Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 350–361

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Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Full length article

Experimental investigation on the behavior of GFRP-RAC-steel double-skin T

tubular columns under axial compression
⁎
Zhe Xiong, Jianping Deng, Feng Liu , Lijuan Li, Wenxian Feng
School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP)-recycled aggregate concrete (RAC)-steel double-skin tubular column
Double-skin tubular column (DSTC) combines and optimizes the benefits of the fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)-concrete-steel DSTC, and
Axial compressive behavior RAC. To study the axial compressive behavior of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC, tests on ten column specimens which
Recycled aggregate concrete consider the difference of the replacement percentage of the recycled coarse aggregate (RCA), the concrete
Confined concrete
strength and the thickness of the GFRP tube were conducted. The failure mode, ultimate load, confinement
Theoretical formulae
factor, load-longitudinal curve, ductility, and stress-strain curve were analyzed and discussed. In addition, the
theoretical formulae to estimate the ultimate load of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC were derived. The results showed
that (1) the development of the lateral expansion of the concrete led to the hoop rupture of the GFRP tubes and
the inward buckling of the inner steel tube; (2) the natural aggregate concrete (NAC) in the traditional DSTC can
be replaced with RAC and the strength can be guaranteed, and a GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimen with a 50%
replacement percentage of the RCA was recommended; (3) the theoretical results agreed well with the experi-
mental results. The application of RAC to the DSTC can utilize these materials effectively and make a con-
tribution to the economic development and environmental protection.

1. Introduction
Since composite structures can fully utilize their materials, many
composite members have been proposed recently [1–3]. Recently, more
and more researchers have paid their attention to the fiber-reinforced-
polymer (FRP) concrete-steel double-skin tubular column (DSTC)
system. The DSTC is commonly composed of an FRP outer tube, a
concrete pipe, and a steel inner tube. The concrete pipe can be effec-
tively confined by the FRP outer tube and the steel inner tube. Mean-
while, the concrete pipe can effectively restrict the buckling of the steel
inner tube [4]. This column system has many advantages including a
low weight-to-strength ratio, high ductility, good durability, ease of
construction, concrete confinement, excellent corrosion resistance,
shear resistance, and seismic resistance.
Recently, numerous systematic studies which are focused on the
mechanical behavior of the FRP-concrete-steel member have been un-
dertaken. Yu and Teng [4] indicated that the concrete was effectively
confined by a square FRP tube and a circular steel tube when axial
compression was applied to the DSTC. Yu et al. [5] found that a DSTC
subjected to cyclic axial compression exhibits good ductility. Con-
sidering the parameters of the fiber orientation and the diameter-to-
thickness ratio of the steel tube, Abdelkarim and Elgawady [6]
investigated the compressive behavior of the DSTC under cyclic axial
compression and found that a DSTC with wet FRP tubes has high axial
strengths and strains. Zhang et al. [7] presented an experimental study
on a DSTC subjected to an axial compression accompanied by cyclic
lateral loading, and observed that the DSTC had good ductility and
seismic resistance. Wang et al. [8] investigated the impact performance
of the FRP-concrete-steel member and discussed the effects of impact
energy and the number of FRP layers. Ozbakkaloglu et al. [9] in-
vestigated the relationship between a concrete confinement model and
the failure mode of the steel inner tube. The aforementioned research
studies confirmed the advantages of the FRP-concrete-steel member
under different loading conditions.
The material property of the concrete can influence the mechanical
behavior of the FRP-concrete-steel member greatly. In structural en-
gineering, high-strength concrete (HSC) has attracted more and more
attention from designers owing to its superior performance and
economy. By combining an FRP-concrete-steel member with HSC, a
new high-performance structural member was developed [10]. Many
experimental studies on the mechanical performance of FRP-HSC-steel
members under various loading conditions were reported [11–15]. It is
shown that the FRP-HSC-steel member has high ductile behavior. To
save on construction costs, Zhou et al. [16] invented an FRP-

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Fliu@gdut.edu.cn (F. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2018.08.026
Received 31 May 2018; Received in revised form 14 August 2018; Accepted 27 August 2018
Available online 04 September 2018
0263-8231/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z. Xiong et al.
Fig. 1. Dimensions of the test specimens.
lightweight aggregate concrete-steel DSTC system. Owing to the effec-
tive confinement of the lightweight aggregate concrete, this new DSTC
system exhibits excellent ductility and an improvement in the ultimate
strength and strain. Li et al. [17–20] investigated the mechanical
properties of the seawater and sea sand concrete, and applied the sea-
water and sea sand concrete to the DSTC system.
As more and more aging buildings are dismantled, the concrete
debris have become a serious environmental problem. Therefore, the
recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) which is produced using the con-
crete debris is developed [21,22]. Compared with the ordinary con-
crete, RAC has many merits, such as utilizing concrete debris effec-
tively, saving natural resource, and sustainable social and economic
development. As a result, many researchers have devoted themselves to
study the mechanical behavior of RAC [23–25]. To improve the me-
chanical behavior of RAC, researchers attempted to add additive agents
involving waste rubber [26], nanoparticles [27] and natural pozzolan
[28]. Generally, achievements with regard to the mechanical behavior
of RAC are abundant. As is well-known, the weak bond strength be-
tween RCA and cement mortar can decrease the mechanical properties
of RAC. Hence, RAC is usually used as a composite member in which
RAC can be confined effectively [29,30]. According to the experimental
results, Yang and Han [31] found that the RAC-filled steel tube columns
have slightly lower but comparable ultimate capacities compared with
the normal concrete-filled steel tube columns. Geng et al. [32] studied
the time-dependent behavior of RAC-filled steel tube columns and in-
dicated that the long-term deformation of the RAC-filled steel tube
columns increase by 22% as the natural coarse aggregate (NCA) is re-
placed with RCA. Huang et al. [33,34] investigated the behavior of
polyester FRP (PFRP), glass FRP (GFRP) and carbon FRP (CFRP) tubes
encased RAC with recycled clay brick aggregate and reported that
PFRP, GFRP and CFRP tubes enhanced strength and deformation of the
confined RAC specimens remarkably. Thereby, RAC is suitable for ap-
plying to DSTC composite structures.
Zheng and Ozbakkaloglu [35] developed a DSTC system that
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Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 350–361
consists of a CFRP, RAC, and steel tube. They mainly investigated the
influence of the concrete strength, thickness of the CFRP tube, cross-
sectional shape, and the replacement percentage of the RCA on the
behavior of the confined concrete. Their achievements provided basic
data for the behavior of the DSTC with RAC.
In this paper, a composite column system, namely, a GFRP-RAC-
steel DSTC, is developed. According to the aforementioned description,
the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC, which meets the requirements of sustainable
development and environmental protection, has promising future.
Thus, this paper investigates the behavior of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC
under axial compression.
Axial compressive tests on nine GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens
and two RAC-filled GFRP tube column specimens are conducted. To
study the influence of the replacement percentage of the RCA, the
concrete strength, and the thickness of the GFRP tube on the mechan-
ical behavior of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC, parameters whose values
are very different from those of the aforementioned reference [35] are
considered in the design of these column specimens. The failure modes
of the GFRP tube, confined concrete, and steel tube are described in
detail. Meanwhile, the ultimate load, confinement factor, load-long-
itudinal deformation curve, ductility, and stress-strain curve of the
column specimens are also analyzed and discussed. Furthermore, the
theoretical formulae to estimate the ultimate load of the GFRP-RAC-
steel DSTC are proposed. Therefore, the content of this paper is a
supplemental and further study of the DSTC with RAC. The findings
presented in this paper can provide instructional guidelines for the
application and development of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC. In addition,
the application of RAC to the DSTC can utilize these materials effec-
tively and make a contribution to the economic development and en-
vironmental protection.
Z. Xiong et al. Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 350–361

Table 1
Detailed information of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens.
No. RAC GFRP tube Steel tube

H/mm γ/% Strength hf/mm tf/mm df/mm hs/mm ts/mm ds/mm

FS-Y0-C30-T4 800 0 C30 780 4 400 800 3.25 325

FS-Y25-C30-T4 800 25 C30 780 4 400 800 3.25 325
FS-Y50-C30-T4 800 50 C30 780 4 400 800 3.25 325
FS-Y75-C30-T4 800 75 C30 780 4 400 800 3.25 325
FS-Y100-C30-T4 800 100 C30 780 4 400 800 3.25 325
FS-Y100-C40-T4 800 100 C40 780 4 400 800 3.25 325
FS-Y100-C30-T4.5 800 100 C30 780 4.5 400 800 3.25 325
FS-Y100-C30-T5 800 100 C30 780 5 400 800 3.25 325

2. Experimental program
2.1. Test specimens
Ten short column specimens (Eight GFRP-RAC-steel DSTCs and two
RAC-filled GFRP tube columns) were tested in the structural laboratory
of Guangdong University of Technology. For all column specimens,
their height H was 800 mm. The inner diameter df and height hf of their
circular GFRP outer tube were 400 mm and 780 mm, respectively. For
the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens, the outer diameter ds, thickness
ts, and height hs of their circular steel inner tube were 325 mm,
3.25 mm, and 800 mm, respectively. The test parameters involved the
replacement percentage of the RCA γ, the concrete strength, and the
thickness of the GFRP tube tf. Based on the total weight of the coarse
aggregate content, the replacement percentage of the RCA could be
obtained [36]. Detailed information for these column specimens is
shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1 and 2. To ignore the axial resistance of the
GFRP outer tube, concrete with a 20-mm height was exposed for
compressive loading at the top of the column specimens. The top con-
crete with a 20-mm height was reinforced by CFRP to enhance the
strength and stiffness of the loading part. Furthermore, the top and
bottom of the GFRP outer tube with a 30-mm height were also re-
inforced by CFRP to avoid collapse. The construction of the GFRP-RAC-
steel DSTC specimens can be divided into two steps. In the first step, a
GFRP outer tube and a steel inner tube are fabricated at the industry in
advance. And then, they serve as the form. The fabrication of the GFRP
outer tube is shown in Fig. 2. Firstly, a steel tube whose external dia-
meter is equal to the internal diameter of the GFRP tube is treated as the
mould to fabricate the GFRP tube. Subsequently, the fibers are oriented
in the angle of 75° with respect to the longitudinal axis of tubes. A
single GFRP laminate is generated as the filament winding process goes
through a cycle (from end A to end B, and then from end B to end A).
The filament winding process repeats this cycle until the target thick-
ness of the GFRP tube (4 mm, 4.5 mm and 5 mm) is achieved. In the
second step, casting the concrete between the GFRP tube and steel tube.
For the explicit understanding of the column specimens, concise sym-
bols were arranged. Taking the column specimen “FS-Y50-C30-T4” for
example, “FS” represents the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimen (“F” re-
presents the RAC-filled GFRP tube column specimen), “Y50” means the
replacement percentage of the RCA, “C30” means the concrete grade
which represents the 30 MPa concrete strength, and “T4” means the
thickness of the GFRP outer tube.
Table 2
Detailed information of the RAC-filled GFRP tube column specimens.
No. RAC GFRP tube
H/mm γ/% Strength hf/mm tf/mm df/mm
F-Y0-C30-T4 800 0 C30 780 4 400
F-Y100-C30-T4 800 100 C30 780 4 400
The column specimens are illustrated in Fig. 3. To explore the in-
fluence of the replacement percentage of the RCA, five GFRP-RAC-steel
DSTC specimens (FS-Y0-C30-T4, FS-Y25-C30-T4, FS-Y50-C30-T4, FS-
Y75-C30-T4, and FS-Y100-C30-T4) with different replacement percen-
tages of the RCA of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% were designed. To
study the effect of the concrete strength, two GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC
specimens (FS-Y100-C30-T4 and FS-Y100-C40-T4) with different con-
crete grades of C30 and C40 were designed, respectively. In addition,
three GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens (FS-Y100-C30-T4, FS-Y100-C30-
T4.5, and FS-Y100-C30-T5) with different thicknesses of the GFRP tube
of 4 mm, 4.5 mm, and 5 mm were designed to analyze the effect of the
thickness of the GFRP tube. Finally, two RAC-filled GFRP tube column
specimens (F-Y0-C30-T4 and F-Y100-C30-T4) were designed for a
comparative discussion.
2.2. Materials
2.2.1. Concrete
The concrete was manufactured by mixing the cement with ordinary
tap water, fine aggregate (FA), NCA and RCA. For the cement, Ordinary
Portland cement was adopted. Its corresponding information is listed in
Table 3. The FA was river sand. The NCA was gravel, and the RCA was
extracted from waste concrete that was produced by the Shenzhen
LVFAR Green Technology Corporation, as shown in Fig. 4. Detailed
information of the aggregates is listed in Table 4. For a ordinary con-
crete grade such as C30 or C40, its initial amounts of the water, cement,
sand and NCA can be calculated orderly, according to the code “Spe-
cification for Mix Proportion Design of Ordinary Concrete” [37]. Sub-
sequently, the final mix proportions of the ordinary concrete with the
concrete grades of C30 and C40 were obtained by means of the trial
test. For the RAC, the amounts of the NCA and RCA can be calculated
based on the replacement percentage of the RCA and the mix propor-
tions of the ordinary concrete. As a result, the mix proportions of all the
concrete specimens are listed in Table 5.
A slump test was carried out to investigate the workability of the
fresh concrete paste. The measured slump of the concrete mixtures was
in the range of 50–90 mm (The S2 fluidity level based on the reference
[38]). To measured the material properties of the concrete, three cy-
linder specimens with dimensions of 150 × 150 × 300 mm3 were de-
signed for each mix proportion. At first, the raw materials of the con-
crete were mixed properly. Subsequently, these fresh mixtures were
poured into templates and vibrated twice for 20 s on a vibration table.
These fresh mixtures should be cured for 1 day. When the shape of these
fresh mixtures was formed, the templates could be removed. A standard
condition at 20 ± 2 °C and relative humidity of 90 ± 5% was pro-
vided to cure the concrete specimens for 28 days. Finally, 21 (7 × 3)
cylinder specimens were manufactured for the compressive test [39], as
in Fig. 5(a). The material properties of the concrete are listed in Table 6.
2.2.2. Steel tubes
The steel tubes were manufactured from Q235 steel (the nominal
yield strength is 235 MPa). To obtain the material properties of the steel

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Fig. 2. Fabrication of the GFRP outer tube.
Fig. 3. Column specimens.
tubes, compressive tests were carried out on hollow steel tubes
(Fig. 5(b)). The hollow steel tubes collapsed by local buckling. On
average, their ultimate load and buckling strain were 928 kN and
0.00625, respectively. Meanwhile, the corresponding peak stress was
calculated to be 562 MPa.
2.2.3. GFRP
GFRP with 215 MPa tensile strength and 28.6 GPa modulus of
elasticity was used as the outer tube of the DSTC. These mechanical
properties were tested and provided by the manufacturer.
2.3. Strain and displacement measurements
To measure the strain of the GFRP and steel tubes and the de-
formation of the column specimens, strain gauges and linear variable
differential transducers (LVDTs) were used, as plotted in Fig. 6. These
measuring points were classified into three categories:
(1) Three vertical LVDTs (D1–D3) were located around the column
specimens to measure their longitudinal deformation. The angle
between two adjacent LVDTs was 120°. The failure type could be
determined according to the longitudinal deformation.
Furthermore, the vertical LVDTs could be used to monitor the ec-
centric action.
(2) Four groups of longitudinal and hoop strain gauges (SS1–SS4) were
placed at the middle of the outer surface of the steel tubes to
measure the strain distribution. The angle between two adjacent
strain gauges was 90°. The longitudinal and hoop strain gauges
were formed as a “T” shape.
(3) Four groups of longitudinal and hoop strain gauges (SR1–SR4) were
placed at the middle of the outer surface of the GFRP tubes to
measure the strain distribution. The angle between two adjacent
strain gauges was 90°. The longitudinal strain gauges can also be
Table 3
Detailed information of the cement.
Type Grade Density (kg/ Sulfur trioxide Magnesium oxide
(MPa) m3) content (%) content (%)
Ordinary Portland 42.5 3150 3.18 1.42
cement
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used to monitor the eccentric action.
2.4. Test devices and procedure
A 10,000-kN pressure testing machine (YAW-10000F) was adopted
for an experimental investigation of the behavior of the GFRP-RAC-steel
DSTC specimens subjected to axial compression. These column speci-
mens were installed in the same test setup. The test data were recorded
through a data acquisition system (TSD530), as shown in Fig. 7. When
each column specimen and measuring equipment were installed prop-
erly, a trial loading was applied to ensure that each column specimen
and measuring equipment were working properly and that the axial
compression was applied correctly. After everything was examined, the
tests were started. During the loading procedure, to obtain the entire
and stable data of each column specimen, a displacement control of
0.36 mm/min was employed until the column specimens collapsed.
3. Test phenomena and failure modes
3.1. Test phenomena
At the beginning of the loading process, the deformation of the
column specimens was inconspicuous, signifying the elastic phase. As
the axial compression increased, the deformation gradually increased.
Before a failure, there was a special phase in which white cracks gra-
dually developed at the CFRP tubes, accompanied with crackles.
3.2. Failure modes
The failure of all GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens was begun with a
hoop rupture of the GFRP tubes, as shown in Fig. 8. The hoop rupture of
the GFRP tubes was expanded from the middle section to the top or
bottom end, except for column specimen FS-Y100-C30-T5. To record
the test date, the wires went through the hole which is bored at the top
of the GFRP tube (Fig. 7). Owing to a hole imperfection of the GFRP
tube, the column specimen FS-Y100-C30-T5 failed with the hoop rup-
ture at the top of the GFRP tube.
After removing the GFRP tubes, the failure of the concrete was
observed. Owing to the loss of the confinement effect, the concrete was
crushed. Meanwhile, the longitudinal and hoop cracks were developed
and expanded, accompanied with the split of the coarse aggregate and
cement mortar, as illustrated in Fig. 9.
Due to the constrain effect of the concrete, the steel inner tube was
prevented from outward buckling. Hence, it exhibited an inward and
rippling buckling, as shown in Fig. 10.
Dipotassium oxide Disodium oxide Loss on Fineness
content (%) content (%) ignition (%) modulus
0.59 0.46 2.46 2.7
Z. Xiong et al. Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 350–361

(a)RCA (b)NCA
Fig. 4. RCA and NCA.

Table 4 Table 6
Detailed information of the aggregates. Material properties of the cylinder specimens.
Type Continuous Fineness Apparent Bulk Crushing Water Concrete grade γ/% Concrete strength/MPa
gradation modulus density density index (%) absorption
and particle (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (%) C30 0 29.9
size C30 25 32.2
C30 50 30.7
FA < 5 mm 2.6 2580 – – – C30 75 32.2
NCA 5–20 mm – 2690 1515 5.25 1.9 C30 100 33.4
range C40 100 38.9
RCA 5–20 mm – 2322 1265 13.6 7.42
range
Therefore, it is concluded that the concrete cracked firstly and ex-
panded laterally, resulting in the activation of the GFRP tube confine-
Table 5
ment. As the lateral expansion of the concrete developed, the hoop
Mix proportions of the concrete.
rupture of the GFRP tubes and the inward buckling of the inner steel
Concrete γ/% Sand/ NCA/ RCA/ Cement/kg/ Water/kg/ tube occurred.
grade kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 m3 m3

C30 0 732 1076 0 377 215

C30 25 732 807 269 377 215 4. Results and discussion
C30 50 732 538 538 377 215
C30 75 732 269 807 377 215 The ultimate load, confinement factor, deformation, load-long-
C30 100 732 0 1076 377 215
itudinal deformation curve, ductility, and stress-strain curve of the
C40 100 641 0 1076 475 225
column specimens were measured, calculated, and discussed in this
experimental program.

(a) Concrete (b) Steel tubes

Fig. 5. Compressive tests.

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Fig. 6. Strain and displacement measurements.
4.1. Ultimate loads
The ultimate loads Nu of the column specimens recorded from the
experimental results are shown in Table 7. In Table 7, Ns represents the
ultimate load of the hollow steel tubes (= 928 kN) determined from the
hollow steel tube tests, Ac is the area of the concrete cross-section, fc'
represents the compressive strength of the unconfined concrete re-
corded from compressive tests of the concrete cylinder specimens, and
fcc represents the compressive strength of the confined concrete, which
can be calculated by Eq. (1) [4], and the confinement factor α, which
represents the confinement effect of the ratio of fcc to fc'.
Nu − Ns
fcc =
Ac
Fig. 7. Test devices and procedure.
Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 350–361
For the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens (FS-Y0-C30-T4, FS-Y25-
C30-T4, FS-Y50-C30-T4, FS-Y75-C30-T4, and FS-Y100-C30-T4) with
different replacement percentages of the RCA of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%,
and 100%, their ultimate loads were 2824 kN, 2714 kN, 2884 kN,
2694 kN, and 2765 kN, respectively. Their ultimate loads were very
close to each other. Compared with the ultimate load of the column
specimen FS-Y0-C30-T4 (the traditional DSTC), the difference in the
ultimate loads of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens was in the range
of − 2.1% to 4.6%. For these GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens, their
ultimate loads were mainly determined by the compressive strength of
the confined concrete. On the one hand, the dimensions of their GFRP
outer tubes were the same; on the other hand, their compressive
strength of the unconfined concrete were close. Hence, their compres-
sive strengths of the confined concrete were close [14]. As a result, the
effect of the replacement percentage of RCA on the load-bearing ca-
pacity of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC was relatively slight. This phe-
nomenon was similar to what was found in reference [35]. Conse-
quently, it is concluded that the natural aggregate concrete (NAC) in
the traditional DSTC can be replaced with RAC and the strength can be
guaranteed. In addition, the ultimate load of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC
specimen with the 50% replacement percentage of the RCA was the
maximum. Therefore, it can be concluded that the concrete mixed with
50% NCA and 50% RCA exhibited a good load-bearing capacity.
With respect to the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens (FS-Y100-C30-
T4 and FS-Y100-C40-T4) with different concrete grades of C30 and C40,
their ultimate loads were 2765 kN and 2962 kN, respectively. It is ob-
served that as the concrete strength increased, the ultimate loads in-
creased. When the C30 concrete was replaced with C40 concrete, the
ultimate load was increased by 7.1%. Therefore, the concrete strength
influenced the load-bearing capacity of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC.
With regard to the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens (FS-Y100-C30-
T4, FS-Y100-C30-T4.5, and FS-Y100-C30-T5) with thicknesses of the
GFRP tube of 4 mm, 4.5 mm, and 5 mm, their ultimate loads were
2765 kN, 2860 kN, and 3314 kN, respectively. Accordingly, an increase
in the thickness of the GFRP tube can improve the confinement effect of
the concrete. As expected, increasing the thickness of the GFRP tube
from 4 mm to 4.5 mm or 5 mm led to an improvement in the ultimate
load, which rose by 3.4% or 19.9%, respectively. This indicates that the
(1)
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(a)FS-Y0-C30-T4 (b) FS-Y25-C30-T4
(e) FS-Y100-C30-T4 (f) FS-Y100-C30-T4.5
Fig. 8. Rupture of the GFRP tubes.
confinement effect influenced the load-bearing capacity of the GFRP-
RAC-steel DSTC.
Due to a large cross-section area of the concrete, the RAC-filled
GFRP tube column specimens exhibited a high ultimate load. Moreover,
as the NAC was replaced with RAC, the ultimate load of the concrete-
filled GFRP tube column decreased by 7.5%.
4.2. Confinement factors
The confinement factor α is listed in Table 6. It is found that the
confinement effect can improve the ultimate load of the column spe-
cimens significantly. The improvement reached 4–67% for the GFRP-
RAC-steel DSTC specimens and 41–70% for the RAC-filled GFRP tube
column specimens.
Compared with column specimen FS-Y0-C30-T4 (the traditional
DSTC), the confinement effect of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens
with replacement percentages of the RCA of 25%, 75%, and 100% was
weakened. The reason for this was that some old cement aggregates
were contained in the RCA, leading to a weak bond face between the
old cement aggregate and the cement mortar. However, the column
specimen FS-Y50-C30-T4 had a better grading of 50% NCA and 50%
RCA [40]. Hence, its confinement effect was close to that of column
specimen FS-Y0-C30-T4 (the traditional DSTC).
It is observed from Table 6 that the confinement effect decreased
with an increase in the concrete strength. This observation was similar
to that concluded by Fanggi and Ozbakkaloglu [10].
The thickness of the GFRP tube affected the confinement effect. As
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Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 350–361
(c) FS-Y50-C30-T4 (d) FS-Y75-C30-T4
(g) FS-Y100-C30-T5 (h) FS-Y100-C40-T4
the thickness of the GFRP tube increased from 4 mm to 4.5 mm or
5 mm, the confinement factor increased from 1.29 to 1.35 or 1.67, re-
spectively.
Compared with the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens, the confine-
ment effect of the RAC-filled GFRP tube column specimens was more
significant. The reason for this was high void ratio in double-skin tube
reduces the confinement effectiveness and non-uniform stress dis-
tribution through the concrete cross-section.
4.3. Load-longitudinal deformation curves
Using the average longitudinal deformation recorded by LVDTs
D1–D3, load-longitudinal deformation curves were obtained. The load-
longitudinal deformation curves of all column specimens are shown in
Fig. 11. Generally, for the RAC-filled GFRP tube column specimens,
their load-longitudinal deformation curves had a bilinear characteristic.
In the second linear portion of the curves, the longitudinal deformation
increased with an increase in the axial compression until a sudden
collapse occurred without a descending response. By contrast, for the
GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens, their load-longitudinal deformation
curves went through approximately three phases.
At the beginning of the loading process, these curves ascended al-
most linearly, and owing to the elastic behavior, the longitudinal de-
formation was very small. As the load increased, a nonlinear char-
acteristic was exhibited. After the ultimate load, a slowly descending
response could be observed, implying good ductility and post-bearing
capacity of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens. The ultimate
Z. Xiong et al.
(a)FS-Y0-C30-T4 (b)FS-Y25-C30-T4
(d)FS-Y75-C30-T4
Fig. 9. Crush of the concrete tubes.
Fig. 10. Buckling of the steel tube.
longitudinal deformation lu is listed in Table 6. The ultimate long-
itudinal deformation lu of the RAC-filled GFRP tube column specimens
corresponded to the ultimate load, while the ultimate longitudinal de-
formation lu of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens corresponded to a
load of 0.85Nu.
As shown in Fig. 11(a), due to the influence of the replacement
percentages of the RCA, the load-longitudinal deformation curves of the
GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens were mainly different in the second
phase. Their ultimate longitudinal deformations were very close and
were in the range of 11.03–12.31 mm. The ultimate longitudinal de-
formation of column specimen FS-Y75-C30-T4 was the minimum
357
Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 350–361
(c)FS-Y50-C30-T4
(e)FS-Y100-C30-T4
(11.03 mm), while the ultimate longitudinal deformation of column
specimen FS-Y50-C30-T4 was the maximum (12.31 mm).
According to Fig. 11(b), the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimen with a
higher concrete strength exhibited a greater ultimate longitudinal de-
formation. This conclusion was similar to that obtained from the re-
ference [10].
It is observed from Fig. 11(c) that, as expected, increasing the
thickness of the GFRP tube from 4 mm to 4.5 mm or 5 mm led to an
increase in the ultimate longitudinal deformation from 11.23 mm to
12.36 mm or 12.66 mm, respectively, owing to the larger load-bearing
capacity.
Comparisons of the load-longitudinal deformation curves of two
types of column specimens are illustrated in Fig. 11(d). Owing to the
larger ultimate load, the longitudinal deformation of the RAC-filled
GFRP tube column specimens was approximately 1.7 times that of the
GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens.
4.4. Ductility
For the convenience of the analysis, ductility coefficient μ was used
to estimate the ductility of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens. In this
paper, this was defined as the ratio of the yield longitudinal deforma-
tion ly to the ultimate longitudinal deformation lu, as shown in Table 7.
Generally, the yield longitudinal deformation corresponded to a load of
Z. Xiong et al. Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 350–361

Table 7
Test results.
No. Nu/kN Ns/kN Ac/mm2 fc'/MPa fcc/MPa α lu/mm ly/mm μ Nu,t/kN RE

FS-Y0-C30-T4 2824 928 4.27 × 104

29.9 44.4 1.48 11.99 0.75 15.29 2829 − 0.18%
FS-Y25-C30-T4 2714 928 4.27 × 104 32.2 41.8 1.3 11.96 0.83 10.17 2720.29 − 0.23%
FS-Y50-C30-T4 2884 928 4.27 × 104 30.7 45.8 1.49 12.31 1.11 10.35 2891.85 − 0.27%
FS-Y75-C30-T4 2694 928 4.27 × 104 32.2 41.4 1.29 11.03 1.07 8.98 2703.65 − 0.36%
FS-Y100-C30-T4 2765 928 4.27 × 104 33.4 43.0 1.29 11.23 0.85 12.23 2776.48 − 0.42%
FS-Y100-C30-T4.5 2860 928 4.27 × 104 33.4 45.2 1.35 12.36 0.86 13.12 2829.27 1.07%
FS-Y100-C30-T5 3314 928 4.27 × 104 33.4 55.9 1.67 12.66 1.08 10.80 – –
FS-Y100-C40-T4 2962 928 4.27 × 104 38.9 47.6 1.22 13.1 1.64 7.37 3011.33 − 1.67%
F-Y0-C30-T4 6395 – 12.57 × 104 29.9 50.9 1.7 – – – – –
F-Y100-C30-T4 5915 – 12.57 × 104 33.4 47.1 1.41 – – – – –

0.4Nu.
For the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens (FS-Y0-C30-T4, FS-Y25-
C30-T4, FS-Y50-C30-T4, FS-Y75-C30-T4, and FS-Y100-C30-T4) with
different replacement percentages of the RCA, their ductility coeffi-
cients varied from 8.98 to 15.29. Compared with column specimen FS-
Y0-C30-T4 (the traditional DSTC), the ductility coefficients of the
GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimens decreased greatly, implying that the
RCA can decrease the ductility of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC. However,
the ductility coefficient of column specimen FS-Y100-C30-T4 was larger
than that of the other column specimens FS-Y25-C30-T4, FS-Y50-C30-
T4, and FS-Y75-C30-T4. The main reason for this might be that the
inner imperfections between the RCA and cement mortar were fewer
than those between the RCA, NCA, and cement mortar.
As the concrete strength increased from C30 to C40, the ductility
coefficient of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimen decreased from 12.23
to 7.37, respectively, signifying that the increase of the concrete
strength was a weakened influence on the ductility of the GFRP-RAC-
steel DSTC.
4.5. Stress-strain curves
DSTC specimens were obtained and are illustrated in Fig. 12. The
characteristics of the stress-strain curves were similar to those of the
load-longitudinal deformation curves. Most of the stress-strain curves
except for those of column specimen FS-Y100-C30-T4 went through
approximately three phases. These stress-strain curves exhibited a
parabolic characteristic at the first phase, a linear feature at the second
phase and a large post-peak deformation at the third phase, implying
that the concrete was confined effectively and its ductility was im-
proved significantly. The stress-strain curve of column specimen FS-
Y100-C30-T4 went through approximately two phases: an ascending
phase and a slowly descending phase. When the strain was 0.00625, all
of the stress-strain curves exhibited a sudden change. This can be at-
tributed to the assumption of the ultimate load of the steel inner tube.
It is found that the stress-strain behavior of these specimens was
different and was influenced by the replacement percentage of the RCA,
the concrete strength, and the thickness of the GFRP tube. The peak
stress of each stress-strain curve is shown in Table 7. The peak stress
increased with an increase in both the concrete strength and the
thickness of the GFRP tube. Meanwhile, the confined concrete with
50% NCA and 50% RCA obtained a maximum peak stress.

Using the calculation method proposed by Yu and Teng [4], the

stress-strain curves of the confined concrete of the GFRP-RAC-steel

Fig. 11. Load-longitudinal deformation curves.

358
Z. Xiong et al.
Fig. 12. Stress-strain curves of the confined concrete.
5. Formulae for the ultimate load of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC
According to the Li's work [17–20], it is indicated that the ultimate
load of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC is composed of the ultimate loads of
the confined concrete and steel inner tube. Therefore, the theoretical
ultimate load Nu,t can be expressed as
Nu, t = fcc Ac + f y As
where, fy represents the yield strength of the steel inner tube, and As is
the area of the cross-section of the steel inner tube.
Moran and Pantelides [41] indicated that the compressive strength
of the confined concrete fcc increased linearly with the increase of the
confining pressure provided by the GFRP outer tube. Hence, it can be
expressed as
fcc = fc′ + kfl
where, fl represents the confining pressure, and k is the modified
parameter.
The stress state of the GFRP outer tube is plotted in Fig. 13. Ac-
cording to the static equilibrium condition Eq. (4), the confining pres-
sure fl can be calculated by Eq. (5).
π df
∫0 fl
2
dθ sin θ = 2f f t f
Fig. 13. Stress state of the GFRP outer tube.
Thin-Walled Structures 132 (2018) 350–361
tf
fl = 2 ff
df (5)
where, ff represents the tensile strength of the GFRP [17–20,42].
According to the aforementioned discussions, the replacement per-
centage of the RCA γ had an effect on the confinement factor α.
Thereby, the replacement percentage of the RCA γ had a strong re-
(2) lationship with the modified parameter k. Based on the experimental
data and the statistical regression technology, it can be expressed as
k = 98.3r 4 − 201.5r 3 + 127.4r 2 − 25.3r + 3.4 (6)
As a result, the theoretical ultimate load of the GFRP-RAC-steel
DSTC can be calculated by Eqs. (2)–(6), as listed in Table 7, accom-
panied with the relative error (RE) between the experimental and
theoretical results. Due to the unsuitable failure modes of the column
specimen FS-Y100-C30-T5, its theoretical load-bearing capacity was
(3) ignored. It is observed that the difference in the experimental and
theoretical ultimate loads was in the range of − 1.67% to 1.07%.
Therefore, the proposed formulae provided an effective method for
designers to estimate the ultimate load of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC.
6. Conclusions
This paper presented experimental results of the axial compressive
(4) behavior of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC. The corresponding effects of the
key parameters, including the replacement percentage of the RCA, the
concrete strength, and the thickness of the GFRP tube were in-
vestigated. According to the test results reported in this paper, the
following conclusions are drawn:
(1) The failure was first concentrated on the development of the con-
crete crack and lateral expansion, resulting in the hoop rupture of
the GFRP tubes. As the hoop rupture of the GFRP tubes developed
from the middle to the ends, the inner concrete tubes lost the
confinement effect, leading to the crushing of the concrete. The
steel tubes exhibited an inward buckling at the position where the
GFRP tubes collapsed.
(2) The replacement percentage of the RCA influenced the ultimate
359
Z. Xiong et al.
load of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC slightly. Therefore, the NAC in
the traditional DSTC can be replaced with RAC, and the strength
can be guaranteed. In addition, according to the test data of this
paper, a GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC specimen with a 50% replacement
percentage of the RCA was recommended. An increase in both the
concrete strength and the thickness of the GFRP tube had an en-
hanced effect on the ultimate load of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC.
(3) The confinement effect can improve the load-bearing capacity of
the column specimens significantly. The confinement effect de-
creased with an increase in the concrete strength and a decrease in
the thickness of the GFRP tube.
(4) Generally, the load-longitudinal deformation curves of the RAC-
filled GFRP tube column specimens had a bilinear characteristic,
while the load-longitudinal deformation curves of the GFRP-RAC-
steel DSTC specimens went through approximately three phases.
The replacement percentage of the RCA mainly affected the second
phase of the load-longitudinal deformation curves. The GFRP-RAC-
steel DSTC specimen with a higher concrete strength and thicker
GFRP tube exhibited a greater ultimate longitudinal deformation.
(5) Both the RCA and the increase in the concrete strength can decrease
the ductility of the GFRP-RAC-steel DSTC.
(6) The theoretical formulae were calibrated with the experimental
results. Meanwhile, the theoretical formulae provided an effective
method for designers to evaluate the ultimate load of the GFRP-
RAC-steel DSTC.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the finacial support provided
by the Natural Scinece Foundation of China under Grant No. 11472084
and No. 51578162, the Science and Techbology Project of Guangdong
Province under Grant No. 2017B020238006, and the Science and
Technology Plainning Project of Guangzhou City under Grant No.
201704030057.
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