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Mechanical Properties in Design and Manufacturing
Mechanical properties determine a material’s behavior when subjected
to mechanical stresses
Properties include elastic modulus, ductility, hardness, and various
measures of strength
Dilemma: mechanical properties that are desirable to the designer, such
as high strength, usually make manufacturing more difficult
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Physical properties of metals
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Stress-Strain Relationships
Three types of static stresses to which materials can be subjected:
1. Tensile - stretching the material
2. Compressive - squeezing the material
3. Shear - causing adjacent portions of the material to slide against
each other
Stress-strain curve - basic relationship that describes mechanical
properties for all three types
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Tensile Test
Most common test for studying
stress-strain relationship, especially
metals
In the test, a force pulls the material,
elongating it and reducing its diameter
(left) Tensile force applied and (right)
resulting elongation of material
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Tensile Test Specimen
ASTM (American Society
for Testing and Materials)
specifies preparation of
test specimen
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Tensile Test Setup
Tensile testing
machine
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Tensile Test Sequence
(1) no load;
(2) uniform elongation and area
reduction;
(3) maximum load;
(4) necking;
(5) fracture;
(6) putting pieces back together
to measure final length
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Engineering Stress Engineering Strain
Defined as force divided by original area: Defined at any point in the test as
F
e
Ao
where
e = engineering stress,
F = applied force, and
Ao = original area of test specimen
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Typical Engineering
Stress-Strain Plot
Typical engineering
stress-strain plot in a tensile
test of a metal
Two regions:
1. Elastic region
2. Plastic region
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Elastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve
Relationship between stress and strain is linear
Hooke's Law: e = E e
where E = modulus of elasticity
Material returns to its original length when stress is removed
E is a measure of the inherent stiffness of a material
Its value differs for different materials
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Yield Point in Stress-Strain Curve
As stress increases, a point in the linear relationship is finally
reached when the material begins to yield
Yield point Y can be identified by the change in slope at the
upper end of the linear region
Y = a strength property
Other names for yield point:
Yield strength
Yield stress
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Elastic limit
Plastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve
Yield point marks the beginning of plastic deformation
The stress-strain relationship is no longer guided by
Hooke's Law
As load is increased beyond Y, elongation proceeds at a
much faster rate than before, causing the slope of the
curve to change dramatically
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Tensile Strength in Stress-Strain Curve
Elongation is accompanied by a uniform reduction in
cross-sectional area, consistent with maintaining constant
volume
Finally, the applied load F reaches a maximum value, and
engineering stress at this point is called the tensile strength TS
(a.k.a. ultimate tensile strength)
Fmax
TS =
Ao
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Ductility in Tensile Test
Ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture
Ductility measure = elongation EL
Lf Lo
EL
Lo
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True Stress
Stress value obtained by dividing the instantaneous area into
applied load F
A
where = true stress; F = force; and A = actual (instantaneous) area
resisting the load
True Strain
Provides a more realistic assessment of "instantaneous" elongation per unit
length L
dL L
ln
L L
o
Lo
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True Stress-Strain Curve
True stress-strain
curve for previous
engineering
stress-strain plot
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Compression Test
Applies a load that squeezes the
ends of a cylindrical specimen
between two platens
Compression force applied to test
piece and resulting change in
height and diameter
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Compression Test Setup
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Bending Test
Bending of a rectangular cross section results in both tensile and compressive
stresses in the material: (left) initial loading; (right) highly stressed and strained
specimen
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Shear Properties
Application of stresses in opposite directions on either side of a thin element:
(a) shear stress and (b) shear strain
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Hardness
Resistance to permanent indentation
Good hardness generally means material is resistant to scratching and wear
Most tooling used in manufacturing must be hard for scratch and wear resistance
Commonly used for assessing material properties because they
are quick and convenient
Variety of testing methods are appropriate due to differences in
hardness among different materials
Most well-known hardness tests are Brinell and Rockwell
Other test methods are also available, such as Vickers, Knoop,
Scleroscope, and durometer
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Brinell Hardness Test
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Brinell Hardness Number
Load divided into indentation area = Brinell Hardness
Number (BHN)
2F
HB
Db (Db Db2 Di2 )
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Effect of Temperature on Properties
General effect of
temperature on
strength and
ductility
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Hot Hardness
Ability of a material to
retain hardness at elevated
temperatures
Typical hardness as a
function of temperature
for several materials
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Stiffness defined by E
Recrystallization in Metals Once Y reached, deforms plastically at same
Most metals strain harden at room temperature stress level
according to the flow curve (n > 0) Flow curve: K = Y, n = 0
But if heated to sufficiently high temperature Metals behave like this when heated to
and deformed, strain hardening does not occur sufficiently high temperatures (above
Instead, new grains form that are free of strain recrystallization)
The metal has recrystallized
The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material;
that is, n = 0
K n
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain
hardening exponent and delta is true stress
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Recrystallization Temperature
Recrystallization temperature of a Recrystallization can be exploited in
manufacturing
given metal = about one-half its Heating a metal to its recrystallization
melting point (0.5 Tm) as measured temperature prior to deformation
on an absolute temperature scale allows a greater amount of straining
Lower forces and power are required to
Recrystallization takes time perform the process
The recrystallization temperature Forming a metal at temperatures above
its recrystallization temperature is called
is specified as the temperature at hot working
which new grains are formed in
about one hour
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