GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35

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GeoResJ
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/georesj

Late pleistocene polygenetic Andean wetland soils

Juan C. Loaiza a,∗, Jorge Sánchez-Espinosa b, Yolanda Rubiano-Sanabria c, Rosa M. Poch d
a
Geosciences and Environmental School, Mining Faculty, National University of Colombia, Campus Medellín, Colombia
b
National University of Colombia, Campus Bogotá, Geographic Institute Agustín Codazzi (IGAC), Colombia
c
Ph.D program in Agricultural Science at the National University of Colombia, Campus Bogotá, Geographic Institute Agustín Codazzi (IGAC), Colombia
d
Department of Environment and Soil Sciences, University of Lleida, Catalonia, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Fusagasuga megafan is located in the Sumapaz River catchment (main tributary of the Magdalena
Received 24 January 2017 River) which drains into the Sumapaz moorland. The soils show non consistent hydromorphic palaeofea-
Revised 17 July 2017
tures that may be related to recent tectonics, therefore a study was conducted to gain insight into the pa-
Accepted 24 July 2017
leoenvironment of the area, in particular the paleohydrology. We studied 6 profiles under 4 different geo-
Available online 27 July 2017
morphological positions: structural eroded mountain, axis, length and base of the alluvial megafan (depo-
Keywords: sitional foothills). Medium-textured Lithic Melanudands are located in a steep high mountain (anticline
Paleohydrology structural slope), Silty loam Ultic Melanudands are developed from volcanic ashes over thick medium-
Polygenetic soils grained sandstones in the transition mountain to alluvial megafan, very fine-textured Typic Paleudalfs
Hydromorphic soils with Bt Horizons (42–85% clay) are found around the middle and proximal parts of the megafan, that
Clay illuviation become Typic Haplustalfs at the distal parts of the megafan. Kaolinite is the dominant clay in all soils,
Micromorphology
followed by halloisite, goethite and traces of vermiculite and quartz. Quartz and feldspars dominate the
sand fraction, together with amphiboles and volcanic glass chemically weathered epidote in small quanti-
ties. Soils are mainly acidic, with a high Al saturation and a low base saturation. Clay illuviation is shown
by hypocoatings and microlaminated clay coatings. Different degrees of hydromorphism are observed
with gleyic to stagnic patterns. Some of the redoximorphic features are related to the current pore sys-
tem and others to palaeoenvironmental conditions often associated to old clay coatings. The most clayey
soils show striated, undifferenciated, speckled b-fabrics and frequent coatings, and some others point to
ferrolysis as iron-depleted hypocoatings and low anisotropic clay coatings along pores, an observation
supported by mineralogical data. The morphological and micromorphological redoximorphic features al-
low us to explain the paleoevolution of the alluvial megafan.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 1.800 m.a.s.l. It is made by materials which began to be deposited

Quaternary soils in South America have strong relation between
palaeoenvironmental conditions and soil environments. There is a
huge number of studies in South America to understand the cli-
mate and environmental system, as the reconstruction of paleoen-
vironments conditions [29].
Concretelly in the Andean mountains few studies have been
carried out to find correlations between paleosoils and palaeoen-
vironmental conditions [22,37,45,46]. In the Central Andes a fluvial
megafan development is due to the huge accumulation rate of sed-
iments correlated with climate variability [31,72], being their maxi-
mum extension because of high seasonal discharge variability [40].
The Fusagasuga megafan (Cundinamarca, Colombia) is a
huge alluvial formation spanning at altitudes between 800 and
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jcloaiza@unal.edu.co (J.C. Loaiza).
about 20,0 0 0 years ago, coming from the Pasca region [24,39]. Af-
ter this sedimentation, active erosion and incision phases started,
due to a tilting to the east following a tectonic adjustment that
collapsed its western edge [14]. The Eastern cordillera of Colombia
is a double verging mountain system bounded by major inverse
faults that locally involve crystalline and metamorphic basement
rocks, Precambrian lower Paleozoic in age, as well as upper Paleo-
zoic Cenozoic sedimentary and volcanic sequences [13].
The recent deposits are product of huge landslides occurring at
the headwaters of the Cuja River caused by tectonic movements
associated to the Pleistocene orogeny [14,36,37,75,78]. These de-
posits, product of the glaciaric activity, were transported and sed-
imented into this morphogenetic environment, and then reworked
and moved down the hillside by melting processes [39,78]. In an
Andean paramo (Bogotà) the presence of an erosional surface re-
flecting geomorphic activity in the last glacial phase, separates the
andolization (during the Holocene) and paleosoils processes (Last

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.grj.2017.07.001
2214-2428/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35
Glacial and first part of Holocene) [37,46]. Three main factors have
influenced the evolution of the landscape, sedimentation and veg-
etation development; (i) tectonic uplift of the Andes, (ii) develop-
ment of large tectonic sedimentary processes, sedimentation, (iii)
quaternary climatic fluctuations and glaciations [27]. Heretofore,
there is scarce soil information in the area comes from medium-
scale surveys and a general review of soil characteristics [35]. Wet
tropical soils, highly weathered and an enrichment of residual el-
ements were described by Burak et al. [11]. The presence of gibb-
site concretions and redoximorphic features in the deepest hori-
zons suggests contrast climatic phases (moist and dry) in the past,
more pronounced than nowadays [19] which is coincident with En-
gel et al. [18] that reported variation of moister, drier and arid peri-
ods in the Andean region during the last 50 0 0 years. Van der Ham-
men [73], report a dry tropical climate during the Paleogene and
Neogene, with scarce and contrasted precipitation that results in a
sparse vegetation. Some studies by Villota [78] and Favre [19] re-
port the presence of different grades of hydromorphism in these
soils, not consequent with the present-day landforms where they
are located. According to Horton and DeCelles [31] active Andean
megafans would be affected by tectonic, climatic and geomorpho-
logic processes, this evidence indicates the presence of past glacia-
tionsin the paramo regions [26].
The dominant pedogenetic processes under aquic conditions are
ferrolysis, organic matter accumulation, clay formation and translo-
cation [77]. In order to elucidate the degree and type of water-
logging, the morphological descriptions must pay attention to re-
doximorphic features, and should identify where oxidation and
reduction occur in the soil horizon in relation to the pore sys-
tem and the structure, in order to understand how water and air
move through the horizon during both infiltration and drainage
[77]. In the Eastern cordillera of Colombia, the drainage organi-
zation is controlled by tectonic activity as it was found in the
studies realized by Struth et al. [67]. Modern drainage network
in Andean megafans may be inherited from an ancestral drainage
network [31]. Pedogenesis and thus the intensity of redoximor-
phic processes can be traced back using several proxies identi-
fying pedofeatures from micromorphological studies, e.g. Fe de-
pletions, Fe-Mn impregnated hypocoatings and nodules related
to redox environments in soils [5,41]. Minerals, as goethite, lep-
idocrocite, hematite or Mn oxides evidence alternating phases
of reduction and oxidation [2,25,41]. An abrupt increase of iron
hypocoatings along water conducting voids (such as root channels
and slickenside surfaces) associated to iron depletion zones attests
poor drained conditions [50]. The combination of redox depletions
around large pores (not connected with the pore system), and re-
dox concentrations within the peds indicates that reduction pro-
ceeds along pores, reducing the iron that migrates into the aggre-
gates where it is oxidized [7,77]. The movement of water within
horizons, at the scale of peds and macropores, could be inferred
from the relationship between redox depletions and concentra-
tions, were ringed by Fe hypocoatings surrounded which are con-
sidered weathering evidence [41,77].
Soils of wetlands subjected to water seasonality can be studied
along drainage toposequences, as the intensity of hydromorphism
changes from the lower parts to the surrounding rim and upland
geomorphic positions [30]. No detailed investigations of Ultisol, Al-
fisol and Andisol genesis have been conducted in these Andean
Paleo-hydrologic environments using micromorphology. Therefore,
the aim of this research was to enhance our understanding of
wetland soil genesis and paleohydrology under tropical climates,
through soils, their mineralogy and physico-chemical information
of the soils on the Fusagasuga megafan.
21
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Site description
The Fusagasuga alluvial megafan is located in the Sumapaz
River basin (main tributary of the Magdalena River) which drains
into the Sumapaz moorland. It is next to Fusagasuga village, 64 km
from Bogotá (Colombia) and covers an area of 52.5 km2 and 400 m
thick (Fig. 1). The mean annual precipitation fluctuates 1080–
1840 mm/year, and the mean monthly air temperature 14–26 °C.
Unfortunately, it is not possible to estimate paleoprecipitations in
such tropical latitudes [47], however, frequent climatic changes oc-
curred during the Quaternary; the perpetual snowline of the Suma-
paz paramo descended to 3200 m.a.s.l. during Riss/Illinoian Glacial
Stage, which led to a glacial cirque at the top (Chisacá lake) [55].
It was the source of coarse materials that were displaced as ice
and detritus flow [10,19]. During the glacial environment, the up-
per montane forest extended up to 20 0 0 m.a.s.l., while in inter-
glacial conditions it reached up to 3.200 m.a.s.l. [23,57]. During the
Plio-Pleistocene, the climate was drier (Pal et al. [53]). Denudative
processes, agradational, tectonic, hydrologic and volcanic activities
have modelled the quaternary deposits, which are nowadays trans-
formed by anthropic activities.
The proximal sections of the megafan are colluvial-alluvial
while the middle and distal parts are alluvial. The megafan apex is
at 1.800 m.a.s.l. (close to Fusagasugá city) and goes till 800 m.a.s.l.
in Chinautá. The megafan is composed by heterometric materi-
als, covered intermittently by Quaternary pyoclastic materials; in
some plateaus there are pebbles mixed with fine (clay and silt)
and medium (sand and gravels) alluvium [34]. The volcanic materi-
als come from the Ruiz-Tolima volcanic complex (Cordillera Central
mountain range), with an age of volcanic deposition 30,0 0 0–10,0 0 0
years B.P. (which covered the region with a thickness 60–120 cm
[74,75]. The underlying materials are sedimentary rocks from the
Cretaceous and Tertiary periods of the Oriental Mountain range,
overlying a Paleozoic rock basement with a low degree of meta-
morphism [36]. This part of the mountain range is a section of an
uplift of 40 0 0 m.a.s.l. The Cretaceous deposits have a strong rela-
tion with the actual land geomorphology, folding and fault pres-
ence. They are the main source of Tertiary and Quaternary sedi-
ments, are the parent material of most of the soils.
2.2. Field description and sampling
This study was carried out along a EW transect (Fig. 2), where
six points were selected considering different relief units ac-
cording to Birkeland et al. [4] methodology, mainly geormorpho-
logical position, environmental conditions and parental materi-
als. Fig. 2 shows the location of the soil profiles in the topose-
quence, under different positions and altitudinal ranks (paramo,
subparamo, moist climate and temperate climate). Soil profiles
were described according to Soil Survey Manual [60] and classified
with Soil Taxonomy [62] and IUSS Working Group (2015). Each soil
profile was sampled for chemical, physical and mineralogical anal-
yses, as well as for micromorphology according to Loaiza and Poch
[42].
2.3. Laboratory analyses
Soil samples were analyzed in the national soil laboratory
of IGAC Bogotá (Colombia). Size distribution of mineral particles
(≤2 mm) was analyzed by Bouyoucos method [15]. Organic carbon
was analyzed by moist digestion [79]. Soil reaction was measured
with a potentiometer (827pHLab Metrohm®) on a 1:1 soil-water
ratio. According SSS [61] cation-exchange capacity (CEC) and ex-
tractable bases were measured on a sample percolated with amo-
22 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35

Fig. 1. Location and geological units of the study area (line in red indicates the longitudinal profile Fusagasuga megafan shown in Fig. 2). (For interpretation of the references
to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

nium acetate 1 N at pH 7.0. Exchangeable Al and H were measured interpretation was carried out with an Axio Lab-A1 Zeiss® micro-
by KCl extraction 1 N and extractable acidity by barium chloride scope, and was based on Stoops [65] and Loaiza et al. [43].
and trietanolamine at pH 8.2. Basic cations were measured in an
extract with ammonium oxalate at a pH 3. Active Al and Fe were
3. Results and discussion
extracted by sodium pyrophosphate 0.1 M at pH 10 and dithionite
citrate bicarbonate, and measured with an atomic absorption spec-
3.1. Soil profiles
trophotometer (Perkin Elmer SpectrAA-Pin AAcle 900T®). Available
phosphorus was measured with modified Bray-II method [8].
The main soil types along the studied toposequence are clas-
Soil samples for mineralogical analysis of clay and sand frac-
sified as Lithic Melanudands, Ultic Melanudands, Typic Paleudults,
tion were prepared according to Deng et al. [16]. The sand fraction
Typic Paleudalfs and Typic Haplustalfs [62], see Table 1. Their mor-
was studied with a petrographic microscope (Axio Lab-A1 Zeiss®)
phology (Table 2) shows clear clay accumulation features in B hori-
according to Tauler and Canals [70]. Clay mineralogy was ana-
zons, by clay coatings on aggregate sides and organoargillic coat-
lyzed by X ray diffractometer (X Empyrean PANanlyticcal’s®) ac-
ings filling cracks and root channels with frequent to abundant
cording to Brindley and Brown [9]. Thin sections were prepared
grey spots, which are common on middle and footslope position.
at national soil laboratory of IGAC (Bogotá, Colombia). After drying
Redoximorphic features (nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, Fe-depletion
for six weeks at room temperature, the undisturbed samples were
hypocoatings, and Fe-oxihydroxides quasicoatings around pores)
impregnated with polyester resin and let harden for another six
occur throughout all studied soils deposits except on the anticline
weeks. Slabs were cut with a diamond knife and polished with a
steep slope mountain soil (top of the sequence) affected by glaciers
polishing machine (Thin Sectioning System Petrothin Buehler Ltd®)
and characterized by a lithic contact (with the fresh rock), and by
to obtain a thickness up to 20 μm. Thin section description and
krotovines mixing the volcanic ashes with the underlying mate-
 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35 23

Fig. 2. Longitudinal profile Fusagasuga megafan with a schematic representation of the toposequence and horizonation of the soil profiles. The vertical scale of the profiles
(at the right) is exaggerated with respect to that of the relief. Profiles 1–2 are Melanudands, profile 3 is a Paleudult, profiles 4 and 5 Paleudalfs and profile 6 is a Haplustalf.

Table 1
Environmental information of the six soil pedons.

Pedon Geomorphological position Slope Altitude Holdridge life zone Solum Soil classification
(%) (m.a.s.l.) thick-
ness
(cm)

WRB [80] Soil Taxonomy (2014)

JS1 Structural mountain surface 7–12 3940 Lower montane Wet 28 Leptic, Dystric Andosol Lithic Melanudands
forest (Protoandic, Melanic)
JS2 Sloped colluvial-alluvial 12–25 3280 Lower montane Wet 120 Umbric, Dystric Andosol Ultic Melanudands
megafan forest (Protoandic, Melanic)
JS3 Upper middle alluvial 12–25 2140 Premontane Moist 120 Nudiargic Haplic Alisol Typic Paleudults
megafan forest (Cutanic, Profundic)
JS4 Middle high alluvial 0–1 1660 Subtropical Dry forest 110 Nudiargic Haplic Lixisol Typic Paleudalfs
megafan. (Cutanic, Profundic)
JS5 Middle low alluvial 0–1 1348 Subtropical Dry forest 120 Nudiargic Haplic Lixisol Typic Paleudalfs
megafan. (Cutanic, Profundic)
JS6 Low alluvial megafan 0–1 1100 Subtropical Dry forest 100 Nudiargic Haplic Lixisol Typic Haplustalfs
(Cutanic, Hypereutric)

rial. This lithic contact and lithological discontinuities are related
to an arid erosion phase followed by humid and warmer periods
at the Holocene, during which humiferous soils were developed
under forest and grass conditions [21,46]. According to Soil Tax-
onomy [62], this soil is a silty loam, has andic properties, an udic
soil moisture regime and a dark melanic horizon (colour 10YR2/1),
thus it was classified as a Lithic Melanudand.
Huge subangular rock blocks and heterometric colluvia made
of boulders and pebbles of sandstones and lutites are common in
the soils at all toposequence positions. Weathered rock fragments
are present in the lowest part of the soil profiles. The soil on the
uppermost megafan position is polygenetic and has few clay coat-
ings on ped faces and pores in its Btg-horizons. According to Fol-
ster et al. [22] soil morphology (redox features) reflects changes in
the dominant pedogenetic processes which can only be interpreted
in terms of changes of the climatic environment. The argillic hori-
zon is indicated by clay coatings and infillings and by the textural
analyses of the Btg (Table 3, a ratio greater than 1.2 for the clay
concentration in B and A horizons), while the A horizon has clear
andic properties. On deep horizons the base saturation is less than
35%. It was classified as Ultic Melanudand.
The soil on the middle megafan position also shows clay
coatings together with gley conditions (Btg) and nodules of Fe-
oxihydroxides and clay (Btv) together with Fe depletions. It is clas-
sified as a Typic Paleudalf. The lower megafan footslope soil has
clay (kaolinite) fragmented coatings throughout its Bt-horizon. It
has an ustic moisture soil regime and keys out as a Typic Hap-
lustalf.
24 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35

Table 2
Morphology of the studied profiles in Fusagasuga megafan, Colombia.

Horizon Depth (cm) Munsell colour Texture Structure Consistence Coatings, Fe Observations
(moist)

JS1
A 0–28 10YR2/1 SL Sbl, moderate, Fr, slightly Stk, – NaF strong reaction. depth of the horizon, this can
medium and fine slightly Pl fluctuate between 28,36,41 cm thick
tendence to Gr fine

R 28–100 – – – – –
JS2
Ap 0–30 10YR2/1 SLC Sbl, moderate to Fr, slightly Stk, – Strong reaction to NaF and frequent presence
strong, coarse, slightly Pl krotovinas in the first two horizons.
medium and fine

AB 30–49 10YR3/2 SC Sbl, moderate to Fr, Stk, Pl –

strong, medium,
tendence to Gr fine
2Btg1 49–70 10YR6/8 C Sbl, strong, fine and Fr, Stk, Pl –
10YR6/2 medium
2Btg2 70–120 10YR6/1 C Abl, moderate to very firm, very –
10YR6/8 strong, medium and Stk, very Pl
fine
JS3
Ap 0–23 10YR3/3 SC Abl, moderate to Fr, slightly Stk, – No reaction to NaF
strong, medium and slightly Pl
coarse

2Btg1 23–54 10YR5/2 C Abl, moderate to very firm, Stk, Pl Clay coatings
10YR5/8 strong, coarse and
medium
2Btg2 54–70 10YR5/2 C
10YR5/8
Abl, very firm, Stk, Clay coatings
moderate Pl, fine pores
to strong, regular
medium medium
and fine
2Btg3 70–92 7,5YR5/8 C Abl, moderate to very firm, very Clay coatings
7,5YR5/1 strong, medium and Stk, very Pl
fine
2Btg4 92–120x 7,5YR5/8 C Abl, moderate to very firm, very Clay coatings
7,5YR5/1 strong, medium and Stk, very Pl
fine
(continued on next page)
 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35 25

Table 2 (continued)

Horizon Depth (cm) Munsell colour Texture Structure Consistence Coatings, Fe Observations
(moist)

JS4
Ap 0–25 10YR3/1 S Sbl, moderate, Fr, Stk, Pl No reaction to NaF. Between the surface of the Hz A
medium and fine and AB are present rock fragments 2 and 3 cm in
diameter, dark colors and reddish yellow. Presence of
boulders within the profile from the surface to 1 m
(15%).

AB 25–45 10YR3/1 SC Abl, moderate, fine Fr, Stk, Pl Speckled Fe

5YR4/6
2Btg1 45–59 5YR3/1 C Abl, moderate, very firm, Stk, Pl Clay coatings
7,5YR4/6 medium and fine
10YR3/1
2Btg2 59–88 5YR6/2 C Abl, moderate, fine very firm, very Clay coatings
10YR3/1 Stk, very Pl
10YR5/8
2Btg3 88–110 7,5YR6/8 C Massive very firm, very Clay coatings
10YR2/1 Stk, very Pl
JS5
Ap 0–18 10YR5/3 SC Abl, moderate, Fr, slightly Stk, – No reaction to NaF. Migration of organic matter
medium and fine slightly Pl between the cracks up to 70 cm deep. In some sectors
intercalated banded from 66 cm to 120 cm or gray
colors mixed (5YR6/1) are observed; Reddish
(2,5YR4/8) and yellow (7,5YR5/8). Presence of boulders
subrounded of 36 cm in diameter. Weathered presence
of fragments of up to 40 cm in diameter with irregular
coloration 2, 5YR4/8. Cracks in the gray color (5Y6/1)
up to 4 cm deep, gray-yellow up to 4 cm deep, reddish
up to 7 cm deep, reddish-yellow 8 cm deep.

2Btg1 18–56 10YR5/6 C Abl, moderate, extremely firm, Clay coatings

10YR2/1 medium and heavy Stk, Pl
2Btg2 56–79 10YR5/8 SC Abl, moderate, very firm, Stk, Pl –
10YR5/2 medium and coarse
2Btv 79–103 5YR5/6 SC Abl, moderate, fine Firm, Stk, Pl Fe mottles
5YR5/1
2Btg 103–117 5YR6/1 SC Abl, moderate, fine Firm, Stk, Pl Fe mottles
5YR5/6
2Cv 117–120 5YR5/6 C Massive Firm, very Stk, Fe mottles
5YR6/1 very Pl
(continued on next page)

3.2. Physico-chemical properties
All soils in this toposequence have high clay contents except
the uppermost one (SJ1), with increasing concentrations of clay
with depth, which indicates that either translocation of clay inside
soil profile or transformation of primary minerals to clay minerals
[12,58,64] has taken place. Absence of lithologic discontinuites was
confirmed by morphological characterization, sand and clay miner-
alogy [56]. Hydromorphic pedofeatures in the gley horizons (Btg)
include hard and soft iron oxyhidroxides concretions and impreg-
native Fe coatings, and Fe depletion hypocoatings along pore walls
and aggregate surfaces, some of them associated to the present
pore system and some with palaeofeatures [2,5,30]. All soils follow
the general trend of having the highest organic matter content in A
horizons (8.8–16.9%), associated to the presence of volcanic ashes.
According to Nanzyo et al. [49], humus as well as noncrystalline
clays, contribute to the unique chemical and physical properties of
Andisols.
The pH’s of soils on the crest and uppermegafan are very strong
acidic and are uniform with depth. On middle and lower megafan
26 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35

Table 2 (continued)

Horizon Depth (cm) Munsell colour Texture Structure Consistence Coatings, Fe Observations
(moist)

JS6
Ap 0–26 10YR3/2 SC Sbl, weakly Fr, slightly Stk, – Presence of rock blocks in the profile, 1 m in diameter.
developed, very slightly Pl Moderate reaction to NaF in the Bt2 horizon.
medium and fine

AB 26–33 5YR5/8 C Sbl, moderate to very firm, Stk, Pl Clay coatings

10YR3/2 strong, médium and
10YR2/1 fine
Bt1 33–49 10YR3/2 C Sbl, strong developed, Firm, Stk, Pl Clay coatings
10YR8/1 medium and fine
Bt2 49–59 10YR3/2 SCSa Abl, strong Firm, slightly Stk, Clay coatings
2,5Y7/4 developed, medium slightly Pl
and fine
Bt3 59–82 10YR3/2 C Abl, moderate, very firm, Stk, Pl Clay coatings
2,5Y7/4 médium to fine
Bt4 82–100× 10YR5/6 C Abl, moderate, very firm, Stk, Pl Clay coatings
10YR5/8 médium to fine
Abl: angular blocks, Sbl: subangular blocks, Gr: grain, C = clay, Sa = sand, L = loam, S= Silt, Fr: Friable, Pl: plastic, Stk: sticky.

Table 3
Chemical characteristics of the studied profiles.

Horizon Depth (cm) CIC Ca Mg K Na ESP TEB Al BS OC P pH CaCO3 Al-S A-Al A-Fe Al + 1/2 Fe PR Clay
Cmol(+)/kg % % Mg/kg (1:1) % (Oxalate) % %

JS1
A 0–28 66.7 0.48 0.21 0.23 0.17 0.3 1.09 9.3 1.6 16.9 3.3 4.3 – 89.5 1.71 0.54 1.98 84.72 –
R 28–100 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
JS2
Ap 0–30 43.0 0.38 0.08 0.27 0.04 0.1 0.10 5.3 1.79 8.8 20.5 4.8 – 87.3 1.58 0.86 2.01 91.91 42.4
AB 30–49 30.4 0.35 0.06 0.11 0.04 0.1 0.20 4.2 1.84 3.1 3.0 4.7 – 88.2 0.98 0.96 1.46 92.55 47.4
2Btg1 49–70 24.2 0.61 0.25 0.08 0.06 0.2 1.0 11.7 4.13 0.96 ND 4.8 – 92.1 0.44 0.54 0.71 – 47.8
2Btg2 70–120 21.1 0.48 0.37 0.12 0.37 1.8 1.80 14.6 6.32 0.26 ND 4.7 . 91.6 0.29 0.71 0.65 – 51.0
JS3
Ap 0–23 24.5 20.5 2.4 2.0 0.17 0.7 25.07 – 100 2.3 1174 7.5 ++ – 0.25 0.96 0.73 – 45.4
2Btg1 23–54 23.5 3.4 0.81 0.81 0.10 0.4 5.12 15.2 21.79 0.60 31.2 4.6 – 74.8 0.23 0.27 0.37 – 75.3
2Btg2 54–70 21.7 1.8 0.86 0.62 0.06 0.3 3.34 16.8 15.39 0.33 19.5 4.5 – 83.4 0.22 0.20 0.32 – 72.0
2Btg3 70–92 21.9 1.4 0.91 0.52 0.06 0.3 2.89 13.8 13.20 0.36 11.9 4.5 – 82.7 0.24 0.64 0.56 – 70.6
2Btg4 92–120 18.2 0.71 0.77 0.47 0.08 0.4 2.03 14.0 10.80 0.17 15.2 4.5 – 87.3 0.17 0.51 0.43 – 72.7
JS4
Ap 0–25 11.1 6.2 0.59 0.08 0.16 1.4 7.03 – 63.30 1.5 12.1 6.6 – – 0.11 0.04 0.13 – 23.0
AB 25–45 12.3 4.8 0.74 0.08 0.28 2.3 5.9 – 48.0 1.0 0.14 6.5 – – 0.14 0.35 0.32 – 40.4
2Btg1 45–59 10.1 3.9 0.71 0.09 0.31 3.1 5.01 – 49.6 1.1 ND 6.2 – – 0.12 0.35 0.30 – 43.1
2Btg2 59–88 7.4 2.7 0.31 0.08 0.36 4.9 3.45 – 46.6 0.27 ND 5.7 – – 0.11 0.25 0.24 – 40.2
2Btg3 88–110 7.8 3.3 0.22 0.05 0.44 5.6 4.01 – 51.4 0.07 ND 5.7 – – 0.07 0.20 0.17 – 41.6
JS5
Ap 0–18 10.1 4.4 0.65 0.39 0.41 4.1 5.85 – 57.9 1.8 24.5 5.5 – – 0.01 0.28 0.15 – 22.2
2Btg1 18–56 14.4 5.6 2.2 0.23 1.3 9.0 9.33 – 64.8 0.51 ND 6.8 – – 0.16 0.21 0.27 – 60.9
2Btg2 56–79 13.4 5.4 2.7 0.21 3.6 26.9 11.91 – 88.9 0.11 ND 7.1 – – 0.02 0.17 0.11 – 72.9
2Btv 79–103 15.6 5.7 2.9 0.11 3.8 24.4 12.51 – 80.2 0.07 ND 7.1 – – 0.1 0.17 0.19 – 74.0
2Btg 103–117 17.7 10.4 3.7 0.13 4.7 26.6 18.9 – 100 0.11 1.1 7.1 – – 0.1 0.14 0.17 – 88.5
JS6
Ap 0–26 3.1 2.4 0.52 0.36 0.16 5.2 3.44 – 100 0.43 75 6.3 – – – – – – 7.4
AB 26–33 11.9 6.0 3.0 0.23 3.6 30.3 12.83 – 100 0.42 3.2 7.7 – – – – – – 37.1
Bt1 33–49 20.5 17.5 5.1 0.18 6.3 30.7 29.08 – 100 0.2 14.5 8.7 ++ – – – – – 19.8
Bt2 49–59 21.3 12.7 5.4 0.2 7.8 36.6 26.1 – 100 0.24 31.0 8.6 ++ – – – – – 32.8
Bt3 59–82 15.1 6.7 4.0 0.2 7.2 47.7 18.1 – 100 0.04 48.8 8.6 + – – – – – 15.0
Bt4 82–100 24.2 7.8 5.9 0.31 10.2 42.1 24.21 – 100 0.1 10.8 7.9 + – – – – – 76.5

TEB: total exchangeable bases, ESP: Exchangeable Sodium Percentage, BS: base saturation, OC: organic carbon, Al-S: aluminum saturation, A-Al: active aluminum, A-Fe:
active iron, PR: phosphate retention, ++ Common (15–30%); + Presence (5–15%).
 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35
position soils, pH changes from strong to medium acidity and de-
creases with depth. The soils at the lowest megafan position are
neutral to moderately basic and the pH increases with depth.
The low pH values of the soils on the highest positions, due to
the variable charge of kaolinite and iron oxides common in tropi-
cal soils [38] indicate that acidic weathering and leaching of basic
cations are the dominant pedogenic processes; whereas the higher
pH values and base saturation of soil on the medium and low-
est megafan positions associated to a drier environment, lead to
the formation of alfisols. Cation exchange capacities are very vari-
able (3.1–66.7 cmol(+)/kg), the highest values being found in the A
horizons on Andosols where organic matter is abundant, whereas
soils on the medium and lowest parts of the megafan have the
lowest CEC values, which is coincident with kaolinite abundance.
Consequently, total exchangeable bases and base saturation are
higher in the middle and lower megafan positions. Al and Fe are
highest in the A horizons due to the input of volcanic ashes [49].
Conversely, low concentrations of Al and Fe in absence of ashes
and in underlying horizons are a result of periodical reduction and
removal of dissolved iron in laterally seeping ground water [5,69].
The chemical properties of these soils can be viewed in Table 3.
All soils on the top and middle of Fusagasuga megafan topose-
quence have high aluminium and low base saturation in accor-
dance with the dominance of kaolinite and iron oxide minerals.
The basic cations (Ca, K and Mg) are found in low concentrations
in the epipedons in all soils except JS3. This trend is typical for
evolved soils or highly weathered materials according to Stoops
et al. [64] and Thanachit et al. [71]. The higher concentrations of
Fe and Al in soils on the upperslope and in some horizons of soils
on backslope positions are associated with typic Fe nodules and
halos with strong impregnation degree (see Fig. 3a-E, a-F, b-I). A
selective retention of sodium, shown by a higher ESP in the lower
horizons is remarkable, although it does not reach the levels nec-
essary to diagnose sodicity.
Although soil acidity is a common feature in almost all soils, at
depths below 30–60 cm the values strongly differ among profiles
(Table 4). This is probably due to the cation interchange from sea-
sonal water table fluctuation in depth, that tend to enhance leach-
ing of cations linked to the alternation of Fe(II)-Fe(III) due to the
seasonal reduction-oxidation, that may increase acidity at some
depth. Those materials are related to truncated and transported pa-
leosols relicts as a result of the great degradational phase which
reshaped the soil mantle probably between 20,0 0 0 and 10,0 0 0
years B.P [22]. Depending upon the degree of weathering, and/or
the depth of truncation of this origin cover, different types of soils
may form poor ultisols on the upper slope, clay rich soils in de-
pressions and azonal soils than volcanic ashes soils in mountain
areas [66].
The OM contents are low in depth, except in the SJ4 soil profile.
In these soils, some small changes in the OM content will be asso-
ciated to ancient seasonal conditions that favoured OM deposition
in a concave microrelief. The Andean tectonic episodes originated
complex isohumic soil profiles in Colombia, on deep lateritic ma-
terials, not associated to the actual climatic conditions, at altitudes
close to 30 0 0 m.a.s.l. [19].
The high base saturation, higher values of Na+ that point to
sodicity at the middle and distal positions, and the relative high
amounts of Mg2+ compared to Ca2+ in some horizons are remark-
able, but this is not translated into a different clay formation (e.g.
expanding 2:1 clays).
3.3. Soil mineralogy
Soil mineralogy is fairly uniform among all the profiles. Kaoli-
nite dominates the clay in all of them, together with quartz
(Table 5). Kaolinite is a characteristic weathering product that
27
could be considered new formed in highly weathering environ-
ments both on ultisols and alfisols [3,54,64]. On the other side,
quartz is related to selective accumulation due to its relative re-
sistance to weathering and slight increase in the energy of colu-
vial deposition, since it occurs in the sand fraction [17,48,54]. Be-
sides, all the profiles show traces of one or several of the follow-
ing minerals: Integrated 2:1–2:2, Metahalloysite, Halloysite, Cristo-
balite and Goethite as it can be seen in Table 5. The lowest part
of the megafan is poorly drained and has a high base saturation. It
has important amounts of metalloysite and non crystalline miner-
als, increasing in depth. These changes suggest a present-day for-
mation of clays other than kaolinite, since these soils have proba-
bly been truncated by multiple arid erosional cycles [53].
The coarse fraction is dominated by quartz, feldspars and al-
tered grains (lithic fragments of sandstones, mudstones and clay-
stones), with some traces of zircon, amphiboles, magnetite, horn-
blende, tourmaline and lithic fragments (see photos of Table 6).
Ashley et al. [1] reported quartz-feldspar composition in the low
gradient depositional environment under alluvial fan system in a
dry conditions and paleo lake conditions in Tanzania. According
to Stoops [66], sand fraction in well drained oxic materials con-
sist of the least weatherable minerals,-mainly quartz-with zircon
and tourmaline as the most common accessory components. The
traces of phytoliths are indicative of materials derived from vol-
canic ashes [63,64]. According to Sedov et al. [58] a notable fea-
ture of many Andosols and other soils on volcanic ash is the high
concentration of phytoliths in the silt fraction.
Concentrations of minor minerals (Table 6) in this toposequence
are in the same range as other soils in high weathering environ-
ments, as reported by Thanachit et al. [71] and Pal et al. [53].
Quartz and zircon contents in depth at all soil positions are quite
uniform (Table 6); these minerals are very resistant minerals ac-
cording to Sudom and Arnaud [68] and Duchaufour [17] his pres-
ence indicates the homogeneity of the underlying material, in op-
position to the differences on the topsoil, affected by volcanic
ashes in the mountainous areas, and colluvial material at the dis-
tal part of the megafan. The presence of the Fe minerals as goethite
and lepidocrocite traces in clay fraction is due to alternating phases
of reduction and oxidation [2,5,54,71].
3.4. Micromorphological features
The soil micromorphological descriptions are summarized in
Table 4. The most important features are discussed below. The top-
soils of many of the soils are formed on volcanic ashes. The A
horizon of the highest soils of the toposequence corresponds to
a Lithic Melanudand and on a steep mountainous relief. The mi-
cromass is isotropic due to the presence of amorphous clays to-
gether with amorphous organic matter (Fig. 3a-A). The nature and
distribution of organic matter indicates the influence of volcanic
ashes and a high pedogenic alteration resulting in an andolization
process. The presence of noncrystalline materials evidences a rapid
weathering (see Table 5). According to Shoji et al. [59] preferential
formation of noncrystalline materials such as allophane, imogolite,
laminar opaline silica, ferrihydrite, and Al/Fe humus complexes is
a characteristic feature of the process of andolization. The result-
ing undifferentiated b fabric is very normal in soils developed on
volcanic ashes [58]. Besides, the development of a granular mi-
crostructure is common in andosols and reflects the abundance
of noncrystalline and organic materials, and supports the theory
of biological origin [58,59]. The rest of the topsoils with volcanic
ashes correspond to soils formed on colluvio-alluvial material on
the medium part of the slope, with A/AB/2Btg1/2Btg2 horizons in-
side soil profile.
The JS2 profile has a subangular blocky microstructure, and a
total porosity decreasing in depth. The groundmass of the topsoil
28 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35

Fig. 3. (a) Thin section of profiles JS1, JS2, JS3. A: Accumulation of humic substances. Profile JS1 horizon Ah (0–28 cm), 2,5× (PPL). B: Fabric of the groundmass stipple
speckled b-fabric. Coarse/fine related distribution is porphyric. Subangular blocks are present separated by channels and flat. Profile JS2 horizon Ap (30–49 cm) (2,5× PPL).
C–D. Dusty clay coating, not directly related to the pore system, and striated b-fabric. Profile JS2 horizon 2Btg2 (70–120 cm), (PPL and XPL). E–F: Microlaminated clay and
Fe-oxide intercalations. Profile JS3 horizon 2Btg2 (54–70 cm)(PPL and XPL). (b) Thin section of profiles JS4, JS5, JS6. G: Rounded disorthic Fe nodule. Profile JS4 horizon
AB (24–36 cm), (PPL). H: Red colours due to Fe-oxides in the groundmass. Aggregates are partially separated by planar pores. Profile JS4 horizon 2Btg1 (38–49 cm), (PPL).
I: Ferruginous hypocoating on a pore (down) and orthic impregnating nodule (up) indicating a stagnic pattern. Profile JS5 horizon Ap (0–18 cm) (PPL). J–K: Coatings of
microlaminated clay and iron hypocoatings of Fe. Profile JS6 horizon Bt (18–60 cm) (PPL and XPL). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35 29

Table 4
Main micromorphological characteristics and redoximorphic pattern (when clearly expressed).

Profile Horizon Micromass/b-fabric Pedofeatures/Redoximorphic pattern

JS1 A Organic matter and clay, black/undifferenciated Passage features by faunal activity.
JS2 Ap Yellowish-red, clay, fine silt and organic (1) Faunal passages, very frequent, mixing materials of the underlying horizons; (2)
pigment/undifferenciated Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, anorthic, impregnative, rounded, equant.
AB Yellow, fine silt and clay/cross-striated and (1) Faunal passages, very frequent, mixing materials of the underlying horizons; (2)
stipple speckled Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, anorthic, impregnative, rounded, equant; (3) Loose
discontinuous infillings of excrements in channels.
Btg1 Yellowish-red, fine clay and silt/cross-, (1) Clay intercalations, coatings and infillings, mottled, 2nd order interference colours
granostriated and mosaic speckled due to Fe impregnation; (2) some fragmented and deformed Fe-depletion
hypocoatings, and Fe-oxihydroxides quasicoatings around pores; (3) Nodules of
Fe-oxihydrox., moderately impregnated, orthic; (4) Faunal passages and mixing of
materials from other horizons./STAGNIC
Btg2 Grey, fine clay and silt/cross striated and mosaic (1) Clay coatings and infillings, mottled, 1st order interference colours; (2)
speckled Intercalations, hypo- and quasicoatings of Fe-oxihydroxides; (3) Nodules of
Fe-oxihydroxides, moderately to strongly impregnated, orthic; (4) Faunal passages and
mixing of materials from other horizons./GLEYIC
JS3 Ap Dark brown, clay, fine silt and organic (1) Faunal passages, very frequent, mixing materials of the underlying horizons; (2)
pigment/undifferenciated Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, anorthic, impregnative, rounded, equant.
Btg1 Greyish brown, clay, fine silt/cross-, granostriated (1) Clay infillings, mottled, oriented; (2) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, moderately to
and mosaic speckled strongly impregnated, orthic; (3) Hypocoatings of Fe-oxihydroxides; (4) Pseudomorphs
of Fe-oxihydroxides after root residues.
2Btg2 Reddish brown, clay and fine silt/stipple specked, (1) Faunal passages, very frequent, mixing materials of the underlying horizons; (2)
slightly granostriated Hypocoatings of Fe-oxihydroxides; (3) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly
impregnated, orthic and disorthic./STAGNIC
2Btg3 Greyish, clay, fine silt/cross- and granostriated Nodules and intercalations of Fe-oxihydroxides, slight to strongly impregnated,
orthic./GLEYIC
JS4 Ap Dark brown, clay, fine silt and organic (1) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly impregnated, disorthic and anorthic; (2)
pigment/undifferentiated Hypocoatings of Fe-oxihydroxides; (3) Pseudomorphs of Fe-oxihydroxides after root
residues.
AB Dark brown, clay, fine silt and organic (1) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly impregnated, disorthic and anorthic; (2)
pigment/undifferenciated Hypocoatings of Fe-oxihydroxides; (3) Pseudomorphs of Fe-oxihydroxides after root
residues.
2Btg1 Dark brown, clay, fine silt and organic (1) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly impregnated, disorthic and anorthic; (2)
pigment/undifferenciated Hypocoatings of Fe-oxihydroxides; (3) Pseudomorphs of Fe-oxihydroxides after root
residues; (4) Intercalations and infillings of kaolinite, limpid, microlaminated.
2Btg2 Irregular mixture of patches of dark brown, clay, (1) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly impregnated, disorthic and anorthic; (2)
fine silt and organic pigment and iron-rich Hypocoatings of Fe-oxihydroxides; (3) Pseudomorphs of Fe-oxihydroxides after root
micromass/undifferenciated residues (4) Intercalations and infillings of kaolinite, limpid, microlaminated (more
abundant than overlying 2Btg1); (5) Faunal passages.
C/2Btg3 Irregular mixture of patches of dark brown, clay, (1) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, moderately impregnated, orthic inside the aggregates;
fine silt and organic pigment and iron-rich (2) Hypocoatings of Fe-oxihydroxides; (3) Intercalations and infillings of kaolinite,
micromass/undifferenciated limpid, microlaminated (more abundant than overlying 2Btg2); (4) mottled coatings of
clay, silt and organic punctuations; (5) Faunal passages.
JS5 Ap Yellowish brown, clay, fine silt and organic (1) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly impregnated, anorthic; (2) Hypocoatings of
pigment/stipple speckled Fe-oxihydroxides around root channels; (3) Pseudomorphs of Fe-oxihydroxides after
root residues; (4) Fragments of kaolinite coatings; (5) Clay hypocoatings around
channels, between sand particles
A Yellowish brown, clay, fine silt/stipple speckled (1) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly impregnated, orthic and disorthic; (2)
Fe-depletion hypocoatings of around root channels; (3) Coatings and infillings of
kaolinite, around pores, mottled due to organic punctuations, very thick (2–3 mm),
distorted and fragmented; (4) Fragments of kaolinite and iron coatings in the
groundmass/STAGNIC, Fe-depletion and dirty clay coatings around voids
2Btg1 Yellowish brown, clay, fine silt/mosaic speckled, (1) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly impregnated, orthic; (2) Fe-depletion areas,
slight cross striation roughly around pores, vertical and horizontal; (3) Coatings and infillings of kaolinite,
around pores, the horizontal ones mottled due to organic punctuations, very thick
(2 mm), distorted (irregular extinction patterns); (4) Fragments of kaolinite and iron
coatings in the groundmass/STAGNIC
2Btg1 Yellowish brown, clay, fine silt/mosaic speckled (1) Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly impregnated, orthic; (2) Hypocoatings of
Fe-oxihydroxides around root channels; (3) Coatings and infillings of kaolinite, around
pores, mottled due to organic punctuations, very thick (2 mm), distorted (irregular
extinction patterns); (4) Fragments of kaolinite and iron coatings in the groundmass;
(5) Faunal passages/STAGNIC-GLEYIC
2Btg2 Greyish clay, fine silt/mosaic speckled, cross-, (1) Aggregate nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides and clay, strongly impregnated, orthic,
poro- and grano-striation fragmented by faunal activity; (2) Hypocoatings of Fe-oxihydroxides around root
channels; (3) Coatings and infillings of kaolinite, around pores, some microlaminated,
some mottled due to organic punctuations, very thick (2 mm), distorted (irregular
extinction patterns); (4) Faunal passages/GLEYIC
2Btv Greyish clay, fine silt/mosaic speckled, cross-, (1) Aggregate and typic nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides and clay, strongly impregnated,
poro- and grano-striation orthic, fragmented by faunal activity; (2) Fe-depletion areas, roughly around some
pores; (3) Coatings, intercalations and infillings of kaolinite, around pores, some
microlaminated, some mottled due to organic punctuations, very thick (2 mm),
distorted (irregular extinction patterns), occupying about 40% of the section; (4) Clay
rich areas with vesicular microstructure and strongly impregnated with purple iron
oxi-hydroxides following a reticular pattern; (5) Faunal passages /STAGNIC, more clayed
JS6 Ap Dark grey clay, fine silt and organic Nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly impregnated, anorthic. STAGNIC
pigment/undifferenciated
(continued on next page)
30 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35

Table 4 (continued)

Profile Horizon Micromass/b-fabric Pedofeatures/Redoximorphic pattern

AB Grey clay and fine silt/stipple speckled (1) Few kaolinite coatings, microlaminated to irregular extinction pattern, around
channels; (2) Faunal pasajes.
Bt1 Grey clay and fine silt/stipple to mosaic speckled (1) Kaolinite-rich nodules, and intercalations, probably fragmented clay coatings, with
parallel- and cross striated b-fabric,; (2) Few microlaminated kaolinite infillings; (3)
Faunal passages.
Bt2 Grey clay and fine silt/cross-, grano- and (1) Kaolinite-rich nodules, and intercalations, probably fragmented clay coatings, with
porostriated parallel- and cross striated b-fabric; (2) Kaolinite coatings, microlaminated to irregular
extinction pattern, around channels; (3) Disorthic nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides, strongly
impregnated./GLEYIC

Table 5
Mineral composition of the clay fraction in the studied soils and associated difractograms.

Hz Depth Vermiculite Smectite Kaolinite In Ig Ih Metahalloisite Halloisite Mica Cristobalite Quartz Lepidocrocite Goethite Non
(cm) crystalline

JS1
A 0–28 – – – – – – – – – +++ +++ – – +
R 28–100 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
JS2
Ap 0–30 – – +++ – tr tr – tr – tr ++++ – – –
AB 30–49 – – +++ – ++ tr – tr – – +++ – – –
2Btg1 49–70 tr – +++ – + tr – tr tr – ++++ – tr –
2Btg2 70–120 + – +++ – tr tr – – + – +++ tr tr –
JS3
Ap 0–23 – – ++++ tr – tr – – + tr ++ tr tr –
2Btg1 23–54 – – ++++ + – + – – tr – ++ tr + –
2Btg2 54–70 – – ++++ ++ – tr – tr tr – ++ tr tr –
2Btg3 70–92 – – ++++ + – tr – tr + – ++ + + –
2Btg4 92–120 – – ++++ ++ – tr – tr + – ++ – tr –
JS4
Ap 0–25 – – +++ – – – ++ – – + +++ – – –
AB 25–45 – – ++ – – – ++ – – + +++ tr tr –
2Btg1 45–59 – – +++ – – – tr – – + +++ – + –
2Btg2 59–88 – – +++ – tr – – – – – +++ tr + –
2Btg3 88–110 – – +++ – – – tr – – tr ++ – tr –
JS5
Ap 0–18 – – ++++ – – – – – – + +++ – – –
2Btg1 18–56 – – ++++ – tr – – – – tr tr – tr –
2Btg2 56–79 – – ++++ tr tr – – – – – tr – tr –
2Btv 79–103 – – ++++ – – – tr – – – ++ – tr –
2Btg 103– – – ++++ – – – – – – – tr – – –
117
JS6
Ap 0–26 – – ++ – – – ++ – – + ++++ – – +
AB 26–33 – ++ ++ tr – – ++ – – – + – – ++
Bt1 33–49 – – +++ – tr – – – – tr ++ – – +
Bt2 49–59 – tr +++ + tr – +++ – – tr ++ – – ++
Bt3 59–82 – – +++ tr + – +++ – – tr ++ – – +
Bt4 82–100 – – ++++ tr tr – – – – tr +++ – – +

In: Interbedded, Ig: Integrated 2:1–2:2, Ih: Interbedded hidrobiotite∗ Metahalloysite, ++++ Dominant (> 50%); +++ Abundant (30–50%); ++ Common (15–
30%); + Presence (5–15%); trTraces (< 5%).

contains rests of weathering minerals (e.g. weathering hornblende)
in the coarse fraction, and the micromass has an undifferenciated
b-fabric (typical on amorphous clays) which would indicate the
volcanic origin. The rest of the profile is cross-striated and mosaic
striated, according to the soil micromorphology analysis method of
Stoops [65].
Pedofeatures in the Btg horizons are textural and consist of
microlaminated and speckled clay coatings probably of kaolinite
(Fig. 3a-B). The redoximorphic pedofeatures are common in the
whole profile. They are mainly orthic nodules of Fe-oxihydroxides,
with different degrees of impregnation, and in the 2Btg horizons
hypo- and quasicoatings of iron oxides appear (Fig 3a-C and a-D),
indicating an increasing severity of redox conditions, from stagnic
to gleying in depth.
The JS3 profile has also a subangular blocky structure and a
fairly high porosity throughout. The b-fabric of the topsoil is undif-
ferenciated, probably due to amorphous clays derived from the vol-
canic ashes; and it becomes grano- and cross-striated below. The
redoximorphic features are iron nodules (anorthic and disorthic in
the Ap horizon, orthic and disorthic below), weakly to strongly im-
pregnated. Microlaminated clay coatings are only evident in the
upper Bt horizon, (Fig. 3a-E and a-F) being not evident below. This
could be due to the masking effect of coatings and hypocoatings of
iron oxides on the clay coatings. Again, the redoximorphic pattern
is stagnic in the upper horizons and gleyic in the lowermost one,
indicating that the severity of (paleo) redox conditions increase in
depth (bottom horizon with a Fe-depleted groundmass).
The main characteristic of the JS4 profile is its undifferenciated
b-fabric throughout all the horizons, probably due to the mask-
ing effect of the high amount of amorphous iron in the ground-
mass (Fig. 3b-G). Pedofeatures are either related to redoximor-
phic features, mainly stagnic pattern, although not completely ex-
pressed) or textural, as microlaminated intercalations and infillings
 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35 31

Table 6
Mineral composition in the coarse silt fraction of the studied soils. The minerals, cristals or grains were identified by their features, and counted as they cross the
intersection of horizontal and vertical lines on the microscope’s eyepiece. 300 grains were counted and according this the percentage of each mineral was determined.

Horizon Depth (cm) Qz A Zr Ma Hr Hs P Phy Fp LFg Op He Vg AGr L T E B M Mi

JS1
A 0–28 20 – – – – – – – 40 5 – – 35 – – – – – – –
R 28–100 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

JS1 (0–22 cm. depth) 10×. N. crossed. Qz-Fp

JS2
Ap 0–30 35 12 – – – – 5 tr 27 – 4 – 5 9 – – 3 – – –
AB 30–49 37 8 – – – – 4 tr 31 – 2 – 5 10 – – 3 tr – –
2Btg1 49–70 43 2 – – – – tr tr 30 – tr – tr 22 – – tr tr tr –
2Btg2 70–120 40 tr tr – – – – – 24 – tr – tr 34 – – – – tr –

JS2 (30–49 cm depth). N. crossed 10×. Qz, A, Vg

JS3
Ap 0–23 45 2 – – – – tr 3 37 – tr – tr 11 – – tr – – –
2Btg1 23–54 55 tr tr – – – – tr 38 – tr – – 5 – – – – – –
2Btg2 54–70 75 tr – – – – – tr 16 – tr – – 7 – tr – – – –
2Btg3 70–92 76 – – – – – – – 15 – tr – – 8 – tr – – – –
2Btg4 92–120 70 tr – – – – – – 7 – tr – – 9 – – – – – –

JS3 (23–54 cm depth) N. crossed 10×. Qz

JS4
Ap 0–25 100 – tr tr tr tr – tr tr tr – tr tr tr – – – – – –
AB 25–45 97 – tr 1 1 tr – 1 tr tr – tr tr tr tr tr – – – –
2Btg1 45–59 100 – tr tr tr tr – – tr tr – tr – – – tr – – – –
2Btg2 59–88 99 – tr tr tr tr – – – 1 – tr – – – tr – – – –
2Btg3 88–110 99 – tr tr tr tr – tr – 1 – tr – – – – – – – –

JS4 (25–45 cm. depth). N. crossed. 10×. Qz

JS5
Ap 0–18 96 1 tr tr – 1 – tr 2 tr – tr – – tr tr – – – –
2Btg1 18–56 97 tr tr 1 – tr – tr 1 tr – tr – – tr 1 – – – –
2Btg2 56–79 98 tr tr tr – tr – – tr 2 – tr – – – tr – – – –
2Btv 79–103 99 – tr tr – – – tr tr – 1 – – – – – – –
2Btg 103–117 97 – tr tr – tr – – tr 3 – tr – – – tr – – – –

JS5 (56–79 cm depth) N. parallel. Qz.

(continued on next page)

of kaolinite, but also mottled coatings in the lowermost horizon
(Fig. 3b-H).
Profiles JS5 and JS6 are characterized by a stipple specked b-
fabric at the surface that becomes mosaic- and stipple speckled
in depth. The type of amorphous pedofeatures, together with the
colour of the groundmass (yellow at the surface, greyish in depth)
correspond again to stagnic patterns at the topsoil (Fig. 3b-I) and
gleyic at the bottom of the profile. The lowermost horizon is more
clayey, and shows patches with vesicular microstructure stained
with a network of purple iron oxi-hydroxides, which suggests a
lithological discontinuity. According to Jungerius [37], loss of clay
is related to alternating dry and wet conditions during Holocene.
Again, the two types of kaolinite coatings and intercalations (some
microlaminated, some mottled) coexist in the JS5 profile, while
only microlaminated coatings are seen in JS6 (Fig. 3b-J and b-K).
32 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35

Table 6 (continued)

Horizon Depth (cm) Qz A Zr Ma Hr Hs P Phy Fp LFg Op He Vg AGr L T E B M Mi

JS6
Ap 0–26 89 – – – – – – – 11 – tr – – – – – – – – –
AB 26–33 75 tr tr – – – tr – 17 – 6 – – – – tr – – – –
Bt1 33–49 71 tr tr – – – tr – 19 – 8 – – – – tr tr – – –
Bt2 49–59 77 tr tr – – – – – 17 – 5 – – – – – – – – tr
Bt3 59–82 82 – tr – – – – tr 8 – 9 – – – – – – – – tr
Bt4 82–100 86 – tr – – – – – 6 – 7 – – – – – tr – – tr

JS6 (18–60 cm. depth). N. parallel. Qz-Fp

Qz, quartz; A, amphibole; Zr, zircon; Ma, magnetite; Hr, hornblende; Hs, hyperstene; P, pyroxene; Phy, phytolites; Fp, feldspar; LFg, lithic fragments; Op, opaque; He,
hematite; Vg, volcanic glass; Agr, altered grains; L, lamprobolite; T, turmaline; E, epidote; B, biotite; M, muscovite; Mi, other micas; tr, traces (<1%).

In summary, the micromorphology shows dominant stagnic re-
doximorphic patterns in topsoils and gleyic in depth (except at
the bottom of profile JS5, where a more clayey horizon could be
responsible of a perched watertable), these results are coincident
with Folster et al. [22]. This pattern confirms the existence of a re-
gional waterlogging from the underlying horizons that could be a
paleofeature.
Mottled kaolinite coatings, due to silty organic punctuations
coexist with microlaminated kaolinite coatings, sometimes in the
same horizon. This suggests two generations of coatings, i.e. a first
one (paleofeature) from lacustrine organic layers and a second one
(a present-day soil formation process) from clean illuviated clay
from upper horizons.
Another striking feature is the well expressed striated fabrics,
common in all profiles except in JS1 (high organic matter content)
and JS4 (high Fe content); while the clay mineralogy is kaolinitic
(only traces of swelling clays), and therefore no argilloturbation
should be expected. Under lacustrine paleoenvironments, the de-
position of kaolinitic clays originates (uni)strial fabrics which un-
der better drainage conditions and the effect of fauna could evolve
to the observed striated fabrics [41].
3.5. Paleohydrological and paleopedological implications
Hydromorphic processes are evident in all profiles, both in the
field and through the microscope. The micromorphological study
shows different degrees of hydromorphism, some of them asso-
ciated to the present pore system and some to a palaeo char-
acter (broken and disturbed redoximorphic pedofeatures). In par-
ticular, a clear gleyic pattern is observed at the base of profiles
JS2, JS3 and JS6, which does not correspond with the present-
day drainage class according to Jungerius [37] and Folster et al.
[22], because of the lack of a water table and the soil surveys of
the area [35,56,81]. This paleocharacter corresponds thus to the
poorly-drained conditions previous to the tilting of the megafan.
These evidences are less visible in the topsoils, which nowadays
have good drainage conditions. Soil profiles reveal the existence
of two distinct episodes of weathering corresponding to modern
soils (Andisols) and paleosols formed on volcano colluvial deposits
[46] and glaciofluvial deposits in the intermontane environments
[28]. A chronostratigraphy and climatic evolution in relation to soil
forming processes are proposed in Table 7 according Van der Ham-
men [75] results.
The micromorphological study reveals the presence of two
types of clay coatings, some of them kaolinitic and microlaminated
(profiles JS4 and JS6), whilst other coatings are mottled, made of
silt, clay and organic punctuations (profiles JS2, JS3 and base of
JS6). The latter should therefore correspond to higher dispersive
conditions, as they are found in periglacial environments [6] or to
a high ESP [20,52]. In our case, the mottled coatings are found at
depth in the non-sodic, proximal profiles; related to paleofeatures
of a periglacial environment. High sodium concentration along the
soil profile in the distal part of the fan is associated to actual
climatic (dry seasonal) conditions. Regarding the microlaminated
coatings in the distal profiles, they are neither typical of Na-high
soils. Since sodification is a present-day process, we could rather
attribute this feature to the higher leaching of the megafan just af-
ter the tilting, that was afterwards progressively being sodified by
the leaching of weathering products of Na-rich parent materials at
the source areas of the fan and their accumulation at the distal,
more arid areas [36,51,56,81].
The striated fabrics of the groundmass, typical of soils with
swelling clays, do not correspond to the kaolinitic mineralogy of
the soils. Despite of this, soil surveys of the area report frequent
cracking of the soils in dry periods, which may be due just to the
high clay content [32,33]. In any case, part of the striation may
be due to kaolinite sedimentation in a swampy environment, that
was later drained (disturbed) and bioturbated, giving rise to the
striation we observe today, due to the seasonal regime (dry-wet).
The current hydromorphic conditions will be influenced by geo-
morphological position of the water table, which varies with the
topography and if its position is relevant to the formation of soil
[1,64]. The poorer drainage conditions together with water oversat-
urated with silica would have prevented p. ex imperflectly drained
soils on the valley bottom [44]. These results are a contribution to
studies of paleoenvironmental conditions in an Andean megafan,
during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene.
4. Conclusions
The studied soils of the Fusagasuga megafan are polygenetic
and characterized by ancient processes as clay formation and il-
luviation, and redox processes in moist periods. The parent mate-
rials, formed by colluvial fluxes between the last interglacial and
glacial periods underwent a high degree of weathering (kaolinite
formation). After that, the megafan was affected by a poor drainage
(marsh-like conditions), that formed a strial b-fabric in the par-
ent material and gleyic redoximorphic patterns. In the middle and
early pleistocene, Andean tectonic phenomena (tilting) changed
the drainage conditions to more oxidized ones, which originated
more complex soil profiles with a stable organic matter accumula-
tion. This organic matter was associated to rejuvenation phenom-
ena (Andean volcanic period- late pleistocene) by wind deposited
volcanic ashes on the upperfan positions in the mountainous area.
Halloysite and Metahalloysite evidence the presence of no crys-
talline minerals, as allophane.
 J.C. Loaiza et al. / GeoResJ 14 (2017) 20–35 33

Table 7
Chronostratigraphy and climatic evolution in relation to soil forming processes, based on the dating results of Van Der Hammen [75,76].

Years Geotectonic Soil forming Micromorphological Climatic

Chronostratigraphy dynamics Morphogenetic process characteristics evolution
environ-
ment

Holocene >20 0 0 Recent Structural- Organic matter Faunal passages, Wet climate
neotectonics Denudative accumulation, mixing materials of
clay illuviation. the underlying
horizons,
redeposited
nodules of
Fe-oxihydroxides.
Organic matter
accumulation
(undifferenciated
b-fabrics), limpid
clay coatings.
10,0 0 0 Erosion and
anthropic
influence, clay
illuviation.
Late 30,0 0 0 Tectonism- Andolization, Dusty clay coatings, Cold and more
Pleistocene vulcanism Depositional: clay and silt infillings and dry than
Fusagasugá illuviation intercalations (not present climate
megafan related to present with
pore system). temperature
and moisture
fluctuations
Middle and 70,0 0 0 Fluvioglacial Redox Strial fabrics due to Glacial climatic
Early deposition Sedimentary processes and the sedimentation changes (dry)
Pleistocene (gravels and megabasin- clay deposition of kaolinite, to interglacial
angular rock Fusagasugá Redoximorphic (humit)
fragments) patterns (Stagnic
and gleyic).
Miocene- 7–6 My Tectonic uplift Vulcanism Erosion and Tropical climate
Pliocene of the Oriental sedimentation (wet and
mountain range warm)

The most important paleoenvironmental features are the argillic References

horizons with low base saturation in the proximal part, and high
base saturation in the medium and distal fan positions, affected
by present-day sodification. Clay mobilization occurs in the upper-
fan and transitional-fan positions, and therefore may be attributed
to the moist and dry periods, while the microlaminated kaolinite
coatings in the distal positions could be due to the higher leach-
ing conditions after the tilting of the fan, that where afterwards
sodified. Slope deposits were mainly formed alternating very dry
and wet conditions associated with seasonal variability of glacial
climates [37]. Summarizing, it has been possible to propose a hy-
pothesis of the complex tectonic and palaeoclimatic history of the
Fusagasuga megafan in the frame of the Andean orogeny, by the
study of the redoximorphic and clay-related pedofeatures, together
with the b-fabrics, as main micromorphological characteristics. The
behaviour of the ancient drainage network and erosional denuda-
tion processes it could be studied from the actual morphological
drainage conditions. On future studies the behaviour of the ancient
drainage as well as the erosive phenomena can be studied from
the redoximorphic features and the lithological discontinuities ev-
idences of the soil profile.
[10] Brunnschweiler D. Glacial and periglacial form systems of the Colombian Qua-
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for allowing us to perform these analyses in the National Soil Lab-
oratory (Colombia), and Dr. Carlos Pulido for the micromorpholog-
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