ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

EE32002
UNIT ONE
Introduction and general principles of
measurements
What are some of the measurements we do ?
Mass (kg)
Temperature (0C)
 What do you
prefer most ?

Why ?
 Purpose and definitions
• The purpose of a measurement system is to
link the observer to a process in order to gain
more information of the process.
• Process: A system which generates information,
e.g. a chemical reactor, a car, a human heart, or
a weather system.
• Observer: A person (or another system) that
needs the information, e.g. a plant operator, a
driver (or engine control system), or a nurse.
• Measurement system: A system that measures
information carrying quantities, processes
them, and presents them to the observer.
Process Measurement system Observer

INFORMATION
 Why Measure?
• Human capabilities alone cannot provide
sufficient information for a detail
understanding of the processes we interact
with.

• Humans can make only a QUALITATIVE

judgment, but not a QUANTITATIVE
measurement.
What can we sense as humans?
 Basic requirements for a meaningful
measurement
• Need a MEASUREING INSTRUMENT.
• Measuring Instruments help us compare the
measured value with a standard, and quantify.
• The standard used for comparison purposes
must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
• The apparatus used and the method adopted
must be provable (verifiable).
 Methods of Measurement
• DIRECT METHODS: In these methods, the
unknown quantity (called the measurand) is
directly compared against a standard.

• INDIRECT METHODS: Measurements by

direct methods are not always possible,
feasible and practicable. In engineering
applications measurement systems are used
which require need of indirect method for
measurement purposes.
 Types of Instruments
• Mechanical : These instruments are very reliable for static
and stable conditions. But their disadvantage is that they
are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of
dynamic and transient nature.

• Electrical: It is faster than mechanical, indicating the

output is more rapid & flexible than mechanical methods.
But the display depends on the mechanical movement of a
pointer. The response is 0.5 to 24 seconds.

• Electronic Instruments: It is more reliable than other

systems. It uses semiconductor devices and weak signal
can also be detected. Data recording facilities are easy to
link to.
 Classification of Instruments
• ABSOLUTE: These instruments give the
magnitude if the quantity under measurement
in terms of physical constants of the
instrument. Used in maintaining standards.

• SECONDARY: These instruments are calibrated

by comparison with absolute instruments or
with other secondary ones which have
already been calibrated.
Secondary instruments are further classified as:
• Indicating instruments
Those which indicate the magnitude of an electrical
quantity at the time when it is being measured
• Integrating instruments
Those which measure the total amount of either
quantity of electricity (ampere-hours) or electrical
energy supplied over a period of time
• Recording instruments
Those which keep a continuous record of the
variation of the magnitude of an electrical quantity
to be observed over a definite period of time
 Classification of Instruments
• Passive instruments: the instrument output is
entirely produced by the quantity being
measured.
 Classification of Instruments
• Active instruments: the quantity being
measured simply modulates the magnitude of
some external power source
 Classification of Instruments
• Deflection Type Instruments
• Null Type Instruments.
 Classification of Instruments
• Analogue and Digital instruments
1. Analog Instruments
The signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion
and can take on infinite number of values in a given range.
Fuel gauge, ammeter and voltmeters, speedometer fall in
this category.

2. Digital Instruments
Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on a finite
number of different values in a given range are digital
signals and the corresponding instruments are of digital
type. Digital instruments can store the result
electronically, for future purposes. A digital multimeter is
an example of a digital instrument.
 Instruments and Measurement
Systems
• Measurement involves the use of instruments
as a physical means of determining quantities
or variables.

• Because of the modular nature of the

elements within it, it is common to refer to
the measuring instrument as a
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM.
Elements of a Generalized
Measurement System
 Elements of a Generalized
Measurement System
• PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT (Sensor / Transducer) :

The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with

the primary sensing element of a measurement system.

Transducer: is a device that transforms a physical parameter

to be measured to another that can be measured using
available techniques.

All measuring instruments use transducers to transform the

physical parameter you need to measure, to another that can
be measured easily using available techniques. The
transducer may contain the sensor alone or a sensor with
additional conversion technology.
 Elements of a Generalized
Measurement System
• VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT (Converter):
It converts the output of the primary sensing element
into suitable form to preserve the information content
of the original signal.

• DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT (Display / Recorder):

The information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel
handling the instrument or the system for monitoring,
control or analysis purpose.
 Static Characteristics of Instruments
and Measurement Systems
• Applications that involve measurement of
quantities that are either constant or varies
very slowly with time are known as static
measurements, and instrument characteristics
that affect such measurements are called
static characteristics.
• ACCURACY:
It is the closeness of an instrument reading to the
true value of the quantity being measured.
• In practice, it is more usual to quote the inaccuracy figure
rather than the accuracy figure for an instrument.
Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong,
and is often quoted as a percentage of the full-scale.
𝑥𝑚 −𝑥𝑎
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥𝑎 × 100%
xm = Measured value xa = Actual (should be) value
• Expressed as:
Absolute value (± 10 C)
Percentage of reading (± 0.5 %)
Percentage of full-scale reading (<1% FSR)
• Precision: Ability of an instrument to reproduce a
certain reading for a fixed quantity under the same
conditions (repeatability / reproducibility).
• If a large number of readings are taken of the same
quantity by a high precision instrument, then the
spread of readings will be very small.

𝑥𝑚 −𝑋
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1 − 𝑋
× 100%
X = Mean value

• Reproducibility (stability): is specified in terms of scale

of readings over a given period of time.
• Sensitivity of measurement: The sensitivity of
measurement is a measure of the change in
instrument output that occurs when the quantity
being measured changes by a given amount. Thus,
sensitivity is the ratio:

The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope

of the straight line drawn on the next Figure. If, for
example, a pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of
10 degrees in a pressure transducer, the sensitivity of
the instrument is 5 degrees/bar (assuming that the
deflection is zero with zero pressure applied).
• Resolution: Resolution or discrimination of any
instrument is the smallest change in the input signal
(quantity under measurement) which can be detected by
the instrument (smallest measurable quantity).
A moving coil ammeter has a uniform scale with 50 major divisions
and gives a full-scale reading of 5 A. The instrument can read up to
1/4 th of a scale division with a fair degree of certainty based on
smaller markings. Determine the resolution of the instrument in
mA.

0 5

1 Division = FSR/50 = 5A/50 = 0.1A = 100 mA

1/4th of a division = 100 / 4 = 25 mA
25mA
• Drift: is an undesirable quality in industrial
instruments because it is rarely apparent and
cannot be maintained. It is classified as
– Zero drift
– Span drift or sensitivity drift
– Zonal drift.
• Zero drift describes the effect where the zero reading of
an instrument is modified by a change in ambient
conditions.

• Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift)

defines the amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity
of measurement varies as ambient conditions change.

Zero drift example:

A bathroom scale with a +1 kg drift shows 1 kg with no one
on the scale. If someone of known weight 70 kg were to get
on the scale, the reading would be 71 kg, and if someone of
known weight 100 kg were to get on the scale, the reading
would be 101 kg. Zero drift is normally removable by
calibration.
Sensitivity and sensitivity drift example:
A certain transducer produces a voltage corresponding to
temperature with a sensitivity of 2.5 mV / 0C. What would be
the voltage output of this device for a temperature of 50 0C, if
the output linearly increases from 20 mV at 0 0C?. (145)
Due to environmental factors, the sensitivity has changed to
2.4 mV / 0C. Calculate the output voltage of the measuring
instrument for the same temperature of 50 0C. (140)

If there is an additional zero drift of 2mV, -3 mV, find the

output at 50 0C in each case. (142, 137)

If the additional zero drift is 2mV, with 2.4 mV / 0C sensitivity,

what is the actual temperature if the output is 100 mV? (32.5)
If the additional zero drift is -3mV, with 2.5 mV / 0C sensitivity,
what is the actual temperature if the output is 50 mV? (13.2)
• Tolerance: Is a term that is closely related to
accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to
be expected in some value (= % inaccuracy).

• Range or span: The range or span of an instrument

defines the minimum and maximum values of a
quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure.

• Linearity: It is normally desirable that the output

reading of an instrument is linearly proportional to
the quantity being measured.
• Threshold: If the input to an instrument is gradually
increased from zero, the input will have to reach a
certain minimum level before the change in the
instrument output reading is of a large enough
magnitude to be detectable. This minimum level of
input is known as the threshold of the instrument.

• Resolution: When an instrument is showing a

particular output reading, there is a lower limit on the
magnitude of the change in the input measured
quantity that produces an observable change in the
instrument output.
Dead space: Dead space is defined as the range of
different input values over which there is no change
in output value.
The following table shows output measurements of a voltmeter
under two sets of conditions:
(a) Use in an environment kept at 20C which is the temperature
that it was calibrated at.
(b) Use in an environment at a temperature of 50C.

Voltage readings at Voltage readings at

calibration temperature of 20C temperature of 50C
(assumed correct)
10.2 10.5
20.3 20.6
30.7 40.0
40.8 50.1
Determine the zero drift when it is used in the 50C environment,
assuming that the measurement values when it was used in the
20C environment are correct. Also calculate the zero drift
coefficient.
Example problem - resolution:
A 30 cm scale has 30 uniform divisions. 1/20th of a scale
division can be estimated with a fair degree of certainty.
Determine the resolution in mm. (Ans: 0.5mm)
All measurements are made using
SI Systems of UNITS (Base Units)
Quantity Base Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic
Temperature
kelvin K

Luminous intensity candela cd

The SI Prefixes
SI Systems of UNITS (Derived Units)
Example:
(a) An instrument is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20°C
and the following output readings y are obtained for various input values x:
y 13.1 26.2 39.3 52.4 65.5 78.6
x 5 10 15 20 25 30
Determine the measurement sensitivity, expressed as the ratio y/x.

(b) When the instrument is subsequently used in an environment at a

temperature of 50°C, the input/output characteristic changes to the
following:
y 14.7 29.4 44.1 58.8 73.5 88.2
x 5 10 15 20 25 30
Determine the new measurement sensitivity. Hence determine the
sensitivity drift due to the change in ambient temperature of 30°C.
Also find the sensitivity drift coefficient (sensitivity change / Temperature
variation).

Answer: (a) 2.62 (b) 2.94 ; 0.32

Example:
A load cell is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 21°C and
has the following deflection/load characteristic:
Load (kg) 0 50 100 150 200
Deflection (mm) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
When used in an environment at 35°C, its characteristic changes to the
following:
Load (kg) 0 50 100 150 200
Deflection (mm) 0.2 1.3 2.4 3.5 4.6
(a) Determine the sensitivity at 21°C and 35°C.
(b) Calculate the total zero drift and sensitivity drift at 35°C.
(c) Hence determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift coefficients (in units
of μm/°C and (μm per kg)/(°C)).

Answer: (a) 20 μm/kg; 22 μm/kg; (b) 200 μm; 2 μm/kg;

(c) 14.3 μm/°C; 0.143 μm °C-1 (kg)-1
Dynamic Characteristics of a Measurement System
The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe
its behavior between the time a measured quantity changes
value and the time when the instrument output attains a
steady value in response.
In any linear measuring system, the following general relation can
be written between input (qi) and output (q0) for time (t) > 0

qo is the output reading qi is the measured quantity

Zero-Order Instrument
If all the coefficients a1.... an other than a0 are assumed
zero, then a0qo = b0qi  qo = (b0/a0)qi =Kqi, where K is
a constant known as the instrument sensitivity.
Instruments of this type are known as Zero Order
instruments.

In ideal instruments, the output

is directly proportional to the
input under all conditions.
O(t) = K I(t)
K = Sensitivity (static)

Eg: Vo of a potentiometer is
always proportional to the
displacement.
First-Order Instrument
If all the coefficients a2 ... an, except for ao and a1 are
assumed zero, the equation modifies to:
First Order Instrument

 By dividing both sides by a0,

𝑎1 𝑑𝑞0 𝑏0
+ 𝑞0(𝑡) = 𝑞𝑖(𝑡)
𝑎0 𝑑𝑡 𝑎0
Let the operator D denote d/dt. Then,

𝐷 + 1 𝑂 = 𝐾𝐼
Where;
 = a1/a0 = time constant
K = b0/a0 = static sensitivity

𝑶 𝑲
=
𝑰 𝑫 + 𝟏
Examples of First order Instruments
Mercury thermometer:
Consider the following differential equation which describes a
mercury thermometer

6(dh/dt) + 2h = 4x10-3 T

where; h is the height of mercury column in m, T is the input

temperature in 0C.
Dividing both sides by 2, we get 3(dh/dt) + h = 2x10-3 T

Therefore, the time constant of the thermometer is 3s and the

static sensitivity is 2x10-3 m/0C.
First order Instruments and a step change:

Step function:
I = 0 for t ≤ 0 and I = A for t > 0

First order response to a step function is:

𝑡
−

𝑂 = 𝐾𝐴(1 − 𝑒 )  an exponential rise to the final value.

The dynamic error is the difference between the ideal and the
actual responses. This error decreases with time, after a
change in input.

The output consists of:

• Transient response
• Steady state response
Example:
Consider that a thermometer of first order with a time constant
of 3s is exposed to a sudden change of temperature from 0 to
100 0C. Show how the thermometer reading changes with time
after this sudden change of temperature.
Time (s) Temp C
0 0
Input is a step function
1 28.35
I = 0 for t ≤ 0 and I = 100 for t > 0 2 48.66

The response must be: O = 100(1-e-(t/3)) 3

4
63.21
73.64
Temperature Output 5 81.11
120 6 86.47
100
7 90.3
8 93.05
80
9 95.02
60
10 96.43
40
11 97.44
20 12 98.17
0 13 98.69
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
14 99.06
Example:
Determine the time constant and the static sensitivity of a
system described by the following equation.
30 (dv/dt) + 3v = 1.5x10-5 T

Solution:
By dividing both sides by 3, we get:
10 (dv/dt) + v = 5x10-6 T

Therefore, the time constant = 10 and the static sensitivity

K = 5x10-6.
 Dynamic Characteristics of a
Measurement System
• SPEED OF RESPONSE: It is defined as the rapidity with which a
measurement system responds to changes in measured quantity.
It is one of the dynamic characteristics of a measurement system.
• FIDELITY: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement
system indicates changes in the measured quantity without any
dynamic error.
• Dynamic Error : It is the difference between the true value of the
quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the
measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called
measurement error. It is one the dynamic characteristics.
• Measuring Lag : It is the retardation delay in the response of a
measurement system to changes in the measured quantity. It is of
2 types:
• Retardation type: The response begins immediately after a change
in measured quantity has occurred.
• Time delay: The response of the measurement system begins after
a dead zone after the application of the input.
Calibration of Instruments
• The act of checking or adjusting (by comparison with a
standard) the accuracy of a measuring instrument.

• The validation of a specific measurement technique and

equipment (in the case of a new development)

Calibration consists of comparing the output of the instrument

or sensor under test against the output of an instrument of
known accuracy when the same input (the measured quantity)
is applied to both instruments.
Calibration is required / done in situations like:
• When a new instrument is developed
• When a specific time period is elapsed
• When a specific usage (operating hours) has elapsed
• When an instrument has had a shock or vibration or a repair
which potentially may have put it out of calibration
• Whenever observations appear questionable

Use basic principles if necessary (ice point, boiling point…)

Use a standard (a more accurate and stable measuring
instrument as the reference)
Derive a relationship between the instrument reading and the
standard
ACTUAL = a READING + b
ACTUAL = a READING2 + b READING + c
ACTUAL = a log(READING) + b
ACTUAL = a e(READING) + b
Example calibration curves
Linear and Non-linear characteristics

ACTUAL = a. READING + b
Standard Reading

New Instrument Reading

Obtaining a calibration curve using MS Excel

12
y = 1.0048x - 0.0133
10
 Linear
8

6 Series1
Linear (Series1)
4

0
0 5 10 15

60

50

40
Non Linear 
30 Series1
Poly. (Series1)
y = 0.386x2 - 9.1547x + 78.359
20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Example problem:
A certain meter has a full scale range from 0 to 100, with a
resolution of 0.5. It is also known that there is an initial error of
+1.5 in the meter. The meter accuracy is indicated as +/- 1%.
If this meter is used to measure a parameter at a true value of
95.2, what is the possible range of values you may get as the
meter reading (provide the maximum and minimum possible
readings you expect for an actual value of 95.2)? (97.5 or 98, 95.5)

Part II:
If the same meter provides a reading of 85.5, what is the
range within which the actual value may lie ?

Highest: 98, Lowest:95.5, Actual can be between 83.15 (or 82.91

assuming 85.25) and 84.84 (or 85.09 assuming 85.75).
A thermocouple has an output e.m.f. as shown in the following
table when its hot (measuring) junction is at the temperatures
shown. Determine the sensitivity of measurement for the
thermocouple in mV/0C.
mV 4.37 8.74 13.11 1 17.48
0C 250 500 750 1000
More Examples:

A certain transducer produces a voltage corresponding to

temperature with a sensitivity of 5 mV/ 0C. What would be the
voltage output of this device for a temperature of 80 0C, if
there is no zero error at 0 0C?

If the above transducer characteristics have changed due to

environmental factors so that the new sensitivity is 5.6 mV/0C,
and the zero error is -8 mV, calculate the output voltage for
the same temperature of 80 0C.
12V