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Influence of Humidity on Clogging of Flat and Pleated HEPA Filters

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Influence of Humidity on Clogging of Flat and

Pleated HEPA Filters

A. Joubert , J. C. Laborde , L. Bouilloux , S. Callé-Chazelet & D. Thomas

To cite this article: A. Joubert , J. C. Laborde , L. Bouilloux , S. Callé-Chazelet & D. Thomas

(2010) Influence of Humidity on Clogging of Flat and Pleated HEPA Filters, Aerosol Science and
Technology, 44:12, 1065-1076, DOI: 10.1080/02786826.2010.510154

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 Aerosol Science and Technology, 44:1065–1076, 2010
Copyright © American Association for Aerosol Research
ISSN: 0278-6826 print / 1521-7388 online
DOI: 10.1080/02786826.2010.510154
Influence of Humidity on Clogging of Flat and Pleated HEPA
Filters
A. Joubert,1,2 J. C. Laborde,1 L. Bouilloux,1 S. Callé-Chazelet,2 and D. Thomas2
1
IRSN—DSU—SERAC—Laboratory for the Experimental Study of Containment, Air Cleaning and
Ventilation, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
2
Nancy University—Laboratoire Réactions et Génie des Procédés—CNRS, Nancy Cedex, France
Downloaded by [Institue for Cellular & Intracellular Symbiosis UB RAS] at 23:51 29 January 2016
The influence of humidity on changes to the pressure drop of
flat and pleated HEPA filters clogged by polydisperse hygroscopic
and non-hygroscopic aerosols has been studied. For flat filters, the
results confirm the observations reported by Gupta et al. (1993)
that with a hygroscopic aerosol at humidity below the deliques-
cent point, or with a non-hygroscopic aerosol, the particulate spe-
cific cake resistance decreases as relative humidity increases. For
pleated filters as for flat filters, the results reveal that during the
formation of the particulate cake, the increase in relative humidity
leads to a decrease in the specific cake resistance. When the re-
duction in filtration area, specific to pleated filters, becomes large,
the presence of humidity accelerates the filling of pleats causing
a greater pressure drop for a same aerosol mass loading. With a
hygroscopic aerosol at a humidity above its deliquescent point, the
change in pressure drop through flat or pleated filters is not lin-
ear but characteristic of liquid aerosol filtration. The influence of
humidity on the efficiency of pleated filters, measured by a soda
fluorescein aerosol, has also been studied. For clean filters, the ef-
ficiency decreases with increasing relative humidity above 90%.
For filters clogged with solid aerosol, change in efficiency versus
collected surface mass reaches a maximum whose value depends
on the relative humidity; when the aerosol is liquid, the efficiency
decreases throughout the clogging.
1. INTRODUCTION
Pleated High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters are fre-
quently used in ventilation systems and particularly in nuclear
facilities for the containment of radioactivity. The pressure drop
and the efficiency depend on many parameters such as particle
diameter, fluid velocity, and so on. Moisture is also an important
consideration in the design of an air cleaning system. Indeed, the
Received 23 March 2010; accepted 24 June 2010.
This work has been supported by the Institute for Radiological
Protection and Nuclear Safety in France (IRSN) and AREVA NC in
collaboration with the Laboratory of Reactions and Chemical Engi-
neering of Nancy University.
Address correspondence to A. Joubert, Ecoledos Mines de Nants, 4
rue Alfred Kastler BP 20722, 44307 Nantes Cedex 3, France. E-mail:
aurelie.joubert@mines-nantes.fr
humidity of the air may affect the performance of HEPA filters
in terms of both pressure drop and efficiency. In nuclear reac-
tors, large volumes of steam and moisture would be expected to
arise in the highly unlikely event of a major loss-of-coolant acci-
dent or a heat exchanger failure. When fire-protection sprinklers
are provided in operating areas, their activation could result in
moisture being drawn into the filters.
Although important, the influence of moisture on the clog-
ging of fibrous filters has been little studied. Because of this,
there is no analytical study available in the literature for pre-
dicting the influence of humidity on the performance of pleated
HEPA filters. Indeed, the majority of studies use flat filters.
Unfortunately, these two geometries—flat and pleated—do not
exhibit similar pressure drop change characteristics (Del Fabbro
et al. 2001).
To redress this lack of knowledge, we have studied the in-
fluence of the presence of humidity on changes in pressure
drop and efficiency of pleated HEPA filters during clogging by
a non-hygroscopic aluminium oxide aerosol and by a hygro-
scopic sodium chloride aerosol. The clogging of flat filters has
also been studied, to investigate the influence of filter geometry
on changes in pressure drop.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The evolution of the pressure drop of a pleated HEPA filter
when challenged with a solid aerosol exhibits three stages (Del
Fabbro et al. 2001):
• in-depth filtration corresponding, as for flat filters, to
a deposit of particles inside the medium. During this
stage, the pressure drop across the filter changes very
little;
• surface filtration (or cake filtration) corresponding to
the development of a particulate cake on the surface of
the medium. This stage is also common to flat filters,
but for pleated filters, the area of filtration surface is
reduced as the particulate cake builds up. At the begin-
ning of clogging, this reduction of the filtration surface
1065
 1066 A. JOUBERT ET AL.
is not sufficiently large to modify the linear evolution
of the pressure drop;
• reduction of the filtration surface causing an exponen-
tial increase in the pressure drop of the filter. It is
difficult to predict the value of the collected mass at
which reduction of surface area starts to be important.
For flat filters, during the cake filtration stage, Novick (1992)
considers that the pressure drop of the filter (
P ) results from
two contributions: the pressure drop of the clean filter (
P0 ),
which can be calculated from Darcy’s law, and the pressure drop
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through the particulate cake (
Pc ) which comes from the drag
force acting on each individual particle forming the cake and a
factor which takes into account the proximity of the particles to
each other.
Therefore, neglecting the fast in-depth filtration stage, ac-
cording to Novick (1992) the pressure drop of a HEPA filter
during the cake filtration stage for a solid aerosol in laminar
flow regime is expressed in the form:
ms

P = R · µ · Vf + Kc · µ · · Vf [1]
Sf
Here R is the clean filter medium resistance (m−1 ), µ the gas
dynamic viscosity (Pa · s), Vf the gas filtration velocity (m ·
s−1 ), Kc the specific cake resistance (m·kg−1 ), ms the collected
surface mass (kg), and Sf the filtration surface area (m2 ).
For pleated filters, changes in pressure drop during clogging
are more complicated due to the reduction of the filtration sur-
face area and the way in which the particles build up along
the pleats. Del Fabbro et al. (2001) have established a clogging
model for pleated HEPA filters by micron-sized particles based
on a dimensionless approach. This model is, however, difficult
to use because it requires the changes which occur in the air flow
resistance of the filtering medium throughout clogging to be in-
put as data. Rebai et al. (2009) have proposed a numerical model
to simulate the clogging of a pleated filter; this model is obtained
by combining a semi-analytical model of the flow in a pleated
filter and an empirical model of clogging of a flat filter medium.
When considering the influence of humidity on the pressure
drop of a clean water-repellent flat HEPA filter, Gupta et al.
(1993) noted no change when the filter was subjected to relative
humidities between 1 and 100%. With pleated HEPA filters,
Normann (1987) noted, for filters conditioned for six hours at
relative humidities between 50% and 100% and an ambient
temperature close to 20◦ C, that the pressure drop of filters in-
creases for relative humidities greater than 90%. The results of
Gupta et al. (1993) and Normann (1987) seem contradictory,
but this may be explained by their different experimental condi-
tions, for example the exposure time of the medium to the flow
of humid air or condensation of the vapor into the medium.
The work of Gupta et al. (1993), performed with flat HEPA
filters, highlighted the importance of the hygroscopic nature of
aerosols on the evolution of the pressure drop of a filter during
its clogging. For a non-hygroscopic aerosol or a hygroscopic
aerosol at relative humidity below its deliquescent point, the
increase in filter pressure drop is much lower than when the
humidity is high; for a hygroscopic aerosol at relative humid-
ity above its deliquescent point, the pressure drop of the filter
increases exponentially after a certain mass of droplets has col-
lected. The same observations have been reported by Miguel
(2003) with large-diameter polyester fiber filters clogged with
hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic aerosols.
Smith et al. (1993) studied the mechanical resistance of
HEPA filters with deep pleats, pre-clogged under high or low
humidity by a sodium chloride aerosol. The results showed that
a filter clogged under low humidity had reduced mechanical re-
sistance, whereas if the clogging occurred under high humidity,
the mechanical resistance could be compared with a clean filter.
Gregory et al. (1982) studied the influence of humidity on
the air flow resistance of HEPA filters with deep pleats when
clogged by a stearic acid submicron aerosol. It seems that the
filter air flow resistance, for a given aerosol mass loading, is
greater when the filter is operating in dry air. In other words, the
air flow resistance of the filter is lower when clogging occurs
under humid conditions. Once saturation is reached, an addi-
tional injection of water causes a further decrease in the filter’s
air flow resistance for the same aerosol mass loading.
To conclude, this literature review has revealed a lack of
data on the influence of humidity on pleated filters. The results
obtained with flat filters constitute a valuable database, but a
study of pleated filters remains indispensable. The few studies
of deep-pleated HEPA filters that are available provide little
analytical data on the influence of humidity during their clog-
ging. Indeed, the reports are generally imprecise in terms of the
operating conditions or parameters studied.
3. EQUIPMENT AND METHOD
3.1. Experimental Test Bench
The test bench used during this study, installed at the Insti-
tute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety in Saclay
(France), has been designed to analytically characterize filtra-
tion under humid conditions by pleated and flat HEPA filters. It
enables the filtered air to be controlled and regulated in terms
of flow rate (30 to 200 m3 · h−1 at 20◦ C), temperature (8◦ C to
100◦ C) and humidity (from a few % to saturation depending on
the temperature). Heat trace cables over the entire test bench, in-
sulated in advance, prevent any condensation on the walls. The
humidity is measured before and after the filter using capacitive
hygrometers and a condensation hygrometer.
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of the experimental test
bench. First, previously filtered compressed air enters a cold air-
dryer. On leaving, the air is at a temperature of 8◦ C and a relative
humidity of 12% and a regulator reduces the pressure from 7
bar to 1.5 bar. The compressed air then passes through a control
valve which is responsible for maintaining atmospheric pres-
sure at the entrance to the ventilation system. After circulating
through a filter, the air passes through a resistance heater which
can raise the temperature to 100◦ C. The air is humidified by a
 INFLUENCE OF HUMIDITY ON HEPA FILTERS
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FIG. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.
humidifier inside the humidification chamber. It then either cir-
culates through the bypass to the roof-mounted discharge point
or through the equipment to test. A second straight length allows
the introduction of aerosols at uniform concentrations and an ul-
trasound flow meter controls the filtration flow rate in real time.
The air passes through the filter being tested, through a protec-
tive filter and then through a second regulation valve which com-
pensates the increase in the pressure drop from the filter clogging
by opening gradually; thus, the regulation valve ensures a con-
stant filtration flow rate in the filter during the test. Lastly, the
air passes through a turbine and is expelled on the roof.
The range of filtration velocities investigated, correspond-
ing to a laminar flow regime, was from 4.0 to 7.0 cm · s−1
for the flat filters and around 2.6 cm · s−1 for the pleated fil-
ters. Relative humidity was investigated from a few percent to
near saturation. The temperature was fixed at 25◦ C ± 2◦ C. The
pressure drop through the filter and the flow rate of the gener-
ated aerosol were measured continuously during the clogging.
Changes in aerosol mass loading were calculated from experi-
mental changes in the flow rate of the generated aerosol and from
the weight of the filters (the filters were weighed before and after
clogging).
TABLE 1
Main characteristics of the filtering medium
Fiber diameters
Geometric median Geometric standard Numerical mean
diameter (µm) deviation σ g (−) diameter (µm)
0.6 2.2 0.9
1067
The efficiency of pleated filters was evaluated for the whole
medium at a filtration velocity of 2.6 cm · s−1 . French nor-
malized soda fluorescein particles (NFX 44-011), whose size
distribution (mass median aerodynamic diameter = 0.18 µm,
standard geometric deviation = 1.6) includes the most penetrat-
ing particle size, are injected upstream of the filter being tested.
The normalized particles are generated by spraying of a liquid
solution and drying the droplets. The soda fluorescein particle
concentration is then determined by fluorimetry from samples
performed upstream and downstream of the filter being tested.
The efficiency of the filter is expressed by the Decontamina-
tion Factor (DF), corresponding to the ratio of the upstream
concentration of soda fluorescein particles to the downstream
concentration of particles. DF is usual in nuclear industry where
efficiency of filters is very high (more than 99.9%).
3.2. Filters Tested
Two types of filter, made from the same medium, were
tested: flat filters with 0.08 m2 filtering area and pleated fil-
ters of 0.42 m2 . The main characteristics of the filter medium
are presented in Table 1. The thickness of the filter medium was
Thickness (µm) Weight (g.m−2 ) Packing density (−)
521 ± 31 92 ± 2 0.071 ± 0.006
 1068 A. JOUBERT ET AL.

TABLE 3
Size distribution of the sodium chloride aerosol at various
humidities
RH (%) EVMD (µm) σg (−)
5 0.41 ± 0.03 2.1
FIG. 2. Schematic diagram of pleating characteristics h and p.
20 0.38 2.0
35 0.47 2.0
determined from scanning electronic microscopy observations. 50 0.33 2.0
The weight was estimated by weighing of samples with known 55 0.31 ± 0.04 2.0
surface. The packing density was deduced from the thickness 60 0.41 2.0
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and weight values. The diameter of the glass fibers follows
a log-normal size distribution (deduced from scanning elec-
tronic microscopy observations). The pleating characteristics of
pleated filters (Figure 2) are those usually found in the French
nuclear industry: height of pleat h = 27.5 mm and distance be-
tween adjacent pleats p = 2.1 mm; this kind of pleated filters
are called mini-pleated filters (in contrast to deep pleat filters
h > 200 mm). The test filters are not electrically charged.
3.3. Aerosols Used to Clog the Filters
Two types of hygroscopic aerosol with differing sizes were
used to clog the filters: a micron-sized, non-hygroscopic, alu-
minium oxide aerosol and a submicron, hygroscopic, sodium
chloride aerosol.
The aluminium oxide aerosol was produced by dispers-
ing powder using a Palas BEG-1000 generator. Changes in
generated-aerosol flow rate were recorded during the test. The
size distribution of the aerosol was characterized for different
relative humidity values using an TSI Aerodynamic Particle
Sizer (APS), which provided an aerodynamic diameter. The re-
sults, reported in Table 2, show a slight shrinking of particles
at 90% relative humidity. The Mass Median Aerodynamic Di-
ameter (MMAD) decreases from 4.2 µm at 10% RH to 3.9 µm
at 90%. Ebert et al. (2002) and Mikhailov et al. (2001) also
noted shrinking of soot particle size in the presence of high
humidity and Weingartner et al. (1995) made the same observa-
tion for carbon particles. Two explanations can be postulated:
either some of the water vapor is adsorbed at the particle sur-
face and thus modifies their shape factor, or the humidity in the
air leads to the formation of agglomerates which sediment out
in the test bench, thereby altering the size distribution of the
aerosol.
TABLE 2
Size distribution of the aluminium oxide aerosol at different
relative humidities (RH)
RH (%) MMAD (µm) σg (−)
7 4.2 ± 0.2 1.7
55 4.2 ± 0.3 1.7
90 3.9 ± 0.2 1.8
70 0.39 2.0
87 0.28 ± 0.04 1.9
The sodium chloride aerosol was produced by aqueous spray-
ing of a 200 g · l−1 NaCl solution. The size distribution of the
sodium chloride aerosol was characterized for different air hu-
midity values by a Grimm Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer
(SMPS), which gives an electric mobility diameter. Table 3 re-
ports the results with the Equivalent Volume Median Diameter
(EVMD) which is calculated from the size distribution of the
electric mobility diameter and the relation (2) with a shape fac-
tor of 1.08 (in accordance with the cubic shape of the NaCl
particles).
Cu(dev )
dev = dB · [2]
χ · Cu(dB )
Here dev is the equivalent volume diameter, dB the electrical
mobility diameter, χ the shape factor of the particles, and Cu
the Cunningham coefficient.
The results show that the EVMD decreases from 0.40 µm
to 0.21 µm when RH increases from 5% to 70%. The same
behavior has already been reported with NaCl particles in pub-
lications, by Krämer et al. (2000) and Biskos et al. (2006) in
particular. According to the authors, the primary NaCl parti-
cles leaving the generator, bond together and are rearranged in
the presence of humidity. Beyond 75% RH, deliquescence is
reached and the aerosol is liquid.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Influence of Humidity on the Initial Performance of
Clean Pleated HEPA Filters
The influence of humidity has been studied on the initial
performance of pleated HEPA filters in terms of pressure drop
and efficiency.

P
Figure 3 shows the evolution of the ratio
P 0
for a clean
pleated filter when exposed to a humid flow for 1 h between
18% and 100% relative humidity;
P0 corresponds to the pres-
sure drop of the filter at the beginning of the test. The results

P
reveal that ratio
P0
exhibits no significant change with time in
the humidity range tested. So, the RH doesn’t affect the pressure
 INFLUENCE OF HUMIDITY ON HEPA FILTERS
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FIG. 3. Evolution of the pressure drop of a clean pleated filter when exposed
to humidity.
drop of the clean filter, which suggests a water repellent treat-
ment of the fibers implemented in the industrial filter medium
tested in this study.
The influence of humidity on the initial efficiency of pleated
filters has been studied. The measurements were performed at
2.6 cm · s−1 , between 5 and 100% relative humidity and with
soda fluorescein particles. The results depicted in Figure 4, show
that the decontamination factor (corresponding to the ratio of
the upstream concentration of soda fluorescein particles to the
downstream concentration of particles) of clean pleated filters
is not significantly affected by the presence of relative humidity
at between 10 and 90%. Beyond 90% RH, the decontamination
factor decreases with increasing RH. The decontamination fac-
tor of the clean filters tested exceeds a value of about 35,000 in
humid air (RH < 90%) and drops to about 3000 for air close
to saturation. This decrease in the decontamination factor above
90% RH is difficult to interpret quantitatively; however, it is
likely to be related to the deliquescence of soda fluorescein par-
ticles becoming liquid and their interaction with the fibers of the
filter medium. Thus, the decrease in the decontamination factor
is linked to the deliquescent point of the airborne aerosol.
FIG. 4. Influence of relative humidity on the efficiency of clean pleated HEPA
filters measured using soda fluorescein aerosol.
1069
FIG. 5. Evolution of the pressure drop of flat HEPA filters versus collected
surface mass of aluminium oxide particles at different relative humidities and
at filtration velocity of 4.0 cm·s−1 .
4.2. Influence of Humidity on Changes in Pressure Drop
4.2.1. Results for Flat Filters
The clogging of flat filters is expressed as the ratio of the
pressure drop minus the initial pressure drop of the filter over the
filtration velocity
P V−
P
f
0
as a function of the collected surface
mass. The filtration velocity is kept constant during the clogging
and, according to various studies in the literature (Walsh 1996;
Pénicot et al. 1999), the increase in pressure drop is linear during
cake filtration; thus, plotting Equation (1), and using a collected
surface mass value corresponding to cake filtration, the gradient
of each straight line is proportional to the experimental specific
cake resistance.
4.2.1.1. Aluminium Oxide Aerosol. The clogging curves
using non-hygroscopic aluminium oxide aerosol (Figure 5), in-
dicate that the presence of humidity up to 95% RH does not
have much influence on changes in pressure drop. For higher
humidities, the increase in pressure drop is slower; in others
words, the specific cake resistance for humidities close to 100%
is less than that noted for lower humidities. These results cor-
roborate those of Gupta et al. (1993) obtained with a 1 µm
aluminium oxide aerosol, although their results reveal signif-
icant influence from humidity at values below 95% relative
humidity.
The slight reduction in the diameter of the aerosol studied
as RH rises cannot explain these results; indeed, such a re-
duction in diameter with RH should have tended to increase
the specific cake resistance. Gupta et al. (1993) have sug-
gested that the presence of humidity increases the particle-to-
particle bonding forces; this assumption was validated by Feng
et al. (1998). They demonstrated that as the liquid content in-
creases, porosity increases up to a maximum value. According
to the authors, adding liquid onto particles leads to the forma-
tion of liquid bridges between them and generates a capillary
force. This restricts the relative motion between particles when
 1070 A. JOUBERT ET AL.
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FIG. 8. Changes in experimental specific cake resistance of aluminium oxide

particles versus relative humidity and for various aerosol diameters.

FIG. 6. Evolution of the pressure drop of flat HEPA filters versus collected
surface mass of sodium chloride particles at different relative humidities below medium causes an abrupt increase in the pressure drop (Contal
the deliquescent point and at filtration velocity of 7.0 cm·s−1 . et al. 2004). In agreement with Gupta et al. (1993), the liquid
film appears at greater collected surface masses with increasing
RH.
packing and hence gives a high porosity. According to Butt and
4.2.1.3. Influence of Particle Diameters. The results have
Kappl (2009), liquid water, necessary for the existence of cap-
been compared to those of Gupta et al. (1993). Figures 8 and 9
illary forces, is formed by capillary condensation of the vapor
show the changes in experimental specific cake resistance as a
into capillaries or fine pores of the particles even far above the
function of relative humidity during clogging, for the aluminium
dew point of the surrounding atmosphere.
oxide aerosol and the sodium chloride aerosol, respectively (the
4.2.1.2. Sodium Chloride Aerosol. Using the hygroscopic
mass median aerodynamic diameters are specified).
sodium chloride aerosol below the deliquescent point (75%
The figures indicate that the experimental results for both
RH), the clogging curves (Figure 6) reveal that the specific
aerosols fit coherently with those of Gupta et al. (1993). Indeed,
cake resistance decreases with increasing RH. In agreement
the results show that for a given relative humidity, the specific
with Gupta et al. (1993), the effect is more marked than for the
cake resistance decreases with increasing aerosol diameter. This
non-hygroscopic aerosol.
decline is caused by the decrease in specific surface area of the
The clogging curves using hygroscopic sodium chloride
particles as the diameter of the particles increases.
aerosol above the deliquescent point (Figure 7) indicate changes
The results also show that the influence of the relative humid-
in pressure drop that are characteristic of clogging by a liquid
ity of the air on the specific cake resistance of aluminium par-
aerosol: the droplets start by filling the interstitial space between
ticles is more pronounced for a small diameter particle; indeed,
the fibers until formation of a liquid film on the surface of the
for the 0.5 µm diameter aerosol, the specific cake resistance
decreases for relative humidity above 80%, while for an aerosol
of diameter 4.2 µm, the specific cake resistance decreases only

FIG. 7. Evolution of the pressure drop of flat HEPA filters versus collected FIG. 9. Changes in experimental specific cake resistance of sodium chloride
surface mass of sodium chloride particles at different relative humidities above particles versus relative humidity (below the deliquescent point) for various
the deliquescent point and at filtration velocity of 7.0 cm · s−1 . aerosol diameters.
 INFLUENCE OF HUMIDITY ON HEPA FILTERS
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FIG. 10. SEM photographs of filters clogged by sodium chloride particles at different values of relative humidity: top left 5% (23 g·m−2 ), top right 45% (23 g ·
m−2 ), and bottom 60% (18 g·m−2 ).
for RH close to 100% and less significantly. For sodium chloride
particles, although the range of diameters studied is more lim-
ited, the results also show that specific cake resistance decreases
over the entire range of relative humidity (between 10 and 70%),
whatever the diameter of the aerosol; as with aluminium oxide
aerosol, the decrease seems to be more significant for the aerosol
with the smallest diameter.
4.2.1.4. Microscopic Observation. To explain the influ-
ence of humidity on the deposition of particles, after clogging,
observations of the surface of the flat filters were carried out
using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The photographs
show views of the upstream face of clogged filters. It is impor-
tant to note that relative humidity could not be controlled during
filters storage and transport, so the following conclusions made
from SEM photographs must be taken with caution. Figure 10
shows SEM photographs of filters clogged at 5, 45, and 60%
RH by sodium chloride particles.
1071
The photographs show that the sodium chloride particles
adhere to each other more closely when the relative humidity
during clogging is high. Indeed, because of the submicron di-
ameters of the particles, the deposits on the surface of the filters
mainly form into dendrites (Thomas et al. 2001). However, for
the filters clogged at 45 and 60% relative humidity, in addition
to the dendritic network, many clusters of particles are also vis-
ible; some are framed on the photograph. The total surface area
of several agglomerated particles is less than the sum of the
surface areas of all their individual particles. This may explain
why, for a given mass of collected particles, a particulate cake
formed in the presence of humidity has a lower pressure drop
than a cake that is built up in dry air.
Thus, since the presence of humidity leads to agglomera-
tion of particles deposited on the filter, this explains why the
effect of humidity is more marked with small diameter particles
(for the same hygroscopicity of particle). Indeed, the deposit
 1072 A. JOUBERT ET AL.
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FIG. 11. Changes in pressure drop of pleated HEPA filters versus collected
surface mass of aluminium oxide particles at different relative humidities and
at a filtration velocity of 2.6 cm · s−1 .
of micron-sized particles in dry air leads to the formation of
agglomerates (Thomas et al. 2001), so the presence of humidity
has no further influence on the deposit and on the pressure drop
of the filter; for submicron particles, the deposit in dry air is
dendritic and hence very sensitive to the presence of humidity
(via adhesive forces).
4.2.2. Results on Pleated Filters
The results with pleated filters are expressed using the ratio
of the pressure drop during clogging over the initial pressure

P
drop
P 0
as a function of the collected surface mass.
4.2.2.1. Aluminium Oxide Aerosol. Figure 11 shows the
clogging curves obtained with the non-hygroscopic aluminium
oxide aerosol at filtration velocity 2.6 cm · s−1 and various
values of relative humidity, between 5 and 100%. The results
highlight two characteristic regions of influence, dependent on
the relative humidity:
FIG. 12. Photographs of two pleated filters clogged by around 200 g · m−2
aluminium oxide particles at a filtration velocity of 2.6 cm · s−1 : on the left at
5% RH and on the right at 95% RH.
explains why its pressure drop is lower. Thus, with the micron-
sized aluminium oxide particles, the influence of humidity is
more significant with flat filters than with pleated filters because
the presence of humidity, almost ineffective during the cake
filtration, accelerates significantly the closure of pleats.
4.2.2.2. Sodium Chloride Aerosol. Figure 13 shows the
clogging curves obtained with the hygroscopic sodium chloride
aerosol at filtration velocity 2.7 cm · s−1 and various values of
relative humidity between 5 and 81%. The results highlight three
characteristic regions of influence dependent on the relative
humidity:
• for RH < 52%, the influence of humidity appears,
as for flat filters, during the surface filtration stage:
for a given collected surface mass, increase in rela-
tive humidity leads to a decrease in pressure drop.
Then, during the filtration surface reduction stage, it
seems that the presence of humidity accelerates the
closure of pleats and so accelerates the increase in pres-
sure drop. However, since the clogging has not been

• for RH < 80%, the various pressure drop change curves

can be considered to superimpose. Hence, there is no
significant influence of humidity in this region;
• for RH ≥ 80%, the presence of humidity affects the
evolution of the pressure drop of the filters. The results
show little or no influence of humidity in the cake
filtration stage (up to a collected surface mass of about
50 g.m−2 for HR ≤ 95%). Then, during the filtration
surface reduction stage, the results show that for a given
collected surface mass, the increase in pressure drop
becomes larger with increasing relative humidity. At
around 100% RH, the filtration surface reduction stage
is occurring earlier and is particularly significant.

A visual observation (Figure 12) of the upstream face of two

filters, clogged by the same mass of aerosol but deposited at FIG. 13. Changes in pressure drop of pleated HEPA filters versus collected
two extreme humidities (RH = 5% and RH = 95%), shows that surface mass of sodium chloride particles at different relative humidities and a
more pleats remain open for the filter clogged in dry air and this filtration velocity of 2.7 cm·s−1 .
 INFLUENCE OF HUMIDITY ON HEPA FILTERS
studied at pressure drop ratios greater than 16, to avoid
degradation of the mechanical folds, this stage is only
beginning;
• for RH ≈ 60–70%, the increase in pressure drop is
larger and seems to be located in a transition zone.
Indeed, according to Foster and Ewing (1999), in this
range of relative humidity a thin liquid film is adsorbed
on the surface of sodium chloride particles which may
explain the atypical evolution of clogging of the filters.
Observation of the upstream face of the filters after
clogging, reveals that many pleats are glued to each
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other, which explains the large increase in pressure
drop;
• for RH > 75% (i.e., above the deliquescent point of
the sodium chloride particles), the aerosol is liquid and
changes in pressure drop are characteristic of liquid
filtration with the formation of a liquid film on the
surface of the medium corresponding to a high increase
in pressure drop for a given collected surface mass.
4.2.3. Summary
The results obtained with the pleated filters have demon-
strated that the influence of humidity on changes in pressure
drop depends on which clogging stage is being considered:
• at the beginning of the clogging, changes in pressure
drop are similar to those for flat filters, i.e., the pres-
ence of humidity decreases the specific cake resistance;
the interpretation of phenomena proposed with flat fil-
ters can be applied. The micron-sized non-hygroscopic
aerosol used did not reveal much influence from hu-
midity during this stage. Indeed, results with flat filters
indicated a decrease in specific cake resistance for hu-
midity close to saturation. However, when humidity
is close to saturation reduction of the filtration area
appears at very low values of collected aerosol mass;
• when the reduction in filtration surface area becomes
significant, the presence of humidity accelerates the
pleat closing process, i.e., it appears at a lower value of
collected surface mass. The adhesion forces between
the particles, especially the capillary forces coming
from capillary condensation of the water vapor into
the capillaries of the particles or the formed cake,
are accentuated with increasing RH and, in particular,
when the aerosol is hygroscopic. Thus, one explana-
tion would be that the greater the capillary forces, the
less likely it is that the aerosol will penetrate far into
the pleat. Particles accumulate at the tips of the pleats
which causes the pleats to close. Therefore, the greater
the humidity the faster the pleats close, leading to a
greater pressure drop across the filter.
1073
4.3. Influence of Humidity on Changes in the Efficiency
of Pleated Filters
The efficiency of clogged filters has been evaluated, as for
the clean filters, with a normalized soda fluorescein aerosol at
the MPPS. The measurements were performed at the nomi-
nal filtration velocity (around 2.6 cm·s−1 ), at different degrees
of clogging, i.e., for different collected surface masses of alu-
minium oxide or sodium chloride particles, and at various values
of relative humidity.
The results are reported using the experimental change in

P
pressure drop
P of a pleated filter, clogged at nominal filtra-
0
tion velocity, and experimental change in efficiency of pleated
filters clogged under the same conditions (HR, Vf ); efficiency
is expressed as the ratio DFDF rh
between the decontamination
clean,dry
factor of a clogged filter measured at the same humidity as the
experimental change in pressure drop, and the initial decontam-
ination factor measured in dry air (5% RH) when the same filter
was clean.
4.3.1. Aluminium Oxide Aerosol
Changes in decontamination factor of pleated filters clogged
by aluminium oxide particles and measured at 5, 95, and 100%
RH are shown on Figure 14. The results indicate that, whatever
the relative humidity during the clogging, the ratio of decon-
tamination factors passes through a maximum which depends
on the collected surface mass.
Initially, the ratio of decontamination factors increases dur-
ing the formation of the particulate cake; in effect, the particles
forming the cake become additional collectors, contributing as
well as the fibers to the collection of soda fluorescein particles.
The ratio of decontamination factors reaches a maximum value
of 10 at 5% relative humidity and a maximum value of 3 for
a clogging at 95% relative humidity (the few experimental val-
ues obtained at 100% relative humidity are inconclusive). Thus,
the cake formed at 5% RH achieves a collection efficiency of
soda fluorescein particles which is greater than at 95% RH. This
can probably be explained to a greater degree by the charac-
teristics of the particle deposit (greater thickness), than by the
hygroscopic nature of soda fluorescein.
When the clogging is large, i.e., at pressure drop ratios greater
than between 8 and 10, the results indicate that whatever the rel-
ative humidity, the ratio of decontamination factors decreases.
This decrease appears for a lower collected surface mass when
the change in pressure drop of the filter is fast, which occurs
when the humidity is high. It can be attributed to the reduction
in filtration surface leading to an increase in interstitial filtra-
tion velocity. Indeed, according to their submicronic diameter,
the two main mechanisms responsible for the collection of the
soda fluorescein particles are the Brownian diffusion and the
interception. The particle collection by interception is a purely
geometrical phenomenon. The particles, which follow trajecto-
ries such as they flow nearby the fiber, will be intercepted and
collected by the fiber. The particle collection by interception
 1074 A. JOUBERT ET AL.
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FIG. 14. Changes in pressure drop and efficiency of pleated filters during
their clogging by aluminium oxide particles at 5, 95, and 100% RH.
is governed by the interception number R which is the ratio
between the particle diameter with the fiber diameter. So, the
elementary particle collection efficiency by interception is in-
dependent of the filtration velocity (Friedlander 1957). The par-
ticle collection by diffusion is due to Brownian motion of the
particles which have a probability to reach a fiber and to stick
at the surface. The elementary particle collection efficiency by
diffusion is a function of the Peclet number which depends on
the filtration velocity. Stechkina and Fuchs (1966) have shown
that if the filtration velocity increases, the elementary collection
efficiency is decreasing. Thus, the overall collection efficiency
of the filter, which depends on the collection efficiency of the
two mechanisms by interception and diffusion, decreases if the
filtration velocity is increasing.
Photographs of pleated filters after the clogging revealed
the presence of preferential passages when the clogging of
FIG. 15. Changes in pressure drop and efficiency of pleated filters during
their clogging by sodium chloride particles at 5, 60, and 80% RH.
filters is very advanced and most pleats are totally closed.
The filtration velocity in these preferential passages is very
large, which decreases the collection efficiency of 0.18 µm
MMAD soda fluorescein particles. Nevertheless, the val-
ues of the decontamination factor are always greater than
2000 whatever the operating conditions. 2000 is the value
of decontamination factor (i.e., penetration equal to 5.10−4 )
usually used by the French nuclear industry as minimum
efficiency value for all the filters implemented in the ventilation
systems.
4.3.2. Sodium Chloride Aerosol
Changes in decontamination factor of pleated filters clogged
by sodium chloride particles and measured at 5, 60, and 80%
RH are shown in Figure 15.
 INFLUENCE OF HUMIDITY ON HEPA FILTERS
The results indicate that for the clogging performed at 5 and
60% relative humidity, hence below the deliquescent point of
sodium chloride particles, the ratio of decontamination factors,
as with aluminium oxide particles, reaches a maximum as a
function of collected surface mass. The increase ratio of decon-
tamination factors reaches a value of 20 at 5% relative humidity
and only 10 at 60% relative humidity. Thus, the particulate cake
formed at 5% relative humidity, which has a specific resistance
lower than that of the cake formed at 60% relative humidity, is
more efficient for the collection of soda fluorescein particles.
It seems that the decrease in the ratio of decontamination fac-
Downloaded by [Institue for Cellular & Intracellular Symbiosis UB RAS] at 23:51 29 January 2016
tors is less significant than with micron-sized aluminium oxide
particles. Indeed, during the clogging in dry air with submicron

P
sodium chloride particles, for a similar
P 0
ratio, the reduction
in filtration area is smaller than with aluminium oxide particles
(the shape of the curve remains almost linear); this means that
at the end of the clogging, the filtration velocity in the filter
clogged by sodium chloride particles is lower and therefore the
ratio of decontamination is larger.
For clogging performed at 80% relative humidity, the sodium
chloride particles are in liquid form. The results indicate that
the ratio of efficiency decreases during the clogging. According
to Payet et al. (1992), the droplets of sodium chloride are de-
posited on the surface of the fibers leading to formation of liquid
bridges; thus, the amount of fibers available for the collection of
soda fluorescein particles decreases and therefore the collection
efficiency of the filter is reduced.
Whatever the operating conditions, the values of the decon-
tamination factor are always greater than 2000.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This study dealt with the influence of humidity during the
clogging of HEPA filters by hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic
aerosols. Clogging tests were carried out with flat and mini-
pleated HEPA filters to determine the influence of the geometry
of the filter. The experimental tests have been realized in order to
respond to safety concerns encountered in the nuclear industry.
The results obtained with the pleated filters constitute a rele-
vant data base which could be useful in incidental conditions
involving a release of humidity.
Results confirmed the influence of the hygroscopicity of the
aerosol on changes in the pressure drop of flat filters; the same
observations have been obtained with pleated filters. For the
pleated filters, the results highlighted that the influence of rela-
tive humidity depends on the stage of clogging. The phenomena,
observed during the formation of the particulate cake and the
closure of the pleats, are related, in both cases, to changes in the
bonding forces between particles with relative humidity. Thus,
conclusions made for flat filters cannot be entirely applied to
pleated filters. The study has also investigated the influence of
humidity on the efficiency, measured around the most penetrat-
ing particle size with normalized hygroscopic soda fluorescein
particles, of clean and clogged pleated HEPA filters.
1075
This work provides the experimental basis needed to develop
an empirical model to predict the clogging of HEPA filters in
the presence of relative humidity. The model should take into
account the hygroscopicity of the aerosol, the air humidity and
the geometry of the filter.
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