, either in two separate groups of students or with the whole class
being taught by both teachers in a team teaching process.
3) In most cases, the teachers who teach BWRR also teach BWUF. But there are exceptions to that “rule”.
Having two subjects with more or less the same learning content, but different approaches (acquisition of
knowledge versus its application) and having at least two teachers responsible for these subjects requires a lot of
coordination between the teachers. However, dividing theory and practice is not feasible in reality. On the one hand,
it does not make sense from a pedagogical and didactical point of view to concentrate on the acquisition of
knowledge without applying it, because the application of knowledge significantly enhances the acquisition of
knowledge. Consequently, there are tasks which make the students apply their knowledge in both subjects which
makes it hard for the students to understand the difference between the two subjects (very often taught by different
teachers!). On the other hand, if students have not yet understood the learning content, it is not possible to apply it
by solving problems and real-life tasks in BWUF, but teachers need to explain the content, ending up doing the
same as in BWRR. Only one school has developed a clearly different concept: all BWUF lessons take place on one
so-called “Business Day” per week, when students “work” in a (virtual) training firm and deal with simulated but
realistic business situations.
Another question has arisen in the interviews: As there are written exams in both subjects, it is possible that
students achieve different grades for the same learning objectives. How can this be explained to students?
4.2. Students’ perspective
One of the aims of the online-questionnaire for students was to find out how students perceive the two subjects
BWRR and BWUF. The results of the four items covering this aspect are shown below:
- “I think that BWRR and BWUF are totally different subjects”: One third of the students agreed with this
statement, one third partly agreed/partly disagreed and one third disagreed with it.
- “I am confused because we learn similar things in BWRR and BWUF”: 37 % admitted their confusion, while
41 % indicated not to be confused.
- “It is not clear to me how business administration, business mathematics and accounting are interrelated”: For
less than 50 % of the respondents the interrelations between the different topics are clear, nevertheless for
about one quarter they are not.
- About half of the students stated that they could immediately give a correct answer to the question “What is
business administration?”, while 21 % indicated that they could not.
Bettina Greimel-Fuhrmann et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 481 – 485 485
Interestingly enough, the essays and especially the focus group discussions showed that most students did not
have a clear idea of the similarities and differences between BWRR and BWUF. They also do not understand the
similarities and differences between business administration, business mathematics and accounting. Many students
reported that sometimes they cannot figure out which lesson they actually have and that they have problems to
assign specific contents to the different subject matters. Focus group discussions revealed that many students think
that they are taught business administration in BWRR and business mathematics and accounting in BWUF. Students
also do not understand why they have to take examinations in both subjects and are graded separately.
Some of the students attended the first form of HAS for the second time (their bad grades had not allowed them
to proceed to the second year) and consequently were able to compare the new concept of BWRR and BWUF with
the former concept. 54 % of them appreciated the new combined global subject. Nevertheless 46 % of this group of
students are confused by the new concept and do not understand the distinction between BWRR and BWUF.
5. Discussion and reflection
The results of this study clearly show that the integration of different subjects into one global subject needs more
than some general principles of teaching and a list of contents. If it is intended to focus on the interrelationships of
various business-related subjects, this focus should also be visible in the curriculum. Otherwise it can be fulfilled
without achieving the intended integration. As textbooks have to reflect the content and structure of the curriculum,
also the new textbooks follow a modular rather than an integrated and interrelated structure. In the end the
integration has to be achieved by the teachers, but most of them look back on a long tradition of teaching business
administration and accounting separately, some have even become experts in one field and are likely to emphasize
this field in their classes. There are many reasons why they are not prepared to adopt an integrated approach.
It has also been obvious that many teachers and students are confused by the co-existence of a theory-oriented
subject and an application-oriented subject. In addition to the obvious organisational issues that may arise, it is hard
and also pointless to teach a subject matter without applying the knowledge to realistic tasks and problems (e.g.
Fortmüller, 1991 and 1998). And it is just as hard only to apply knowledge without any explanations or iterations of
the material that has been taught by another teacher. The more freely and creatively the teachers interpreted the
curriculum of BWUF e.g. by running a training firm with the students, the easier it was for the students to identify a
difference between the two subjects. The more the teachers focused on practising what had been taught, the more
students got the impression that the two subjects are more or less the same.
Acknowledgements
This paper is partly based on research that was funded by the Austrian ministry of education.
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