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Article history: With the growing number of people interested in instrument-making and in playing historic instruments,
Received 5 January 2016 we find more and more people wanting to study these instruments. Museums and private collections
Accepted 22 February 2016 sometimes allow interested parties to study them but more often than not access is very limited in
Available online 20 May 2016
order to better preserve the artefacts. One strategy for allowing access to the information is to make a
detailed study of the instrument and to record the level of detail desired by the most demanding user
Keywords: (usually the instrument restorer or maker). The nature of a musical instrument, the hygroscopic wooden
Wooden musical instrument
structure and the effect of the tension of the strings make this task more complicated than examining a
Luthier
Restoration
static object. Very old instruments have often undergone restorations or repairs and these interventions
Historic Guitar must be recorded as posterior to the date of construction. This paper will propose a method and tools to
document these instruments. This is an extensive set of guidelines which will help scholars to standardise
this complicated task. The method described uses relatively simple tools but it should be noted that
much more sophisticated techniques are being borrowed from other fields. A detailed examination of an
instrument can help in its identification, aid in teaching lutherie, facilitate an appraisal, or simply record
the condition of an instrument as part of cataloguing it. Another important use for this documentation is
for making an authentic reproduction of the instrument which can then be played allowing the original
to be preserved in optimum conditions.
© 2016 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
This paper will provide a tool for museum curators, conser- The circles of instrument-makers, restorers, museums, apprais-
vators, collectors and appraisers with which they can examine a ers and musicians all intersect when we speak of historic
plucked string instrument in an organised fashion. There are some instruments. Each group is interested for different reasons but
scientific techniques which are not readily available to those who without a doubt everyone would like to study these instru-
have access to the instruments but the following procedure uses ments. The more important instruments are locked away with
tools which can be purchased at relatively small expense or made very limited access but these are precisely the ones that every-
quite easily. The information collected and the photographs, draw- one wants to study or play. Museum curators, conservators and
ings, descriptions and recordings resulting from a study will be collectors are in a unique position to study these instruments but
important additions to the documentation of the instruments in might not be aware of what an instrument-maker is looking for
question. The authors have identified a lack of literature on this sub- when requesting to study an instrument. These recommendations
ject and perhaps even an unwillingness to share information about should serve to bridge the gap between these two groups and
how to fully document instruments and would like to contribute to allow the valuable work of the museum staff to be more useful
filling this gap. to restorers and instrument-makers. A detailed examination of an
instrument can help in its identification, allow a posterior repro-
duction, aid in teaching lutherie, facilitate an appraisal, or simply
record the condition of an instrument as part of cataloguing it. The
∗ Corresponding author. resulting documentation will be sufficiently detailed to allow an
E-mail address: johnguitar@johnguitar.com (J. Ray). expert instrument-maker to build an authentic reproduction of the
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2016.02.015
1296-2074/© 2016 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
S18 J. Ray et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 27S (2017) S17–S25
instrument which is probably the best way to allow players access instruments. Some tools will have to be made by the examiner
to period instruments. Each end user will require a different level of such as paper rules (verified for accuracy), a wooden straightedge,
detail so it is important to get the most information possible even a second straightedge with cut-outs if necessary, various lengths
if some of the data are not deemed important by the examiner. This of wood and a chisel for cutting them down, various wedges, a
article intends to show one procedure for examining an instrument wooden calliper, a wooden depth gauge and relieved bed for res-
based on the experience of guitar-makers who also work restor- ting the guitar face down for drawing the outline. A large sheet of
ing historical instruments. As there is no accepted standard for paper on which to draw the outline of the guitar and a pencil cut
examinations of this type, the following procedure might serve as lengthwise are helpful here. The remaining tools necessary are: an
a starting point for the elaboration of a standard procedure. inspection mirror protected on the edges, drawing instruments, a
Before listing the tools that will be helpful for a complete profile gauge and a tuning fork. Images of the exterior should be
description, a few precautions and indications will be offered. Fol- taken with a camera with a polarising filter, interiors with a small
lowing these sections, the treatment of each of the different parts camera with a short focal distance (e.g. an endoscope) and lighting
and features of the instrument will be described. will be provide by a small flexible shaft flashlight and a LED lamp. A
voice recorder, masking tape, two small, strong magnets, books on
wood identification, some support for the neck of the instrument
3. Preliminaries
and a thick material to provide a soft surface will round out the list
of materials for the procedure.
We are dealing with fragile objects, easily cracked, scratched or
damaged by tools or surfaces. These instruments are part of our
cultural heritage and if you are allowed access to them someone
5. Architecture and geometry
trusts you to ensure that nothing is altered while in your power.
Obviously an instrument should never be even partially disman-
A good place to start is by drawing the outline of the instrument.
tled just to examine a joint or an interior. Often the very method or
The shape of the instrument is important for aesthetic reasons but
sequence of assembly is historically important and any work done
also because the volume of the soundbox is of great importance in
might cause information to be lost. A work area free of obstacles, a
determining the mode [1]. A large sheet of paper should be affixed
soft surface and avoiding metal edges are things that should be kept
to the bed and minimal cut-outs realised (bridge and fingerboard)
in mind. Using paper rules (verified for accuracy), covering metal
so that the paper stays flat and the edges of the top of the gui-
edges with paper tape and then subtracting the thickness of the tape
tar make contact with the bed (see Fig. 1 left). The outline should
from the final measurement and using plastic or wooden tools to
be realised with a half pencil pressed against the sides in order to
transfer measurements to the metal callipers are good techniques.
reduce errors to a minimum. In the case of most Spanish-made
A profile gauge for example can be used to transfer the shape of
instruments the traditional method of assembly starts from the
the neck to paper but some card stock should be placed between
top meaning that the top is the outline that will vary least from
the gauge and the neck. The slight inaccuracy caused by the card is
the original design of the builder. The outline of the back is often
certainly preferable to the alternative of marking the instrument.
noticeably different because the guitar was built without a mould
Some museums insist on the use of cotton gloves but it should be
or just because the wood of the sides is not perfectly curved. It is
noted that clothing should never be introduced into the opening
useful to record these differences but any work on the shape should
of an instrument because it can snag on a delicate part. Be precise
be based on the top shape. A square can be used to find differences
and mark the position where the measurement has been taken,
between the top and back outline as well as deformations of the
for example: Is the string height measured right below or on the
sides.
twelfth fret? Is the height of braces measured right at the front edge
The other thing that should be traced by outlining is the
of the bridge position or at the saddle position? Relative humidity
headstock (or at least the crest). Another method of tracing the
and temperature should be recorded at the time and place of mea-
headstock and its openings is to place paper over it and to use “rub-
surements and the margin of error should also be stated. The units
bing” with a pencil to make a copy of the shape. This is especially
of measurement should be stated at the beginning and respected
useful if the headstock is relief-carved.
throughout. Each measurement should be repeated several times
When the top plate is very thin the resistance and the func-
in order to avoid errors and to obtain mean values and standard
tion of the instrument can be compromised. The bracing of the
deviation.
top allows the builder on the one hand to reinforce the weak top;
Some of the principle aspects which should be taken into
the inertia of the top is modified locally by the braces to control
account when documenting an instrument are: dimensions and
the flow of tensions and the stress concentrators. On the other
the relationships between the different measurements. The thick-
hand, increasing the soundboard mobility increases the pressure
nesses of the plates used. The three-dimensionality of the
flow gradient inside the soundbox. Finally, adding a localised mass
instrument: arching, doming, the contours of any curved pieces.
obviously modifies the vibrating behaviour of the top and in turn
The materials used and the decorative elements. For a complete
has an effect on the sound.
examination of the instrument the strings should be removed, if
The internal bracing structure of the top can be highlighted in
the saddle, nut and pegs are not firmly fixed they too should be
a darkened room by placing a LED bulb (low-temperature) inside
put aside. Even if an accurate drawing is made the recorded mea-
the instrument unless the age or species of wood makes it opaque
surements should take precedence over the dimensions shown
to light. Spruce usually allows us to use this technique although it
graphically on the drawing. Paper can be damaged, can shrink or
does become more opaque with age. Actually visualising the brac-
can be incorrectly photocopied.
ing this way is interesting but using a paper rule on the outside of
the guitar with a light shining from inside is quite imprecise. This is
4. Tools and techniques only permissible when there is no better way because the lines are
not well defined through the top and shadows are projected and
Measuring tools per se should include: a protractor, a grad- vary according to the position of the light source (see Fig. 1 centre).
uated jewellers magnifying glass, feeler gauges, a good metal The position of the braces in relation to each other are best mea-
rule for comparisons, a vernier calliper to calibrate improvised sured using short lengths of wood which can be progressively cut to
tools and a magnet-based thickness gauge designed for completed size until they fit between the two elements or by making a gauge
J. Ray et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 27S (2017) S17–S25 S19
Fig. 1. Left: paper fixed to the bed for drawing the outline. Centre: low temperature LED bulb shows the interior structure of a Garcia guitar MDMB 1700. Right: shape of
each brace is observed with the aid of a mirror.
which can be varied in length. Another possibility would be to affix generally out of reach of the instrument-maker and furthermore
paper rules to the inside of the guitar with tape and then photo- the resulting data requires familiarity with CAD software. Thank-
graph them in position. In the case of some instruments access is fully, there have been low technology tools designed specifically
very limited and finding the positions of the braces on top, back and for taking these measurements in a straightforward manner and
even sides can be very difficult. In these cases, two magnets can be with enough precision for the purposes treated here. Some exam-
used and by moving the external one until the internal one meets ples are the Hacklinger gauge, the Magic Probe and Marconi Lab
an obstacle we can find the approximate position of the internal digital products. These tools function by recording the distance
structures. Another method for approximating internal structure between two magnets, one placed inside the instrument and the
without access to the inside is the use of a tuning fork to hear other outside in a detector assembly (see Fig. 2). The accurate cal-
changes as it passes from an un-reinforced area to an area with ibration of the tool is of fundamental importance. The Hacklinger,
a brace. A stationary paper pattern fixed to the top of the guitar as an example, uses a spring which is stretched until the detector
for recording the positions can be helpful. Once again, care must magnet is pulled away from the surface of the instrument. Its func-
be taken not to leave impressions on the instrument. This is a case tion is based on the limit of influence of a magnetic field. The travel
in which X-rays or ultrasound images of the instrument would be of the spring is calibrated to show thickness as opposed to force.
very useful. Thicknesses of plucked string instruments are usually quite uni-
Interior dimensions can be obtained using the wooden depth form over the area of the two sides and also in the area of the back.
gauge and callipers mentioned in the materials section. These mea- However, many builders attach great importance to the variations
surements should be performed and then the distance on the tool in thickness in the different regions of the top. Top measurements
should be measured with an accurate metal calliper. These wooden should be performed at points approximately two cm equidistant
tools are easy for a luthier to make and can be modified in situ if nec- from each other which will be enough detail for the most demand-
essary. For someone unfamiliar with woodworking the alternative ing user. It is recommendable to take several measurements at the
is plastic tools or metal tools protected with a layer or two of mask- same point to get mean values and standard deviations. These tools
ing tape. This will cause the accuracy to suffer and the thickness of work in a range of 1 mm to 8 mm with a margin of error of 0.1 mm
the tape must be subtracted from the measurements. which is sufficient for our purposes. Some of the suggestions in
The shape of each brace is best observed visually using a mirror this method require that the soundhole of the instrument in ques-
or some sort of camera (see Fig. 1 right). Now is the time to examine tion admit a hand and a tool or a camera. However, these thickness
visually the grain orientation and the scalloping. How long is the gauges can usually be used even in the case of instruments with
scalloped portion of each brace? How high is the end of the brace very small openings (f-holes) or tornavoz.
and of course is the brace a constant height along its length? This
is important as it is often not the case. Often the fan braces were
planed flat in the same curved form where they were glued and
this method of tapering is usually noticeable. The instrument may
give the impression of symmetry but left and right sides should be
documented.
When the strings are excited, both the top and the air inside
the soundbox vibrate according to their corresponding modes. In
general terms a greater amplitude of movement causes more air-
flow and therefore greater projection of sound. However, the top
is a structural element and cannot be completely free to vibrate as
it must withstand the tension of the strings at pitch (some 40 kg
depending on the tension and the number of strings). Therefore the
thickness of the top is a fundamental piece of information from the
point of view of construction and organology as well as structure
as it defines the inertia of the section.
Measuring the thickness of the plates of a closed box is not an
easy task and as has been mentioned, imaging technologies are Fig. 2. Using the Hacklinger gauge on the Torres guitar FE09 – MDMB626.
S20 J. Ray et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 27S (2017) S17–S25
The following techniques are also being used by those who have
access to them or the specialised knowledge required. X-rays can be
used to discover laminations, unexpected hidden joints, metal addi-
tions and of course interiors which are totally inaccessible because
of grills, carved roses or the presence of a tornavoz. X-ray micro-
tomography is being used for microstructure analysis [2].
Dendrochronology can be very helpful for determining the age
of an instrument, which can help to authenticate it or determine
where the wood came from [3]. It should, however, be noted that
in the case of Spanish instruments there is very little in the way of
reference chronologies elaborated for the commonly used Spanish
species [4]. Ultrasonic pulse-echo transducers are extremely use-
ful and accurate for measuring the thicknesses of components of
which the interior is inaccessible, as with tubular shapes. A probe
is placed on the surface and emits an ultrasound compression wave,
the excitation frequency of which must adjust to the nature of the
material. Each material type has a transmission capacity for ultra- Fig. 3. Measuring the original doming of the Torres guitar FE09 – MDMB626.
Table 1
Specific measurements that should be performed.
Top Length (L1 ), upper bout (L2 ), waist (L3 ) and String Spacing at nut and saddle
lower bout (L4 ) (see Fig. 4) Peonesa Shape and size
Back Length, upper bout, lower bout and waist Bridgestrap Strap length, height and width
Sides Length, width at enough points to draw a profile Heel cap Length, height and width
Head Length, width at widest and narrowest points, thickness, Heel Shape (from the side and front) and
slots; width and length and position; holes, ramps measure inside and out
(where they begin and where they end) Binding Height and width
Fingerboard Width at three points (nut, twelfth fret, and soundhole) Linings and Grain orientation, height and width
thickness at four points, length reinforcements
Bridge Length, width, height at back and front and wings, Neck Profiles at first and ninth (or before the
width of tie-block and back lip, is it arched? the angle curve of the heel begins)
of the string holes, is the valley cut below the wings? Soundhole Diameter
record the saddle curve if it is not straight Headstock Angle
Scalelength Double the distance from the nut to the twelfth Weight Specifying with or without strings, pegs, etc.
fret and record the extra length (compensation) of Frets Positions
the bass and treble string Rosette Inner and outer diameter
a
Triangular blocks joining the sides to the top, see Figs. 6 and 7.
J. Ray et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 27S (2017) S17–S25 S21
the mass over a short period of time can indicate that the humidity to prevent shrinkage cracks and locator pins in the fretboard and
has suffered a change . bridge.
The curvature of the neck can pose difficulties too as it can
6. How the instrument was made develop forward or backwards bowing depending on different fac-
tors. The curvature of the neck is recorded and any conclusions
Most of the joints on these instruments are quite straightfor- must be based on what we know about traditional set-ups and his-
ward but special attention should be paid to the neck to head joint, torical playing technique. We refer to neck curvature as “relief”
common methods being the scarf joint and the V-joint. Other joints when concave and “negative relief” when convex and it is measured
might be seen, such as Hauser’s half-blind V-joint and Lacôte’s blind with a straightedge (or fine and tightly stretched string) and feeler
joint (see Fig. 5 left) that he generally combined with the enclosed gauges. The space between the straightedge and the fret where the
tuning machines. Another joint which can be difficult to analyse is maximum distance occurs is recorded along with the position (fret
the neck to body joint. Traditional Spanish lutherie uses the inte- number) in the case of relief. The forward tilt of the plane of the neck
gral heel into which a channel is cut to receive the sides (see Fig. 6) with respect to the body of the guitar is something which deter-
while the French tended set the end of the neck into a mortise mines the height of the saddle and possibilities of adjusting string
in the neck block like a stopped, housed joint in the way the vio- height. Measure this by placing a straightedge from the bridge along
lins are made [6]. If the builder chose to disguise his work it can the fingerboard resting on the top. The slight rise of the neck with
be very difficult to know which method he used. In more recent respect to the straightedge should be recorded.
years, dovetails, splines, bolts and dowels are also used to attach The maker of the instrument might be determined by looking
the neck to the body. Other non-standard and hidden joints to look at the label, headstock, rosette, other inlays, the body shape and
for are: cross-grain supplements or laminations usually intended less so by other design elements and idiosyncratic methods or tool
Fig. 5. Lacôte and Laprevotte used a hidden neck-to-head joint while the Spanish (Torres) used a scarf joint.
S22 J. Ray et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 27S (2017) S17–S25
7. Documentation
• Overhead view of the body from the top, from the back and from
one side, the neck from the top and side, the head from the top
and side and the bridge from the top and profile.
• A recording, preferably with a musician familiar with the reper-
Fig. 7. As a personal trademark, the headstock shape is an important detail to record.
The initials of the maker, a signature or a stamp can often be found inside. tory and historic context of the instrument, is desirable if possible.
J. Ray et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 27S (2017) S17–S25 S23
Fig. 8. From top to bottom: Top thicknesses and the existing curve of the top. Schematic of the bracing and dimensions thereof. Schematic of the back bracing. Existing curve
of the back.
Photos should be taken with a good light source (preferably Either a linear or a circular polarising filter will aid in eliminating
with natural light) such as close to a window but without leaving reflections. Photographs of the front, back, bridge (three views),
the instrument in direct sunlight. The light on a cloudy day pro- rosette, head (three views), heel and label are essential but any
vides a good diffuse light that does not produce too much shadow. non-standard design elements, elaborate inlays or interesting grain
S24 J. Ray et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 27S (2017) S17–S25
Fig. 9. From top to bottom: Bridge dimensions. Headstock dimensions. Fret spacing.
patterns are also interesting. If a camera, or better yet an endoscope photocopier to acquire a whole image by exposing different exter-
with its own light source and camera, can be introduced inside nal parts of the instrument.
the instrument, pictures of internal elements can enrich the writ- An example of a data-sheet which further standardises and
ten information. Grain orientation, the shape and size of the end organises a particular examination is included in Figs. 8 and 9.
and neck blocks and the presence or absence of repairs are things A verbal description of the instrument can be dictated into a
that can be of visual interest. Signatures, stamps and any personal recording device for later transcription, if the owner or the instru-
touches should be photographed too. ment can be interviewed perhaps some historic information can
Photographs present a problem of parallax that is not a problem also be obtained. The current state of the instrument should be
for photographic documentation but certainly is when we try to recorded. Evidence of damage and subsequent restorations should
use the photograph for analysing shapes or relationships between be observed. Marks caused by sweat, water, fingernails, cloth-
elements. One way to avoid this is to use a flatbed scanner or large ing, cigarettes or even the instrument case can be examined.
J. Ray et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 27S (2017) S17–S25 S25
Any parts that do not appear to be original should be noted and and comparison between instruments for a complete and more
photographed. extensive documentation of historic instruments.
8. Conclusions Acknowledgements
A procedure for a complete examination and documentation of The authors are very grateful to Dr. Marco A. Pérez from IQS
a stringed instrument has been presented in the attempt to fill a Universitat Ramon Llull for his invaluable support and collaboration
void in the literature. It is not uncommon for plans to be drawn of
on this work and to the late Rolf Eichinger for his teachings. Many
museum instruments but each technician has his or her own needs thanks to the Museu de la Música in Barcelona for allowing us access
and intentions in doing so. A maker who wishes to copy an instru- to their excellent guitar collection. We are greatly indebted to the
ment often finds that the necessary information is not present in the work of R. E. Bruné in this field and to José Luis Romanillos Vega for
documentation available. This proposal intends to create a standard
his pioneering work in guitar organology. Anonymous reviewers
whereby each examination, drawing or documentation contains are thanked for constructive suggestions.
enough information to satisfy the most demanding user avoiding
the need for each and every instrument-maker, restorer and his-
torian to perform their own examinations after the difficulties of References
obtaining permission from the museums or collectors. Some very
[1] I.M. Firth, Physics of the guitar at the Helmholtz and first top-plate resonances,
useful imaging technologies have not been included in this method J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 61 (1977) 588–593.
due to the inaccessibility to many readers. Museums, however, are [2] N. Sodini, D. Dreossi, R. Chen, M. Fioravanti, A. Giordano, P. Herrestal, L. Rigon, F.
in a position to work with public or private institutions which use Zanini, Non-invasive microstructural analysis of bowed stringed instruments
with synchrotron radiation X-ray microtomography, J. Cult. Herit. 13 (2012)
these technologies. This line of investigation could be furthered to S44–S49 (Wood Science for Conservation).
create guidelines for the use of imaging technologies as well. [3] H.D. Grissino-Mayer, P.R. Sheppard, M.K. Cleaveland, A dendroarchaeological
This procedure was developed by guitar-makers, a group which re-examination of the “messiah” violin and other instruments attributed to
Antonio Stradivari, J. Archaeol. Sci. 31 (2004) 167–174.
traditionally also makes some other plucked-string instruments [4] E.R. Trobajo, Dendrocronología de instumentos musicales. La producción de
so it is most appropriate for this type of instruments. However, Antonio Stradivari, Jorn. Instrum. Asoc. Instrum. (2013) (in Spanish).
the procedure will be appropriate for many other instruments [5] V. Bucur, Acoustics of Wood, Springer, 2006.
[6] D. Sinier, F. de Ridder, La Guitarre, vol. 1, Edizioni Il Salabue, Paris, 2007.
with very slight modifications to be proposed by makers of those [7] J. Westbrook, Investigative Methods for the Study of historic Guitars: A Case
instruments. The process followed for this proposal, namely vari- Study of the Work of Antonio de Torres, London Metropolitan University, 2009
ous makers sharing their experience and knowledge over a number (Master’s thesis).
[8] R. Bruné, Marcelo Barbero Guitars, Vintage Guitar Magazine, 1999.
of years, should be continued with the inclusion of makers of other
[9] R.B. Hoadley, Identifying Wood: Accurate Results With Simple Tools, Taunton
types of wooden instruments. Further studies will include proce- Press, 1990.
dures for objective and repeatable sound tests, frequency modelling [10] M.S. Burillo, Mil maderas III, Editorial UPV, 2008 (in Spanish).