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INSTRUMENT COMMUNICATIONS
INSTRUMENT COMMUNICATIONS (ID-017)
REVISI0N HISTORY
Baud Rate
Multiplexing
HART
Network Topologies
4. MULTIPLEXING
5. HART PROTOCOL
6. NETWORKING
6.4. TOPOLOGY
6.4.1. ARCHITECTURE
6.4.2. MEDIUM
6.4.3. NODE
6.4.5. GATEWAY
6.4.6. BRIDGE
6.4.7. ROUTERS
6.4.11. ONSHORE
6.4.13. OFFSHORE
6.5. PIPELINES
7. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
computer to computer
Receipt check has the transmission of the message been error free
has the message been successfully received
Video
Voice
Digital data uses binary numbering system – 0 and 1 – to form the basis of all
digital information handled by computers and computer related equipment,
called peripherals.
The data can be sent one digit – 0 state or 1 state – at a time, one digit (BIT)
after another. This is called SERIAL transmission. Several digits (BITS) of
data sent in a group at the same time is called PARALLEL transmission.
Serial and Parallel transmission is shown in Figures 3 and 4, see below. Here
the letter K is shown in a code format called ASCII; American Standard Code
for Information Interchange, see table 1 below.
D0
D1
D2
D3
Device A D4 Device B
D5
D6
D7
CLK
Figure 1
2 BIT 2 = 1
3 BIT 3 = 0
4 BIT 4 = 1
5 BIT 5 = 0
6 BIT 6 = 0
7 BIT 7 = 1
8 BIT 8 = 0
Timing Clock
Figure 3
Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin
Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin
128 80 200 10000000 144 90 220 10010000 160 A0 240 10100000 176 B0 260 10110000
129 81 201 10000001 145 91 221 10010001 161 A1 241 10100001 177 B1 261 10110001
130 82 202 10000010 146 92 222 10010010 162 A2 242 10100010 178 B2 262 10110010
131 83 203 10000011 147 93 223 10010011 163 A3 243 10100011 179 B3 263 10110011
132 84 204 10000100 148 94 224 10010100 164 A4 244 10100100 180 B4 264 10110100
133 85 205 10000101 149 95 225 10010101 165 A5 245 10100101 181 B5 265 10110101
134 86 206 10000110 150 96 226 10010110 166 A6 246 10100110 182 B6 266 10110110
135 87 207 10000111 151 97 227 10010111 167 A7 247 10100111 183 B7 267 10110111
136 88 210 10001000 152 98 230 10011000 168 A8 250 10101000 184 B8 270 10111000
137 89 211 10001001 153 99 231 10011001 169 A9 251 10101001 185 B9 271 10111001
138 8A 212 10001010 154 9A 232 10011010 170 AA 252 10101010 186 BA 272 10111010
139 8B 213 10001011 155 9B 233 10011011 171 AB 253 10101011 187 BB 273 10111011
140 8C 214 10001100 156 9C 234 10011100 172 AC 254 10101100 188 BC 274 10111100
141 8D 215 10001101 157 9D 235 10011101 173 AD 255 10101101 189 BD 275 10111101
142 8E 216 10001110 158 9E 236 10011110 174 AE 256 10101110 190 BE 276 10111110
143 8F 217 10001111 159 9F 237 10011111 175 AF 257 10101111 191 BF 277 10111111
Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin Dec Hex Oct Bin
192 C0 300 11000000 208 D0 320 11010000 224 E0 340 11100000 240 F0 360 11110000
193 C1 301 11000001 209 D1 321 11010001 225 E1 341 11100001 241 F1 361 11110001
194 C2 302 11000010 210 D2 322 11010010 226 E2 342 11100010 242 F2 362 11110010
195 C3 303 11000011 211 D3 323 11010011 227 E3 343 11100011 243 F3 363 11110011
196 C4 304 11000100 212 D4 324 11010100 228 E4 344 11100100 244 F4 364 11110100
197 C5 305 11000101 213 D5 325 11010101 229 E5 345 11100101 245 F5 365 11110101
198 C6 306 11000110 214 D6 326 11010110 230 E6 346 11100110 246 F6 366 11110110
199 C7 307 11000111 215 D7 327 11010111 231 E7 347 11100111 247 F7 367 11110111
200 C8 310 11001000 216 D8 330 11011000 232 E8 350 11101000 248 F8 370 11111000
201 C9 311 11001001 217 D9 331 11011001 233 E9 351 11101001 249 F9 371 11111001
202 CA 312 11001010 218 DA 332 11011010 234 EA 352 11101010 250 FA 372 11111010
203 CB 313 11001011 219 DB 333 11011011 235 EB 353 11101011 251 FB 373 11111011
204 CC 314 11001100 220 DC 334 11011100 236 EC 354 11101100 252 FC 374 11111100
205 CD 315 11001101 221 DD 335 11011101 237 ED 355 11101101 253 FD 375 11111101
206 CE 316 11001110 222 DE 336 11011110 238 EE 356 11101110 254 FE 376 11111110
207 CF 317 11001111 223 DF 337 11011111 239 EF 357 11101111 255 FF 377 11111111
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
Space
Figure 4
Each timed level change in the data sent is called a BIT; “0” bit, “1” bit.
When dealing with binary numbers, especially 16 bit and 32 bit numbers, the
amount of the “1” and “0”’s is large and can be difficult to read. To overcome
this problem, computer programmers and engineers use other number
systems called octal and hexadecimal.
RS-232 stands for “Recommend Standard number 232”, and “C” is the latest
revision of the standard. The RS232 specification governs the physical and
electrical characteristics of serial communications.
The full RS-232C standard specifies a 25-pin "D" connector of which 22 pins
are used. Refer to figure 5.
Figure 5
The serial ports on most computers use a subset of the RS-232C standard.
Most of these pins are not needed for normal PC communications. Most new
PCs are equipped with male D type connectors having only 9 pins, refer to
Figure 6.
Figure 6 - RS-232/V.24 pin out on a DB-9 pin used for Asynchronous Data
Figure 7 shows the pin layout for a 9-pin RS232 connection. Data is
transmitted through connection to terminals 3 and 5 and data received
through connection to terminals 2 and 5.
Table 2
RS485
Figure 9
Ethernet
Segment lengths were limited to 500 meters, and up to 100 devices could be
connected to a single network. Individual segments could be interconnected
with repeaters. Basically, amplifiers used to match cable specifications. As
long as multiple paths did not exist between any two stations on the network
and the number of devices did not exceed 1024 the network arrangement
operated. Refer to Figure 11.
Figure 11 illustrates a BUS network where the devices are “daisy chained”
with the cable used to transmit the data signals. Figure 12 illustrates another
network arrangement called star-connected.
Figure 12
Most Interface methods, already discussed, have some protocol already built
into their use. With RS232 we saw some additional signals that helped the
control of data between computer and peripheral device. This simple form of
protocol is called “handshaking” as the equipment will talk and agree to send
and receive when they are each in turn ready to communicate.
MODBUS
PROFIBUS
TCP/IP
Programmable Controllers (PLC) can now communicate with each other and
with other devices over a variety of network configurations. Networks are
accessed using built-in circuits in the controllers and network adapters.
Modbus is mainly used to transfer digital actions. It was then extended to read
and transmit analogue values. Each digital and analogue function has an
address within the Modbus protocol. Not to be confused with the network
address of the communicating devices. Those Modbus addresses are
MAPPED into tables of digital and analogue functions. Identical tables are
stored in both communicating devices. The table format must be in the exact
same sequence, including addressing fields, in the sending and receiving
devices.
Figure
PROFIBUS
Figure 13
HART Protocol
Figure 14
The HART protocol uses 1200 baud Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) to
superimpose digital information on the conventional four to 2OmA analogue
signal.
TCP/IP
Figure 15
A single wire can carry a signal from a source to a destination but it can also
act as an antenna and be subjected to external electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
Most wires are shielded or braided and some wires are also twisted at 90-
degree angle. The twists are not spaced regularly apart.
The size of the wire used varies from 16 AWG (American Wire Gauge) -
diameter of 1.3mm to 26 AWG with a diameter of 0.4 mm.
The attenuation of twisted wire pairs rises rapidly with increasing frequency.
The number of twisted pairs per group can range from 2 to 3000.
Many Local Area Networks (LANs) use 25 pairs. Some LANs use the
inexpensive unshielded twisted pair for telephones.
Some significant and interesting effects occur in the vicinity of a wire carrying
an alternative current signal. One of these effects is that both an electric field
and a magnetic field are created around the conductor. The magnetic field
can induce the signal it is carrying into adjacent conductors.
If one conductor of the pair is the ground side of the circuit and is made to
surround the other conductor, both the radiated electric field and the magnetic
field can be confined, within the tube formed by the outer conductor, as
illustrated below.
The self-shielding works well at frequencies above about 100 kHz, but at
lower frequencies, the shielding becomes ineffective.
The resistive loss of coaxial cable increases in proportion to the square root
of the frequency, making coaxial cable generally usable at frequencies of up
to 2000 MHz, although some types can be used up to 10,000 MHz.
Fibre Optic Fibre uses “emitted light” signals to transmit digital data.
Figure 18
Figure 19
Figure 20a
Baud
BPS represents the number of BITS per Second that will pass a point in a
cable every second. This is the data rate of transmission.
This measurement does not look at the size of pulse that makes up the digital
BIT of information, which is basically a pulse of voltage change.
The time between the rising edge and the falling edge of the pulse can vary.
The size of voltage height of the pulse is not important.
The time between pulses is important, as this space is time related. More
space between the pulses will give a lower BPS value than less space
between the pulses, which gives a higher BPS value.
BIT
Pulse
Width Space
Figure 21
One or more BITS can represent each part of the instruction, letter or number
transmitted.
When each part of the instruction, letter or number is defined as one BIT, the
BPS rate is equal to the BAUD rate.
In serial communications, there are several BAUD rate figures used for
different types of equipment. Standard values are used to ensure sending
equipment and receiving equipment interfaces operate at the same
information exchange rate.
110 baud
300 baud
600 baud
1200 baud
2400 baud
4800 baud
9600 baud
Half Duplex
Full Duplex
Requires a cable with 2 wires covered with a foil shield inside the cable
sheath. (Called a single twisted pair cable)
With Half Duplex transmission, a device cannot send and receive at the same
time.
Half duplex serial communication needs two wires, which are twisted and
shielded with foil inside the cable sheath and usually have a earth ground
wire.
Full duplex serial communication needs a cable with 2, twisted pair wires,
each covered with a foil shield inside the cable sheath and usually they have
a single earth ground wire.
signal ground
Channel 1
Channel 2
Multiplex Demultiple
Channel 3
or (MUX) xor
Channel 4 (Demux)
Channel 5
A typical analog Internet connection via a twisted pair telephone line requires
approximately three kilohertz (3 kHz) of bandwidth for accurate and reliable
data transfer.
It accepts the input from each individual end user, and generates a signal on
a different frequency for each of the inputs. This results in a high-bandwidth,
complex signal containing data from all the end users. At the other end of the
long-distance cable, the individual signals are separated out by means of a
circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users.
Multiple signals are carried over the same channel in alternating time slots. In
some optical fibre networks, multiple signals are carried together as separate
wavelengths of light in a multiplexed signal using dense wavelength division
multiplexing(DWDM).
Figure 23
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data streams
in a single signal by separating the signal into many segments, each having a
very short duration. Each individual data stream is reassembled at the
receiving end based on the timing.
In most applications the milli ampere signal varies within the range 4-20 mA in
proportion to the process variable being represented.
Primary variable and control signal information is carried by the 4-20mA (if
desired), while additional measurements, process parameters, device
configuration, calibration, and diagnostics information is accessible through
the HART protocol over the same wires at the same time.
The HART protocol makes use of the Bell 202 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
standard to superimpose digital communication signals at a low level on top
of the 4-20 mA.
Since the digital FSK signal is phase continuous, it does not interfere with the
4-20 mA signal.
The HART FSK signalling enables two-way digital communication and makes
it possible for additional information beyond just the normal process variable
to be communicated to or from a smart field instrument.
We will focus on Frequency shift keying or FSK as this is the basis for the
HART communication protocol used with the field mounted instrumentation
devices.
Figure24
Modems can pass information in both directions at once (duplex mode) using
four different frequencies. Two frequencies are used to send data and two
frequencies are used to receive data.
Today virtually all major global instrumentation suppliers offer products with
HART communication.
The HART protocol provides both 4-20 mA analog and digital communication
signals simultaneously on the same wiring.
Figure 25 – HART uses Frequency Shift Keying to encode digital information on top of the
4-20 mA analog signal
Two masters (primary and secondary) can communicate with slave devices in
a HART network.
The 4-20 mA analog signal is continuous and can still carry the primary
variable for control.
This mode frees the master from having to send repeated command requests
to get updated process variable information.
Data update rates of 3-4 per second are typical with “burst” mode
communication and will vary with the chosen command. Burst mode should
be used in single slave device networks.
The HART protocol also has the capability to connect multiple field devices on
the same pair of wires in a multi drop network configuration.
Figure 27
Multidrop transmitters refers to the connection of several transmitters to a
single communications transmission line.
There are many different types of networks and some of the more common
ones are discussed below.
Topology
Protocol
Architecture
Medium
Node
(Work) Station
Gateway
Bridge
Router
Star
Bus
Ring
Mesh
Peer – to – Peer
6.4.2. MEDIUM
6.4.3. NODE
Station
Unit
Controllers
Supervisory Computers
File Servers
Gateways
Ethernet to RS485
Although personal computer users can access the linear programming results
produced on the mainframe via gateways, the execution of this type of
program on a personal computer might require 10 to 20 hours, whereas the
execution might take 15 minutes when performed on a mainframe.
6.4.6. BRIDGE
A device on a node that converts data from one physical layer to another.
In this example, a pair of bridges interconnects two sales office LANs, and a
router is used to provide a link from one LAN to many warehouse LANs. The
gateway provides a mechanism that enables LAN users to access the
mainframe computer. In fact, when sophisticated hardware and software are
used, it might be possible for a PC user attached to the LAN to be “bridged” to
the second LAN and provided, via the gateway, access to the mainframe – a
key goal of internet working.
The type of network is dependent on the architecture, which defines the basic
communication strategy. Networks include:
Master – Slave
Peer – to – Peer
Rotating Mastership
These consist of a:
All communication must take place through the master, and direct slave to
slave communication is not possible. A typical Master – Slave network is
shown in Figure 31.
Advantages
Easy to implement
Disadvantages
The optical fibre connecting the various assets is a multi gigabyte capacity
fibre capable of carrying voice, data, and fax and internet traffic.
6.4.11. ONSHORE
Modbus Protocol
TCP/IP 34MBIT network link to all assets via fibre optic cable
6.5. PIPELINES
Due to the geographical terrain along the length of the pipeline between the
Caspian Sea and the Black Sea communications consist of a Ku band and
VSAT mesh network for data and voice.
The network consists of ten VSAT stations, each interfacing with the control
system equipment to relay SCADA data back to the master station at the
main hub located at Sangachal Terminal.
The VSAT network also provides a dual LAN(local area network) link for the
control systems between the two pipeline terminals at Sangachal and Supsa.
Outside of the VSAT network, other facilities such as Inmarsat, VHF marine
band radios and a loading officer VHF shutdown system are used.
Novorossiysk
Northern Route
Ca
spi
an
Black Sea
Se
Supsa GEORGIA
a
Tbilisi
Western Route AR
M AZERBAIJAN
EN Baku
IA
Erzerum
T U R K E Y
Ceyhan
I R AQ IRAN
SYRIA
The most common type of microwave antenna is the parabolic dish typically
3metres in diameter.
The antenna is fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam to achieve line of
sight transmission to the receiving antenna.
Microwave antennas are usually positioned high above ground level in order
to transmit above intervening obstacles.
Microwave links require fewer amplifiers or repeaters than coaxial cable for
the same distance.
The satellite itself is known as the space segment and is composed of three
elements
fuel system
telemetry controls
transponder
The transponder includes the receiving antenna to pick-up signals from the
ground station via the uplink.
Satellite in Orbit
Uplink Downlink
The ground station is known as the earth segment. The ground station's job is
two-fold.
a baseband processor
an up converter
VSATs are also suitable for point to point and mesh networks.
A typical star network comprise 100 small remote VSAT antennas (1.2m
diameter) located on customer offices scattered over Europe providing data
communications via a large central 11m hub antenna.
A landline optic fibre data link connects the hub antenna to the customer head
office.
The hub antenna and the VSATs are owned, operated and maintained by a
VSAT service provider who provides a communication service to the
customer company.
The VSAT service provider leases satellite capacity from a satellite operator.
The VSAT service provider will normally have a number of customers, thus
sharing the hub costs (capital expense and staff costs) and satellite lease
costs. One hub antenna might thus serve several thousand VSAT antennas.
Capacity is not a problem with both very small to very large networks all
viable.
Voice or data services with the possibility of communication between all sites
(i.e. in mesh mode connection) requires slightly larger antennas and/or
transmitter power amplifiers.
VSAT systems are attractive where the coverage area is large, where quick
installation is required and where terrestrial alternatives are difficult to
organise.
Key Features
Key Features
Carry 16 transponders
Bit, Byte
The basic units of computer information. A bit (from binary digit) is equivalent
to the result of a choice between two alternatives (1 or 0, yes or no, on or off).
A byte is a group of adjacent binary digits that a computer processes as a
unit; the size of a byte in practically all modern systems is eight bits.
SI prefixes often attached to bits and bytes, but usually with the
understanding that they refer to a power of two that approximates a nearby
power of ten. For example, 1 kilobyte means 2^10 bytes, or 1024 bytes; it
does not mean 10^3 or 1000 bytes.
Asynchronous, Synchronous
Handshaking
RS-232
Codes
The only time the user might need to deal with codes is when interfacing two
machines (such as computers and printers) from different manufacturers.
Characters
The letters, numerals, spaces, punctuation marks and other signs and
symbols on a keyboard. (Remember that the space character is just as
important as any other, even though we tend to think of it as “nothing” or
“blank”). For example, the number “7” is a sequence of four characters.
Communications systems also use control characters that do not print, but
these characters must be coded. Some of these control characters (such as
Carriage Return or Tab) are also on a keyboard, but many are not.