EC2034 Television and Video Engineering

Advanced Quantum Mechanics
Lai-Him Chan1
Department of Physics and Astronomy
Louisiana State University
January, 2004
1
email: chan@rouge.phys.lsu.edu
(Fluid Mechanics)
(Mechanics of Continuous Media) (Condensed Matter & Nuclear Physics)
Classical Non-Relativistic
- Quantum
Field Theory Field Theory
6 6
(General Relativity)
(E & M,Optics) (QED,QCD,Standard Model)
Relativistic Relativistic
- Quantum
Field Theory ∞ Field Theory
6 6 6
N
?
1
Newtonian - Quantum
Mechanics 0 ← h̄ Mechanics
(Atomic Physics)
∞

c

Relativistic -
Mechanics Relativistic Quantum
(Relativistic Particle Dynamics) Mechanics
(Klein-Gordon & Dirac Equations)
Space-Time Symmetry
Internal Symmetry
Gauge Symmetry
References
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
1. Aitchison, I. J. R. and Hay, A. J. G., Gauge Theories in Particle Physics–Vol I: From Rela-
tivistic Quantum Mechanics to QED, Institute of Physics Publishing (2004).
2. Bjorken, J. D. and S. D. Drell, Relativistic Quantum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York

(1964).
3. Sakurai, J. J., Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA (1967).
4. Berestetskii, V. B., E. M. Lifshitz, and L. P. Pitaevskii, Relativistic Quantum Theory, Perg-

amon Press, Oxford (1971).
5. Aitchison, I. J. R., Relativistic Quantum Mechanics, Macmillan, London (1972).
6. Gross, F., Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Field Theory, Wiley-Interscience, New York
(1993).
Quantum Field Theory
1. Mendl, A. Introduction to Quantum Field Theory, Wiley-Interscience, New York (1966).
2. Bjorken, J. D. and S. D. Drell, Relativistic Quantum Fields, Mcgraw-Hill, New York (1964).
3. Itzykson, C. and J-B. Zuber Quantum Field Theory, Mcgraw-Hill, New York (1980).
4. Ryder, L. H., Quantum Field Theory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1985).
5. Chang, S. J., Introduction to Quantum Field Theory, World Scientific, Singapore (1990).
6. Brown, L. S., Quantum Field Theory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1992).
7. Weinberg, S., The Quantum Theory of Fields, Vol. I & II, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge (1995).
Particle Physics
1. Aitchison, I. J. R. and Hay, A. J. G., Gauge Theories in Particle Physics–Vol II: QCD and
the Electroweak Theory, Institute of Physics Publishing (2004).
2. Cheng, T-P. and L-F. Li, Gauge Theory of Elementary Particle Physics, Oxford University
Press, Oxford (1984).
Online book stores
1. http://www.amzon.com
2. http://www.barnesandnoble.com
Contents
1 Review 1
1.1 Classical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Classical Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Fundamental Units and Universal Fundamental Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.1 Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.2 Classification of Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Quantum Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.1 Unitary transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.2 Quantum action principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.3 Quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.4 Abbreviated notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.5 Space-time Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Klein Gordon field 10

2.1 Relativistic Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Canonical Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Quantization of the Neutral Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Unequal-Time Commutation Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Quantization of Charged Scalar Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Vector fields 17
3.1 Massive Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 The Electromagnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2.1 Fluctuation and uncertainty principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4 Interaction 22
4.1 Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Scattering Matrix and Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5 Interactions of Radiation with Atoms 25

5.1 Emission and Absorption of Photon by Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.2 Black Body Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3 Decay of Atom by Emission of a Single Photon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.4 Scattering of Photon by Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.4.1 Thomson scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.4.2 Rayleigh scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3
6 Dirac equation 30
6.1 Ehrenfest Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.2 Lorentz Covariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.2.1 Continuous Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.2.2 Space inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.2.3 Lorentz bilinears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.2.4 Time reversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.3 Dirac Hole Theory, Charge Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.4 PCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.5 Nonrelativistic Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.6 Pauli’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.7 Corrections to the Nonrelativistic Hydrogen Energy Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.7.1 Order c12 correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.7.2 Hyperfinesplitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.7.3 Lamb shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.8 Dirac Equation - Central Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.9 Exact Solution of the Dirac Equation for Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.10 Plane Wave Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.11 Quantization of the Dirac Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7 Scattering Processes 52
7.1 Coulomb Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.1.1 unpolarized cross section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.1.2 Partial polarization and polarization factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.1.3 Polarization of the outgoing electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.1.4 Gamma matrix algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.2 Electron-Muon Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.2.1 Reduced matrix element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.2.2 Cross section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.3 Two-points Green Function and Propagator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.3.1 Scalar field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.3.2 Fermion field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.3.3 Electromagnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.3.4 Mixed fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.4 Wick’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.4.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.5 Rules for Feynman Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.5.2 Verteices for specific HI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8 Renormalization 64
8.1 Self Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.2 Vacuum Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.3 Vertex Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.4 Ward’s Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.5 Charge Renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
0
Chapter 1
Review
1.1 Classical Mechanics

Equations of motion–equations containing time derivative, which solution gives time evolution
of the system.
Equations of constraint– equations containing no time derivative.
t is always a parameter to be determined by calibration and q i (t) are dynamical variables to be
measured for any given t.
Fi = mq¨i (1.1)
L(qi , q̇i ) = T (q̇i ) − V (qi ) (1.2)
X1
T = mq̇i2 , V = V (qi ) (1.3)
i
2
Z t2
I= dt L(qi (t), q˙i (t)) (1.4)
t1
Least action principle, δI = 0 implies:
∂
Fi = − V (qj ) = mq̈i (1.5)
∂qi
Legendre Transformation
X
H(qi (t), pi (t)) = pi (t)q̇i (t) − L(qi (t), q˙i (t)) (1.6)
i
X
L(qi (t), , q˙i (t)) = pi (t)q̇i (t) − H(qi (t), pi (t), t) (1.7)
i
Canonical form of action:

Z t2 hX i
I= dt pi (t)q̇i (t) − H(qi (t), pi (t)) (1.8)
t1 i
1. Independent dynamical variables p i and qi , i = 1, ...n.
2. Only single explicit time derivative appears.
1
3. The single time derivative connects the conjugated pair of dynamical variables p i and qi .
4. The Hamiltonian is identified by all other terms with no time derivative.
H(pi , qi ) = T (pi ) + V (qi ) (1.9)

X p2
i
T (pi ) = (1.10)
i
2m
δI = 0 implies:
δ pi
q̇i = H(pi , qi ) = (1.11)
δpi m
δ ∂
ṗi = − H(pi , qi ) = − V (qj ) (1.12)
δqi ∂qi
dH ∂H
= (1.13)
dt ∂t
• Space translational invariance =⇒ conservation of total momentum.
• Time translational invariance =⇒ conservation of total energy.
1.2 Classical Field

(0)
xn : equilibrium position of nth particle.
µ : mass per unit length.
m = µa
(0) (0)
xn+1 − xn = a
∆xn (t) = xn (t) − xn (0)
Kinetic energy
1 Xh d i2 1X hd i2 1 h∂ i2
Z
T = µa ∆xn (t) = a φn (t) = dx φ(x, t) (1.14)
2 n dt 2 n dt 2 ∂t
√
where φn = µ∆xn . Potential energy
1 Xh i2 1 ka X h φn+1 − φn i2
P = k ∆xn+1 − ∆xn = a (1.15)
2 n 2 µ n a
1T ∂ 2
Z h i
= dx φ(x, t) (1.16)
2µ ∂x
T
Tension T = ka, v 2 = µ
Z h1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 2 i Z
L= dx φ(x, t) − v2 φ(x, t) = dxL (1.17)
2 ∂t 2 ∂x
Z Z Z h1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 2 i
I= dtL = dtdxL = dtdx φ(x, t) − v2 φ(x, t) (1.18)
2 ∂t 2 ∂x
2
Wave equation
∂2φ 2
2∂ φ
− v =0 (1.19)
∂t2 ∂x2
3-Dimension
Z Z h1 ∂ 2 1 ~ 2 i Z
I= dt L = d3 x dt φ(~x, t) − v 2 (∇φ(~
x, t) = d4 x L (1.20)
2 ∂t 2
∂2φ ~ 2φ = 0
− v2 ∇ (1.21)
∂t2
In this field theory, ~x and t are parameters and φ(~x, t) is a dynamical variable.
1.3 Fundamental Units and Universal Fundamental Constants

Fundamental units for classical mechanics are length L, time T, and mass M.
Classical mechanics does not have any universal dimensional constant. The extension of classical
2
mechanics requires the existence of universal dimensional constants, such as c(∼ TL ) and h̄(∼ MTL ).
They can be viewed as conversion factors between the fundamental units. Thus c serves as a
conversion factor to convert the unit time to the unit length, and h̄c (∼ M L) converts inversed mass
to length. With these conversion factors understood ( not explicitly written out, i.e. set equal to
1
1), all three fundamental units reduce to one, L ∼ T ∼ M .
Examples:
e2 e2 1
• Dimensionless fine structure constant α = 4πh̄c = 4π ≈ 137
h̄ 1
• Electron Compton wave length λe = me c = me
e2 α
• Electromagnetic radius of electron r e = 4πme c2 = αλe = me
λe 1
• Bohr radius a0 = α = αme ≈ 0.53 × 10−8 cm
We can always insert back the correct factors of h̄ and c to recover the proper unit.
3
1.4 Relativity
contravariant vector: xµ = (ct, ~r) = (ct, x, y, z) = (ct, xi )
covariant vector: xµ = (ct, −~r) = (ct, −x, −y, −z) = (ct, xi ) = (ct, −xi )
We shall suppress the factor of c (setting c=1) everywhere.
xµ = gµν xν , xµ = g µν xν (1.22)
1
 
 −1  = g µν

gµν =  (1.23)
 −1 
−1
1
 
1
gµα g αν = gµα g αν = δµν = 
X  
 (1.24)
α
 1 
1
x2 = xµ xµ = xµ xµ = xµ gµν xν = xµ g µν xν = t2 − ~x2 (1.25)
1.4.1 Lorentz transformation

Lorentz transformation xµ → x0µ = Λµ ν xν is defined to be a linear transformation such that
x2 = xµ xµ is invariant (= x02 ).
x02 = x0µ x0µ = Λµ β xβ Λµ α xα = xβ Λµ β Λµ α xα = xα xα . (1.26)

Hence the condition for the Lorentz transformation is,
Λµ β Λµ α = δβα = Λβ µ Λα µ (1.27)
A Lorentz Tensor transforms like the direct product of Lorentz vector:
T 0µ1 µ2 ...µn ν1 ,ν2 ...νm = (Λµ1 α1 Λµ2 α2 . . . Λµn αn )(Λν1 β1 Λν2 β2 . . . Λνm βm )T α1 α2 ...αn β1 β2 ...βm (1.28)
g 0µν = Λµ α Λν β g αβ = g µν (1.29)
g µν is an invariant second rank tensor.
• Space-like vector: x2 < 0
• Time-like vector: x2 > 0
• Light-like vector: x2 = 0
These properties are Lorentz invariant.
4
1.4.2 Classification of Lorentz transformation
Λµ β Λµ α = δβα implies
• det(Λ) = ±1
q
• Λ00 = ± 1 + (Λ0i )2
• det(Λc ) = 1 and Λ00

c >1
These constraints divide Lorentz transformations into four classes:
det(Λ) Λ00 Discrete Continuous

1
continuous +1 >1 1 Λc
1
1
−1
space-time reflection +1 < −1 −1 Λc
−1
−1
1
space reflection -1 >1 −1 Λc
−1
−1
−1
time reflection -1 < −1 1 Λc
1
1
1.4.3 Examples
pµ = (p0 , p1 , p2 , p3 ) = (p0 , pi ) = (p0 , p~) (1.30)

0
pµ = (p0 , p1 , p2 , p3 ) = (p , pi ) = (p0 , −~
p) (1.31)
p2 = p µ pµ = E 2 − p
~ 2 = m2 (1.32)
∂ ~
∂µ = = (∂t , −∇) (1.33)
∂xµ
∂ ~
∂µ = = (∂t , ∇) (1.34)
∂xµ
∂ ν
∂µ xν = x = δµν (1.35)
∂xµ
∂µ xµ = 4 (1.36)
∂2 ~2 =2
∂ 2 = ∂µ ∂ µ = ∂0 ∂ 0 + ∂i ∂ i = −∇ (1.37)
∂t2
p · x = pµ xµ = p0 x0 + pi xi = Et − p~ · ~x (1.38)
∂ ∂
∂ µ (p · x) = (p · x) = (pα xα ) = pα δαµ = pµ (1.39)
∂xµ ∂xµ
µναβ is a totally antisymmetric tensor of fourth rank and 0123 = 1
0 0 0 0
0µναβ = Λµ µ0 Λν ν 0 Λα α0 Λβ β 0 µ ν α β = det(Λ)µναβ = ±µναβ (1.40)
5
1.5 Quantum Theory
1.5.1 Unitary transformation
U (t) = e−iG(t) → e−iδG(t) → 1 − iδG(t) (1.41)
U U † = 1 implies G is Hermitian.
|λ̄b , ti = U (t)|λb , ti → (1 − iδG(t))|λb , ti (1.42)
δ|λb , ti = |λ̄b , ti − |λb , ti = −iδG(t)|λb , ti (1.43)
δhλa , t2 |λb , t1 i = hλa , t2 |(δ|λb , t1 i) + (δhλa , t2 |)|λb , t1 i (1.44)

= ihλa , t2 |[δG(t2 ) − δG(t1 )]|λb , t1 i (1.45)
hλa , t|δφ(t)|λb , ti = hλ̄a , t|φ(t)|λ̄b , ti − hλa , t|φ(t)|λb , ti (1.46)

†
= hλa , t|(U (t)φ(t)U (t) − φ(t))|λb , ti (1.47)
= hλa , t|i[δG(t), φ(t)]|λb , ti (1.48)
Hence
eiδG φe−iδG = φ + δφ (1.49)
i[δG(t), φ(t)] = δφ (1.50)

G is the generator of change in φ.
1.5.2 Quantum action principle

i i
Z t2
δhλa , t2 |λb , t1 i = hλa , t2 |δI|λb , t1 i = hλa , t2 | δ dt L |λb , t1 i (1.51)
h̄ h̄ t1
Z t2
δI = δ dt L = h̄ δG(t2 ) − δG(t1 ) (1.52)
t1
1.5.3 Quantum mechanics

X
L= Pi Q̇i − H(Pi , Qi ) (1.53)
i
Z t2 X d ∂H ∂H

δI = dt Q̇i δPi + Pi δQi − δQi − δPi (1.54)
t1 i
dt ∂Qi ∂Pi
Z t2 X d ∂H ∂H

= dt (Pi δQi ) + Q̇i δPi − Ṗi δQi − δQi − δPi (1.55)
t1 i
dt ∂Qi ∂Pi
X Z t2 X ∂H ∂H

= [Pi (t2 )δQi (t2 ) − Pi (t1 )δQi (t1 )] + dt (Q̇i − )δPi − (Ṗi + )δQi (1.56)
i t1 i
∂Pi ∂Qi

= h̄ δG(t2 ) − δG(t1 ) (1.57)
6
Therefore,
X
h̄ δG(t) = Pi (t)δQi (t) , (1.58)
i
∂H
Q̇i = , (1.59)
∂Pi
∂H
Ṗi = − . (1.60)
∂Qi
" #
X
ih̄ [δG(t), φ(t)] = i Pi (t)δQi (t), φ (Pj (t), Qj (t)) = h̄ δφ (Pj (t), Qj (t)) (1.61)
i
∂
i[Pi (t), φ(Pj (t), Qj (t))] = h̄
φ(Pj (t), Qj (t)) (1.62)
∂Qi (t)
By choosing φ to be Qj (t) and Pj (t), we obtain respectively,
∂
i[Pi (t), Qj (t)] = h̄ Qj (t) = h̄ δij (1.63)
∂Qi (t)
and
∂
Pj (t) = 0 .
i[Pi (t), Pj (t)] = (1.64)
∂Qi (t)
Exercise: Carry out the same analysis for the equivalent Lagrangian
X d
L0 = L −
X
(Pi Qi ) = − Qi Ṗi − H(Pi , Qi ) (1.65)
i
dt i
1.5.4 Abbreviated notation

Here we suppress the other label of the state. ht 2 |t1 i actually mean ha, t2 |b, t1 i.
¯ = U (t)|ti
|ti (1.66)
−iG(t)
U (t) = e (1.67)
U= U† implies G is Hermitian. For infinitesimal change,
¯ − |ti = (U (t) − 1)|ti = −iδG(t)|ti
δ|ti = |ti (1.68)
δht2 |t1 i = ht2 |(δ|t1 i) + (δht2 |)|t1 i = iht2 |[δG(t2 ) − δG(t1 )]|t1 i (1.69)
Quantum Action Principle:
iht2 |δI|t1 i = iht2 |[δG(t2 ) − δG(t1 )]|t1 i (1.70)
Z t2
δ dtL = δG(t2 ) − δG(t1 ) (1.71)
t1
ht|δφ(t)|ti = ht̄|φ(t)|t̄i − ht|φ(t)|ti = ht|(U † (t)φ(t)U (t) − φ(t)|ti = ht|i[δG(t), φ(t)]|ti (1.72)
Hence
eiδG φe−iδG = φ + δφ (1.73)
i[δG(t), φ(t)] = δφ (1.74)
G is the generator of change in φ.
7
1.5.5 Space-time Translation
Translation operator U (a),
U (a)|xi = |x + ai (1.75)
0 † 0
hx |U (a) = hx + a| (1.76)
hx0 |U (a)† U (a)|xi = hx0 + a|x + ai ∀ x, x0 (1.77)

U (a)† U (a) = I (1.78)
hx0 |Φ(X)|xi = hx0 + a|Φ(X − a)|x + ai = hx0 |U (a)† Φ(X − a)|U (a)|xi (1.79)
Φ(X) = U (a)† Φ(X − a)U (a) (1.80)

†
Φ(X − a) = U (a)Φ(X)U (a) (1.81)
Since U is unitary,
U (a) = eia·T (1.82)

iδa·T
U (δa) = e = 1 + iδa · T , (1.83)
where T is hermitian,
T =T† (1.84)
is the generator of translation.
(1 + iδa · T )Φ(X)(1 − iδa · T ) = Φ(X) − δa · ∂Φ(X) (1.85)
i[Tµ , Φ(X)] = −∂µ Φ (1.86)

The fundamental postulate of quantum Theory is to identify the momentum operators to be the
generators of translation, up to a dimensional constant,
Pµ = h̄Tµ (1.87)
Therefore,
i[Pµ , Φ(X)] = −h̄∂µ Φ (1.88)
The zero component of this equation
∂
i[H, Φ(X)] = −h̄ Φ (1.89)
∂t
is an equation containing time derivative and therefore is an equation of motion.
In quantum mechanics, the spatial components of the equation,
i[P~ , Φ(X)] = h̄∇Φ

~ (1.90)
8
~ is taken to be a c-number func-
are used to generate canonical quantization. In this case, φ( X)
~
tion of the operator X and the commutation relation is completely equivalent to the canonical
commutation relation,
i[Pi , Xj ] = h̄δij . (1.91)
~ = P~ 2 + V (X)
The Hamiltonian H(P~ , X) ~ is a c-number function of the canonical variables P~ and
2m
~ and the commutator [P~ , φ(X)] can then be evaluated accordingly. However,
X
~ = 1 P~ = −h̄ ∂ X
i[H, X] ~ (1.92)
m ∂t
gives the wrong sign. The reason is that time is a parameter, not an operator. The correct equation
should read,
ht2 |Φ(t)|t1 i = ht2 + τ |Φ(t + τ )|t1 + τ i = ht2 |U (τ )† Φ(t + τ )|U (τ )|t1 i (1.93)
which differs from
hx0 |Φ(X)|xi = hx0 + a|Φ(X − a)|x + ai = hx0 |U (a)† Φ(X − a)|U (a)|xi (1.94)
by a sign.
9
Chapter 2
Klein Gordon field
2.1 Relativistic Wave Equation

∂ ∂
pµ → i∂ µ = i , H → i (2.1)
∂xµ ∂t
P~ → −i∇~ (2.2)
2 µ
P = P Pµ = H − P = m 2 ~2 2
(2.3)
(H 2 − P~ 2 − m2 )φ (~x, t) = 0 (2.4)
∂2 ~ 2 + m2 )φ (~x, t) = 0
( 2 −∇ (2.5)
∂t
φ (~x, t) = Ae ip·x (2.6)
q
p2 = E 2 − m 2 , E = ± p~2 + m2 (2.7)
q
(H − P~ 2 + m2 )φ (~x, t) = 0 (2.8)
d3 p
Z
~0
φ (~x, t) = d3 x0 ei(~x−x )·~p φ (x~0 , t) (2.9)
(2π)3
∂ d3 p 3 0 q 2
Z
~0
i φ (~x, t) = 3
d x p~ + m2 ei(~x−x )·~p φ (x~0 , t) (2.10)
∂t (2π)
i
jµ = [φ∗ (~x, t)∂µ φ (~x, t) − φ (~x, t)∂µ φ∗ (~x, t)] (2.11)
2
∂ µ jµ = 0 (2.12)
i ∂ ∂
ρ = j0 = [φ∗ (~x, t) φ (~x, t) − φ (~x, t) φ∗ (~x, t)] (2.13)
2 ∂t ∂t
The density is not positive definite.
Exercise: Derive the continuity equation and the corresponding conservation law.
Minimal electromagnetic interaction p µ → pµ − eAµ
1
[(∂µ − eAµ )2 + m2 ]φ (~x, t) = 0 (2.14)
i
Ze
For Coulomb field Aµ → δµ0 A0 → −δµ0 4πr .
Exercise: Find the energy spectrum and the wavefunction of the hydrogen atom using Klein
Gordon equation.
10
2.2 Canonical Quantization
Quantum Mechanics Quantum Field
d φµ (x) = ∂µ φ(x) (2.15)

pi = m qi
dt φ0 (x) = ∂0 φ(x), φi (x) = ∂i φ(x) (2.16)
d ∂ µ φµ (x) = −m2 φ(x) (2.17)

pi = −∇i V = −αij qj 0 2 2
dt ∂ φ0 (x) = −(m − ∇ )φ(x) (2.18)
Z
1 h1 i
Xh 1 1 i H = φ20 + φ(m2 − ∇2 )φ
d3 x (2.19)
H= p2
2 i
+ qi αij qj 2 2
i
2m 2 Z h1 1 1 i Z
= d3 x φ20 + m2 φ2 + (∇φ)2 = d3 x H (2.20)
2 2 2
X
1 1
Z
L = pi q̇i − H(p, q) h i
L = d3 x φ0 ∂0 φ − φ20 − φ(m2 − ∇2 )φ (2.21)
i 2 2
Xh 1 2 1 i Z h 1 µ 1 i Z
= pi q̇i − p − qi αij qj = d x φ ∂µ φ − φ φµ − m2 φ2 = d3 x L
3 µ
(2.22)
i
2m2 i 2 2 2
Z t2
Z t2 Z
δ dtL = δG(t2 ) − δG(t1 ) δ dt L = δ d4 x L = δG(t2 ) − δG(t1 ) (2.23)
t1 t1
Z
d3 x φ0 (t)δφ(t)
X
δG(t) = pi (t)δqi (t) δG(t) = (2.24)
i
δ δ
i [ pi (t), f (qj (t), pj (t)) ] = f (qj (t), pj (t)) i[φ0(~x, t), f (φ(x~0, t), φ0(x~0, t))] = f (φ(x~0, t), φ0(x~0, t)) (2.25)
δqi δφ(~x, t)
i [ pi (t), qj (t) ] = δij i [ φ0 (~x, t), φ(x~0 , t) ] = δ(~x − x~0 ) (2.26)
i [ pi (t), pj (t) ] = i [ qi (t), qj (t) ] = 0 i [ φ0 (~x,t), φ0 (x~0, t) ] = i [ φ(~x, t), φ(x~0 , t) ] = 0 (2.27)
1 pi δH 1 ∂φ δH
[ qi (t), H ] = q̇i = = [ φ(~x, t), H ] = ∂0 φ = = φ0 = 0 (2.28)
i m δpi i ∂t δφ
1 δH 1 0 δH
[ pi (t), H ] = ṗi = −αij qj = − [ φ (~x, t), H ] = ∂0 φ0 = −m2 φ + ∇2 φ = − (2.29)
i δqi i δφ
Z
P~ = − ~ x, t)
d3 x φ0 (~x, t)∇φ(~ (2.30)
~
~ x, t) = δ P
i [ P~ , φ(~x, t) ] = −∇φ(~ (2.31)
δφ0
~
~ 0 (~x, t) = − δ P
i [ P~ , φ0 (~x, t) ] = −∇φ (2.32)
δφ
Z Z
Pµ = dσν T νµ = d3 x T 0µ (2.33)
∂µ T µν = 0 (2.34)
1 1
T µν = φµ ∂ νφ−g µνL = φµ ∂ νφ−g µν(φα ∂ αφ− φαφα − m2φ2 ) (2.35)
2 2
11
2.3 Quantization of the Neutral Scalar Field
q
We define ωk = ~k 2 + m2 . For neutral scalar field φ (~x, t) is Hermitian.
d3 k h
Z i
−ik·x † ik·x
φ (~x, t) = c~ e + c~k e (2.36)
(2π)3 2ωk k
d3 k h
Z i
0 −ik·x † ik·x
φ (~x, t) = −i c~ e − c~k e (2.37)
(2π)3 2 k
where
d3 k d4 k
Z Z
= 2πδ(k 2 − m2 )θ(k 0 ) (2.38)
(2π)3 2ωk (2π)4
is Lorentz invariant.
↔
Z h i Z h i
c~k = d3 x ωk φ (~x, t) + iφ0 (~x, t) e ik·x = i dσ µ e ik·x ∂µ φ (~x, t) (2.39)
σ1
↔ ↔
Z h i Z h i
= i dσ µ e ik·x ∂µ φ (~x, t) + d4 x ∂ µ e ik·x ∂µ φ (~x, t) (2.40)
σ2
↔
f ∂µ g = f ∂µ g − (∂µ f )g (2.41)
↔
(2 + m2 )φ1 = 0, (2 + m2 )φ2 = 0, =⇒ ∂ µ (φ1 ∂µ φ2 ) = 0 (2.42)
Z h i
c~k = d3 x ωk φ (~x, t) + iφ0 (~x, t) e ik·x (2.43)
Z h i
c†~0 =
0
d3 y ωk0 φ (~y , t) − iφ0 (~y , t) e−ik ·y (2.44)
k
h i h i
c~k , ck~0 = c~† , c†~0 = 0 (2.45)
k k
h i
c~k , c†~0 = 2ωk (2π)3 δ(~k − k~0 ) (2.46)
k
d3 k d3 k
Z Z
dN~k = c† c~ , N= dN~k = c† c~ (2.47)
(2π)3 2ωk ~k k (2π)3 2ωk ~k k
h i
dN~k , dNk~0 = 0 (2.48)
h i h i
dN~k , ck~0 = −c~k δ(~k − k~0 )d3 k , N , c~k = −c~k (2.49)
h i h i
dN~k , c†~0 = c~† δ(~k − k~0 )d3 k , N , c~† = c~† (2.50)
k k k k
c~k |0i = 0 (2.51)

c† |0i = |~ki
~k (2.52)
1
√ (c~† )n |0i = |n~k i (2.53)
n! k
12
hk~0 |~ki = h0|ck~0 c~† |0i = 2ω~k (2π)3 δ(~k − k~0 ) (2.54)
k
d3 k 1
Z
N |np~ i = 3
c~† c~k √ (cp†~ )n |0i = np~ |np~ i (2.55)
(2π) 2ωk k n!
B.E.statistics
|~k1 , ~k2 i = c†~ c†~ |0i = c†~ c†~ |0i = |~k2 , ~k1 i (2.56)
k1 k2 k2 k1
m
1 n~k
(c†~ )
Y
|n~k1 , n~k2 , . . . n~km i = q i |0i (2.57)
n~ki ! ki
i=1
m
X
N |n~k1 , n~k2 , . . . n~km i = n~ki |n~k1 , n~k2 , . . . n~km i (2.58)
i=1
Z h11 i
H = φ20 + φ(m2 − ∇2 )φ
d3 x (2.59)
2 2
1 d k d k0 3 h
3 3
Z
d x − (c~k e−ik·x − c~† e ik·x )(ck~0 e−ik ·x − c†~0 e ik ·x )
0 0
= 3 3
(2.60)
2 (2π) 2 (2π) 2 k k
ωk 0 i
(c~k e−ik·x + c~† e ik·x )(ck~0 e−ik ·x + c†~0 e ik ·x )
0 0
+ (2.61)
ωk k k
Z 3
d k 1 h i
(+)†
= 3
c~k c~ c~† c~k ωk (2.62)
(2π) 2ωk 2 k k
Z 3
d k h i 1
Z
†
= c c ~ ω k + d3 k δ 3 (0) ωk (2.63)
(2π)3 2ωk ~k k 2
Z
= dN~k ωk + h0|H|0i (2.64)
Z h1 1 i Z Z
3
H = : d x φ20 + φ(m2 − ∇2 )φ := dN~k ωk = dH~k (2.65)
2 2
Normal ordering of the operators : O : is defined by rearranging order of operators such that all
annihilation operators appear in the right and all creation operators appear in the left.
h i h i
H , c~k = −ωk c~k H , c~† = ωk c~† (2.66)
k k
Z h i
P~ = − ~
d3 x φ0 ∇φ (2.67)
d3 k d3 k 0
Z
d3 x(c~k e−ik·x − c~† e ik·x ) ik~0 (ck~0 e−ik ·x − c†~0 e ik ·x )
0 0
= i 3 3
(2.68)
(2π) 2 (2π) 2ωk0 k k
Z 3
d k 1 h i
= − c~k c−~k e−2iωk t − c~† c† ~ e2iωk t + c~† c~k + c~k c~† ~k (2.69)
(2π)3 2ωk 2 k −k k k
d3 k
Z
= c† c~ ~k (2.70)
(2π)3 2ωk ~k k
Z Z
= dN~k ~k = dP~~k (2.71)
h i h i
P~ , c~k = −~kc~k P~ , c~† = ~kc~† (2.72)
k k
13
Define the ground state, vacuum |0i:
c~k |0i = 0, N |0i = 0, H|0i = 0, P~ |0i = 0 . (2.73)
ck~0 |~ki = (2π)3 2ωk δ(~k − k~0 )|0i (2.74)

N |~ki = |~ki, H|~ki = ωk |~ki, P~ |~ki = ~k |~ki . (2.75)
m
X
H |n~k1 , n~k2 , . . . n~km i = n~ki ωk |n~k1 , n~k2 , . . . n~km i (2.76)
i=1
Xm
P~ |n~k1 , n~k2 , . . . n~km i = n~ki ~k |n~k1 , n~k2 , . . . n~km i (2.77)
i=1
2.4 Unequal-Time Commutation Relations
d3 k
Z
~ ~
φ (~x, 0) = (c~ e ik·~x + c~† e−ik·~x ) (2.78)
(2π)3 2ωk k k
d3 k
Z
~ ~
φ (~x, t) = eiHt φ (~x, 0)e−iHt = 3
(eiHt c~k e−iHt e ik·~x + eiHt c~† e−iHt e−ik·~x ) (2.79)
(2π) 2ωk k
Z 3
d k
= 3
(c~k e−ik·x + c~† e ik·x ) (2.80)
(2π) 2ωk k
d3 k
Z
[ φ (~x, t), φ (x~0 , t0 ) ] =
0 0
3
(e−ik·(x−x ) − e ik·(x−x ) ) (2.81)
(2π) 2ωk
1 d4 k
Z
0
= 4
2πδ(k 2 − m2 )(k0 )e−ik·(x−x ) = i∆(x − x0 ) (2.82)
i (2π)
The function ∆(x0 − x) is defined by the differential equation,
(∂ 2 + m2 )∆(x − x0 ) = 0 (2.83)
with the boundary conditions,

∆(x − x0 ) = 0, or equivalently ∆(x − x0 ) = 0 for spacelike vector x − x0 ((x − x0 )2 < 0)

x0 =x00
(2.84)

∂0 ∆(x − x0 ) = −i[φ0 (x), φ(x0 )] = −δ(~x − x~0 ) (2.85)

x0 =x00 x0 =x00
∆(x) = −∆(−x) (2.86)

Given the definition of the function ∆(x), we can derive the unequal-time commutators directly.
Z ↔ Z ↔
3 00 00
d x φ(x ) ∂ 000 ∆(x − x) 00
= d3 x00 φ(x00 ) ∂ 000 ∆(x00 − x) 00 (2.87)

t00 =t t =t0
Z
φ(x) = − d3 x00 φ (x~00 , t0 )∂00 ∆(x~00 − ~x, t0 − t) − (∂00 φ (x~00 , t0 ))∆(x~00 − ~x, t0 − t) (2.88)
Z
[φ(x), φ(x0 )] = d3 x00 [φ0 (x~00 , t0 ), φ (x~0 , t0 )]∆(x~00 − ~x, t0 − t) = −i∆(x0 − x) = i∆(x − x0 ) (2.89)
[φ0 (x), φ(x0 )] = i∂ 0 ∆(x − x0 ) (2.90)
14
2.5 Quantization of Charged Scalar Fields
1 1 2 2
L = φµ1 ∂µ φ1 − φµ1 φ1µ − m φ1 (2.91)
2 2
1 1 2 2
+ φ2 ∂µ φ2 − φµ2 φ2µ −
µ
m φ2 (2.92)
2 2
The Lagrangian is invariant under two dimension rotation (same rotation for φ µ ):
φ01 = cos θ φ1 + sin θ φ2 (2.93)

φ02 = −sin θ φ1 + cos θ φ2 (2.94)
1 1
φ = √ (φ1 + iφ2 ), φ† = √ (φ†1 − iφ†2 ) (2.95)
2 2
1 1
φµ = √ (φµ1 + iφµ2 ), φµ† = √ (φµ†1 − iφ
µ†2
) (2.96)
2 2
We define the non-Hermtian operators,
1
φ0 = √ (φ01 + iφ02 ) = e−iθ φ (2.97)
2
1
φ0† = √ (φ01 − iφ02 ) = eiθ φ† (2.98)
2
L = φ†µ ∂ µ φ + φµ ∂ µ φ† − φ†µ φµ − m2 φ† φ (2.99)
δφµ† : φµ = ∂µ φ, δφ† : ∂ µ φµ + m2 φ = 0 (2.100)

µ
δφ : φ†µ = ∂µ φ , †
δφ : ∂ µ
φ†µ 2 †
+m φ =0 (2.101)
(2.102)
i[φ†0 (x), φ(x0 )]t=t0 = δ(~x − x~0 ) (2.103)

†
i[φ0 (x), φ (x )]t=t00
= δ(~x − x~0 ) (2.104)
(+) 1 1 (1)†
c~ = √ (c~(1) + ic~(2) ), c~
(+) † (2)†
= √ (c~ − ic~ ) (2.105)
k 2 k k k 2 k k
(−) 1 1 (1)†
c~ = √ (c~(1) − ic~(2) ), c~
(−) † (2)†
= √ (c~ + ic~ ) (2.106)
k 2 k k k 2 k k
d3 k h (+) −ik·x d3 k h (+)† ik·x

Z i Z i
(−)† (−)
φ (~x, t) = 3
c~ e + c~ e ik·x , φ (~x, t)† = 3
c~ e + c~ e−ik·x
(2π) 2ωk k k (2π) 2ωk k k
(2.107)
d3 k h (+) −ik·x d 3k h
Z i Z i
(−)† ik·x (+)† ik·x (−) −ik·x
φ0 (~x, t) = −i c e − c e , φ0 (~x, t)† = i c e − c e
(2π)3 2 ~k ~k (2π)3 2 ~k ~k
(2.108)
15
↔
Z h i Z h i
(+) 3 0 ik·x
c~ = d x ωk φ (~x, t) + iφ (~x, t) e =i dσ µ e ik·x ∂µ φ (~x, t) (2.109)
k
↔
Z h i Z h i
(−)
c~ = d3 x ωk φ (~x, t)† + iφ0 (~x, t)† e ik·x = i dσ µ e ik·x ∂µ φ (~x, t)† (2.110)
k
h i h i
(±) (±) (±)† (±)†
c~ , c ~0 = c~ , c ~0 =0 (2.111)
k k k k
h i
(±) (±)†
c~ , c ~0 = 2ωk (2π)3 δ(~k − k~0 ) (2.112)
k k
d3 k
Z
(±) (±)† (±) (+) (−)
dN~ = c c~ , N= (dN~ + dN~ ) (2.113)
k (2π)3 2ωk ~k k k k
h i h i
±) (±) ±) (∓)
dN~ , dN ~0 = dN~ , dN ~0 =0 (2.114)
k k k k
(±)
c~ |0i = 0 (2.115)
k
(±)†
c~ |0i = |~k±i (2.116)
k
1
√ (c~(±)† )n |0i = |n~(±) i (2.117)
n! k k
(±) (±)†
hk~0 ±|~k±i = h0|c ~0 c~ |0i = 2ω~k (2π)3 δ(~k − k~0 ) (2.118)
k k
hk~0 ± |~k ∓i = 0 (2.119)
Z h i Z Z
(+) (−)
H =: d3 x φ†0 φ0 + m2 φ† φ + (∇φ
~ † )(∇φ)
~ = (dN~ + dN~ ) ωk = dH~k (2.120)
k k
Z h i Z Z
(+) (−)
P~ = − 3
d x φ†0 ∇φ
~ ~ † =
+ φ0 ∇φ (dN~ + dN~ ) ~k = dP~~k (2.121)
k k
For infinitesimal gauge transformation of second kind δθ = eδα(x), δφ = −ieδαφ and δφ µ =

−ieδαφµ .
δL = L0 − L = ie(φ† φµ − φ†µ φ)∂ µ δα(x) = jµ ∂ µ δα(x) = ∂ µ (jµ δα(x)) − (∂ µ jµ )δα(x) (2.122)

jµ = ie(φ† φµ − φ†µ φ) (2.123)
Z Z
4
δI = d x δL = d4 x [∂ µ (jµ δα(x)) − (∂ µ jµ )δα(x)] (2.124)
Z σ2 Z
= dσ µ jµ δα(x) − d4 x ∂ µ jµ δα(x) = Gδα (t2 ) − Gδα (t1 ) (2.125)
σ1
∂ µ jµ = 0 (2.126)
Z
i [Gδα (t), φ] = i [ d3 x j0 δα, φ] = δφ = −iφ e δα (2.127)
ρ = j0 = ie(φ† ∂0 φ − φ∂0 φ† ) (2.128)

Z Z Z
(+) (−)
Q = : dσµ j µ :=: d3 x ρ := e (dN~ − dN~ ) = N (+) − N (−) (2.129)
k k
Exercise: Calculate the unequal-time commutation relations for the charged scalar fileds.
16
Chapter 3
Vector fields
F µν = −F νµ
1 1 2 1
LA = − F µν (∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ ) + Fµν + m2 A2µ − j µ Aµ (3.1)
2 4 2
δF µν : Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ (3.2)
δAµ : ∂ν F νµ + m2 Aµ = j µ (3.3)
m2 ∂µ Aµ = e ∂µ j µ = 0, f or conserved current (3.4)

Therefore either m2 = 0 or ∂µ Aµ = 0.
3.1 Massive Vector Field

For massive vector field, m2 6= 0. Therefore ∂µ Aµ = 0. We obtain the field equation,
(∂ 2 + m2 )Aµ = j µ . (3.5)
There are two equations of constraint,
∂i F i0 + m2 A0 = j 0 (3.6)
Fij = ∂i Aj − ∂j Ai (3.7)
which we can use to determine Fij and A0 at any given time,
1
A0 = (−∂i F i0 + j 0 ) (3.8)
m2
We can rewqrite the Lagrangian LA in a canonical form,
L = F 0i ∂0 Ai − H(F i0 , A0 ) (3.9)
i[ F 0i (x) , Aj (x0 )]x0 =x00 = δij δ(~x − x~0 ) (3.10)

3 h
d3 k
Z i
(λ) ~ (λ) −ik·x (λ) ~ ∗ (λ)† ik·x
X
Aµ (x) = ( k)a e + ( k) a e (3.11)
(2π)3 2ωk λ=1 µ ~k µ ~k
17
q
k0 = m2 + ~k 2
∂µ Aµ = 0 =⇒ k · (λ) (~k) = 0 (3.12)
Orthonormal
(λ)∗ (~k) · (λ ) (~k) = δλλ0
0
(3.13)
Completeness
3 kµ kν
µ(λ) (~k)ν(λ)∗ (~k) = gµν −
X
(3.14)
λ=1
m2
(λ0 )†
h i
(λ)
a~ , a ~0 = δλλ0 (2π)3 2ωk δ(~k − k~0 ) (3.15)
k k
(λ0 ) (λ0 )†
h i h i
(λ) (λ)†
a~ , a ~0 = a~ , a ~0 =0 (3.16)
k k k k
Infinitesimal gauge transformation:
δAµ = ∂µ δα(x) (3.17)

δFµν = 0 (3.18)
δjµ = 0 (3.19)
δLA = m2 Aµ ∂ µ δα(x) − j µ ∂µ δα(x) (3.20)

µ
δLφ = j ∂µ δα(x) (3.21)
L = L A + Lφ (3.22)
1 1 2 1
= − F µν (∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ ) + Fµν + m2 A2µ − j µ Aµ (3.23)
2 4 2
+ φ†µ ∂ µ φ + φµ ∂ µ φ† − φ†µ φµ − m2 φ† φ (3.24)
jµ = ie(φ† φµ − φ†µ φ) (3.25)
δφ = −ieδα(x)φ, δφµ = −ieδα(x)φµ (3.26)

† †
δφ = ieδα(x)φ , δφ†µ = ieδα(x)φ†µ (3.27)
δL = m2 Aµ ∂ µ δα(x) (3.28)
Gauge invariance implies m2 = 0 and electromagnetism follows.
3.2 The Electromagnetic Fields
L = L A + Lφ (3.29)
1 1 2
= − F µν (∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ ) + F − ie(φ† φµ − φ†µ φ)Aµ + φ†µ ∂ µ φ + φµ ∂ µ φ† − φ†µ φµ − m2 φ† φ
2 4 µν
1 1 2
= − F µν (∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ ) + F + φ†µ (∂ µ + ieAµ )φ + φµ (∂ µ − ieAµ )φ† − φ†µ φµ − m2 φ† φ
2 4 µν
Field equations:
φµ = (∂µ + ieAµ )φ , (∂µ + ieAµ )φµ + m2 φ = 0 (3.30)
18
Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ , ∂ν F νµ = j µ (3.31)
h i h i
jµ = ie(φ† φµ −φ†µ φ) = ie φ† (∂µ +ieAµ )φ−φ(∂µ −ieAµ )φ† = ie φ† ∂µ φ−φ∂µ φ† +2ieAµ φ† φ (3.32)
∂ µ jµ = 0 (3.33)
2 µ µ ν µ
−∂ A + ∂ ∂ν A = j (3.34)
Equations of constraint:
Fij = ∂ i Aj − ∂ j Ai (3.35)
i0
∂i F = j0 (3.36)
Equations of motion:
F i0 = ∂ i A0 − ∂ 0 Ai (3.37)
0i ki i
∂0 F + ∂k F = j (3.38)
We have extra degree of freedom from the gauge invariance. Subsidary condition must be
imposed to eliminate this degree of freedom. It is called the gauge condition or the gauge fixing.
the gauge condition is necessarily gauge noninvariant. Classically ∂ µ Aµ = 0 corresponds to the
covariant Lorentz gauge. However this condition cannot be fulfilled as an operator equation.
Covariant quantization of Gupta-Bleuler requires the use of indefinite metric outside the usual
~ ·A
Hilbert space. Alternatively one can use the radiation gauge, ∇ ~ = 0 to eliminate the dynamical
dependent components to quantize only the dynamically independent variables.
Using the radiation gauge condition,
∂i F i0 = −∇2 A0 = j 0 (3.39)
1
Z
A0 (x) = − 2 j 0 = d3 y D(~x − y~ ) j 0 (~y ) (3.40)
∇
where
1
∇2 D(~x − ~y ) = −δ(~x − ~y ), D(~x − ~y) = (3.41)
4π|~x − ~y |
~=A
Decomposing A ~T + A
~ L where ∇
~ ·A
~ T = 0, and ∇
~ ×A
~ L = 0 implies A
~ L = ∇χ
~
~ ·A
∇ ~ = ∇2 χ = 0 (3.42)
To fix the gauge completely, it is necessary to choose additional condition χ = 0 and equivalently
~ L = 0.
A
F 0i = FT0i + FL0i = ∂ 0 Ai − ∂ i A0 (3.43)

FT0i = ∂ 0
AiT (3.44)
1 0
FL0i = −∂ i A0 = ∂ i j (3.45)
∇2
L = FT0i ∂ 0 AiT + FL0i ∂ 0 AiL − H = FT0i ∂ 0 AiT − H (3.46)
19
i[ FT0i (x) , AjT (x0 )]x0 =x00 = δTij δ(~x − x~0 ) = δ ij δ(~x − x~0 ) − ∂ i ∂ j D(~x − x~0 ) (3.47)
d3 k ki kj
Z
~ ~0
= e ik·(~x−x ) (δ ij − ) (3.48)
(2π)3 ~k 2
2 h
d3 k
Z i
~ ~k)a(λ) e−ik·x + ~(λ) (~k)∗ a(λ)† e ik·x √
X
A(x) = ~ (λ) ( ~ ~ (3.49)
(2π)3 2ωk λ=1 k k k0 = ~k 2
∇ ~ = 0 =⇒ ~k · ~(λ) (~k) = 0
~ ·A (3.50)
Orthonormal
~(λ) (~k)∗ · ~(λ0 ) (~k) = δλλ0 (3.51)
Completeness
2 ki kj
i(λ) (~k)j(λ) (~k)∗ = δTij = δ ij −
X
(3.52)
~k 2
λ=1
1
~ (±) = ∓ √ (~ (1) ± i(~ (2) ) (3.53)
2
(±)
δ~ = ∓ i δθ ~ (±) (3.54)
(±) 1 (1) (2)

a~ = ∓ √ (a~ ± ia~ ) (3.55)
k 2 k k
(λ0 )†
h i
(λ)
a~ , a ~0 = δλλ0 (2π)3 2ωk δ(~k − k~0 ) (3.56)
k k
(λ0 ) (λ0 )†
h i h i
(λ) (λ)†
a~ , a ~0 = a~ , a ~0 =0 (3.57)
k k k k
2 Z 2 Z
X (λ) X d3 k (λ)† (λ)
N= dN~ = a a~ (3.58)
λ=1
k
λ=1
(2π)3 2ωk ~k k
Exercise: Derive the following expressions for the Hamiltonian and the momentum.
2
1 ~2 ~2 d3 k
Z Z Z
(λ)† (λ)
d3 x (E a a~ ωk + δ 3 (0) d3 k ω k
X
H= +B )= (3.59)
2 λ=1
(2π)3 2ωk ~k k
2 Z
d3 k
Z
(λ)† (λ)
P~ = 3 ~ ×B
~ = a~ a~ ~k
X
d xE 3
(3.60)
λ=1
(2π) 2ωk k k
(λ)
a~ |0i = 0 (3.61)
k
(λ)†
a~ |0i = |~k, λi (3.62)
k
~
h0|A(x)|~k, λi = ~ (λ) e−ik·x (3.63)
~ k
hk~0 , λ0 |~k, λi = 2ωk (2π)3 δ(~k − k~0 )δλλ0 (3.64)
20
3.2.1 Fluctuation and uncertainty principle
~ 6= 0,
[N, A] ~ 6= 0,
[N, E] ~ 6= 0
[N, B] (3.65)
It is not possible to simultaneous determine the number of photons and the field strength.
q
∆N ∆E > 0, ∆O = hO 2 i − hOi2 (3.66)
(λ)
a~ |0i = N |0i = 0 (3.67)
k
~
h0|E|0i = 0, ~
but E|0i 6= 0, ~ =−∂A
E ~ (3.68)
∂t
d3 k
Z
~ 2 |0i = h0|B
h0|E ~ 2 |0i = ωk = ∞ (3.69)
(2π)3
∆N = 0 implies ∆E = ∞. Alternative if we would like to construct a state which has a smooth
classical limit and corresponds to a minimal fluctuation ∆E, it is necessary to have an infinite
superposition of n, the number of photon. The minimal packet in n is known as the coherent state.
1 1
N = a† a. Define a = eiφ N 2 . and a† = N 2 e−iφ
[a, a† ] = 1 =⇒ eiφ N e−iφ = N + 1 (3.70)

It follows
i[φ, N ] = 1 (3.71)
and
∆N ∆φ ≥ 1 (3.72)
Since φ = kX and N kh̄ = P , then i[φ, N ] = h̄i [X, P ] = 1 and ∆N ∆φ = h̄1 ∆P ∆X ≥ 1
Exercise: Calculate the force between two neutral parallel conducting plates separated by a
distance a.
Casmir Effect:
F π 2 hc 0.013
F= =− =− 4 dyne/cm (3.73)
A 240a4 a(in µm)
Sparnay (1958)
Van der Waals force.
21
Chapter 4
Interaction
4.1 Perturbation Theory
|tiS = e−iHt |0iS = e−iHt |0iH (4.1)
H = H 0 + HI (4.2)
[H0 , HI ] 6= 0 (4.3)
We want to expand
e−i(H0 +HI )t 6= e−iH0 t e−iHI t 6= e−iHI t e−iH0 t (4.4)
in power series of HI .
Let
e−i(H0 +HI )t = e−iH0 t U (t) (4.5)
Then
U (t) = eiH0 t e−i(H0 +HI )t (4.6)
which implies U (0) = 1, U (t) = 1 for HI = 0 and U (t) = e−iHI t for [H0 , HI ] = 0. We define the
interaction state,
|tiI = eiH0 t |tiS = U (t)|0i (4.7)
where the subscript denotes the interaction picture.

d
U (t) = eiH0 t (iH0 − iH0 − iHI )e−i(H0 +HI )t = −ieiH0 t HI e−iH0 t eiH0 t e−i(H0 +HI )t (4.8)
dt
= −ieiH0 t HI e−iH0 t U (t) = −iHI0 U (t) (4.9)
Z t
U (t) = U (t0 ) − i HI0 (t0 )U (t0 )dt0 (4.10)
t0
22
Z t Z t Z t Z t1
U (t) = 1 − i HI0 (t0 )U (t0 )dt0 =1−i dt1 HI0 (t1 ) + (−i) 2
dt1 HI0 (t1 ) dt2 HI0 (t2 ) + . . .(4.11)
0 0 0 0
Z t Z t1 1
ZZ
1
ZZ
dt1 dt2 HI0 (t1 )HI0 (t2 ) = dt1 dt2 HI0 (t1 )HI0 (t2 ) + dt2 dt1 HI0 (t2 )HI0 (t(4.12)
1)
0 0 2 t2 <t1 <t 2 t1 <t2 <t
ZZ t
1
= dt1 dt2 T HI0 (t1 )HI0 (t2 ) (4.13)
2 0
The time ordering product is defined by:

(
HI0 (t1 )HI0 (t2 ) if t1 > t2
T HI0 (t1 )HI0 (t2 ) = (4.14)
HI0 (t2 )HI0 (t1 ) if t1 < t2
∞
(−i)n t n Rt
Z
dt0 HI0 (t0 )
dt0 HI0 (t0 ) = T e−i
X
U (t) = T 0 (4.15)
n=0
n! 0
Rt
−i dt0 HI0 (t0 )

U (t, t0 ) = T e t0
(4.16)
|ti = U (t, t0 )|t0 i (4.17)
d
U (t, t0 ) = −iHI0 (t)U (t, t0 ) (4.18)
dt
4.2 Scattering Matrix and Amplitude

The scattering matrix S is defined by:
R∞
−i dt0 HI (t0 )

S = U (∞, −∞) = T e −∞ (4.19)
X
S|ii = |f ihf |S|ii (4.20)
f
hf |S|ii = Sf i (4.21)
|Sf i |2 = probabilities of transitions from the state |ii to the final state |f i.
The transition matrix element is defined by:
Sf i = δf i + i(2π)4 δ 4 (pf − pi )Tf i (4.22)
S is unitary. SS † = 1 implies,
(Tf i − Tif∗ )δ 4 (pf − pi ) = i(2π)4 δ 4 (pn − pi )δ 4 (pn − pf )Tnf

∗
X
Tni (4.23)
n
Taking f = i, we obtain
(2π)4 δ 4 (pn − pi )|Tni |2 = σT (i)

X
2Im(Tii ) = (4.24)
n
23
For non-diagonal matrix elements f 6= i
|Sf i |2 = |(2π)4 δ 4 (pf − pi )|2 |Tf i |2 = V T δ 4 (pf − pi )|Tf i |2 (4.25)

1
= V T (2π)4 δ 4 (pf − pi )|Mf i |2
Y
(4.26)
n={f,i}
2ωn V
Z Z
|(2π)4 δ 4 (pf − pi )|2 = d4 xe i(pf −pi )·x (2π)4 δ 4 (pf − pi ) = d4 x(2π)4 δ 4 (pf − pi ) (4.27)
= V T (2π)4 δ 4 (pf − pi ) (4.28)

R∞
d3 x → (2π)3 δ(0) and T =
R
V = −∞ dt → 2πδ(0)
hk~0 |~ki = 2ωk (2π)3 δ(~k − k~0 ) (4.29)

h~k|~ki = 2ωk (2π)3 δ 3 (0) = 2ωk V. (4.30)
For correct normalization factor: |~ki → √2ω1 V |~ki.

k
The decay rate is the transition probability per unit time,
" #
1 1 d3 kf
Y
dωf i = V (2π)4 δ 4 (pf − pi )|Mf i |2 V S (4.31)
2ωi V f 2ωf V (2π)3
1
where S includes a factor of m! for each set of m indentical particles in the final states.
The decay rate at the rest frame is given by,
" #
1
Z
1 Y 1 d3 kf
(2π)4 δ 4 (p − kf )|Mf i |2
X
= S (4.32)
Γ 2m f
2ωf (2π)3
Scattering cross section:

" #
Z
1 Y 1 d3 kf
(2π)4 δ 4 (p − kf )|Mf i |2
X
σ = S (4.33)
2ω1 2ω2 V |Jinc | f f
2ωf (2π)3
" #
1 1 d3 kf
Z
(2π)4 δ 4 (p − kf )|Mf i |2
X Y
= S (4.34)
2ωf (2π)3
q
4 (p1 · p2 )2 − p21 p22 f f
The flux Jinc is given by (at CM system, p~2 = p

~1 ),
s q

p
~2 p~1
2 (p1 · p2 )2 − p21 p22
V |Jinc | = |~v2 − ~v1 | = − = (4.35)
ω2 ω1 ω1 ω2
At the Lab system,
|~
p1 |
V |Jinc | = = v1 (4.36)
ω1
24
Chapter 5
Interactions of Radiation with Atoms
5.1 Emission and Absorption of Photon by Atoms

Xh 1
~ x~i , t))2 − e ~σi · ∇
i
H = (P~i − eA( ~ × A(x
~ i , t) (5.1)
i
2m 2m
e ~ ~ 2
~ x~i , t)2 − e ~σi · ∇
~ x~i , t) · P~i ) + e A(
Xh i
HI = − (Pi · A(x~i , t) + A( ~ × A(
~ x~i , t) (5.2)
i
2m 2m 2m
Transition matrix element hB, b |HI |A, ai, where |A, ai = |Ai |ai.
Atomic state: |Ai, photon state: |ai.
Absorption:
r
(λ) ~ x)|n(λ) i = ~ (λ) e−ik·x n(λ)
hn~ − 1|A(~ ~ ~ ~ (5.3)
k k k k
Emission:
r
(λ) ~ x)|n(λ) i = ~ (λ)∗ e ik·x n(λ) + 1
hn~ + 1|A(~ ~ ~ ~ (5.4)
k k k k
n = 0 spontaneous.
n 6= 0 induced
N 1
n >> 1 Classical limit. n + 1 ≈ n and n = V >> λ̄3
5.2 Black Body Radiation

Atoms and radiation field in equilibrium.
B*
)γ+A (5.5)
NA ωabs = NB ωem (5.6)
NB e−EB /kT ω
− kT ωabs |hB, n − 1|HI |A, ni|2
= = e = = (5.7)
NA e−EA /kT ωem |hA, n + 1|HI |B, ni|2
n~k ~k · P~i , e ik·x }|Ai|2
P
i |hB|{~ n~k
= = (5.8)
n~k + 1 i |hA|{~~∗ · P~i , e−ik·x }|Bi|2 n~k + 1
P
k
25
since
hB|{~~k · P~i , e ik·x }|Ai = hA|{~~k∗ · P~i , e−ik·x }|Bi∗ (5.9)
2 2
∞ d3 k X d3 k X ω 4πω 2 dω 2ω
Z Z Z Z
(λ)
U= U (ω)dω = n~ ω = = (5.10)
0 (2π)3 λ=1 k (2π)3 λ=1 eω/kT − 1 (2π)3 eω/kT − 1
The black body radiation spectrum:

3
ω 1

U (ω) = 8π (5.11)
2π eω/kT − 1
5.3 Decay of Atom by Emission of a Single Photon
[P~ 2 , X]
~ = −2iP~ (5.12)
~ = [ 1 P~ 2 , X]
[H0 , X] ~ = − i P~ (5.13)
2m m
hB|P~ |Ai = imhB|[H0 , X]|Ai

~ ~
= im(EB − EA )hB|X|Ai ~ BA
= ±imω X (5.14)
where ω = |EB − EA |.
~
~ · ∂ A |A, ai = −hB, b |eX
hB, b |HI |A, ai = hB, b |eX ~ · E|A,
~ ai (5.15)
∂t
Dipole approximation: e ik·x = 1 + i~k · ~x + . . . . for λphoton = 1

k >> ratom
1 d3 k
Z
= ω = 2π |hf |HI |ii|2 δ(Ef − Ei ) (5.16)
τ (2π)3 2ωk
2
e2 2π ω 2
Z X (λ) ~ |Ai
= dΩ ~~ · hB|P (5.17)
m2 (2π)3 2 λ=1
k EB −EA =ω
2
e2 ω 3 ~ i ~ j
Z X (λ) (λ)∗
= X X dΩ ~~ ~~ (5.18)
8π 2 BA BA λ=1
ki kj
e2 ω 3 ~ i ~ j ki kj
Z
= X X dΩ δij − (5.19)
8π 2 BA BA ~k 2
2 3
e ω ~i ~j 1
= 2
XBA XBA 4π(δij − δij ) (5.20)
8π 3
e2 4 3 ~
= ω |XBA |2 (5.21)
4π 3
26
5.4 Scattering of Photon by Atom
h e ~ ~ e2 ~ 2 i
HI = − P · A(~x) + A(~x) (5.22)
m 2m
∞ Y
n Z ti−1
dti [−iHI0 (ti )]
X
S =
n=0 i=1 −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z t1
= 1−i dt1 HI0 (t1 ) + (−i)2 dt1 HI0 (t1 ) dt2 HI0 (t2 ) + . . . (5.23)
−∞ −∞ −∞
HI0 (t) = eiH0 t HI e−iH0 t (5.24)

∞ Y
n Z ti−1
dti eiH0 ti (−iHI )e−iH0 ti
X
S = 1+ (5.25)
n=1 i=1 −∞
Z ∞
= 1+ dt1 eiH0 t1 (−iHI )e−iH0 t1 (5.26)
−∞
∞ Z ∞ n Z
" #
ti−1
dt1 eiH0 t1 (−iHI )e−iH0 t1 iH0 ti −iH0 ti
X Y
+ dti e (−iHI )e (5.27)
n=2 −∞ i=2 −∞
Pn
Define t0i = ti − ti−1 for i > 1. The iteration of tn = t0n + tn−1 gives tn = 0
i=2 ti + t1
Z ∞
S = 1+ dt1 eiH0 t1 (−iHI )e−iH0 t1 (5.28)
−∞
∞ Z ∞ n Z
" #
0 Pn
0 t0 )
iH0 t1
dt0i eiH0 ti (−iHI ) e−iH0 (t1 +
X Y
+ dt1 e (−iHI ) i=2 i (5.29)
n=2 −∞ i=2 −∞
∞ Z ∞ Z 0 n−1
dt1 e−i(Ei −Ef )t1 hf |(−iHI ) dt ei(H0 −i−Ei )t (−iHI )
X
Sf i = δ f i + |ii (5.30)
n=1 −∞ −∞
A convergent factor et has been introduced to turn of the interaction as t → −∞.
∞ n ∞ n
1 1
X X
Tf i = −i hf |(−iHI ) (−iHI ) |ii = − hf |HI HI |ii(5.31)
n=0
i(H0 − i − Ei ) n=0
Ei − H0 + i
1
Mf i = −hB; k 0 , λ0 |(HI ) + (HI ) (HI )|A; k, λi (5.32)
(−H0 + i + EA + ωk )
e2 ~ e 1 e ~ ~
= −hB; k 0 , λ0 | A(~x, 0)2 + P~ · A(~
~ x, 0) P · A(~x, 0)|A; k, λi
2m m (−H0 + i + EA + ωk ) m
h e2 X e 1 e ~ (λ)
(λ) (λ0 )∗ (λ0 )∗
= − δAB (~~ · ~ ~0 ) + (P~ · ~ ~0 )BI (P · ~~ )IA
m k k
I
m k (−EI + i + EA + ωk ) m k
X e (λ) 1 e ~ (λ0 )∗ i
+ (P~ · ~~ )BI (P · ~ ~0 )IA (5.33)
I
m k (−EI + i + EA − ωk0 ) m k
 (λ )∗ (λ) 0 (λ) (λ )∗ 0
e2 X h (P~ · ~k~0 )BI (P~ · ~~k )IA (P~ · ~~k )BI (P~ · ~k~0 )IA i

e2 (λ) (λ0 )∗
= −  δAB (~~ · ~ ~0 ) + +
m k k m I ωk + EA − EI + i EA − ωk0 − EI + i
27
B k’λ’ B k’λ’ B k’λ’
A kλ A kλ A kλ
We have used the dipole approximation, e ik·x = 1
1 d3 k 0 e4
Z
σ = 2πδ(EB + ωk0 − EA − ωk ) (5.34)
2ωk (2π) 2ωk0 m2
3
0 0  2
~ ·~ (λ )∗ )BI (P~ ·~ (λ) )IA (P~ ·~ (λ) )BI (P~ ·~ (λ )∗ )IA

1 X (P

(λ) (λ 0 )∗
k~0 ~
k ~
k k~0
× δAB (~~ ·~ ~0 ) +  +  (5.35)
k k m I EA + ω k − E I EA − ω k 0 − E I

Krammers-Heisenberg Formula
0 0 2
~ ·~ (λ )∗ )BI (P~ ·~ (λ) )IA (P~ ·~ (λ) )BI (P~ ·~ (λ )∗ )IA

dσ ω0

0 1 ( P ~ ~ ~ ~
= r02 δAB (~ (λ) ·~ (λ )∗ ) +
X
k 0 k k k 0

~k
 +  (5.36)
dΩ ω
k~0 m I EA + ω k − E I EA − ω k 0 − E I

e2 α
where r0 = = is the electromagnetic radius of the electron. ~0
4πm m
6k
5.4.1 Thomson scattering ~k

Y
H
HH θ ~0⊥
HH -
&
ΘA
~0k
~0 AUA
For elastic scatterin ω = ω 0 and A = B.

Thomson scattering: photon energy >> binding energy, m >> ω >> E B .
dσ (λ) (λ0 )∗ 2

= r02 ~~ · ~ ~0 (5.37)
dΩ k k
For unpolarized beam, we average over the initial polarization.

(λ ) 2 0
r02  (λ0 ) (λ0 ) (~k · ~k~0 ) 
 
2
dσ 2 1
X (λ) (λ0 ) 2

= r0 ~ · ~ ~0 = ~ ~0 · ~ ~0 −
dΩ 2 λ=1 ~k k 2 k k ~k 2
(
r02 (λ0 )
r2 1 for ⊥
= 1 − cos2 Θ(~k,~ ~0 ) = 0 2 (5.38)
2 k 2 cos θ for k
At θ = π2 , photons emerge 100% polarized in the direction ⊥ to the scattering plane.
28
If the final photon polarization is not measured, we sum up the final polarizations.
ki0 kj0
!
dσ r2 ki kj r2
= 0 2− δij − 2 = 0 1 + cos2 θ (5.39)
dΩ 2 ~k 2 k~0 2
r2 1 8π 2
Z
σ= 0 dΩ 1 + cos2 θ = 2πr02 (1 + ) = r = 6.65 × 10−25 cm2 (5.40)
2 3 3 0
5.4.2 Rayleigh scattering

B=A
Let ωIA = ωI − ωA .

(λ )∗ (λ) 0 (λ) (λ )∗ 0  2
1 X  (P~ · ~k~0 )BI (P~ · ~~k )IA (P~ · ~~k )BI (P~ · ~k~0 )IA 

dσ

2 (λ)
(λ0 )
= r0 (~~ · ~ ~0 ) − + (5.41)
dΩ k k m I ωIA − ω ωIA + ω

For ω << ωIA , we expand,
1 1 ω ω2
= ∓ 2 + 3 + O(ω 3 ) (5.42)
ω ∓ ωIA ωIA ωIA ωIA
dσ
(λ) (λ0 ) 1 X 1 h ~ (λ0 )∗ (λ)∗ (λ)∗ (λ0 )∗
i
= r02 (~~ · ~ ~0 ) − (P · ~ ~0 )BI (P~ · ~~ )IA + (P~ · ~~ )BI (P~ · ~ ~0 )IA (5.43)
dΩ k k m I ωIA k k k k
ω X 1 h ~ (λ0 )∗ ~ (λ) ~ (λ) ~ (λ0 )∗

i
− ( P · ~
) BI ( P · ~
) IA − ( P · ~
) BI ( P · ~
) IA
2
m I ωIA k~0 ~k ~k k~0
2

ω 2 X 1 h ~ (λ0 )∗ ~ (λ) ~ (λ)∗ ~ (λ0 )∗
i
3
− ( P · ~
) BI ( P · ~
) IA + ( P · ~
) BI ( P · ~
) IA + O(ω )
3
m I ωIA k~0 ~k ~k k~0

dσ
(λ) (λ0 ) Xh
~ · ~ (λ0 )∗ (λ) (λ) (λ0 )∗
i
= r02 (~~ · ~ ~0 ) + i (X ~0 )AI (P~ · ~~ )IA − (P~ · ~~ )AI (X
~ · ~
~0 )IA (5.44)
dΩ k k
I
k k k k
Xh (λ0 )∗ 0 i
~ · ~ ~ (λ) ~ · ~ (λ) )AI (X
~ · ~ (λ )∗ )IA
− ωm (X ~0 )AI (X · ~~ )IA − (X ~ ~0
k k k k
I
2
X 1 h (λ 0 )∗ (λ) (λ) (λ 0 )∗ i
− ω2 m ~ · ~
(X ) AI ( ~ · ~ )IA + (X
X ~ · ~ )AI (X
~ · ~ ) IA + O(ω 3
)
ωIA k~0 ~k ~k k~0

I
i2

dσ X 1 h
2 4 ~ (λ0 )∗ ~ (λ) ~ (λ) ~ (λ0 )∗
= (mr0 ) ω (X · ~ ~0 )AI (X · ~~ )IA + (X · ~~ )AI (X · ~ ~0 )IA (5.45)

dΩ
I
ωIA k k k k
1
ω << ωIA is good for ω in the visible optical (ultraviolet) region. Rayleigh’s Law λ4
29
Chapter 6
Dirac equation
∂ 1 ~ + mβψ
Hψ = i ψ= α~ · ∇ψ (6.1)
∂t i
Requirement:
1. E 2 = p
~ 2 + m2
2. Allow continuity equation and probability interpretation.
3. Lorentz covariant.
4. Nonrelativistic reduction.
H is Hermitian =⇒ α
~ and β are Hermitian.
∂ ~ + mψ = 0
iβ −1 ψ + iβ −1 α
~ · ∇ψ (6.2)
∂t
Define γ 0 = β −1 and γ i = β −1 αi
iγ µ ∂µ ψ − mψ = 0 (6.3)
(−iγ · ∂ − m)(iγ · ∂ − m)ψ = (γ α ∂α γ µ ∂µ + m2 )ψ = 0 (6.4)
1
[ (γ α γ µ + γ µ γ α )∂α ∂µ + m2 ]ψ = 0 (6.5)
2
The requirement of this equation equivalent to the Klein-Gordon equation (∂ 2 + m2 )ψ = 0 implies
the condition:
γ α γ µ + γ µ γ α = {γ α , γ µ } = 2g αµ (6.6)
α = µ = 0 =⇒ (γ 0 )2 = 1, β 2 = 1, β = β −1
α = 0, µ = i =⇒ γ 0 γ i + γ i γ 0 = 0, {β, γ i } = 0, {β, αi } = 0.
α = i, µ = j =⇒ γ i γ j + γ j γ i = 2g ij , {αi , αj } = 2δij , α2i = 1.
{~
α, β} forms a set of four mutually anti-commuting hermitian and unitary matrices and have
eigenvalues ±1.
30
From the anticommutor, T r (αi + βαi β) = 0 =⇒ tr αi = 0. Similarly T r β = 0. Therefore the
dimension of these matrices must be even since the sum of the eigenvalues must be zero.
For n = 2 the complete set of the traceless hermitian anticommuting matrices are the Pauli
matrices:
0 1 0 −i 1 0

σ1 = , σ2 = , σ3 = (6.7)
1 0 i 0 0 −1
Note: The component of a 3-vector ~b which is not the spatial component of a 4-vector is denoted
by a subscript bi (= bi ). There is no distinction of covariant and contravariant vector.
For n = 4
1
 
1 σi

i
 
β = 1 ⊗ σ3 =  , α = σi ⊗ σ1 = (6.8)
 −1  σi
−1
1 0

0
γ = β = 1 ⊗ σ3 = (6.9)
0 −1

0 σ i
γ i = βαi = σi ⊗ σ3 σ1 = iσi ⊗ σ2 = (6.10)
−σ i 0
γ 0 = (γ 0 )† is hermitian.
γ i = −(γ i )† is anti-hermitian.
(γ 0 γ µ )† = γ 0 γ µ is hermitian.
The anticommuting relation {γ α , γ µ } = 2g αµ does not define the set of gamma uniquely. the
similarity equivalence γ˜µ = U γ µ U −1 also satisfies the same anticommutation relation, { γ˜α , γ˜µ } =
2g αµ .
The most general reprersentation ofthe gamma matrices can be reduced to the similarity equiv-
alence of the direct product of the 4 × 4 representation of gamma matrices.
1
( γ · ∂ + m)ψ = 0 (6.11)
i
1
( γ 0 γ · ∂ + mγ 0 )ψ = 0 (6.12)
i
1 ← 1 ←
ψ † (− γ 0 γ· ∂ +mγ 0 ) = ψ̄(− γ· ∂ +m) = 0 (6.13)
i i
where we have defined ψ̄ = ψ † γ 0 .
The four current j µ = ψ̄γ µ ψ is conserved.
← 1 1 ←
∂µ j µ = ∂µ (ψ̄γ µ ψ) = ψ̄γ µ ∂µ ψ + ψ̄γ µ ∂ µ ψ = ψ̄( γ · ∂ + m)ψ − ψ̄(− γ· ∂ +m)ψ = 0 (6.14)
i i
j 0 = ψ† ψ = ρ (6.15)
i † 0 i † i
j = ψ γ γ ψ=ψ αψ (6.16)
31
6.1 Ehrenfest Relation
Heisenberg picture: OH (t) = eiHt OS e−iHt
dOH ∂
= i[H, OH ] + O)H (6.17)
dt (∂t
~ · P~ + mβ
H =α
Zitterbewegung
d~r
= i[H, ~r ] = c~
α = ~v
dt
P~ → ~π = P~ − eA
~
H=α
~ · ~π + eA0 + mβ
d~π ∂ ~ ∂ ~ ~ + eE
~
= i[H, ~π ] − e A = i[~α · ~π + eA0 , ~π ] − e A = e~
α×B
dt ∂t ∂t
1 e
[πi , πj ] = −e (∂i Aj − ∂j Ai ) = − ijk Bk
i i
d~
α d~v
= = i[H, α~ ] 6= 0
dt dt
~v = α
~ is not a constant of motion.
6.2 Lorentz Covariance
x0µ = Λµ ν xν , xν = (Λ−1 )ν µ x0µ (6.18)
The requirement of the Lorentz invariance implies (γ 1i ∂ 0 + m)ψ 0 (x0 ) = 0.

The Lorentz transformation is given by:
ψ 0 (x0 ) = S(Λ)ψ(x) (6.19)

∂xν ∂
∂µ0 = = Λ µ ν ∂ν . (6.20)
∂x0µ ∂xν
Then
1
(S −1 γ µ S (Λ−1 )ν µ ∂ν + m)ψ(x) = 0 . (6.21)
i
If we can find S(Λ) such that:
S −1 (Λ)γ µ S(Λ) = Λµ α γ α (6.22)
then we recover the Dirac equation,

1
(γ ∂ + m)ψ = 0 . (6.23)
i
To find such solution it is only necessary to look at the infinitestimal Lorentz transformation
and the discrete Lorenta transformation separately.
32
6.2.1 Continuous Lorentz transformation
Λµ ν = δ µ ν + δω µ ν
Λµα Λµβ = δαβ = 1 implies δωαβ = −δωβα is antisymmetric.
i µν i
S = e− 4 σµν δω = 1 − σµν δω µν (6.24)
4
i µν i
S −1 = e 4 σµν δω = 1 + σµν δω µν (6.25)
4
i 1
[σαβ , γ µ ]δω αβ = δω µ ν γ ν = (δαµ γβ − δβµ γα )δω αβ (6.26)
4 2
The relation to define the matrix σ is:
[γ µ , σαβ ] = 2i(δαµ γβ − δβµ γα ) (6.27)
Exercise: The solution is:

i
σαβ = [γα , γβ ] = i(γα γβ − gαβ ) (6.28)
2
Since [γ µ , σαβ ] = i[γ µ , γα γβ ] = i[{γ µ , γα }γ β − γα {γβ , γ µ }]
Hermitian combinations:
(γ 0 γ µ )† = γ 0 γ µ (6.29)
0 µ ν † 0 ν µ
(γ γ γ ) = γ γ γ (6.30)
0 † 0
(γ σµν ) = γ σµν (6.31)
†
i i

(γ 0 S)† = γ 0 (1 − σµν δω µν ) = γ 0 (1 + σµν δω µν ) = γ 0 S −1 (6.32)
4 4
0 0 −1
ψ̄ (x ) = ψ̄(x)S (Λ) (6.33)
1 ← 1 ←
ψ̄(x)(− γ· ∂ +m) = 0 =⇒ ψ̄ 0 (x0 )(− γ· ∂ 0 +m) = 0
i i
ijk is a totally antisymmetric tensor with the normalization 123 = 1.
i i i σk 0

σ ij = [γ i , γ j ] = − [αi , αj ] = − [σi , σj ] ⊗ 1 = ijk σk ⊗ 1 = ijk (6.34)
2 2 2 0 σk
1 σk 0

ijk σ ij = σk ⊗ 1 = (6.35)
2 0 σk
0 σi

σ 0i = iγ 0 γ i = −iαi = −iσi ⊗ σ1 = −i (6.36)
σi 0
33
6.2.2 Space inversion
1
 
−1
{t0 = t, x~0 = −~x} =⇒ Λ = 
 

 −1 
−1
ψ 0 (x~0 , t0 ) = P ψ(~x, t) (6.37)
P must be chosen such that
P −1 γ 0 P = γ 0 , P −1 γ i P = −γ i (6.38)
1 0

The solution is P = γ 0 = 1 ⊗ σ3 = .
0 −1
6.2.3 Lorentz bilinears

Define
i 0 1

γ = γ5 = iγ γ γ γ = µναβ γ µ γ ν γ α γ β = 1 ⊗ σ1 =
5 0 1 2 3
(6.39)
24 1 0
where µναβ is a totally antisymmetric tensor with the normalization 0123 = 1 which is equivalent
to µναβ µναβ = −24.
Properties of the γ 5 :
γ52 = 1 (6.40)
γ5† = γ5 (6.41)
5 µ
{γ , γ } = 0 (6.42)
The set of 5 gamma matrices {γ µ , γ 5 } forms a mutually anticommuting set,


 0
 if A 6= B
{γ A , γ B } = 2g AB = 2 −1 if A = B = 1, 2, 3 (6.43)
1 if A = B = 0, 5


The 16 linearly independent gamma matrices and bilinears are:
ψ † γ 0 Γψ = ψ̄Γψ → ψ̄ 0 Γψ 0 = ψ̄S −1 ΓSψ (6.44)
γ 0 Γ is Hermitian.
ψ̄Γψ
Scalar S ψ̄ψ (6.45)
µ
V ector V ψ̄γ ψ (6.46)
µν
T ensor T ψ̄σ ψ (6.47)
5 µ
Axial V ector A ψ̄γ γ ψ (6.48)
5
P seudocalar P ψ̄iγ ψ (6.49)
34
S −1 (Λ)γµ S(Λ) = Λµ ν γν (6.50)
i
S −1 (Λ)γ 5 S(Λ) = µναβ S −1 γµ SS −1 γν SS −1 γα SS −1 γβ S (6.51)
24
i 0 0 0 0
= µναβ Λµ µ0 Λν ν 0 Λα α0 Λβ β 0 γ µ γ ν γ α γ β (6.52)
24
i
= (det Λ)µναβ γ µ γ ν γ α γ β (6.53)
24
= (det Λ)γ 5 (6.54)
det Λ = −1 for space inversion.
6.2.4 Time reversal

x~0 = ~x, t0 = −t
Dirac equation,
1
[γ · ( ∂ + eA) + m]ψ = 0 (6.55)
i
We would like to show
1
[γ · ( ∂ 0 + eA0 (x0 )) + m]ψ 0 (x0 ) = 0 . (6.56)
i
ψ 0 (x0 ) = T ψ(x) (6.57)
We use the Hamiltonian form of the Dirac equation,

∂ 1~ ~
i ψ(x) = H(x)ψ(x), H(x) = α
~ ·[ ∇ − eA(x)] + mβ + eΦ(x) (6.58)
∂t i
If the Dirac equation is to be covariant,
∂ 0 0 1 ~0 ~ 0 (x0 )] + mβ + eΦ0 (x0 )
i ψ (x ) = H 0 (x0 )ψ 0 (x0 ), H 0 (x0 ) = α
~ ·[ ∇ − eA (6.59)
∂t0 i
it is necessary that
∂ −1
Ti T T ψ(x) = T H(x)T −1 T ψ(x) (6.60)
∂t
∂ 0 0
−T iT −1 ψ (x ) = T H(x)T −1 ψ 0 (x0 ) . (6.61)
∂t0
There are two possibilities:
1. T iT −1 = i and T H(x)T −1 = −H 0 (x0 ).
2. T iT −1 = −i and T H(x)T −1 = H 0 (x0 ) .
35
Since we know that
~ 0 (x0 ) = −A(x)
A ~ (6.62)
0 0
Φ (x ) = Φ(x), (6.63)
1 ~0 ~ 0 (x0 )]T −1 + mT βT −1 + eΦ0 (x0 )
T H(x)T −1 = T α ~ T −1 · T [ ∇ + eA (6.64)
i
From the last term, eΦ0 (x0 ), the only possible solution is
T iT −1 = −i and T H(x)T −1 = H 0 (x0 ) (6.65)
which implies, for any complex number a,
T aT −1 = a∗
We define the matrix operator T such that
ψ 0 (x0 ) = T ψ(x) = T ψ ∗ (6.66)
and
1 ~0 ~ 0 (x0 )] + mT β~ ∗ T −1 + eΦ0 (x0 )
T H(x)T −1 = −T α
~ ∗ T −1 · [ ∇ − eA (6.67)
i
Therefore T must be chosen such that
T β ∗ T −1 = β (6.68)
∗ −1
Tα
~ T = −~
α (6.69)
σi 1 0

αi = σ i ⊗ σ 1 = and β = 1 ⊗ σ3 = . α1 , α3 and β are real and α2 is imaginary.
σi 0 −1
Therefore T comutes with α2 and β and anticommute with α1 and α3 .
σ2 0

1 3
T = −iα1 α3 = iγ γ = = σ2 ⊗ 1. (6.70)
0 σ2
6.3 Dirac Hole Theory, Charge Conjugation

In this section we show that it is possible to contruct from the solution ψ of the Dirc equation,
1
[γ · ( ∂ + eA) + m]ψ = 0 (6.71)
i
a charge conjugated wavefunctionψc (x) such that it would satisfy the new Dirac equation with
exactly the same mass but opposite charge:
1
[γ · ( ∂ − eA) + m]ψc = 0 (6.72)
i
We define
ψc = Cγ 0 ψ ∗ = C ψ̄ T
where C is the charge conjugation matrix. We begin by taking the complex conjugation of the
Dirac equation,
1
[γ ∗ · (− ∂ + eA) + m]ψ ∗ = 0 (6.73)
i
36
It follows that
1
Cγ 0 [γ ∗ · (− ∂ + eA) + m](Cγ 0 )−1 ψc = 0 (6.74)
i
and
−1
Cγ 0 γ µ∗ (Cγ 0 ) = C(γ 0 γ µ∗ γ 0 )C −1 = −γ µ (6.75)
γ0 = 1 ⊗ σ3 real, symmetric (6.76)

k 1 3 2
γ = iσk ⊗ σ2 γ , γ real antisymmetric γ , imaginary, symmetric (6.77)
Cγ 0 anti commutes with γ 0 , γ 1 , γ 3 , and commutes with γ 2 . Therefore

1
 
−1
Cγ 0 = iγ 2 = −σ2 ⊗ σ2 = 
 
 (6.78)
 −1 
1
0 2
(Cγ ) = 1 (6.79)
0 † 0
(Cγ ) = Cγ (6.80)
6.4 PCT
PCT transformation:
x0µ = −xµ (6.81)

0 0 2 1 3 5
ψP CT (x ) = iγ iγ iγ γ ψ(x) = iγ ψ(x) (6.82)
A0µ (x0 ) = Aµ (x) (6.83)
The PCT transformation turns a negative energy solution ,

1~

−|E|ψ = α
~ ·[ ∇ ~
− eA(x)] + mβ + eΦ(x) ψ (6.84)
i
into a positive energy solution with all internal quantum numbers reverse,
1~0

0
~ ·[ ∇
|E|ψP CT (x ) = α ~ 0 (x0 )] + mβ − eΦ0 (x0 ) ψP CT (x0 )
+ eA (6.85)
i
Note that [γ 5 , α
~ ] = 0 and {γ 5 , β} = 0
6.5 Nonrelativistic Reduction

The Dirac equation with electromagnetic interaction is:
(γ · π + m)ψ = 0. (6.86)
with π = ( 1i ∂ + eA). The first step of the nonrelativistic reduction is to remove the rest mass from
the relativistic energy. We define ψ = e −imt ψ 0 , then
1
[γ · π + 2m (1 − γ 0 )]ψ 0 = 0 (6.87)
2
37
The projection operators are defined P ± = 12 (1 ± γ 0 ) such that,
P±† = P± , P±2 = P± , P+ + P− = 1, γ 0 P± = ±P± and γ i P± = P∓ γ i (6.88)
φ = P+ ψ 0 = eimt P+ ψ (6.89)
imt
χ = P− ψ0 =e P− ψ (6.90)
We apply the P± to the Dirac eaquation,
P+ : π 0 φ + γ i πi χ = 0 (6.91)
P− : −π 0 χ + γ iπ iφ + 2mχ = 0 (6.92)
In the nonrelatiistic limit, χ → 0 is the small component and φ is the large component.
!
1 γ i πi
χ = − π0
φ (6.93)
1− 2m
2m
!
0 i 1 γ i πi
π φ = γ πi π0
φ (6.94)
1− 2m
2m
Normalization:
(γ i πi )2
Z Z Z
3 3 † †
1 = ρd x = d x (φ φ + χ χ) ≈ d3 x φ† (1 − + . . .)φ (6.95)
4m2
(γ i πi )2 (γ i πi )2
Z Z
≈ d3 x [(1 − + . . .)φ] †
[(1 − + . . .)φ] = d3 x φ†s φs (6.96)
8m2 8m2
1
Therefore the power series expansion up to the order of c2
gives ,
! !
(γ i πi )2 (γ i πi )2
φs = 1 − + . . . φ, φ= 1+ + . . . φs (6.97)
8m2 c2 8m2 c2
! ! !
0 (γ i πi )2 1 γ i πi (γ i πi )2
π 1+ + . . . φs = γ i πi 1+ + . . . φs (6.98)
8m2 c2 1− π0 2m 8m2 c2
2mc2
! !
i π )2 π0 γ i πi (γ i πi )2
0 0 (γ i i
π φs = −π φs + γ πi 1+ + ... 1+ + . . . φs (6.99)
8m2 c2 2mc2 2m 8m2 c2
 !2 !2 !2
(γ i πi )2 1 0 γ i πi γ i πi 0 γ j πj 1 γ i πi 1 γ i πi
=  − π + π − π0 + π0
2m 2 2mc 2mc 2mc 2 2mc 2 2mc
!
jγ k πk (γ i πi )2
+γ πj + . . . φs
2m 8m2 c2
(6.100)
!
(γ i πi )2 (γ i πi )4 1
= + − [[π 0 , γ j πj ], γ i πi ] + . . . φs (6.101)
2m 8m3 c2 8m2 c2
38
1 1 e e
[πµ , πν ] = [ ∂µ + eAµ , ∂ν + eAν ] = (∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ ) = Fµν (6.102)
i i i i
1
2 ijk Fij = −Bk and F i0 = Ei
(γ i πi )2 = (iσi πi ⊗ σ2 )2 = −(~σ · ~π )2 (6.103)
!
0 ∂ (~σ · ~π )2 (~σ · ~π )4 ie
−π φs == (i − eΦ)φs = − + [σj Ej , σi πi ] + . . . φs (6.104)
∂t 2m 8m3 c2 8m2 c2
[σi Ei , σj πj ] = σi σj [Ei , πj ] + [σi , σj ]πj Ei = (δij + iijk σk )i(∂j Ei ) + 2iijk σk Ei πj (6.105)

~ E)
= i(∇· ~ − ~σ ·(∇ ~ × E) ~ + 2i~σ · E~ ×Π ~ (6.106)
∂
i φs = Hφs (6.107)
∂t !
(~σ · ~π )2 (~σ · ~π )4 eh̄2 ~ ~ ieh̄2 ~ − eh̄ ~σ · E
~ E) ~ ×Π
~ + . . . φs
= eΦ + − 3 2
− 2 2
( ∇· E) − 2 2
(~σ · ∇×
2m 8m c 8m c 8m c 4m2 c2
(~σ · ~π )2 P4 eh̄2 ~ ~ ieh̄2 ~ − eh̄ ~σ · E

~ E) ~ × P~ + O( 1 )(6.108)
H = eΦ + − 3 2
− 2 2
( ∇· E) − 2 2
(~σ · ∇× 2 2
2m 8m c 8m c 8m c 4m c c3
q (~σ · ~π )2 (~σ · ~π )4 (~σ · ~π )6

m2 c4 + (~σ · ~π )2 c2 − mc2 = − + O( ) (6.109)
2m 8m3 c2 c4
1 1 1
(~σ · ~π )2 = {σi , σj }{πi , πj } + [σi , σj ][πi , πj ] (6.110)
2m 4 4
1 2 e ~2 2
= ~π − ~ = P + e A
~σ · B ~ · P~ − e ~σ · B
~2 − e A ~ (6.111)
2m 2mc 2m 2mc 2 mc 2mc
~ ·A
We have used the radiation gauge condition ∇ ~ = 0. The expansion of H is in powers of h̄
2mc
1
H = H0 + H1 + H2 + O( ) (6.112)
c3
P~ 2
H0 = eΦ + (6.113)
2m
e ~ ~ eh̄ ~
H1 = − A·P − ~σ · B (6.114)
mc 2mc
P4 eh̄2 ~ ~ ieh̄2 ~ − eh̄ ~σ · E
~ E) ~ × P~
H2 = − 3 2− 2 2
( ∇· E) − 2 2
(~σ · ∇× (6.115)
8m c 8m c 8m c 4m2 c2
6.6 Pauli’s Equation

The Pauli equation is given by,
∂ ~π 2 ~ )φs
i φs = Hφs = (eΦ + −µ
~ ·B (6.116)
∂t 2m
39
e
where µ
~ = 2mc g~s is the magnetic moment, ~s = 12 h̄~σ is the spin and g is the gyromagnetic ratio.
Comparing with the nonrelavistic reduction of the Dirac equation, we deduce the prediction from
the Dirac eqaution g = 2.
~ we can expressed A
For uniform magnetic field B, ~ = 1B ~ × ~r, then
2
~ · P~ = 1 (B
A ~ × ~r) · P~ = 1 B
~ · (~r × P~ ) = 1 B
~ ·L
~ (6.117)
2 2 2
and
∂ P~ 2 e ~ ~ )φs
i φs = Hφs = (eΦ + − (L + g~s ) · B (6.118)
∂t 2m 2mc
Experimental value of g is :
g
= 1.00115962193(10) (6.119)
2
The deviation from the Dirac equaion prediction can be accounted for by higher order corrections.
!
2 3 4
g α 197 π 2 1 2 3 α α α
= 1+ + + − π Log 2 + ζ(3) + 1.17611 − 1.434 + ...
2 2π 144 12 2 4 π π π
= 1 + .001161409814 − .000001772305311 + 1.43989549 10 −8 − 4.174563776 10−11 + . . .
= 1.001159652140(28) (6.120)
1
where the fine structure constant α is α = 137.0359895(61).
αi = σ i ⊗ σ 1 = σ i γ 5 (6.121)
H = −γ 5~σ · ~π + mβ + eΦ (6.122)
d(~σ · ~π ) ∂ ∂ ~
= i[H, ~σ · ~π ] + ~σ · ~π = ie[Φ, ~σ · ~π ] + ~σ · ~π = e ~σ · E (6.123)
dt ∂t ∂t
If there is no electric field and the magnetic field is time-independent, the magnitude of the mechan-
ical momentum of a charged particle is unchanged. The constancy of ~σ · ~π implies the constancy of
the helicity. A longitudinally polarized electron will remain longitudinally polarized. For a uniform
magnetic field B, ~ the cyclotron frequency of the circular orbit ω c is the same as the electron spin
precession angular frequency ωs .
eB q
ωs = ω c = 1 − β2 (6.124)
mc
However if g is not exactly equal to 2 as it is for the physical value, it can be shown that,
g eB
∆ω = ωs − ωc = ( − 1) (6.125)
2 mc
and the spin direction changes from the direction of motion by a very small amount after one
complete orbit,
2π g 2π α
∆θ = ∆ωT = ∆ω = ( − 1) p ≈p . (6.126)
ωc 2 1−β 2 1 − β2
A precise measurement on 2g − 1 is possible by accumulating the change of θ angle over many
revolutions of the electron orbit.
40
6.7 Corrections to the Nonrelativistic Hydrogen Energy Levels
1
6.7.1 Order c2
correction
3D5/2
3P3/2 3D3/2
3S1/2
3P1/2
2P3/2
6
2S1/2 Lamb Fine Structure (spin-orbit)
6
?Shift 2P1/2 ?
1S1/2 6
?Hyperfine Splitting (spin-spin)
P4 eh̄2 ~ ~ ieh̄2 ~ − eh̄ ~σ · E

~ E) ~ × P~
H2 = − 3 2
− 2 2
( ∇· E) − 2 2
(~σ · ∇× (6.127)
8m c 8m c 8m c 4m2 c2
eh̄2 ~ ~
The Darwin term, − 8m 2 c2 (∇· E) has no classical origin. For static electric field,
~ = −∇Φ
E ~ (6.128)
~ ×E
∇ ~ = 0 (6.129)
~ ·E
∇ ~ = ρ (6.130)
P4 eh̄2 eh̄ ~
H2 = − 3 2
− 2 2
ρ+ ~σ ·(∇Φ)× P~ (6.131)
8m c 8m c 4m2 c2
41
For a central (spherical symmetric) potential,
~ = 1 dΦ ~r
∇Φ (6.132)
r dr
eh̄ ~ eh̄ 1 dΦ e 1 dΦ ~
~σ ·(∇Φ)× P~ = ~σ ·~r × P~ = ~s · L (6.133)
4m2 c2 4m2 c2 r dr 2m2 c2 r dr
Classically we expect the spin orbit coupling to be
e 1 dΦ ~
(g − 1) ~s · L (6.134)
2m2 c2 r dr
The term proportional to g is the spin-orbit interaction −~µ · B ~ = − ge ~s · ( ~v × ∇Φ)

~ in the rest frame
mc c
of the electron, i.e. the electron magnetic moment interacing with the magnetic field generated by
the orbital motion of the central charge. The second term corresponds to the Thomas precession
contribution, 2c12 ~s × (~a × ~v ) , originated from the Lorentz transformation from the rest frame of
the electron to the rest frame of the potential.(See Jackson) Once again Dirac equation gives the
consistent solution g = 2.
Ze
For the hydrogen atom, Φ = − 4πr
P4 e2 Zh̄2 e2 Z 1 ~
H2 = − + δ(~
r ) + ~s · L (6.135)
8m3 c2 8m2 c2 8πm2 c2 r 3
Exercise:
The hydrogen energy levels are given by:
m(Zα)2
En(0) = − (6.136)
2n2 !
m(Zα)4 1 3
∆Enj = − 1 − (6.137)
2n3 j+ 2
4n
!
∆Enj (Zα)2 1 3
(0)
= 1 − (6.138)
En n j+ 2
4n
6.7.2 Hyperfinesplitting
Hyperfine splittings of the atomic levels are due to the interaction between the magnetic moments
of the electron and the nuclei. For the hydrogen atom the interaction Hamiltonian is given by,
~ × (M
~ ×∇
~ 1 2 ~ )∇2 1 .
Hh = −~µ · ∇ ) → (~µ · M (6.139)
4πr 3 4πr
~ is the magnetic moment of the proton. The energy level change is given by,
where M
2 2
~ ) δ(~r)|ψn (~r)|2 d3 r = (1 + κ)e 1 1 2 me me
Z
∆En = − (~µ · M ~σe ·~σp = α4 (1 + κ) ~σe ·~σp (6.140)
3 6me mp π (aB n)3 3 mp n3
and the energy splitting is
8 (1 + κ) me
δn = me α4 → 1.42 × 104 Hz = 1420M Hz . (6.141)
3 n3 mp
42
6.7.3 Lamb shift
Atomic energy level shift due to the vacuum fluctuation of the electromagnetic field.
~ + 1X ∂2V 1 ~ 2V
hδV i = hV (~r + δ~r)i − hV (~r)i = hδ~r · ∇V δri δrj i = h(δ~r)2 i∇ (6.142)
2 ij ∂ri ∂rj 6
1 1 ~2
The expected uncertainty is h(δ~r) 2 i ≈ m2 , hδV i = 6m2 ∇ V is comparable to the Darwin term
1 ~2
hδV i = 8m 2∇ V .
In general the energy shift is
1 2π
Z Z
∆En = ψn∗ hδV iψn d3 r = h(δ~r)2 i ~ 2 V ψ n d3 r =
ψn∗ ∇ Zαh(δ~r)2 i|ψn (0)|2 (6.143)
6 3
~ =E
To estimate h(δ~r )2 i due to the fluctuation of the electric field E ~ ω eiωt , we solve the equation
d2 ~
m δ~r = eE (6.144)
d2 t
with the solution δ~r = δ~rω eiωt and obtain
~ω
eE
δ~rω = − (6.145)
mω 2
e2 dω ~ 2
Z Z
h(δ~r)2 i = dωδ~rω2 = hE i (6.146)
m2 ω4 ω
1 d3 k 4π
Z Z Z
~ 2 i = hB
hE ~ 2i = ~ 2 ) d3 x =
(E 2 + B ωk = k 2 dk ωk (6.147)
2V (2π) 3 (2π)3
1
Z Z
= ω 3 dω = ~ ω2 i dω
hE (6.148)
2π 2
~ ω2 i = ω3
hE (6.149)
2π 2
e2 dω ω 3 e2 ωmax dω e2 ωmax e2 m
Z Z
h(δ~r)2 i = = = 2 2 ln = 2 2 ln (6.150)
m2 ω 4 2π 2 2π 2 m2 ωmin ω 2π m ωmin 2π m Zαm
where we have taken ωmax = m and ωmin = a−1

0 .
4 1 1 4 Z 4 α5 1

∆En` = Zα2 2 ln |ψn (0)|2 = 3
m δ`0 ln . (6.151)
3 m Zα 3π n Zα
For n = 2, Z = 1, ` = 0, ∆En` ≈ 1000M Hz
43
6.8 Dirac Equation - Central Potential
The Hamiltonian for the central potential is
~ · P~ + βm + V (r)
H=α (6.152)
~ + 1 ~σ
J~ = L (6.153)
2
where the 4 × 4 ~σ is given by
1 σk 0

σk = ijk σ ij = σk ⊗ 1 = (6.154)
2 0 σk
(6.155)
We define a new operator K,
~ + 1)
−(~σ · L

~ + 1) =
K = −β(~σ · L (6.156)
~ + 1)
(~σ · L
and exercise:
~ = [K, J~] = [H, K] = 0 .
[H, J] (6.157)
A complete mutually commuting set of operators is H, K, J 2 and J3 .
~+ 3
J 2 = L2 + ~σ · L (6.158)
4
~ + 1 = J2 + 1
K 2 = L2 + ~σ · L (6.159)
4
Their eigenvalues are: J 2 : j(j + 1), K 2 : κ2 = (j + 12 )2 , K : κ = ±(j + 21 )
exercise: Show ~ 2 = L2 − ~σ · L.
~
that (~ σ · L)
ψA
Let ψ = be the eigenfunction of H, K, J 2 and J3 .
ψB
Hψ = Eψ, Kψ = κψ, J 2 ψ = j(j + 1)ψ, J3 ψ = mψ . (6.160)
and
~ + 1)ψA = −κψA = −KψA
(~σ · L (6.161)
~ + 1)ψB = κψB = KψB
(~σ · L (6.162)
ψA amd ψB are eigenfunctions of the L2 ,
L2 ψA = lA (lA + 1)ψA (6.163)
2
L ψB = lB (lB + 1)ψB (6.164)
and
1 ~ + 1)
L2 = J 2 + − (~σ · L (6.165)
4
Therefore
1
lA (lA + 1) = (j + )2 + κ (6.166)
2
1
lB (lB + 1) = (j + )2 − κ (6.167)
2
44
κ = (j + 21 ), lA = j + 1
2 lB = j − 1
2
κ = −(j + 21 ), lA = j − 1
2 lB = j + 1
2
G(r) m
!
ψA r φjlA

ψ= = iF (r) m (6.168)
ψB
r φjlB
r r
1 0

1 l+m+ 12 m− 1 l−m+ 12 m+ 1
j =l+ 2, φm
jl = 2l+1 Yl 2 + 2l+1 Yl 2
r 0 1
r
1 0

1 l−m+ 12 m− 21 l+m+ 2 1 m+ 1
j =l− 2, φm
jl =− 2l+1 Yl + 2l+1 Yl 2
0 1
The operator ~σ · r̂ commutes with J 2 and J3 . It has odd parity and (~σ · r̂)2 = 1. Therefore,
~σ · r̂φm
jlA = −η φm
jlB (6.169)
~σ · r̂φm
jlB = −η −1 φm
jlA (6.170)
η is an irrelevant phase factor and η = 1 in the particular normalization above.
Hψ = Eψ implies
(E − V − m)ψA = (~σ · P~ )ψB (6.171)
(E − V + m)ψB = (~σ · P~ )ψA (6.172)
G(r) m (~σ ·r̂) ∂ ~

~σ · L
(E − V − m) φjlA = (~σ ·r̂)(~σ ·r̂)(~σ · P~ )ψB = ( − )ψB (6.173)
r i ∂r r
∂ κ − 1 F (r) m
= (~σ ·r̂)( − ) φ (6.174)
∂r r r jlB
d F F
= − + (1 − κ) 2 φm jlA (6.175)
dr r r
iF (r) m (~σ ·r̂) ∂ ~σ · L~
(E − V + m) φjlB = (~σ ·r̂)(~σ ·r̂)(~σ · P~ )ψA = ( − )ψA (6.176)
r i ∂r r
∂ κ + 1 G(r) m
= (~σ ·r̂)( + ) φ (6.177)
∂r r ir jlA
d G G

= i + (1 + κ) 2 φm jlB (6.178)
dr r r
dF F
(E − V − m)G = − +κ (6.179)
dr r
dG G
(E − V + m)F = +κ (6.180)
dr r
6.9 Exact Solution of the Dirac Equation for Hydrogen Atom

For the hydrogen atom potential, we carry out the following transformation of variables,
Ze2
γ = = Zα (6.181)
4π
α± = m ± E (6.182)
√
ρ = α + α− r (6.183)
√
Ze2
γ α + α− γ
V = − =− =− (6.184)
4πr r ρ
45
and obtain
s !
d κ α− γ

− F = − G (6.185)
dρ ρ α+ ρ
s !
d κ α+ γ

+ G = + F (6.186)
dρ ρ α− ρ
This set of equations is invariant under the interchange of variables F ↔ G, κ ↔ −κ, α + ↔ α− , γ ↔

−γ. As ρ → ∞,these equations become,
s
d α−
F = G (6.187)
dρ α+
s
d α+
G = F (6.188)
dρ α−
Asymptotically F and G go to e−ρ . We write,

n
= e−ρ ρs aν ρν
X
F (6.189)
ν=0
n
G = e−ρ ρs bν ρν
X
(6.190)
ν=0
The two indicial equations for the power series are:

s
α−
(s + ν − κ)aν − aν−1 + γbν − bν−1 = 0 (6.191)
α+
s
α+
(s + ν + κ)bν − bν−1 − γaν − aν−1 = 0 (6.192)
α−
The ν − 1 terms can be eliminated,

√ √
α+ (s + ν − κ) + α− γ
bν = aν √ √ (6.193)
α− (s + ν + κ) − α+ γ
Eliminating the b’s we obtain the indicial equations,

 q
α+  q
α−
q 
α+
(ν + s + κ) − α− γ 2ν − 2 + 2s + α+ − α− γ 
aν =  q
α+

2 2 2  aν−1 (6.194)
ν(ν + 2s) + s − κ + γ

(ν − 1 + s + κ) − α− γ
 q
α−  q
α−
q 
α+
(ν + s + κ) + α+ γ 2ν − 2 + 2s + α+ − α− γ 
bν =  q
α−

2 2 2  bν−1 (6.195)
ν(ν + 2s) + s − κ + γ

(ν − 1 + s + κ) + α+ γ
For ν = 0, a−1 = b−1 = 0 and a0 , b0 6= 0, we obtain the condition,

q
s2 − κ2 + γ 2 = 0, s= κ2 − γ 2 . (6.196)
46
For large ν, aν = ν2 aν−1 and bν = ν2 bν−1 , Unless there exists a N such that aν = bν = 0 for ν > N
such that the series of F and G terminate, F and G will asymptotically tends to e ρ .
aN +1 = 0 and bN +1 = 0 implies the condition,
s s !
α− α+
2(N + s) = − − γ (6.197)
α+ α−
√ 1
α+ α− (s + N ) = (α+ − α− )γ (6.198)
p 2
m2 − E 2 (s + N ) = Eγ (6.199)
The energy eigenvalue is therefore given by,
mc2 mc2 mc2
E = q =s =s (6.200)
γ2 γ2 Z 2 α2
1+ (s+N )2 1+ √ 2 1+ p 2
N+ κ2 −γ 2 N+ (j+ 21 )2 −Z 2 α2
mc2
= s (6.201)
Z 2 α2
1+ p 2
n−(j+ 21 )+ (j+ 21 )2 −Z 2 α2
!
m(Zα)2
2 m(Zα)4 1 3
→ mc − − 1 − (6.202)
2n2 2n3 j+ 2
4n
where n = N + (j + 21 ) is the principle quantum number, n = 1, 2, . . ..

The confluent hypergeometrical function is define by,
∞
(d + n − 1)! (β − 1)! d d(d + 1) 2
xn = 1 + x +
X
F(d; β; x) = x + ... (6.203)
n=0
n!(d − 1)! (β + n − 1)! β 2!β(β + 1)
∞ ∞
d m (m + ν) (d + ν − 1)! (β − 1)!
x1−m xν+m−1 = aν xν+m−1 (6.204)
X X
[x F(d; β; x)] =
dx ν=0
ν! (d − 1)! (β + ν − 1)! n=0
By identifying
x = 2ρ (6.205)
β = 1 + 2s (6.206)
s s !
1 α− α+
d = s+ − γ (6.207)
2 α+ α−
s
α+
m = s+κ− γ (6.208)
α−
we obtain
qα  qα s s ! 
+ +
1−κ+ γ d  s+κ− γ 1 α− α+
= ce−ρ ρ
α− α−
F ρ F(s + − γ; 1 + 2s; 2ρ) (6.209)
dρ 2 α+ α−
qα  qα s s ! 
+ +
1+κ− γ d  s−κ+ γ 1 α− α+
G = ce−ρ ρ
α− α−
ρ F(s + − γ; 1 + 2s; 2ρ) (6.210)
dρ 2 α+ α−
47
6.10 Plane Wave Solution
1
(γ ∂ + m)ψ(x) = 0 (6.211)
i
We define the positive and negative frequency solutions by,
1
ψα(+) (x) = √ uα (~k)e−ik·x (6.212)
V
1
ψα(−) (x) = √ vα (~k)eik·x (6.213)
V
q
where k0 = ωk = ~k 2 + m2 .
(/k − m)u(~k) = 0, ū(~k)(/k − m) (6.214)

(/k + m)v(~k) = 0, v̄(~k)(/k + m) (6.215)
We have adopted the notation a/ = γ · a = γ µ aµ . Thus k

/ 2 = k 2 = m2 . We also define the positive
and negative projection operators,
m±k /

Λ± (~k) = (6.216)
2m
with the properties:
Λ+ Λ− = 0, Λ+ + Λ− = I, Λ2± = Λ± , T r Λ± = 2 . (6.217)
u(~k) = Λ+ (~k)u0 (6.218)

v(~k) = Λ− (~k)v0 (6.219)
the two solutions for u and v corresponds to the two values of spin s. We look for a spin projection
operator Σ(s) such that
[Σ(s), Λ± (~k)] = 0 (6.220)
and
Σ(s)u(~k) = u(~k, s), Σ(s)v(~k) = v(~k, s) (6.221)
The spin unit vector ŝ defined in the rest frame of the particle can be generalized to a 4-vector s µ
by requiring that in the rest frame, s µ0 = (0, ŝ). As a consequence, s2 = sµ sµ = sµ0 s0µ = −1 and
µ
n · s = nµ sµ = nµ0 s0µ = 0, where nµ = km , nµ0 = (1, ~0) and n2 = nµ nµ = 1.
The spin projction operator is identified as:
1
Σ(s) = (1 + γ 5 s/) (6.222)
2
1 k
/ 1 5 1
[Σ(s), Λ± (~k)] = ± [γ 5 s/, ] = ± / } = ± γ5s · n = 0
γ {/s, n (6.223)
4 m 4m 4
48
Σ(s) + Σ(−s) = I, Σ(s)Σ(−s) = 0 (6.224)
At the rest frame,

1
Σ(0) (ŝ) = [1 + γ 0 ~σ · ŝ] (6.225)
2
1 1 ± σ3 , 0

Σ(0) (±ẑ) = (6.226)
2 0 1 ∓ σ3
Define the two polarization components 1 and 2 by,
u(1) (~k) = u(~k, s) = Σ(s)u(~k), u(2) (~k) = u(~k, −s) = Σ(−s)u(~k) (6.227)
v (1) (~k) = u(~k, s) = Σ(s)v(~k), v (2) (~k) = v(~k, −s) = Σ(−s)v(~k) (6.228)
The recent standard normalization yield the orthonormal conditions

1 (α) ~ (β) ~
ū (k)u (k) = δαβ (6.229)
2m
1 (α) ~ (β) ~
v̄ (k)v (k) = −δαβ (6.230)
2m
ū(α) (~k)v (β) (~k) = v̄ (α) (~k)u(β) (~k) = 0 (6.231)
1 (α) ~ † (β) ~ 1 (α) ~ † (β) ~ E

u (k) u (k) = v (k) v (k) = δαβ (6.232)
2m 2m m
u(α) (~k)† v (β) (~k) = v (α) (~k)† u(β) (~k) = 0 (6.233)
and the completeness conditions

1 X (α) ~ (α) ~
u (k)ū (k) = Λ+ (~k) (6.234)
2m α
1 X (α) ~ (α) ~
v (k)v̄ (k) = −Λ− (~k) (6.235)
2m α
1 X h (α) ~ (α) ~ i
u (k)ū (k) − v (α) (~k)v̄ (α) (~k) = I . (6.236)
2m α
u(p, s)ū(p, s) = 2mΛ+ (p)Σ(s) (6.237)

v(p, s)v̄(p, s) = −2mΛ− (p)Σ(s) (6.238)
6.11 Quantization of the Dirac Field
d3 p X
Z
(α) −ip·x † (α) ip·x
ψ(x) = b α (~
p)u (~
p)e + d α (~
p )v (~
p)e (6.239)
(2π)3 2E α
d3 p X †
Z
(α) ip·x (α) −ip·x
ψ̄(x) = b α (~
p)ū (~
p)e + d α (~
p)v̄ (~
p)e (6.240)
(2π)3 2E α
49
p
where E = m2 + p~2
1 ∂
L = −ψ̄(γ µ ∂µ + m)ψ = iψ † ψ − H (6.241)
i ∂t
1
Z Z
H = d3 x H = d3 xψ † ( α ~ + mβ)ψ
~ ·∇ (6.242)
i
d3 p X †
Z
†
= E b α (~
p )b α (~
p ) − d α (~
p)d α (~
p) (6.243)
(2π)3 2E α
The energy is not positive definite unless the b and the d obey anticommutation relations,
p), b†β (~p0 )} = {dα (~

{bα (~ p), d†β (~p0 )} = δαβ 2E(2π)3 δ(~
p − ~p0 ) (6.244)
p), b†β (~p0 )}
{b†α (~ = {bα (~
p), bβ (~p )} = 0
p), d†β (~p0 )}
{d†α (~ = {dα (~ 0
p), dβ (~p )} = 0 (6.245)
This quantization conditions corresponds to the equal-time anticommutation quantization,
{ψ(x), ψ † (x0 )}x0 =x00 = δ(~x − ~x0 ) (6.246)

† † 0 0
{ψ (x), ψ (x )}x0 =x00 = {ψ(x), ψ(x )}x0 =x00 = 0 (6.247)
and the unequal-time anticommutation commutation relation

1
{ψα (x), ψ̄β (x0 )} = (−γ ∂ + m)αβ i∆(x − x0 ) . (6.248)
i
∂ 1
Z
i ψ = [ψα (x), H(t)]x0 =t = d3 x0 [ψα (x), ψ † (x0 )( α ~ 0 + βm)ψ(x0 )]
~ ·∇ (6.249)
∂t i
1 ~ 0 + βm)ψ(x0 ) = ( 1 α
Z
= d3 x0 δ(~x − ~x0 )( α~ ·∇ ~ ·∇~ + βm)ψ(x) (6.250)
i i
= Hψ(x) (6.251)
Z Z
i 3 0 i
P = d x iψ̄γ ∂ ψ = d3 x ψ † ∂ i ψ (6.252)
1
[ψ(x), P i (t)]x0 =t = ∂ i ψ(x) (6.253)
i
Therefore we have shown the use of anticommutation relations for the fermion is consistent with
the quantum mechanical requirement of the fundamental commutators.
1
Z Z
H = : d3 x H := − : d3 xψ † ( α ~ + mβ)ψ :
~ ·∇ (6.254)
i
d3 p X †
Z
†
= E b α (~
p)b α (~
p) + d α (~
p)d α (~
p ) (6.255)
(2π)3 2E α
Z X
(+) (−)
= (dNp~α + dNp~α )Ep~ (6.256)
α
50
d3 p X i †
Z
Pi = p b α (~
p)b α (~
p) + d †
α (~
p)d α (~
p) (6.257)
(2π)3 2E α
Z X
(+) (−)
= (dNp~α + dNp~α )pi (6.258)
α
d3 p X †
Z Z Z
Q = : d3 x j 0 := d3 x : ψ † ψ := 3
: bα (~
p)bα (~ p)d†α (~
p) + dα (~ p) : (6.259)
(2π) 2E α
d3 p X †
Z
†
= b α (~
p)b α (~
p) − d α (~
p)d α (~
p) (6.260)
(2π)3 2E α
Z X
(+) (−)
= (dNp~α − dNp~α ) (6.261)
α
where
(+) d3 p X †
dNp~α = b (~
p)bα (~
p) (6.262)
(2π)3 2E α α
(−) d3 p X †
dNp~α = d (~
p)dα (~
p) (6.263)
(2π)3 2E α α
For a single fermion oscillator:
{a, a† } = 1, {a, a} = {a† , a† } = 0 (6.264)
Thus a2 = a†2 = 0.
N 2 = a† aa† a = a† {a, a† }a = a† a = N (6.265)
N (N − 1) = 0 implies the eigenvalues of N are 0 and 1, which means that the fermion oscilllator
obey the Pauli exclusion principle that no two identical oscillators can occupy the same state.
[N, a] = [a† a, a] = a† a2 − aa† a = −a
[N, a† ] = [a† a, a† ] = −a†2 a + a† aa† = a† (6.266)
Again we can interpret a† and a as the creation operator and annilhilation operator. We define,
a|0i = 0, a† |0i = |1i (6.267)
such that
N |0i = 0 (6.268)
† † † †
N |1i = a aa |0i = {a , a}a |0i = |1i (6.269)
a† |1i = a† a† |0i = 0 (6.270)

† †
a|1i = aa |0i = {a, a }|0i = |0i (6.271)
|ψi = |α1 , p~1 ; α2 , p~2 ; . . .i (6.272)
|α1 , p~1 ; α2 , p~2 i = b†α1 (~ p2 )b†α1 (~

p2 )|0i = −b†α2 (~
p1 )b†α2 (~ p1 )|0i = −|α2 , p~2 ; α1 , p~1 i (6.273)
Spin and statistics theorem:
Spin Particle quantization Statistics
Integral boson commutator Bose-Einstein
Half Integral fermion anticommutator Fermi-Dirac
51
Chapter 7
Scattering Processes
7.1 Coulomb Scattering
HI = eψ̄γ µ ψAµ (7.1)
−Zeδµ0
Aµ = (7.2)
4π|~x|
The leading order e for the perturbation gives
Z ∞ Z
Sf i = hpf , sf | − i dt d3 xHI |pi , si i (7.3)
−∞
d3 p X
Z
−ip·x † ip·x
ψ(x) = b(~
p , ~
s )u(~
p , ~
s )e + d (~
p , ~
s )v(~
p , ~
s )e (7.4)
(2π)3 2E s
d3 p X †
Z
ip·x −ip·x
ψ̄(x) = b (~
p , ~
s )ū(~
p , ~
s )e + d(~
p , ~
s )v̄(~
p , ~
s )e (7.5)
(2π)3 2E s
p, ~s)|pi , si i = (2π)3 2Ei δ(~

b(~ p − p~i )δssi |0i (7.6)
† 3
hpf , sf |b (~
p, ~s) = h0|(2π) 2Ef δ(~
p − p~f )δssf (7.7)
pi , ~si )e−ipi ·x |0i

ψ(x)|pi , si i = u(~ (7.8)
ipf ·x
hpf , sf |ψ̄(x) = h0|ū(~
pf , ~sf )e (7.9)
−Zeδµ0
Z
µ
Mf i = −ieū(pf , sf )γ u(pi , si ) d3 x ei(~pf −~pi )·~x (7.10)
4π|~x|
Ze2
= i ū(pf , sf )γ 0 u(pi , si ) (7.11)
|~q|2
where q~ = p~f − p~i is the momentum transfer and
θ
~q 2 = (p~f − p~i )2 = 4~
p 2 sin2 (7.12)
2
52
θ is the scattering angle.
1 d3 pf
Z
2
σ = pi |Mf i | 2πδ(Ef − Ei ) (7.13)
2Ei Ei 2Ef (2π)3
1 Z 2 e4 dΩ pf Ef dEf
Z
= 4
|ū(pf , sf )γ 0 u(pi , si )|2 2πδ(Ef − Ei ) (7.14)
2pi |~q| 2Ef (2π)3
dσ (Zα)2
= |ū(pf , sf )γ 0 u(pi , si )|2Ef =Ei (7.15)
dΩ |~q|4
(Zα)2
= ū(pf , sf )γ 0 u(pi , si )u(pi , si )† γ 0 γ 0 u(pf , sf ) (7.16)
|~q|4
(Zα)2
= T rγ 0 ū(pi , si )u(pi , si )γ 0 u(pf , sf )ū(pf , sf ) (7.17)
|~q|4
(Zα)2 1 1
= T r [γ 0 (/pf + m) (1 + γ 5 s/f ) γ 0 (/pi + m) (1 + γ 5 s/i )] (7.18)
|~q|4 2 2
7.1.1 unpolarized cross section

For elastic scattering, Ef = Ei = E, |~ pi | = p and q 2 = −~q 2 = −4~p 2 Sin θ2
pf | = |~
dσ 1 X (Zα)2
= |ū(pf , sf )γ 0 u(pi , si )|2 (7.19)
dΩ 2 si sf |~q|4
1 (Zα)2 X
= ū(pf , sf )γ 0 u(pi , si )u(pi , si )† γ 0 γ 0 u(pf , sf ) (7.20)
2 |~q|4 si sf
1 (Zα)2
T r [γ 0 u(pf , sf )ū(pf , sf )γ 0
X X
= 4
u(pi , si )ū(pi , si )] (7.21)
2 |~q| sf si
(Zα)2
= T r [γ 0 (/pf + m) γ 0 (/pi + m)] (7.22)
2|~q|4
(Zα)2 0 0 2 (Zα)2
= T r [γ p
/ f γ p
/ i + m ] = 4(2Ef Ei − pf · pi + m2 ) (7.23)
2|~q|4 2|~q|4
(Zα)2 2 (Zα)2 1 2 1 2 1
= 4(E E
f i + p
~ f · p
~ i + m ) = 4(Ef Ei + pf − p~i )2 + m2 )
~p + ~p − (~
2|~q|4 2|~q|4 2 f 2 i 2
(Zα)2 2 ~p 2 θ
= 4 θ
E (1 − 2
sin2 ) (7.24)
4
4~p sin 2 E 2
(Zα)2 θ
= 4 θ
(1 − β 2 sin2 ) (7.25)
2 2
4~p β sin 2 2
(Zα)2 2 ~p 2 θ
= 4 θ
m (1 + 2
cos2 ) (7.26)
4
4~p sin 2 m 2
(7.27)
This cross-section is known as the Mott cross section to be compared with the Rutherford cross
section
(Zα)2
m2 (7.28)
4~p 4 sin4 θ2
53
7.1.2 Partial polarization and polarization factor
The spin 4-vector is defined by the conditions: s · p = 0 and s 2 = −1. These equations give
~s · p~
s0 = , s20 − ~s 2 = −1 (7.29)
p0
which combine to yield,
(~s · ~p)2
− ~s2 = −1 (7.30)
p20
If ~s k p~, then (~s · ~p)2 = ~p2 ~s2 and we can solve for
E2
~s2 = (7.31)
m2
We define the right and left polarized spin vectors as:
E 1 p
~sR = p̂ = p
~, s0R = (7.32)
m βm m
E 1 p
~sL = − p̂ = − p~, s0L = − (7.33)
m βm m
Thus sR = −sL . For partially polarized beam of spin 21 fermion with a fraction fR and a fraction
fL such that fL + fR = 1, the polarization factor P is defined by
NR − N L
P = f R − fL = (7.34)
NR + N L
The range of P varies from 1 for a right-hand fermion beam to −1 for a left-hand fermion beam.
For a unpolarized beam, P = 0. The spin projection operator for a partially polarized beam is:
1 1 1
fR (1 + γ 5 s/R ) + fL (1 + γ 5 s/L ) = (1 + Pγ 5 s/R ) (7.35)
2 2 2
7.1.3 Polarization of the outgoing electron
|ū(pf , sR )γ 0 u(pi , si )|2 − |ū(pf , sL )γ 0 u(pi , si )|2

Pf = (7.36)
|ū(pf , sR )γ 0 u(pi , si )|2 + |ū(pf , sL )γ 0 u(pi , si )|2
T r [γ 0 (/pf + m)γ 5 s/f R γ 0 (/pi + m) 21 (1 + Pi γ 5 s/iR )]
= (7.37)
T r [γ 0 (/pf + m) γ 0 (/pi + m) 21 (1 + Pi γ 5 s/iR )]
T r [γ 0 (/pf + m)γ 5 s/f R γ 0 (/pi + m)γ 5 s/iR ]
= Pi (7.38)
T r [γ 0 (/pf + m) γ 0 (/pi + m)]
T r [γ 0 (/pf + m)/sf R γ 0 (−/pi + m)/siR ]
= Pi (7.39)
T r [γ 0 (/pf + m) γ 0 (/pi + m)]
−1 h
θ θ

2 2
= Pi 2(E cos + m2 sin2 ) m2 (2s0iR s0f R −siR ·sf R )+ (pi ·pf )(siR ·sf R ) (7.40)
2 2
i
−(pi ·sf R )(siR ·pf )−2E 2 siR ·sf R + 2E(siR ·pf s0f R + sf R ·pi s0iR )− 2pi ·pf s0iR s0f R (7.41)
θ
2m2 sin2
" #
2
= Pi 1 − θ
(7.42)
E 2 cos2 2 + m2 sin2 2θ
54
7.1.4 Gamma matrix algebra
|ū(pf , sf )Γu(pi , si )|2 = ū(pi , si )γ 0 Γ† γ 0 u(pf , sf )ū(pf , sf )Γu(pi , si ) (7.43)

0 † 0
= T r [γ Γ γ u(pf , sf )ū(pf , sf ) Γ u(pi , si )ū(pi , si )] (7.44)
= T r [Γ̄ 2mΛ+ (pf )Σ(sf ) Γ 2mΛ(pi )Σ(si )] (7.45)
1 1
= T r [Γ̄ (/pf + m) (1 + γ 5 s/f ) Γ (/pi + m) (1 + γ 5 s/i )] (7.46)
2 2
We have used the identity:
u(p, s)ū(p, s) = 2mΛ+ (p)Σ(s) (7.47)

v(p, s)v̄(p, s) = −2mΛ− (p)Σ(s) (7.48)
and the definition
Γ̄ = γ 0 Γ† γ 0 (7.49)
Γ Γ̄
1 1
γµ γµ
σ µν σ µν
iγ 5 iγ 5
γµγ5 γµγ5
a
/ b/c/ . . . p
/ p
/ . . . c/b/a
/
1X 1 1
|ū(pf , sf )Γu(pi , si )|2 = T r [Γ̄ (/pf + m) (1 + γ 5 s/f ) Γ (/pi + m)] (7.50)
2 si 2 2
1X 1
|ū(pf , sf )Γu(pi , si )|2 = T r [Γ̄ (/pf + m) Γ (/pi + m)] (7.51)
2 si sf 2
Trace of the gamma matrices

1. T r 1 = 4
2. T r a
/ b/ = 4a·b
3. T r a
/1 a
/2 . . . a
/ 2n+1 = 0. Trace of odd number of gamma matrices vanishes.
4. T r γ 5 a
/1a
/2 . . . a
/ 2n+1 = 0. Trace of odd number of gamma matrices vanishes.
5. T r γ 5 = T r γ 5 a
/ = T r γ 5a
/ b/ = T r γ 5 a
/ b/c/ = 0.
6. T r γ 5 a / = 4iαβγδ aα bβ cγ dδ
/ b/c/d
7. T r a
/ b/c/d
/ = 4(a·b c·d − a·c b·d + a·d c·b)
8. T r a
/1 a
/2 . . . a
/ 2n = a1·a2 T r(/a3 . . . a
/ 2n ) − a1·a3 T r(/a2 a
/4 . . . a
/ 2n ) + . . . + a1·a2n T r(/a3 . . . a
/ 2n−1 )
55
Identities of gamma matrices
1. γ µ γµ = 4
2. γ µ a
/ γµ = −2/a
3. γ µ a
/ b/γµ = 4a·b
4. γ µ a
/ b/c/γµ = −2/cb/a
/
5. γ µ a
/ b/c/d
/γµ = 2/da
/ b/c/ + 2/cb/a
/d
/
6. γ µ σαβ γµ = 0
7.2 Electron-Muon Scattering

The electron-muon scattering cross section can be computed through the second order perturbation
theory from the interaction Hamiltonian
HI = eAµ (ψ̄e γ µ ψe + ψ̄µ γ µ ψµ ) (7.52)
The initial states are one electron with mass m, momentum k i and spin si and one muon with
mass M , momentum Pi and spin Si . The final states are one elctron with momentum k f and spin
sf and one muon with momentum Pf and spin Sf .
7.2.1 Reduced matrix element

We isolate the reduced matrix element from
Z 2
1 4
hf | T −i
2 d x HI |ii (7.53)
Z
= hf |T d4 x d4 y(−ie(ψ̄e (x)γ µ ψe (x)Aµ (x))(−ie(ψ̄µ (y)γ ν ψµ (y)Aν (y)) |ii (7.54)
Z
= d4 x d4 y hef | − ieψ̄e (x)γ µ ψe (x)|ei i h0|T (Aµ (x)Aν (y))|0i hµf | − ieψ̄µ (y)γ ν ψµ (y)|µi i (7.55)
d4 q (−igµν ) −iq·(x−y)
Z Z
4 4 µ i(kf −ki )·x
= d x d y ūe (kf , sf )(−ieγ )ue (ki , si ) e e (7.56)
(4π)4 q 2 + i
ūµ (Pf , Sf )(−ieγ ν )uµ (Pi , Si ) ei(Pf −Pi )·y (7.57)
−ig µν
= (2π)4 δ 4 (kf + Pf − ki − Pi ) ūe (kf , sf )(−ieγ µ )ue (ki , si ) 2 ūµ (Pf , Sf )(−ieγ ν )uµ (Pi , Si )
q + i
where q = kf − ki = −(Pf − Pi ) and
q 2 = (kf − ki )2 = 2(m2 − kf ·ki ) (7.58)

2 2
= (Pf − Pi ) = 2(M − Pf ·Pi ) (7.59)
e4
|Mf i |2 = |ūe (kf , sf )γ µ ue (ki , si ) ūµ (Pf , Sf )γµ ue (Pi , Si )|2 (7.60)
q4
56
1 X e4 1
|Mf i |2 = T r(/kf + m)γ µ (/ki + m)γ ν T r(/
Pf + M )γµ (/
Pi + M )γν (7.61)
4ss SS q4 4
i f i f
e4
= 4[g µν (m2 − kf ·ki ) + kfµ kiν + kfν kiµ ][gµν (m2 − Pf ·Pi ) + Pf µ Piν + Pf ν Piµ ]
q4
e4 1 1
= 4[ g µν q 2 + kfµ kiν + kfν kiµ ][ gµν q 2 + Pf µ Piν + Pf ν Piµ ] (7.62)
q4 2 2
e4
= 4[q 4 + q 2 (kf ·ki + Pf ·Pi ) + 2(Pf ·kf )(Pi ·ki ) + 2(Pf ·ki )(Pi ·kf )] (7.63)
q4
e4 1
= 4[ q 4 + q 2 (m2 + M 2 ) + 4(Pi ·kf )(Pi ·ki )] (7.64)
q4 2
e4 1 4
= 4[ q + q 2 (m2 + M 2 ) + 4M 2 ωi ωf ] (7.65)
q4 2
7.2.2 Cross section
1 1 1 X d3 kf d3 Pf
dσ = (2π)4 δ(Pi + ki − Pf − kf ) |Mf i |2 (7.66)
|vi − Vi | 2Ei 2ωi 4ss SS (2π)3 2ωf (2π)3 2Ef
i f i f
We evaluate the cross section at the rest system of the muon, P~i = 0 and Ei = M and integrate
over d3 Pf .
1 1 1 X d3 kf
dσ = (2π)δ(M + ωi − Ef − ωf ) |Mf i |2 (7.67)
ki 8M Ef 4ss SS (2π)3 2ωf
i f i f
dσ 1
Z kf2 1 X
= dkf δ(M + ωi − Ef − ωf ) |Mf i |2 (7.68)
dΩ 16(2π)2 M ki ωf Ef 4 s s S S
i f i f
1 1 kf2 1 X
= |Mf i |2 (7.69)
16(2π)2 M ki | dEf + dωf ω E 4
| f f ss SS
dkf dkf i f i f
dE dω
To evaluate | dkff + dkff |, we use conservation of momentum and energy. From w f2 = m2 + ~kf2 and
E 2 = M 2 + (P~i + ~ki − ~kf )2 = M 2 + k 2 − 2~kf · ~ki + k 2 , we obtain
f f i
dEf dωf 1 kf kf ki
| + | = (kf − ki cos θ) + = (Ef + ωf − ωf cos θ) (7.70)
dkf dkf Ef ωf Ef ωf kf
kf ki ki θ
= (M + ωi − ωf + 2ωf sin2 ) (7.71)
Ef ωf kf kf 2
dσ 1 1 kf 1 X
= 2 k k θ
|Mf i |2 (7.72)
dΩ 16(2π) M (M + ωi − ωf k i + 2ωf k i sin2 2 ) ki 4 s s S S
f f i f i f
1 4
α2 kf 2q + q 2 m2 + M 2 (q 2 + 4ωi ωf )

= ω f ki ω ki
(7.73)
q4 M 2 ki 1+ ωi
+ 2 kff sin2 θ
M (1 − ω i kf ) M 2
57
1 2 θ
q = m2 − ωf ωi + kf ki cos θ = m2 − ωf ωi + kf ki − 2kf ki sin2 (7.74)
2 2
= M (M − Ef ) = M (ωf − ωi ) (7.75)
In the limit M → ∞, ωf = ωi = ω and kf = ki = k, the cross section reduces to that of the
coulomb scatterilng.
In the extreme relativistic limit ω f >> m and ωi >> m, ki ≈ ωi , kf ≈ ωf and q 2 ≈
−4ωi ωf sin2 θ2 . The cross section reduces to
θ q2 2 θ
dσ α2 ωf 4ωi ωf (cos2 2 − 2M 2 sin 2 )

= θ ωi (7.76)
dΩ 16ωf2 ωi2 sin4 2
ωi 1+ 2M sin2 2θ
θ q2 2 θ
α2 (cos2 − 2M 2 sin 2 ) α2 ωf θ q2 θ
= θ
2
ωi = (cos2 − sin2 ) (7.77)
4ωi2 sin4 2 1+ 2M sin2 2θ 4ωi2 sin4 θ
2
ωi 2 2M 2 2
7.3 Two-points Green Function and Propagator

The time ordering product of two operators A and B is defined by:
(
A(x)B(y) if x0 > y0
T (A(x)B(y)) = (7.78)
±B(y)A(x) if x0 < y0
The plus sign is for meson and the minus sign is for fermion. Define the following step functions:
( (
1 if x > 0 1 if x > 0
θ(x) = (x) = (7.79)
0 if x < 0 −1 if x < 0
We have
θ(x) + θ(−x) = 1 (7.80)
θ(x) − θ(−x) = (x) (7.81)
T (A(x)B(y)) = A(x)B(y)θ(x0 − y0 ) ± B(y)A(x)θ(y0 − x0 ) (7.82)

1 1
= [A(x), B(y)]± + [A(x), B(y)]∓ (x0 − y0 ) (7.83)
2 2
7.3.1 Scalar field

d3 k h (+) −ik·x
Z i
(−)† ik·x
φ (~x, t) = c~ e + c ~ e , (7.84)
(2π)3 2ωk k k
d3 k h (+)† ik·x
Z i
(−) −ik·x
φ (~x, t)† = c e + c e (7.85)
(2π)3 2ωk ~k ~k

hT φ(x)φ† (y) i = hφ(x)φ† (y)iθ(x0 − y0 ) + hφ† (y)φ(x)iθ(y0 − x0 ) (7.86)
d3 k
Z
= e−ik·(x−y) θ(x0 − y0 ) + e ik·(x−y) θ(y0 − x0 ) √
(2π)3 2ωk k0 = ~k 2 +m2
d4 k e−ik·(x−y)
Z
= i (7.87)
(2π)4 k 2 − m2 + i
d3 k ∞ dk0 e−ik0 (x0 −y0 )
Z Z
~
= i e ik·(~x−~y) (7.88)
(2π)3 −∞ 2π k0 − ~k 2 − m2 + i
2
= i∆F (x − y) (7.89)
58
(∂ 2 + m2 )∆F (x − y) = −δ 4 (x − y) (7.90)
7.3.2 Fermion field
1 1 1

(γ ∂ + m)T ψ(x)ψ̄(y) = T (γ ∂ + m)ψ(x)ψ̄(y) + γ 0 {ψ(x), ψ † (y)}γ 0 δ(x0 − y0 )

i i i
4
= −iδ (x − y) (7.91)
d4 k 1
Z
e−ik·(x−y)

SF (x − y) = −ihT ψ(x)ψ̄(y) i = 4
(7.92)
(2π) k / − m + i
d4 k (/k + m)
Z
= e−ik·(x−y) (7.93)
(2π) k − m2 + i
4 2
1 (/k + m)
SF (k) = = 2 (7.94)
k
/ − m + i k − m2 + i
7.3.3 Electromagnetic field
DFT r (x, y)µν = −ihT (Aµ (x)Aν (y))i (7.95)

2
d4 k e−ik·(x−y)
Z
µ(λ) (~k)ν(λ) (~k)
X
= (7.96)
(2π)4 k 2 + i λ=1
" ! #
d4 k e−ik·(x−y) kµ kν k02 k0 kν k0 kµ
Z
= −g µν − + g g
µ0 ν0 1 − + gµ0 + gν0
(2π)4 k 2 + i ~k 2 ~k 2 ~k 2 ~k 2
" !#
d4 k e−ik·(x−y) k02
Z
= −g µν + g µ0 g ν0 1 − (7.97)
(2π)4 k 2 + i ~k 2
All terms proportional to kα effectively do not contribute because the A α field must couple to a
conserved current.
d4 k −igµν 1
Z
iDFT r (x, y)µν = e−ik·(x−y) 2 − igµ0 gν0 e−ik·(x−y) (7.98)
(2π)4 k + i ~k 2
d4 k −ik·(x−y) −igµν 1
Z
= 4
e 2
− igµ0 gν0 δ(x0 − y0 ) (7.99)
(2π) k + i 4π|~x − y~ |
After the inclusion of the contribution from the instantaneous Coulomb interaction, we obtain the
full Feynman propagator.
d4 k −ik·(x−y) −igµν
Z
iDF (x − y)µν = e (7.100)
(2π)4 k 2 + i
−igµν
iDF (q)µν = (7.101)
k 2 + i
7.3.4 Mixed fields

Any two-point function of mixed fields, such as h0|T (φ(x)ψ(y)) |0i, is zero.
59
7.4 Wick’s Theorem
For neutral scalar boson field φ,
T (φ(x1 )φ(x2 ) . . . φ(xn )) = : φ(x1 )φ(x2 ) . . . φ(xn ) :

+ hT (φ(x1 )φ(x2 ))i : φ(x3 ) . . . φ(xn ) : +permutation of all pair
+ hT (φ(x1 )φ(x2 ))ihT (φ(x3 )φ(x4 ))i : φ(x5 ) . . . φ(xn ) : +permutation
+ ... (7.102)
T (φ(x1 )φ(x2 )) = : φ(x1 )φ(x2 ) : +Constant

hT (φ(x1 )φ(x2 ))i = 0 + Constant
T (φ(x1 )φ(x2 )) = : φ(x1 )φ(x2 ) : +hT (φ(x1 )φ(x2 ))i (7.103)
For fermion fields, there is an extra minus sign due to the anticommutation when rearranging
the order of the field operators.

T ψ(x1 )ψ̄(x2 ) = : ψ(x1 )ψ̄(x2 ) : +hT ψ(x1 )ψ̄(x2 ) i (7.104)

T ψ(x1 )ψ(x2 )ψ̄(x3 )ψ̄(x4 ) = : ψ(x1 )ψ(x2 )ψ̄(x3 )ψ̄(x4 ) : − : ψ(x1 )ψ̄(x3 ) : hT ψ(x2 )ψ̄(x4 ) i

+ : ψ(x1 )ψ̄(x4 ) : hT ψ(x2 )ψ̄(x3 ) i+ : ψ(x2 )ψ̄(x3 ) : hT ψ(x1 )ψ̄(x4 ) i

− : ψ(x2 )ψ̄(x4 ) : hT ψ(x1 )ψ̄(x3 ) i − hT ψ(x1 )ψ̄(x3 ) ihT ψ(x2 )ψ̄(x4 ) i

+ hT ψ(x1 )ψ̄(x4 ) ihT ψ(x2 )ψ̄(x3 ) i (7.105)
7.4.1 Example
HI = eψ̄(x)γ µ ψ(x)Aµ (x) (7.106)
2
1 1
Z Z
d4 x H I d4 x d4 y T (−ie(ψ̄(x)γ µ ψ(x)Aµ (x))(−ie(ψ̄(y)γ ν ψ(y)Aν (y))

T −i =
2 2
Z h1
= d4 x d 4 y : ψ̄(x)(−ieγ µ )ψ(x)Aµ (x)ψ̄(y)(−ieγ ν )ψ(y)Aν (y) :
2
1
+ hT (Aµ (x)Aν (y))i : ψ̄(x)(−ieγ µ )ψ(x)ψ̄(y)(−ieγ ν )ψ(y) :
2
− T r hT (ψ(y)ψ̄(x))i (−ieγ µ ) : ψ(x)Aµ (x)ψ̄(y)Aν (y) : (−ieγ ν )
− T r hT (ψ(y)ψ̄(x))i (−ieγ µ )hT (ψ(x)ψ̄(y))i(−ieγ ν ) : Aµ (x)Aν (y) :
− T r hT (ψ(y)ψ̄(x))i (−ieγ µ ) : ψ(x)ψ̄(y) : (−ieγ ν )hT (Aµ (x)Aν (y))i
i
− T r hT (ψ(y)ψ̄(x))i (−ieγ µ )hT (ψ(x)ψ̄(y))i(−ieγ ν )hT (Aµ (x)Aν (y))i
60
: ψ̄(x)(−ieγ µ )ψ(x)Aµ (x)ψ̄(y)(−ieγ ν )ψ(y)Aν (y) : 0
y
hT (Aµ (x)Aν (y))i : ψ̄(x)(−ieγ µ )ψ(x)ψ̄(y)(−ieγ ν )ψ(y) :
y
T r hT (ψ(y)ψ̄(x))i (−ieγ µ ) : ψ(x)Aµ (x)ψ̄(y)Aν (y) : (−ieγ ν )
y
T r hT (ψ(y)ψ̄(x))i (−ieγ µ )hT (ψ(x)ψ̄(y))i(−ieγ ν ) : Aµ (x)Aν (y) :
x
y
T r hT (ψ(y)ψ̄(x))i (−ieγ µ ) : ψ(x)ψ̄(y) : (−ieγ ν )hT (A µ (x)Aν (y))i
y
T r hT (ψ(y)ψ̄(x))i (−ieγ µ )hT (ψ(x)ψ̄(y))i(−ieγ ν )hT (Aµ (x)Aν (y))i
61
7.5 Rules for Feynman Diagrams
7.5.1 General
0. An overall factor of i
1. External lines
r
1
6 spin 0 meson
1 6
r
ū
6 spin 1
fermion
2
u 6
r
v ?
1
spin 2 antifermion
v̄ ?
∗µ
r6 spin 1 photon
ν 6
2. Symmetrization of identical particles

Symmetrize between identical bosons in the initial or final state.
Antiymmetrize between identical fermions in the initial or final state.
3. Internal lines
- spin 0 meson i∆F (q) = i
q 2 −µ2 +i
- spin 1 photon iDF (q)µν = − qig µν

2 +i
- 1 i i(p/+m)
spin 2 fermion iSF (p) = = p2 −m2 +i
/−m+i
p
4. Vertex
P
Conservation of energy and momentum at each vertex. i ki = 0.
5. Loop
R d4 q
For each loop momentum not fixed by momentum conservation, there is an integration (2π)4
.
62
6. Statistics
There is a factor of (−1) for each fermion loop.
There is a relative factor of (−1) between two amplitudes related by interchange of two
identical fermion lines.
7. Symmetry factor
1
A factor of n! for Feyman diagram invariant under interchange of any pair of the n internal
lines.
8. Wave function Renormalization
9. Mass renormalization
7.5.2 Verteices for specific HI

1. Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)
−ieHI = −ieψ̄γ µ ψAµ µ
−ieγµ
6
HH
* HH
j
H
HH
HH
H
p p0
2. Scalar QED
−ieHI = e(φ† ∂µ φ − φ∂µ φ† )Aµ + ie2 φ† φAµ Aµ
µ µ ν
Y *
]
−ie(p − p 0 )µ @ 2 ie2 gµν
H @
H R@
H
j
* H @
H @
H
p p0 p p0
63
Chapter 8
Renormalization
8.1 Self Energy
q
-
- - -
p p−q p
d4 q d4 q 1 1
Z Z
(0)
−iΣ(p) = (−ie0 γµ ) 4
iSF (p − q)iDFµν (q)(−ie0 γν ) = −e20 4
γµ γµ 2 (8.1)
(2π) (2π) p
/ − q/ − m q
= + + + ...
(0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0)

iSF (p) = iSF (p) + iSF (p)(−iΣ(p))iSF (p) + iSF (p)(−iΣ(p))iSF (p)(−iΣ(p))iSF (p) + . . .
i i i
= = =
(0)
(S (p))−1 − Σ(p) p
/ − m0 − Σ(p) / − m0 − Σ(m) − (/p − m)Σ0 (m) + O((/p − m)2 )
p
F
i
= (8.2)
(/p − m)(1 − Σ0 (m)) + O((/p − m)2 )
p i p
→ Z2 Z2 (8.3)
(/p − m)
m0 + Σ(m) = m0 + δm = m (8.4)
1
z2 = (8.5)
1 − Σ0 (m)
64
8.2 Vacuum Polarization
'$
p+q
-
- -
&%
q q

p
d4 p d4 p 1 1
Z Z
(0) (0)
iΠµν (q) = − 4
tr(−ieγµ )iSF (p + q)(−ieγν )iSF (p) = −e20 4
trγµ γν (8.6)
(2π) (2π) p
/ + q/ − m p /−m
= + } + } } + ...
(0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0)

iDF µν (q) = iDF µν (q) + iDF µα (q)iΠαβ (q)iDF βν (q) + iDF µα (q)iΠαβ (q)iDF βλ (q)iΠλκ (q)iDF κν (q) + . . .(8.7)
qµ Πµν (q) = 0 (8.8)

Πµν (q) = −(q 2 g µν − q µ q ν )Π(q 2 ) (8.9)
−gµν −i −i
iDF µν (q) = i + gµν 2 (−iq 2 Π(q 2 )) 2
q 2 + i q + i q + i
−i −i −i
+ gµν 2 (−iq 2 Π(q 2 )) 2 (−iq 2 Π(q 2 )) 2 + ...
q + i q + i q + i
−gµν
= i 2
q (1 + Π(q 2 )) + i
−gµν
= i 2
q (1 + Π(0) + O(q 2 )) + i
p −gµν p
→ Z3 i 2 Z3 (8.10)
q + i
1
Z3 = (8.11)
1 + Π(0)
65
8.3 Vertex Correction µ
k = p−p0
M
p−q @ p0 −q
R
@

@
: @
q R@
@
@
p p0
d4 q µ 1 1 1
Z
Λα (p 0 , p) = −ie20 4
γ γα 0 γµ 2 (8.12)
(2π) p
/ − q/ − m p/ − q/ − m q
d4 q µ 1 1 1
Z
Λα (p, p) = −ie20 γ γα γµ (8.13)
(2π)4 p
/ − q/ − m p / − q/ − m q 2
Λcα (p 0 , p) = Λα (p 0 , p) − Λα (p, p) (8.14)

d4 q µ 1 1 1 1
Z
2
= −ie0 4
γ γα /0 ) 0
(/p − p γµ 2 (8.15)
(2π) p
/ − q/ − m p / − q/ − m p
/ − q/ − m q
Γα (p0 , p) = γα + Λα (p0 p) (8.16)
ū(p)Γα (p, p)u(p) = ū(p) (γα + Λα (p, p)) u(p) = ū(p)γα Z1−1 u(p) (8.17)
ū(p)Λα (p, p)u(p) = ū(p)γα (Z1−1 − 1)u(p) (8.18)
8.4 Ward’s Identity
d4 q 1 1
Z
Σ(p) = −ie20 γµ γµ (8.19)
(2π)4 p / − q/ − m q 2
d4 q µ 1 1 1
Z
0
Λα (p , p) = −ie20 4
γ γα 0 γµ 2 (8.20)
(2π) p
/ − q/ − m p/ − q/ − m q
d4 q 1 1 1
Z
Σ(p0 ) − Σ(p) = −ie20 4
γµ 0
− γµ 2 (8.21)
(2π) p
/ − q/ − m p / − q/ − m q
Z 4
d q

1 1

1
= ie20 /0 − p

4
γµ p / 0 γµ 2 (8.22)
(2π) p
/ − q/ − m p
/ − q/ − m q
0 α 0
= −(p − p) Λα (p , p) (8.23)
∂
Λα (p, p] = − Σ(p) (8.24)
∂pα
SF−1 (p0 ) − SF−1 (p) = −(p0 − p)α γα (p0 − p) (8.25)

∂
Γα (p, p] = α SF−1 (p) (8.26)
∂p
66
µ
8.5 Charge Renormalization
−ieγµ
√ 6
Z3
s−ie0 γµ Z1−1
HH
* HH
j
H

√ √ HH HH
Z2 Z2 H
p p0
e = e0 Z3 Z1−1 Z2 = e0 Z3
p p
(8.27)
67

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Advanced Quantum Mechanics

Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

2. Bjorken, J. D. and S. D. Drell, Relativistic Quantum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York

3. Sakurai, J. J., Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA (1967).

4. Berestetskii, V. B., E. M. Lifshitz, and L. P. Pitaevskii, Relativistic Quantum Theory, Perg-

5. Aitchison, I. J. R., Relativistic Quantum Mechanics, Macmillan, London (1972).

Quantum Field Theory

1. Mendl, A. Introduction to Quantum Field Theory, Wiley-Interscience, New York (1966).

Online book stores

2 Klein Gordon field 10

5 Interactions of Radiation with Atoms 25

1.1 Classical Mechanics

L(qi , q̇i ) = T (q̇i ) − V (qi ) (1.2)

Canonical form of action:

1. Independent dynamical variables p i and qi , i = 1, ...n.

2. Only single explicit time derivative appears.

4. The Hamiltonian is identified by all other terms with no time derivative.

H(pi , qi ) = T (pi ) + V (qi ) (1.9)

• Time translational invariance =⇒ conservation of total energy.

1.2 Classical Field

1.3 Fundamental Units and Universal Fundamental Constants

x2 = xµ xµ = xµ xµ = xµ gµν xν = xµ g µν xν = t2 − ~x2 (1.25)

1.4.1 Lorentz transformation

x02 = x0µ x0µ = Λµ β xβ Λµ α xα = xβ Λµ β Λµ α xα = xα xα . (1.26)

A Lorentz Tensor transforms like the direct product of Lorentz vector:

• Space-like vector: x2 < 0

• Time-like vector: x2 > 0

These properties are Lorentz invariant.

• det(Λc ) = 1 and Λ00

These constraints divide Lorentz transformations into four classes:

det(Λ) Λ00 Discrete Continuous

pµ = (p0 , p1 , p2 , p3 ) = (p0 , pi ) = (p0 , p~) (1.30)

|λ̄b , ti = U (t)|λb , ti → (1 − iδG(t))|λb , ti (1.42)

δ|λb , ti = |λ̄b , ti − |λb , ti = −iδG(t)|λb , ti (1.43)

δhλa , t2 |λb , t1 i = hλa , t2 |(δ|λb , t1 i) + (δhλa , t2 |)|λb , t1 i (1.44)

hλa , t|δφ(t)|λb , ti = hλ̄a , t|φ(t)|λ̄b , ti − hλa , t|φ(t)|λb , ti (1.46)

i[δG(t), φ(t)] = δφ (1.50)

1.5.2 Quantum action principle

1.5.3 Quantum mechanics

1.5.4 Abbreviated notation

hx0 |U (a)† U (a)|xi = hx0 + a|x + ai ∀ x, x0 (1.77)

Φ(X) = U (a)† Φ(X − a)U (a) (1.80)

U (a) = eia·T (1.82)

(1 + iδa · T )Φ(X)(1 − iδa · T ) = Φ(X) − δa · ∂Φ(X) (1.85)

i[Tµ , Φ(X)] = −∂µ Φ (1.86)

i[P~ , Φ(X)] = h̄∇Φ

which differs from

Klein Gordon field

2.1 Relativistic Wave Equation

d φµ (x) = ∂µ φ(x) (2.15)

d ∂ µ φµ (x) = −m2 φ(x) (2.17)

i [ pi (t), qj (t) ] = δij i [ φ0 (~x, t), φ(x~0 , t) ] = δ(~x − x~0 ) (2.26)

c~k |0i = 0 (2.51)

ck~0 |~ki = (2π)3 2ωk δ(~k − k~0 )|0i (2.74)

2.4 Unequal-Time Commutation Relations

∆(x) = −∆(−x) (2.86)

[φ0 (x), φ(x0 )] = i∂ 0 ∆(x − x0 ) (2.90)

φ01 = cos θ φ1 + sin θ φ2 (2.93)

L = φ†µ ∂ µ φ + φµ ∂ µ φ† − φ†µ φµ − m2 φ† φ (2.99)

δφµ† : φµ = ∂µ φ, δφ† : ∂ µ φµ + m2 φ = 0 (2.100)

i[φ†0 (x), φ(x0 )]t=t0 = δ(~x − x~0 ) (2.103)

d3 k h (+) −ik·x d3 k h (+)† ik·x

For infinitesimal gauge transformation of second kind δθ = eδα(x), δφ = −ieδαφ and δφ µ =

δL = L0 − L = ie(φ† φµ − φ†µ φ)∂ µ δα(x) = jµ ∂ µ δα(x) = ∂ µ (jµ δα(x)) − (∂ µ jµ )δα(x) (2.122)

hB|{~~k · P~i , e ik·x }|Ai = hA|{~~k∗ · P~i , e−ik·x }|Bi∗ (5.9)