BIODIVERSITY

- the term given to the variety of life on earth and the natural patterns it forms.
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- The natural world contains about 8.7 million species, according to a new estimate described by
scientists as the most accurate ever
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- Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the variety of the earth’s species, the genes they
contain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosystem processes of energy flow
and nutrient cycling that sustain all life.
- Biodiversity is the variety of life in an area that is determined by the number of different
species in the area. Biodiversity increases the stability of an ecosystem and contributes to
the health of biosphere.
- Biodiversity is defined and measured as an attribute that has two components — richness
and evenness.
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- Richness - The number of groups of genetically or functionally related individuals. In
most vegetation surveys, richness is expressed as the number of species and is usually
called species richness.
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- Evenness - Proportions of species or functional groups present on a site. The more equal
species are in proportion to each other the greater the evenness of the site. A site with
low evenness indicates that a few species dominate the site.

It was Carolous Linnaeus, an English naturalist, who pioneered the science of classification or
Taxonomy. His classification was mainly based on similarity of structure. A structure is a feature just
like the type of leaf, type of venation, type of fruit, etc. Presently, we have approximately 550,000
different species of plants that have been described and many more are still being discovered. You
can just imagine what will happen if no system of classification was followed. There will be a total
confusion and disorder in the living world.

Levels of Classification
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- There are seven major biological groupings or levels of classification that we follow. The
kingdom is the largest group in the system of classification. This is divided into phyla in
the animal kingdom. However, in plants this is equivalent to the division.
- Each division is divided into classes; these classes are divided into orders and orders into
families, then family into genera and so on down to the smallest unit, which is the species.
The species is the basic unit of classification. As you move from kingdom down to the
species level, classification becomes more specific.
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- Originally, C. Linnaeus set up a two–kingdom system. The Plant and Animal kingdoms.
After his time, many more biologists reclassified living things into more than two

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 kingdoms. Now we are following a 6-kingdom system and actually there are already more
than 8 kingdoms discussed in some books. The six kingdoms are as follows: Kingdom
Animalia, Plantae, Protista, Fungi, Achaebacteria and Eubacteria. Animals are the
multi-cellular, heterotrophic (using other living organisms for food) organisms without cell
walls in their cells. Plants on the other hand are the multi-cellular, photosynthetic
organisms with cell walls in their cell membranes. Protists are organisms that exhibit both
plant and animal characteristics. The eubacteria and the archaebacteria composed of
cells without a true nucleus and mitochondria. Fungi are plant-like organisms without
chloroplasts.
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- An easy way to understand the descending nature (largest to smallest) of scientific grouping
is to compare it with the general to specific information on where a person lives. For
example:
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Country: Philippines Kingdom: Plantae
Region: IV Division: Magnoliophyta
Province: Palawan Class: Liliopsida
City: Puerto Princesa Order: Liliales
Barangay: Sta. Lucia Family: Liliaceae
Street: Chico Genus: Allium
House #: 45 Species: cepa
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- If you examine the analogy of classification to where a person lives, you will find out that
as you move from kingdom to species, things become more specific. It is just like locating
the place where a person lives. In the given example, you start with the name of the
country, the region where the person resides and the specific province in the region; the
town or city in the province; and so on until you finally get the street and house number of
the person. In science, the same principle is followed to make things easier, because we
are grouping not only hundreds or thousands of living organisms but millions of them!
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- What is an ecosystem?
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- Did you know that living things depend on their physical and chemical environment for
food, shelter, protection, and reproduction? Of course, who does not need food and water
and shelter to live? The non-living components such as soil, water, temperature and
sunlight can also affect the type and number of organisms living in an ecosystem. For
example, in the desert, only plants like cactuses and animals like camels are able to survive
since they need little amount of water for life maintenance. On the other hand, organisms
like mushrooms, moss plants, earthworms, and snails live in moist and shaded place.
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- Different Kinds of Ecosystems
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- An ecosystem can be small like an aquarium or a small pond in your backyard, with only
a few organisms interacting, or it may be large, like a forest with lots of organisms
interacting.
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- Generally speaking, there are two types of ecosystem: man-made and natural. When we
speak of natural ecosystem, we are referring to those areas with little or no human
intervention. A forest is a natural ecosystem as long as it remains to be unchanged by
human activities. Other natural ecosystems include the oceans, the seas and the rivers.
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- On the other hand, man-made ecosystems are areas that are created, controlled and
manipulated by humans. In creating man-made ecosystems such as an aquarium, a
fishpond, and a terrarium, you can control the types and numbers of organisms to be
included in such ecosystem. You can also manipulate the abiotic factors such as the amount
of light, water or soil in your ecosystem.
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- A number of natural ecosystems have been changed by man’s selfish purposes. Forests are
cleared for agriculture and timber production. Hills and mountains are flattened for
recreation or urban development.
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- But, wherever we live, we are part of a large ecosystem called biosphere (area on earth
where life exists). The biosphere is composed of different biomes.
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- What is a biome?
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- Biome is an area with a distinctive climate and with distinctive organisms. There is no
definite number as to how many biomes are in the world. In this module, we will explore
the following biomes: forest, taiga, tundra, grasslands, desert, and aquatic.
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- Terrestrial Biomes
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- Forests
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- There are two types of forest: tropical and temperate.
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- The tropical rainforests are found close to the equator. The climate has a lot of sun and
very slight seasonal variation. Are you wondering why it is called a rainforest? Since they
are located near the equator, evaporation is high, which results to frequent heavy rainfall
and brief thunderstorms. Look at the figure below. It shows that the rainforest receives
the highest rainfall among the biomes of the world.
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Rain Forest Figure 1.1 Inches of Rain Fall Per Year

www.yahoo.com images

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 What makes the tropical rainforest very important?
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- Did you know that the Philippine forests are among the world’s richest? The Philippines
is famous for its hardwoods such as Tangile, Yakal, Bagtikan and red and white Lauan.
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- We are very lucky to have tropical forests in our country. Do you know why? Can you
give some benefits humans can get from forests?
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- Have you seen a tribal group of Cordillera or the tribal group of Oriental Mindoro called
Mangyans? Where do you think they live? Very good! Our rainforests are also home to
tribal cultures that have survived successfully in the forests for many thousands of years.
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- Did you know that rainforests are the primary source of pharmaceuticals? The plants used
to cure cancer are found in tropical rainforests.
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- Another importance of rainforests is they help maintain global rain and weather patterns.
Much of the water that evaporates from the trees returns in the form of rainfall.
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- The rainforests of North and South America, Australia and New Zealand are examples of
temperate forest. The climate is cold with moderate seasonal variations. They have fewer
species than tropical rainforests. Typical in this forest are ferns, mosses and very tall trees

such as Douglas fir, Sitka Spruce, Redwood.

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- Grasslands
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- Grasslands are found all over the world, except in
the Polar Regions, such as Alaska and Antarctica.
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- Grassland is a place where there is less rainfall. It is
also subject to frequent fires that suppress the
growth of bushes and trees. A grassland is also
called prairie or savanna. Below are some typical
animals in grasslands. www.yahoo.com images

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- Figure 1.3 Some grassland animals

- From left to right: Giraffe, Lion, Hyena, African elephant, and zebra.
- (Pictures from www.yahoo.com images and clip art.)
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- Taiga
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- The Taiga is the largest terrestrial biome in the world. It is found in the large portion of
Canada, Europe and Asia. The average temperatures are below zero. Winters are cold,
while summers are warm. Lots of coniferous trees, such as June, hemlock, fir and spruce
trees grow here. Wolves, moose, elk, hares and migratory birds are typical animals to taiga
biome.
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- Tundra
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- The tundra biome is found around the North
Pole. It is at the top of the world!
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- Did you know that there are no trees in a
tundra? Only shrubs, lichens and mosses
dominate the place. The soil in a tundra is
permanently frozen or permafrost. Arctic
hares, snowy owls, arctic foxes, wolves and
reindeers dominate this snowy and cold
region.
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- Deserts www.yahoo.com images
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- Deserts are the driest biome on earth. They
are found in along 30 degrees latitude north
and 30 degrees latitude south. Believe it or
not, there are two types of deserts: hot and
cold. Sagebrush plants and few species of
cacti are common in a cold desert. In warm
deserts, cacti, and other drought resistant
plants are abundant. Animals in deserts
include reptiles with scaly skin, camels,
insects with thick outer body shells and other
animals adapted to intense heat, searing sun, www.yahoo.com images
and lack of water.
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- Aquatic Biomes
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- There are two types of aquatic biome:
freshwater and marine. Both of them are
important to humans because they provide
water for drinking, recreation, transportation,
energy, and means of living.
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- The freshwater biomes include ponds, lakes,
streams and rivers. Lakes and ponds are not
flowing water, while streams and rivers are
www.yahoo.com images
flowing. Many plant and animals live in freshwater biomes. Water lilies, phytoplanktons,
and mosses are typical freshwater plants. Fish, crustaceans, amphibians, insects and birds
are just some of the animals thriving in freshwater biomes.
- ESTUARIES
- The marine biome includes seas and oceans of the world. It covers about 75% of the earth.
Marine plants and algae are very important because they provide much of the world’s
oxygen supply and take in huge amounts of carbon dioxide. The tropical oceans of the
world are home to diverse fish, mammals, invertebrates, and birds.
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- Endangered Species
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- Any plant or animal species whose ability to survive and reproduce has been jeopardized
by human activities is an endangered species.
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- Medicinal
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- Plants and animals are responsible for a variety of useful medications. In fact, about forty
percent of all prescriptions written today come from the natural compounds of different
species. These species not only save lives, but they contribute to a prospering
pharmaceutical industry worth over $40 billion annually. Unfortunately, only 5% of
known plant species have been screened for their medicinal values, although we continue
to lose up to 100 species daily.
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- Agricultural
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- There are an estimated 80,000 edible plants in the world. Humans depend upon only 20
species of these plants, such as wheat and corn, to provide 90% of the world's food. Modern
agricultural techniques provide humans with the means to develop new crops that can grow
in inadequate lands such as in poor soils or drought-stricken areas to help solve the world
hunger problem.
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- Ecological
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- Plant and animal species are the foundation of healthy ecosystems. Humans depend on
ecosystems such as coastal estuaries, prairie grasslands, and ancient forests to purify their
air, clean their water, and supply them with food. When species become endangered, it is
an indicator that the health of these vital ecosystems start to deteriorate.
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- Commercial
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- Various wild species are commercially raised, directly contributing to local and regional
economies. Freshwater mussels which are harvested, cut into beads, and used to stimulate
pearl construction in oysters form the basis of a growing industry which supports jobs.
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- Aesthetic/Recreational
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- Plant and animal species and their ecosystems help tourism industry. They also supply
recreational, spiritual, and quality-of-life values as well.
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- Our national heritage of biological diversity is an invaluable and irreplaceable resource.
Our quality of life and that of future generations depend on our preservation of plant and
animal species.

- Figure 4.3 Some endangered animals

- From left to right: Sumatran tiger, African elephant, Sloth bear, Caracal (cat),
- Western lowland gorilla, African lion, Cheetah
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www.yahoo.com images
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- There are many reasons why a particular species may become endangered. Below are
several factors leading to their endangerment:
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Habitat Destruction

- Our planet is continually changing, causing habitats to be altered and modified. Natural
changes tend to occur at a gradual pace, usually causing only a slight impact on individual
species. However, when changes occur at a fast pace, there is little or no time for individual
species to react and adjust to new circumstances. This can create disastrous results, and
for this reason, rapid habitat loss is the primary cause of species endangerment
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- Introduction of Alien Species
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- Native species are those plants and animals that are part of a specific geographic area. They
are well adapted to their local environment and are accustomed to the presence of other
native species within the same general habitat. Exotic species, however, are new species.
They are introduced into new environments by way of human activities, either intentionally
or accidentally. Alien species are viewed by the native species as foreign elements. The
presence of alien species may threaten the lives of other native species since alien species
are more competitive than the native species.
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- Overexploitation
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- A species that faces overexploitation is one that may become severely endangered or even
extinct due to the rate in which the species is being used. Unrestricted whaling during the
20th century is an example of overexploitation, and the whaling industry brought many

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 species of whales to extremely low population sizes. Due to the trade in animal parts, many
species continue to suffer high rates of exploitation. Even today, there are demands for
items such as rhino horns and tiger bones in several areas of Asia. It is here that there
exists a strong market for traditional medicines made from these animal parts.
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 Biotechnology – uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to
make or modify products or processes for specific use.
 Genetic engineering – a technique that allows genes and DNA to be transferred from
one source to another. It leads to the production of living modified organisms (LMOs)
or genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
 Genetically Modified Organisms – a plant, animal, microorganisms, or other organism
whose genetic makeup has been modified using recombinant DNA methods (gene
splicing), gene modification, or transgenic technology.
DNA ppt
 Genetic modification aims to address issues with regard to food security,
agriculture, drug production, and nutrition.
 Steps in Genetic Modification:
a. Identification of the desired trait from another organism.
b. Insertion of the trait to the other organism
c. Growing and replication of the organism.
DNA Cloning: Basics
A clone is an identical copy. This term originally applied to cells of a single type, isoiated and
allowed to reproduce to create a population of identical cells. DNA cloning involves separating a
speciflc gene or DNA segment from a larger chromosome, attaching it to a small molecule of
carrier DNA, and then replicating this modifled DNA thousands or millions of times through
both an increase in host cell number and the creation of multiple copies of the cloned DNA in
each cell. The result is selective ampliflcation of a particular gene or DNA segment. Cloning of
DNA from any organism entails five general procedures:
1. Cutting DNA at precise Locations Sequence speciflc endonuclease (restriction
endonucleases) Provide the necessary molecular scissors.
2. Selecting a small molecules of DNA capable of self-replication. These DNA’s are called
cloning vectors (a vector is a delivery agent). They are typically plasmids or viral DNAs.
3. Joining two DNA fragments covalently. The enzyme DNA ligase links the cloning vector
and DNA to be cloned. Composite DNA molecules comprising covalently linked segments
from two or more sources are called recombinant DNAs.
4. Moving recombinant DNA from the test tube to a host cell that will provide the enzymatic
machinery for DNA replication.
5. Selecting or identifying host cells that contain recombinant DNA.

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 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety – an international agreement which aims to ensure the safe
handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology
that may have adverse effect on biological diversity.
GENE THERAPY
• involves altering the genes inside your body's cells in an effort to treat or stop disease. Gene therapy
could be a way to fix a genetic problem at its source. By adding a corrected copy of a defective
gene, gene therapy promises to help diseased tissues and organs work properly. This approach is
different from traditional drug-based approaches, which may treat symptoms but not the underlying
genetic problems.
Why it's Done
• Gene therapy is used to correct defective genes in order to cure a disease or help your body better
fight disease
How does Gene Therapy Work?
• It uses a vector to deliver a gene to the cells where it's needed. . Certain viruses are often used as
vectors because they can deliver the new gene by infecting the cell. The viruses are modified so
they can't cause disease when used in people.
Researchers are testing several approaches to gene therapy, including:

 Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene.
 Inactivating, or “knocking out,” a mutated gene that is functioning improperly.
 Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease.

RISKS
Researchers must overcome many technical challenges before gene therapy will be a practical approach to
treating disease. For example, scientists must find better ways to deliver genes and target them to particular
cells. They must also ensure that new genes are precisely controlled by the body.

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 • Unwanted immune system reaction. Your body's immune system may see the newly introduced
viruses as intruders and attack them. This may cause inflammation and, in severe cases, organ
failure.
• Targeting the wrong cells. Because viruses can affect more than one type of cells, it's possible
that the altered viruses may
infect additional cells — not just
the targeted cells containing
mutated genes. If this happens,
healthy cells may be damaged,
causing other illness or diseases,
such as cancer.
• Infection caused by the virus. It's
possible that once introduced
into the body, the viruses may
recover their original ability to
cause disease.
• Possibility of causing a tumor. If
the new genes get inserted in the
wrong spot in your DNA, there is
a chance that the insertion might
lead to tumor formation.

STEM CELLS
- biological cells that can differentiate into other types of cells and can divide to produce more of
the same type of stem cells. They are found in multicellular organisms.
- All stem cells can self-renew (make copies of themselves) and differentiate (develop into more
specialized cells).
- undifferentiated cells that can turn into specific cells, as the body needs them.

Stem cells are distinguished from other cell types by two important characteristics.
- First, they are unspecialized cells capable of renewing themselves through cell division,
sometimes after long periods of inactivity.
- Second, under certain physiologic or experimental conditions, they can be induced to become
tissue- or organ-specific cells with special functions.

Types of Stem Cells:

 Embryonic stem cells - obtained from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst. Embryonic stem cells
are pluripotent, meaning they can give rise to every cell type in the fully formed body.
 Tissue-specific stem cells - (also referred to as somatic or adult stem cells); These stem cells can
generate different cell types for the specific tissue or organ in which they live.
 Mesenchymal stem cells – multipotent (meaning they can produce more than one type of
specialized cell of the body) adult stem cells that are present in multiple tissues, including
umbilical cord, bone marrow and fat tissue. Mesenchymal stem cells can self-renew by dividing
and can differentiate into multiple tissues including bone, cartilage, muscle and fat cells, and
connective tissue
 Induced pluripotent stem cells - cells that have been engineered in the lab by converting tissue-
specific cells, such as skin cells, into cells that behave like embryonic stem cells.

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ALTERNATIVE ENERGY RESOURCES
A non-renewable resource is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable
economic extraction in meaningful human time-frames.
Renewable energy refers to the provision of energy via renewable resources which are naturally
replenished fast enough as being used. It includes e.g. sunlight, wind, biomass, rain, tides, waves and
geothermal heat.
Examples of Alternative Energy Resources:

1. Hydroelectric Energy - The potential energy stored in the water held in dams by is made
to drive a water turbine and generator. Which in turn produces electric power.
2. Solar Energy – the energy which the earth receives from the sun.
3. Wind Energy - The power of the wind is harnessed to propel the blades of wind turbine
attached to an electric generator to generate wind energy. Wind energy is an effective
alternative source of energy in areas where the velocity of wind flow is high.
4. Biomass Energy - This is the energy developed from the wastes of various human and
animal activities like the by-products and wastes from timber industry, agricultural
yields, municipal solid waste etc.
5. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) - is a process that can produce electricity by
using the temperature difference between deep cold ocean water and warm tropical
surface waters. OTEC plants pump large quantities of deep cold seawater and surface
seawater to run a power cycle and produce electricity.

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