Chapter 11

HEAT TRANSFER

Heat is the most common form of energy.

 is continually being transferred from one body to another.

We are often concerned with heat & its flow. Sometimes we want to get it from one place to another, & in
other cases we want to prevent the flow of heat.
Ex. From a furnace to the rooms of a house; a welder’s tongs to his hand

Heat Flow
 Heat is always transferred in one way or another, whenever there is any difference in temperature.
 The rate at which heat flows depends on the steepness of the temperature hill as well as on the properties.

The temperature gradient is the difference of temperature per unit distance, in analogy to the idea of steepness of
grade, which determines the rate of flow.

Three Ways in which Heat is Transferred:

I Conduction is heat transfer of thermal energy from atom to atom through a material & is caused by the
collision of hotter atoms w/ cooler, slower-moving atoms. The atoms themselves do not move from one end
of the material to the other; only their random kinetic energy is transferred.
 The simplest type of heat transfer.
 Conduction of heat occurs only between regions that are at different temperatures, & the direction of
heat flow is always from points of higher temperature to points of lower temperature.
 Conduction is the direct communication of molecular disturbance through a substance by means of the
collisions of neighboring molecules.
 The amount of heat that flows through any body by conduction depends upon the time of flow, the area
through which it flows, the temperature gradient, & the kind of material.

The rate of flow of heat by conduction, HCD = Q/t, is proportional to the temperature change (T) & the area A &
inversely proportional to the length (L).
𝚫𝐓 𝐐 ∆𝐓
Q = kAt or HCD = = 𝐤𝐀 L
𝚫𝐋 𝐭 ∆𝐋
Where: k = is the coef. of thermal conductivity of the material
A = is the area of the material measured at right angles
to the direction of the flow of heat A
t = is the time of flow T1 T2 Q
T1 = higher temperature
T2 = lower temperature
ΔT 𝑇 −𝑇
ΔL
= 1∆𝐿 2 = is the average temperature gradient
Q
HCD = t = conductive heat-transfer rate
Q = amount of heat transferred
cal BTU
Units of k: C ∘ or °
cm2 s(cm ) ft2 h(F
in
)
For shell, such as the covering on a steam pipe, its Q is L’
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝑳′ 𝒕(𝚫𝑻)
Q=  for SI T1
𝒍𝒏 𝑹
𝒓
r
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝑳′ 𝒕(𝚫𝑻) 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝑳′ 𝒕(𝚫𝑻)
Q= =  for English T2 R
𝟏𝟐 𝒍𝒏𝑹
𝒓
𝟏𝟐(𝟐.𝟑)𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹
𝒓
 Where: r = internal radius of the pipe
R = external radius
L’ = length of insulation

Examples

II Convection is the process by which heat is transported from one place to another in a material medium.
 Let us assume the medium to be a carrier. The carrier will transport the heat energy to a new location
at which point the medium gives up its energy. The motion of the carrier is in the direction of the
“colder” region where it gives up its heat energy & then continues to circulate.
 Convection heat transfer is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to another by mass that
moves between the places & carries the energy with it. The heat transfer occur from the warmer to the
cooler material.
Ex. The engine in an automobile is cooled by forced convection. Water cooled in the radiator is pumped
through the engine, where it absorbs heat generated by the engine. This warmed water then
returns to the radiator for cooling. Heat is carried away from the engine by the flowing water.

Types of Convective Heat Transfer

1. Natural, or Free, Convection: If the flow is caused by differences in density due to thermal expansion
A rise in temperature is accompanied by a decrease in density in most fluids. Hence if heat is applied
at the bottom of a sample, the less dense fluid at the bottom is continually displaced by fluid of greater
density from above. Heat transfer accompanies this motion, called natural, or free, convection.

2. Forced convection:
The heated material is forced to move by a blower or a pump. (Sometimes the pressure differences
are produced mechanically by a pump, or blower).

In all cases of convection, heat is transferred into or out of the fluid stream somewhere in its path.

𝐐 𝑘
HCV = = hA(T2 – T1) = A( )(T2 – T1) = hA(Tfluid – Tsurface) (1)
𝐭 𝛥𝐿

Where: HCV = convective heat transfer rate

h = convection coefficient, cal/cm2s(C)
= the thermal conductivity of the fluid divided by the effective thickness
= represent the conductivity of the fluid divided by the effective thickness of the conducting
layer
A = area of the surface
T = the temperature difference between the surface & the main body of fluid.

In the steady-flow passage of heat through a wall separating two

fluids (say, water, steel, air), the heat passes through the three
layers in succession, at the same rate,

∆𝐐 ∆𝐓𝟏 ∆𝐓𝟐 ∆𝐓𝟑

HCV = ∆𝐭
= 𝐤𝟏 𝐋𝟏
𝐀 = 𝐤𝟐 𝐋𝟐
𝐀 = 𝐤𝟑 𝐋𝟑
𝐀
where: subscripts 1 & 3 refer to the fluid films & 2 to the wall. If
T is the total temperature difference across the three
layers, the resulting heat flow is
 ∆𝐐 𝐀 ∆𝐓
HCV = = 𝟏 𝐋 𝟏 (2)
∆𝐭 + 𝟐+
𝐡𝟏 𝐤 𝟐 𝐡𝟑

If there were no films present, Eq (2) would reduce to the simpler form of Eq (1).

Examples:

III Radiation
 Radiation differs from conduction or convection in that it does not need a carrier. It traverses
space, & when absorbed it agitates the molecules of the absorbing material so that it is converted
into heat energy.
 Radiant energy lies just beyond the red end of the electromagnetic wave spectrum & is no different
from any other electromagnetic energy.
 It travels at the speed of light, 2.9979  108 m/s or 2.9979  1010 cm/s or about 186,000 mi/s. it
has a wavelength from 4  10– 2 to 8  10– 5 cm (or 4  102 to 0.8 )
Consider a log burning in a fire. Because of their high temperature, many of the molecules
present in & near the fire vibrate somewhat more violently than usual. These large-amplitude
molecular vibrations produce a form of radiation called infrared waves. The waves travel from
the fire in all directions at the same speed as radio waves.
 Infrared waves falling on your skin are absorbed & cause the molecules in your skin to vibrate with
greater amplitude. Your skin feels warmer. This process is called heat transfer by radiation.

Forms of Electromagnetic Radiation:

1. Radio waves 4. X-rays
2. Microwaves 5. Gamma-rays
3. Infrared & ultraviolet radiation

 All forms of radiation travel at the same speed (speed of light = 3  108 m/s in air or in vacuum),
are produced by electric charges that vibrate or experience some other types of accelerated
motion, & are absorbed by matter that lies in their path.
sun

Earth
1.71017 J/s

1.71017 J/s

The sun emits all these forms of radiation, although most of the radiative energy leaving
the sun consists of light & infrared radiation. The earth is bathed by approximately 1.7  1017J
of this radiative energy each second. However, our planet has managed to remain at a constant
temperature (within a few degrees) by emitting into space each second an amount of
electromagnetic radiation equal to that absorbed from the sun.
Every object with a temperature above absolute zero emits electromagnetic radiation.
Ex. A fire, a wall heater, a table, our bodies, & even ice cubes emit radiative energy

 The rate at which radiation is emitted from an object depends on its temperature T, its surface area
A, & the type of surface it has.
 Emissivity, e is a quantity that characterized the surface of an object.
o e is a unitless number ranging from 0 to 1.
o A good emitter (or radiator) of radiation is a good absorber.
 Ex. Dark or black surface has an e close to 1.
o A poor emitter: white or shiny surface; e is close to 0.
o An ideal blackbody is the one which absorbs all the radiation which falls upon it.

 The total energy radiated per unit time by a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature (Stefan-Boltzmann law).
HR = P = T4
When radiated from a body having an area A
HR = P = AT4
𝐐
Where: P = the power in watts = 𝐭
A = area in cm2
T = absolute temperature in K
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6696  10– 12 w/cm2K4 or 5.6696  10 – 8 w/m2K4
Since it also receives energy from the surrounding temperature level
HR = P = A(T4 – T04)
Where: T = temperature of the body in K
T0 = temperature of the surrounding