NUST Journal of Engineering Science (NJES) PDF

Proceedings of the
First International
Symposium on Automotive and
Manufacturing Engineering (SAME)
Editors
Dr Mushtaq Khan
Dr Syed Husain Imran Jaffery
November 26-27
2015
1
ISBN: 978-969-8535-35-3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Paper ID Paper Title
No
SAME-01 Cylinder Liner Temperature Mapping of Heavy Duty Diesel Engine 1
Performance Improvement of Compressor to Recover Flare Gas by 10

SAME-02
Factors Analysis Method
Bulge hydroforming of tube by rubber mandrel without axial feed: 19

SAME-03
Experiment and Numerical Simulation
Perspectives in Automotive Embedded Systems from Manual to Fully 27

SAME-04
Autonomous Vehicles
Optimization of TIG Welding Parameters using FULL FACTORIAL 36

SAME-05
and ANOVA Design of Experiments Approach
Virtual Engineering: A key Enabler for Reconfigurable Manufacturing 43

SAME-06
Systems
Simulation of Turbulent Flow over a Single and Tandem NACA 0012 49

SAME-07
Airfoils
SAME-08 Passively flapping energy harvesting eel in a viscous flow 56
CZM based Strength Prediction for Scarf Adhesive Joints with Varying 63
SAME-09
Bondline Angle
SAME-10 Design and Fabrication of Three-Dimensional Printing Machine 68
SAME-11 Development of Hybrid Mold casting for wheel Hubs 75
Comparative Study of Wax and Nitrate Salts as Thermal Storage for 81

SAME-12
Cooling Purpose of Automobiles
SAME-13 Energy Consumption in Orthogonal Machining of Al 6061-T6 Alloys 89

Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Automotive and Manufacturing Engineering (SAME)
SAME-01
Cylinder Liner Temperature Mapping of Heavy Duty Diesel Engine

F. Badshah1, M. U. Abdullah1, R. A. Mufti1, M. U. Aslam1
1
School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST),
Sector H-12,
Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan.
Abstract— In an internal combustion engine, At the end of 20th century, developed countries of the
further improvements in the design and development world realized that deposits of different fuels which run
phase is difficult therefore different companies intend their cars are not inexhaustible. In addition to that, wastes
to bring changes in other aspects like lubricant, coming out of the cars in the form of emissions are
lubricating system, cooling system, fuel and fuel polluting the environment to an alarming extend.
system. The temperature of engine is monitored Since then, automotive industry is taking
indirectly by temperature sensor, but this revolutionary steps to increase the efficiency of internal
temperature is of cooling water in engine. To combustion engines. Researchers from different countries
improve the performance of engine a new technique have investigated that thermodynamic inefficiencies and
for measuring the real time temperature profile of a mechanical losses are main contributors towards the
liner under fired engine condition is proposed. To energy losses. Comparatively, thermodynamic losses are
study the temperature profile eighteen more significant than mechanical losses but still
thermocouples are mounted on three radial and tremendous amount of improvement in terms of
transverse locations. Signal conditioning unit is used efficiencies can be achieved by focusing on the
to transfer data to the computer for monitoring mechanical losses in the different parts of the vehicle.
temperature profile along the length of liner. The Mechanical losses are mainly due to the friction which
profile depicted the trend of temperature variation comes into play when two bodies interact with each
within the cylinder. The temperature of cylinder liner other. High values of friction can result in decreased
corresponds to the different speed and load of the efficiencies and wearing out of engine components.
engine. As the current trend in car engine development is to
create smaller engines with higher specific power outputs
Index Terms—Temperature mapping, Diesel to meet the demands of both lower emissions and
engine, temperature profiles, Cylinder liner. customer satisfaction, the thermal loads in engines are
increasing [1].
Now a days the current trend in the advancement and
I. INTRODUCTION development in Automotive is to build a smaller and
The power required by the car for motion comes from lighter engine with extensive output in order to meet the
engine which converts different forms of energy into customer demands and to have a less emissions in the
kinetic energy and supply it to wheels. In the early stages engine. But due to this reason, the thermal loads &
of the development of cars, fossil fuels such as diesel and thermal losses in an IC engines are increasing gradually.
gasoline were used as a source of energy. With the To enhance the overall durability & the performance
passage of time, electric power started to be used in of a diesel engine, Temperature of a cylinder liner is an
special category of vehicles known as electric vehicles. important factor which needs to be optimized [2]. In this
After the commercialization and overwhelming research, an attempt is made to measure and investigate
acceptance, the number of cars on road keeps on the temperature profile at the cylinder liner of a water
multiplying. Due to which prices of fuels also started to cool diesel engine. This project is aimed to study the
rise. trend of temperature profiles on cylinder liner surface of
1
a heavy duty diesel engine. For this purpose eighteen

thermocouples were mounted on three circumferential
locations and six transverse locations. Signal
conditioning was transferred to the computer to log the
data regarding temperature profiles along the length of
liner. This temperature profile reflects the temperature
variation within the cylinder in real time. This
temperature of cylinder liner corresponds to temperature
of engine oil used. Oils of different viscosity could be
tested and are expected to behave differently at engine
operating temperature and thus will provide different
temperature profiles along the liner length. It is expected
that temperature will vary specifically along the liner
length & circumference and for the first time such data
will be available for relating the liner temperature with Figure 1: Engine Dynamometer Water Brake Type
engine conditioning.
The overall objective of this research work is to II. METHODOLOGY
provide a deep understanding on matter of temperature A four stroke diesel engine wet Liner was taken out of
mapping across the cylinder liner (or heat transfer) in a the engine. Machining of the liner was done at CNC
heavy duty diesel engine by experimentally evaluating or machine where 18 holes were drilled at specified position
simulating the setup to gather the real time data which (along the height and circumference) of the liner in order
could be used in the future not only to model Finite to place & install the thermocouples on the said work
element model of an IC engine, CFD (computational piece. These thermocouples were glued at the particular
fluid dynamics) of the said engine model but also to position for the temperature mapping of the cylinder liner
compare the experimental results with the theoretical heat of heavy duty diesel engine. The instrumented Liner was
transfer models (Not covered in this paper). The same fitted in the engine again which was coupled with the
results could be verified by applicable empirical, help of coupling to a dynamometer in order to run and
numerical & analytical approaches which will be carried simulate the road loading of either the engine so that the
out in our future research work to apprehend the physics activities of engine development i.e. calibration of
& solution methodology of the liner thermal analysis. management controllers used in engine, investigations of
the combustion & tribology study could be carried out.
The whole setup heavy duty diesel engine along with For the sake of development of data acquisition system,
the instrumented liner was setup on an engine hardware used for temperature measurements include
dynamometer DX-33 Taylor. The use of a dynamometer PCI 6221 Multifunction data acquisition device
(dyno) provides a means for testing an electric motor, or connected to SCXI 1000 Chassis containing SCXI 1102
engine, in various desired and controlled conditions. module. The thermocouples were attached with these
Dynos produce measurements of a motor’s mechanical LabView data acquisition modules and the data was
force, speed, or power [3]. It is important to have a plotted on the charts and logged in LVM file format. Test
method to accurately measure the performance of the were carried out at specific engine speed with some
motors and ensure they operate as desired. engine load and data was saved for the 18 thermocouples
All dynos work to mimic load conditions by exerting mounted across the length and circumference of the
brake forces on a motor [4]. They can be AC or DC Liner.
motors. The type of dyno used will therefore depend on
the type of motor being tested and its intended purpose. III. EXPERIMENTATION
For testing car, engine dyno are used where the Model EC100 engine is four stroke, direct fuel
dynamometer is mounted directly to the shaft of the injection system and water cooled .Valves are in cylinder
power source using a torque transducer, or flange [5]. In head and engine has two valves per each cylinder. Glow
our case, engine dyno was of water brake type. plugs are also fitted for easy cold starting. The engine is
used in heavy duty trucks. Diesel is used as fuel in
engine. The wet sleeves/liners are used in engine. The
camshaft is fitted in cylinder block so it has gear to gear
2
timing. Some specifications of the engine are shown in coolant manifolds from head as per manual instructions.
Table 1. Next task was to remove the cylinder liner from the
engine block. For this, piston along with the connecting
Table 1: Engine Specifications
rod at position 6 was removed then cylinder liner was
pulled out of the bore with the help of SST liner puller.
Engine Model HINO EC100 To mount the thermocouples on the surface of
cylinder iner, marking was carried out first. The aim was
Type Diesel, four stroke, Vertical, Six to cover the length of the liner as well as the sides. So the
cylinder liner sides were categorized for the sake of ease
Cylinder, Inline, Valve in head, as per the orientation of the engine ie thrust side, back
Water Cooled side, pump side and front side. Each side except the front
one was marked and drilled so that the thermocouples
Bore & Stroke 97 mm x 113mm could be inserted in. The detailed figures are shown in
Table II.
Piston displacement 5.01 Liter Table 2: Machining Specifications
Compression ratio 20.3:1 Outer Diameter of Sleeve 110mm
Firing order 1-4-2-6-3-5 Inner Diameter of Sleeve 96.92mm
Thickness of Wall of Sleeve 6.54mm

Injection timing 18 deg B.T.D.C
Depth of Hole 5.84mm
Valve clearance Intake 0.25mm
Distance from each T C to Sleeve inner Side 0.7mm
(Cold)
Exhaust 0.25mm
Each Hole Diameter 2.5mm
Injection Nozzle 120kg/cm2
A. Arrangement of Thermocouples (TC) on Selected
Pressure Sleeve
Marking was carried out on the basis of the overall
Engine oil Capacity 12.5 Liters engine orientation as discussed earlier with the help of
height gauge on the three selected sides with scriber on
Cooling Capacity 27 Liters the selected Liner. The three sides were from cooling fan
(Engine &Radiator) side, Fuel injection Pump Side which is denoted by (P),
side opposite of fuel injection Pump Side which is
Electrical Voltage 24 Volt denoted by (T) the third one is Flywheel Side which is
opposite to the front side which is denoted by (B) as
Standard engine oil 1-5kg/cm2 shown in the Fig.
pressure P TC: Thermocouple on Fuel Injection Pump Side

B TC: Thermocouple on Fuel Flywheel Side
Engine was dissembled in order to have the cylinder T TC: Thrust Side Thermocouple are on opposite of Fuel
Liner separated. All the necessary wires were Injection Pump Side
disconnected ie ground wire, starter motor wire, pre
combustion chamber heater wire, and oil pressure switch Marking was done at six different height levels as
etc. and all the hose and pipes were removed in order to shown in fig. similarly same marking was carried out at
lift up the engine away from the chassis. After that two other sides as discussed earlier shown in fig. As 18
cylinder head was dissembled via removing the tappet thermocouples were required to be mount on the surface
cover, high pressure injectors pipes and intake, exhaust, on the liner from top dead center TDC to bottom dead
3
center BDC so all points were marked and specified

accordingly. After marking of the cylinder liner at the
specified location where thermocouples need to be
installed, liner was drilled on CNC machine with the
nominal diameter dimension as specified in Table. The
thermocouples are allocated and categorized as per their
orientation and placement. For example a thermocouple
which is placed on number 5 level at flywheel side will
be designated as B.
P6: 6th TC from Top of Sleeve on Pump Side

P5: 5th TC from Top of Sleeve on Pump Side
P4: 4th TC from Top of Sleeve on Pump Side Figure 2: Layout for Thermocouples Mounting
P3: 3rd TC from Top of Sleeve on Pump Side Drilling process was done with CNC machine; 2.5mm
holes were required for each thermocouple. The hole
P2: 2nd TC from Top of Sleeve on Pump Side were drilled with a high speed dill bit at a depth of
P1: 1ST TC from Top of Sleeve on Pump Side 5.84mm which is 0.7mm less to the thickness of Liner so
thermocouple were placed 0.5mm to 0.7mm away from
B6: 6th TC from Top of Sleeve on Flywheel Side the inner side of the liner.
B5: 5th TC from Top of Sleeve on Flywheel Side
B4: 4th TC from Top of Sleeve on Flywheel Side
B3: 3rd TC from Top of Sleeve on Flywheel Side Table 3: Thermocouple Layout
B2: 2nd TC from Top of Sleeve on Flywheel Side
B1: 1st TC from Top of Sleeve on Flywheel Side
T6: 6th TC from Top of Sleeve on Thrust Side
T3: 3rd TC from Top of Sleeve on Thrust Side
T2: 2nd TC from Top of Sleeve on Thrust Side
T1: 1st TC from Top of Sleeve on Thrust Side
4
Figure 4: Machining of Cylinder Liner
Figure 3: Layout block diagram
B. Instrumenting the Cylinder Liner with Thermocouples

Cylinder liner was instrumented with thermocouples
that produce mili-volts at the point of junction where the
two metals meet with the application of heat. This
voltage produced via thermoelectric seebeck effect are
somehow proportional, not always, for a certain range of
temperature. As thermocouples cover a high temperature
range with cyclic change or variation, it can be used in
IC engine to monitor the temperature variation under
fired conditions. Thermocouples that are used
commercially are cheap and can detect a wide range as
well as smallest change i.e. 0.1 degree Celsius. As
compared with other temperature measuring devices,
thermocouples are self-powered & no other excitation
voltages are required for their working, yet it has the Figure 5: Cold junction compensation
main limitation of accuracy as compared to RTD’s. Any
two dissimilar metals could be used to produce voltages
K Type thermocouple (chromel with a 90 percentage of
after heating their junction but thermocouples are made
Ni, nickel and 10 percentage of Cr, chromium} with the
from typical alloys which repeatability and
combination of alumel (95% Ni, 2% Mn, 2% Al, 1% Si)
reproducibility. They are usually calibrated &
was used for the temperature mapping of the cylinder
standardized with a reference temperature of 0 degrees
liner with a resolution of 41 µV/°C approximately.
Celsius so the practical instruments uses electronic CJC
Thermocouples were inserted in the specified holes
methods (cold junction compensation) to calibrate the
which were drilled accordingly. This K type
instrument as used in our case. The Electronic
thermocouples were inserted in such a way to expose to
hardware’s i.e. DAQ in our case, compensate the
the liner inner wall as much as possible in order to carry
variation in the readings, & hence improve the accuracy
the correct amount of heat. Wires from the
of the instrument.
thermocouples were drawn out of the liner and directly
attached to the LabView data acquisition hardware
(DAQ).
5
C. Data Acquisition System displays a graph showing the real time data being
The Data Acquisition System (DAQ) used for the project acquired on the chart.
is based on National Instruments software and hardware.
The software used for the programming is LabView The DAQmx physical channel constant lists all
(Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering physical Channels on devices and modules installed in
the system. For this program the physical channels to be
Workbench). DAQ hardware acts as a source of
selected were the channels of SCXI 1303 which were
interfacing the instruments with a computer. It has connected to the 18 Thermocouples. Order of selecting
analog to digital convertors that converts the analog solely depends upon the orientation of thermocouples.
signal coming from the sensors to the digitized form so These 18 numeric indicators display the current
that it can be read by computer. Many data acquisition temperature reading of the respective thermocouple.
devices also have other functions ie digital to analog Indicators are placed as representation of actual
conversions (DACs), digital input and output signals, thermocouple’s position with respect to Top Dead Center
counter, timers etc. (TDC) and Bottom Dead Center (BDC).
E. Fitting of Engine on Engine Dynamometer

After instrumentation of the cylinder liner, cylinder
liner was fitted back to the engine block and it was
insured that the liner O-ring fits exactly in the bore seat
area. The challenge was to insert the liner along with
thermocouple wires due to less clearance between the
liner surface and the cylinder block bore diameters. After
fitting of liner, engine was assembled and mounted on
the engine dynamometer in order to test the engine. This
engine dynamometer DX-33 uses water brake method to
apply the load on the engine. The use of a dynamometer
(dyno) provides a means for testing an electric motor, or
engine, in various desired and controlled conditions.
Figure 6: Instrumenting the Cylinder Liner Dynamometer produces measurements of a motor’s
mechanical force, speed, or power [3]. The engine crank
shaft was coupled to the dyno DX-33 drive shaft with the
help of coupling and universal joints that came with the
dyno. The whole setup is shown in the figure.
Engine was run at 1000rpm with 25% of Load
applied by the water brake system, and data was logged
for the 18 thermocouples mounted across the length and
circumference of the cylinder liner. Test was run to log
the data of 5min only after the initial startup of the engine
and applied load so that the temperature may not be
fluctuate and deviate due to variation in speed and load.
Figure 7: Software Development
D. Software Development for Data Acquisition System

The LabView software interface consists of front
panel and block diagram interface. The front panel
contains the output and input terminals while the block
diagram contains the code and algorithm of the program.
VI contains two tabs, the first one displays the Numeric
indicators, Controls, Error handler and instructions as
shown in the above photograph, while the second one
6
B. Temperature from Flywheel Side

a) Temperature at B6 and B5
We know that B6 and B5 are near to the top position the
sleeve/liner so the temperature is high at these positions
due to nearest position to the combustion chamber and
also Number sixth cylinder is at the end so here is small
path for cooling water so the temperature is high as
compare to the Pump and Thrust side of liner and
gradually temperature decreases to the down position
b) Temperature at B4 and B3
Thermocouple B4 and B3 are at center position of liner
and closed to water jackets so the temperature is low as
compare to TDC and BDC positions thermocouples but
more than the Pump Side TC P4 and P3 because cooling
water moves from Pump Side to back and then thrust
side.
c) Temperature at B2 and B1
Thermocouple B2 and B1 are at BDC position and are
Figure 8: Fitting of engine on Dyno DX-33 away from cooling water so the temperature is more than
center position of the liner but temperature is more as
compare to B4 and B3.
IV. RESULTS
Temperature data from instrumented liner was plotted
in Microsoft Excel when engine was rotated at 1000 C. Temperature from Thrust side
RPM with 25% load. Three charts were generated against
a) Temperature at T6 and T5
three different sides of the liner i.e. Pump Side (P),
Flywheel Side (B) and Thrust side (T). We know that T6 and T5 are near to the top position the
sleeve/liner so the temperature is high at these positions
A. Temperature from Pump Side due to nearest position to the combustion chamber and
a) Temperature at P6 and P5 temperature of liner is low because here is big cavity for
We know that P6 and P5 are near to the top position the cooling water as compare to Flywheel Side of liner and
sleeve/liner so the temperature is high at these positions gradually temperature decreases to the down position
due to nearest position to the combustion chamber and
gradually temperature decreases to the down position b) Temperature at T4 and T3
Thermocouple T4 and T3 are at center position of liner
b) Temperature at P4 and P3 and closed to water jackets so the temperature is low as
Thermocouple P4 and P3 are at center position of liner compare to TDC position thermocouples but more than
and closed to water jackets so the temperature is low as the Pump Side TC P4 and P3 and also Flywheel Side
compare to TDC and BDC positions thermocouples. TC B4 and B3 because all sides hot water comes here
due to outlet pipes are connected here.
c) Temperature at P2 and P1
Thermocouple P2 and P1 are at BDC position and are c) Temperature at T2 and T1
away from cooling water so the temperature is more than
center position of the liner
Thermocouple T2 and T1 are at BDC position and are
away from cooling water so the temperature is more than
the Pump Side TC P2 , P1 and also from Flywheel Side
TC B2 ,B1 due to hot water passage.
7
Figure 9: Temperature profiles for 1000 engine speed at 25% load at Pump side
Figure 10: Temperature profiles for 1000 engine speed at 25% load at Thrust side
Figure 11: Temperature profiles for 1000 engine speed at 25% load at flywheel side
thermocouples were mounted, three in radial directions

and six in axial direction. Engine tests were carried out
V. CONCLUSIONS
under fired conditions at two different engine speeds
The liner temperature profile was measured by 1000rpm and 1700 rpm and two load conditions
mounting K-type Thermocouple temperature sensors quarter and half load.
around the cylinder liner. In total eighteen
8
Advanced data acquisition system was configured

and programmed to acquire, analyses and log data
from different sensors. This temperature profile
reflects the temperature variation within the cylinder in
fired condition. The major conclusions are:
 Highest Temperature: Temperature is higher at
TDC position due to near the combustion
chamber as compare to mid of liner and BDC
position.
 Lowest Temperature: At mid position of liner
the temperature is lowest as compare to TDC
and BDC position due to nearest position to
water passages.
 Mid Temperature: At BDC position the
temperature of the liner is between the Highest
and Lowest Temperature because of metal to
metal contact with the engine block and there is
no cooling water in this region.
The same results could be verified by applicable
empirical, numerical & analytical approaches
which will be carried out in our future research
work to apprehend the physics & solution
methodology of the liner thermal analysis
VI. REFERENCES
[1] GONERA, MARTIN, & O. SANDIN, "Thermal
Analysis of a Diesel Piston and Cylinder Liner
using the Inverse Heat Conduction Method.”
[2] Sukumaran, Vipin, et al. Cylinder Block
Temperature Mapping and Development of
Cooling Cowl for Reducing the Maximum Liner
Temperature. No. 2012-01-0405. SAE Technical
Paper, 2012.
[3] Winther, J. B. Dynamometer Handbook of Basic
Theory Applications. Eaton Corporation, 1975.
[4] Miranda, Gabriel. "ECE 4007 L01/Dr. Smith Solar
Jackets–Motor Control Dynamometer for Testing
Electric Motor."
[5] A.J. Martyr and M.A. Plint, “Dynamometers and
the measurement of torque,” in Engine Testing:
Theory and Practice, 3rd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2007, pp.153-15
9
SAME-02
Performance Improvement of Compressor to Recover Flare Gas by Factors

Analysis Method
Naseem Ahmad1, Sahar Noor1, Rehman Akhtar1, Khizar Azam1
1
Industrial Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology
Peshawar, Pakistan
naseem_saddiqui@yahoo.com
Abstract- A large quantity of natural gas is flared in transfer to the plant area by its natural pressure for
combination with the exploration of crude oil at separation to make the mixture useful. Firstly, the flow
Nashpa Oil and Gas Field, Pakistan. This flaring gas is injected to three phase high pressure separator,
expends huge amount of energy and causes ecological which separates the mixture of the three phase
deprivation and illness. The main centre for industrial separator. The gas pressure is 1100 PSI and this gas is
development and economics activities is oil and gas injected to dehydration plant to make gas for useful
sector. purpose. The gas is shifted to SNGPL (Sui Northern
Gas Pipeline Limited) piping network after
The main purpose of this study is to develop the design
dehydration plant. Water is sent to pit after separation
of experiment techniques, one factor at a time. two
of crude oil mixture. The crude oil of high pressure
factors at a time, three factors at a time etc to recover
separator ,which has pressure of about 300-450 PSI is
large quantity of flared gas within the compressor
injected in three phase medium pressure separator. The
existing system. For analysis the data of gas and
crude of medium pressure separator is shifted to low
compressor are collected from a number of sources
pressure separator and finally the crude is sent to crude
and meaningful information extraction. In addition, to
oil storage tanks. Gas of medium pressure separator
recover low pressure gas five factors are selected for
with the pressure of 300-450 PSI is injected in medium
the compressor performance.
pressure compressor. To increase the pressure of
In this research, a new approach is applied on a gas medium pressure to 1100 PSI the gas is passed through
flaring to find the outlay effect method that carefully compressor. After compressor the gas is passed
reduce the negative environmental effects, modify the through dehydration plant for useful purpose. The gas
existing system and to increase the economic benefits. which is transferred to low pressure separator from
medium pressure separator has low pressure (125-200
Key words- Oil and Gas Company, Natural Gas PSI) is flared due to its low pressure. Within the
Flaring, Factors Analysis, Environmental, existing system, it wants to recover the low pressure
Economics gas that is being flared. The minimization of flaring
I. INTRODUCTION gas or waste gas is really environmental challenge by
which oil and gas industry is facing. Hence, this
The oil and gas sector of Pakistan is a key sector in process reduces negative ecological impacts, conserve
nation’s economy. The two key components of energy energy and natural assets, which are safe and sound for
is oil and gas and both contributing around 80% to 83 employees, consumer and communities. Flares are
% share to 70 million TOE (ton of oil equivalent) of indispensible safety tools for the clean and cost
energy requirement in the country. The oil and gas effective removal of combustible gases. Flares have
industry is growing quickly, and the oil and gas well been operating in chemical plants, refineries, steel
drilling activities in the country are going beyond the mills and other industries for over sixty years. Purpose
average. The mixture of flow of crude oil, gas and of flare flow activity is crucial in establishing the
water is produced by oil wells. This mixture flow is recovery system design capability. For projects
10
economics evaluating the average flare gas is flaring of gas is declined by 19% since 2005, which is
significant step.The objective of this research is to led by gas flaring reduction in Russia and Nigeria (the
develop a methodology to eliminate carbon emission only two countries with the highest level of gas
and recover flared gas to useable gas by analyzing flaring). A combination of these work in literature
some factors of interest such as suction pressure, shows obvious absence of work, which has been aim
temperature, specific gravity, RPM, and compression to assess the inequality between the flaring activities of
ratio. major oil and gas companies in Nigeria and the
II. LITERATURE REVIEW variation between gas flared and produced. Odigure
and Abdul Kareem (2010) worked on the economic
In oil and gas industries, the surplus natural gas is benefit of natural gas consumption in Nigeria and this
burnt in open air. However, this leads to emission of case of study is based on processing of food industry
hazardous gases. The flaring gas creates hazards for [3]. Their work concentrate on the measurement of
worker and nearby residents. Hence, it is important heat radiation from flaring of gas and the benefits of
measure in natural gas facilities and at drilling replacement usual fuel and energy types, e.g.,
operations. in petroleum industries the flaring systems automotive gas oil (low pour fuel oil, automotive gas
are deployed. Flaring of pure methane (CH4) produces oil diesel and electricity) with natural in economic
carbon monoxide (CO). In addition, Nitrogen present term by using mathematical principles in calculation
in the air is oxidised during the combustion process with the food processing industry case study in
and form Nitrogen oxides, which is called NOx. Nigeria. Results revealed that about 30% on low pour
Emission of flare gas adversely affect the environment, fuel oil, 69% on diesel and 69% on electricity saved by
human health, lives stock plants and animals. company and if conventional energy and fuel is
Consequences to that region depends upon on the substituted with natural gas it go round million of
duration, magnitude and frequency. These gases dollars in five years. Onwukwe (2009) worked on gas
contribute to global warming. If the natural gas consist liquid technology in Nigeria [4] and explained the
of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) than emission includes view of gas to liquid (GTL) conversion technology is
sulphur dioxide, carbonyl sulphide (COS) and carbon the choice for sustainable natural gas utilization. In
disulphide (CS2), among others their research, they found that this technology will
oxidised during the combustion process and form make possibility of the chemical conversion of natural
Nitrogen oxides, which is called NOx. Emission of gas into (clean diesel, light oils, Naphtha, Kerosene) as
flare gas adversely affect the environment, human a marketable liquid product. Results revealed that
health, lives stock plants and animals. Consequences to conversion will contribute to the exclusion of flared
that region depends upon on the duration, magnitude gas and minimize the country overdependence
and frequency. These gases contribute to global imported refined petroleum products. Hang, Blasing,
warming. If the natural gas consist of hydrogen and Kimberly (2007) worked on monthly carbon
sulphide (H2S) than emission includes sulphur dioxide, emission from natural flaring gas and cement
carbonyl sulphide (COS) and carbon disulphide (CS2), manufacturing in the United States [5]. They
among others [1].Flaring of gas has been identifying as established that the carbon emission and all fossil fuel
an environmental hazard and economic waste. emission amounted to 10% it has no persistent and
Perinenet literature sources are available in the oil and clear annual model. Akpan (2009) performed a study
gas domain highlighting various issues. A case in on flared gas to show that large quantities of gases are
point, Erwin, Zhizhin, Pack, Bough,Tuttle, Elvidge, used in chemical industries [6]. The method to control
Ziskin Ghosh (2009) Conducted a fifteen years the natural gas of the nation is to encourage the
record of global natural flaring of gas derived from establishment of gas based petrochemical complexes
satellite [2]. They concluded that the flaring of gas that can consume huge quantity of volume needed to
efficiency as the volume of flare gas per barrel of eliminate gas flaring. It also suggested that Nigeria can
crude oil produced and it is stable from last fifteen make sound foreign exchanges earnings on long term
years and its ranges from 140 to 170 billion cubic by properly control the natural gas by establishing
meters (BCM). In addition, they found that the global petrochemical gas industries. Nigeria has made
11
foreign exchange earnings by the LNG (liquified TABLE I: Selected Factors

natural gas ) technologies which involve liquefication ,
regasification, shipping and delieved into the pipeline
grid. Natural gas that includes methane is cooled and
by cryogenic process it is liquefied at a temperature of
-2600F and liquefied natural gas is formed. The
volume of natural gas is reduced to one six hundredth
and allow the transportation through a special liquefied
natural gas tanker ship over a long distances.Moore,
Boone, Hill and Randall (1985) developed a
methodology for gas flaring . Their research is based
on more than two years of engineering development on
several associated gas stream in large amount gas
For low pressure recovery of gas first one-factor-at-a-
liquids recovery, gas treatment, power generation and time (OFAT) approach is deployed (i.e., suction
residue gas compression are utilized effectively and pressure was analyzed by varying and other factors
economically [7]. were held constant). Furthermore, factorial experiment
was conducted by varying various factors together.
The total gas production of Pakistan is approximately
6.8 billion cubic feet (BCF) per day. Exploration and One factor at a time: In this scenario, the suction
production (E & P) companies in Pakistan support the pressure is first analyzed and all the other factors are
Petroleum Institute of Pakistan by taking initiatives in unchanged. The suction pressure is changed from 125-
the oil and gas sector. From rough estimate slow BTU 150PSIG while each factor is changed with respect to
(British thermal unit) gas and gas reservoirs stand at 60 its ranges keeping other factors constant. The range of
billion cubic feet per day. About 150-200 mmcfd temperature is varied from 130-1400F. Range of
(million cubic feet gas per day) is flared in Pakistan specific gravity is changed from 0.66 to 0.70 while the
every day due to low pressure. As this flaring gas has range of compression ratio and RPM is changed from
low BTU and the Oil and Gas Management, it is 2.70 to 2.90 and 950-1120 RPM, respectively.
essential to purify the gas. Hence, the management
installed mobile power houses to recover gas [8]. TABLE II: One Factors is Changed
The objective of this research is to develop a

methodology to eliminate carbon emission and recover
flared gas to useable gas by analyzing some factors of
interest. These factors are suction pressure,
temperature, specific gravity, compression ratio and
RPM.
III. METHODOLOGY
In this research, five main factors were identified for
the performance of compressor improvement. Table 1
depicts the selected factors.
Table II depicts that only one factor (suction pressure)

is changed and the other factors are held constant..
Two factors at a time: In this section two factors were
varied witin the range while all the other factors kept
constant
12
TABLE III: Two Factor are Changed Four factors at a time: In this secnario, four factors are
changed at a time while holding other factors constant.
All factors are changed within its range.
TABLE V: Four Factors are Changed
In Table III, two factors factors (suction pressure and

temperature) are changed and the other factors are kept
constant.
Three factors at a time: Three factors are changed at a
time with respect to their ranges and the other factors
held constant. A set of three factors is taken at a time Four factors suction pressure, temperature, specific
in this method gravity and RPM are changed in Table V by four
factors at a time method and compression ratio is
unchanged in Table V. Each factor value is changed in
each case in the table V.
TABLE IV: Three Factors are Changed All factors at a time: All factors are changed at a time
with respect to their ranges in this section. The flow of
gas for each experiment is also given table VI..
TABLE VI: All Factors are Changed
In Table IV, three factors at a time method is given.

Suction pressure, temperature and specific gravity are
changed and compression ratio and RPM is
unchanged.The value of all the three factors are varied
in each case and the flow is also changed in each case
and is given in table IV.
13
In Table VI factors suction pressure, temperature, when suction pressure and temperature is set on
specific gravity, RPM and compression ratio are 135PSI and 1320 F, respectively while gas flow
changed at all factor at a time method. In this method, decreased to 2.82 million. Finally, when suction
the value of all factors are changed in each experiment. pressure and temperature is reached to 150 PSI and
For each experiment the flow of gas calculation is 1400 F than the flow of gas decreased than the gas
shown in table VI. flow reached to 2.34 million.the flow of gas is
constantly decreasing when both factors are changed to
IV. DISCUSSION
their respective ranges. In Table III the value of each
Figure 1 depicts relation between suction pressure and factor is given which shows that suction pressure and
gas flow. The graph shows that suction pressure is temperature is changed and other factors are held
changed against gas flow while keeping other factors constant and figure 2 depicts relation between suction
constant. The gas flow in this graph starts from 2.6 pressure, temperature and gas flow. In figure 2 the
mmcfd (million cubic feet per day) and is reached to flow of gas is continuously decreasing and a straight
2.85 mmcfd. Initially, suction pressure is set on 125 graph is shown from higher gas flow to lower gas
PSI, temperature 130 0F, specific gravity 0.65, RPM flow.
950 and compression ratio 2.90 for first stage. For
Fig 3 depicts relation between suction pressure,
second stage, 2.85 compression ratio and 2.60 mmcfd
temperature and specific gravity vs gas flow. In this
(million cubic feet per day) gas flow is achieved. In
figure, three factors are changed at a time while
next step, the suction pressure is set on 130 PSI and all
holding other factors constant. Initially, when the three
other factors are held constant, the gas flow achieved
factors suction pressure, temperature and temperature
through this set of experiment is 2.65mmcf. Further,
are set at 130 PSI, 132 F and 0.66 than 2.25 mmcfd of
the value of pressure is changed to 135PSI 2.70
gas flow is achived. In next step, the value of suction
million gas flow is achived. Finally, the suction
pressure, temperature, and specific gravity are
pressure is set on 150 PSI the gas flow achived is 2.85
changed to 135 PSI, 1340 F and 0.67 respectively.
million. This figure 1 shows a straight graph which
reveals that the flow of gas continuously increasing.
Gas Flow against Suction Pressure Gas Flow against Suction Pressure and Temperature
2.9
3.5
2.85
2.8
3
Gas flow
Gas Flow
2.75 2.5
3.52
Gas Flow
2.7
2.65 3
1.5
2.6
2.5
2.55 1
Gas Flow
120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 2

0.5
Suction Pressure 1.5
0
1 125 130 135 140 145 150 155
Fig. 1: Graph between suction pressure and gas flow 0.5 Suction Pressure
in one factor at a time method
0
Fig. 2 depicts a scenario in which suction pressure and 130 132 134 136 138 140 142
temperature are varied and the other factors are Temperature
constant. Initially, the gas flow reached to maximum
after that the gas flow goes on decreasing. When Fig. 2: Suction pressure and temperature are changed
suction pressure and temperature are changed initially and gas flow is given. (two factors)
and set the value of suction pressure 130 PSI and
temperature 1320 F and other factors are held constant
than 2.98 million gas flow is achieved. In next step,
14
The gas flow reached to 2.34 million in this is increasing. Initially, when the suction pressure,
experiment. Five experiments are performed in the temperature, specific gravity and RPM are set at 130
three factors at a time method. In the final step, the PSI,1320F, 0.66 and 1000 than 2.4 million gas flow is
value of suction preesure changed to 150 PSI, achived. Next, four factors changed again and and kept
temperature 1400 F and specific gravity to 0.70, the the value of suction pressure 135 PSI, temperature
flow of gas is reached to 2.61 million. Hence, three 1340 F, specific gravity 0.67 and RPM 1030. In this
factors are changed at time the flow of gas is start from case, the flow of gas reached to 2.54 million. Further
2.34 million and reached to 2.61million. The value of change in factors is increasing the gas flow and finally
each factor is shown in table IV and the gas flow set the suction pressure, temperature, specific gravity,
achived through each set of experiment is also shown . and RPM at 150 PSI, 1400 F, 0.70 and 1120 so in this
In each case the gas flow is continuously increasing. scenario the flow of gas is reached to three million.
Hence, it concluded that by changing the factors to its The flow is smoothly increasing in this set of
respective ranges and increasing the number of factors experiments. Hence, it is concluded that increasing the
will result in an increased gas flow. Figure 3 dipicts number of factors is increasing the gas flow and
that the gas flow is contionously increasing (i.e., operation is running smoothly. Table V summarizies
revealing that when the three factors are changed results for this scenario.
within the range the gas flow is increasing).
Fig. 5 represents relation between all factors at a time
(suction pressure, temperature, specific gravity, RPM
and compression ratio) against gas flow. Flow of gas is
calculated by changing all the factor according to their
respective ranges. When suction pressure, temperature,
specific gravity, RPM and compression ratio set
initially at 130 PSI, 1320 F, 0.66, 1030 and 2.85/2.80,
than the gas flow reached to 2.5million. Further
Gas Flow against Suction Pressure, Temperature and Specific gravity
increasing all factors values is increasing the gas flow.
2.65
Finally, when all factors value changed to 150 PSI,
2.6
1400 F, 0.70, 1120 and 2.70/2.75 , than three million
2.55
Gas Flow of gas flow is achived. The value of all factors are
2.5 Gas Flow
Gas Flow
2.65
2.45 shown in table VI and the gas flow in each case is
2.6
2.65
2.4 shown in table 5. From the graph (see Fig. 5) it is clear
2.55
2.6
2.35
2.5 that the gas flow is increasing smoothly. In Fig 5 the
Gas Flow
2.3
2.55
2.45
2.25
gas flow in each case is increasing, a straight line
2.5
2.4
graph is made between all factors and gas flow. Hence,
Gas Flow
2.2
2.35
2.45
2.3 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 this is the best case to recover huge amount of gas by
2.4 Suction Pressure
2.25 changing all factors at a time.
2.35
2.2
2.3 130 132 134 136 138 140 142
2.25 Temperature
2.2
0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.71
Specific Gravity
Fig. 3: Suction pressure, temperature and specific

gravity are changed and gas flow is shown. (Three
Factors)
Fig. 4 illustrates relation between suction pressure,
temperature, specific gravity and RPM against gas
flow. In this scenario, four factors are changed within
the limit of range the gas flow is calculated. Fig. 4
reveals that when the factors are changed the gas flow
15
Gas Flow against Suction Pressure, Temperature, Specific gravity and Gas Flow against Suction Pressure, Temperature, Specific gravity,
RPM RPM and Compression ratio
3.5
3.1
3.5
3
3
2.5
3 3.1
2.9
Gas FlowGas Flow
2
2.5 3
Gas Flow Gas flow

3.5
1.5 2.8
2
1
3
2.9
3.1
2.7
1.5
0.5
3.5
2.5 2.6
2.83
0
1
3 3.1
2.5
Gas Flow Gas Flow
2 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 2.7

2.9
0.5
2.5 Suction Pressure 2.43
1.5
Gas Flow Gas Flow

2.6
2.8 125 130 135 140 145 150 155
0
2
1 2.9
130 132 134 136 138 140 142 2.5 Suction Pressure
2.7
1.5
0.5 Temperature
3.1
2.8
2.4
2.6
1
0
0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.71 3 130 132 134 136 138 140 142
0.5 2.7
2.5
Specific Gravity Temperature
2.9
0 2.6
2.4
Gas Flow
980 1000 1020 1040 1060 1080 1100 1120 1140 2.8 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.7 0.71
RPM 2.5 Specific Gravity
2.7
2.4
2.6
Fig. 4: Suction pressure, temperature, specific gravity 980 1000 1020 1040 1060 1080 1100 1120 1140
2.5
and RPM are changed and gas flow is shown. (Four RPM
2.4
Factors) 2.65 2.7 2.75 2.8 2.85 2.9 2.95
Compression Ratio
ECONOMIC BENEFITS
Investment in oil and gas exploration and production Fig. 5: Suction pressure, temperature, specific gravity,
produce significant economic gain and other benefits RPM, compression ratio, vs gas flow (All factors
such as energy increased. The main factors which changed)
determine future oil and gas production are prices,
geology and the available technology for exploration
and recovery. The total economic benefit of recovery ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS
of gas in Nashpa Oil and Gas Field is $ 2.16 million
per year. This figure represents huge economy of a Oil and gas industry, refinery and petrochemical
single oil and gas field. The calculation is is under. plants, based on type of manufactured products and
waste materials. Chemicals and industrial processes
Three million gas is recovered through modified also produce pollution. As a result, these contaminants
system. might polluting weather, soil, air and it causes serious
damage to humans and environment. Table VII and
The price of 1 million cubic feet per day = $2,000
table VIII showcontaminants quantity of flare gas of
Per day income = 2014 and 2015. By comparison of both tables it
concluded that by the recovery of flare gas the affect
Three million gas recovered = 3 * 2000 = $6,000 of contaminant gases is reduced.
Monthly income = $6,000 * 30 = $18,0000 TABLE VII: Contaminant Quantity PER µG/M3 of
Yearly income = $18,0000* 12 = $216,0000 Flare Gas of Nashpa Oil and Gas Field 2014
16
[1] Opportunities in Pakistan’s upper stream oil and

gas sector Ministry of Petroleum & Natural
Resources Government
of Pakistan. www.mpnr.gov.pk
[2] Definition of gas flaring, retrieved at
www.ehow.com on 3/6/2013, www.pcq.com.pk
[3] Elvidge, D, Ziskin D, Baugh B, Tuttle B,
Ghosh T., Pack D, Erwin E, Zhizhin M.A
Fifteen Year Record of Global Natural Gas
Flaring Derived from Satellite Data. Energies.
2009.2(3) 595 – 622
[4] Abdulkareem, A and Odigure, J. Economic benefit
of natural gas utilisation in Nigeria: A case Study
TABLE VIII: Contaminant Quantity PER µG/M3 OF of the food processing Industry. Energy
Flare Gas of Nashpa Oil and Gas Field 2015 sources.2010. 5(1) 106 – 114.
[5] Onwukwe S. Gas-to-Liquid technology:
Prospect for natural gas utilization in Nigeria
[6] Blasing T, Hand J. And Kimberly B. Monthly

carbon emissions for natural Gas flaring and
cement manufacture in
the United States. Tellus B. 2007.59(1) 15 –28.
[7] Akpan, S. The production and utilisation of
Natural gas resources in Nigeria: A review.
Nigerian annual international conference and
exhibition in August of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers in Abuja, Nigeria.2009.
[8] Hill R, C- E Offshore production systems Inc,
V. SUMMARY AND Moore, J, Continental oil Co. OfIndonesia, Boone
CONCLUSIONS D and Randall C. Associated gas utilisation with
liquid recovery.Offshore
Flaring of gas is a huge problem for people, technology conference. 1985.
environment and also economic problem. There is [9] EPA. Environmental Protection Agency (1995)
emergent concentration to reduce gas flaring, due to Emission factors& AP42,Compilation of air
which the pollution emissions generated by flaring of pollutant Emission factors. http://www.epa.gov
gas and possible large emission sources within a plant. [10] American Petroleum Institute website,
In this research , the method of recovery of flare gas Environmental regulations of the Explorationand
has been assessed by deploy design of experiment Production in the Oil and Gas Industry.
techniques one factor at a time and furthermore, Retrieved at www.ipo.org on 03/23/13.
factorial experiment was conducted by varying various [11] Douglas C. Montgomery “ Design and Analysis
factors together for the recovery of flare gas. In this of Experiments” fifth Edition.
research, the existing system is modified leading to
recovery of flare gas (three million). For modified [12] Daniel D. FREY and Hungjen WANG 2006
system suction pressure is set on 150 PSI, temperature Adaptive One- Factor-at-a-Time Experimentation
is 140 F, specific gravity is changed to 0.70, and Expected Value of Improvement.
compression ratio for both stages of the compressor is [13] ARIEL Heavy Duty Balanced Opposed
set on 2.70 and 2.75 and RPM is changed to 1120. Compressors
recovery of large amount of flare gas minimizes the Technical Manual For Models JGE, JGH, JGK
negative environmental impacts. The CO is reduced and JGT.
from 1.91 to 0.175, NO is reduced from 4.91 to 0.46, [14] "Natural Gas Pipeline Development and
SO2 from 1.52 to 0.30 and NOx is reduced 0.070. Expansion," U.S. Energy Information
Administration.
[15] Pell Research Report on Oil and Gas Pipeline
REFERENCES Construction cited with permission.
17
[16] Imail OS, Umokoro GE (2012) Global

Impact Of Ga Flaring.Energy and Power
Engineering 4, 290- 302. doi:
10.4236/epe.2012.44039.
[17] API 521. 2007. Pressure-relieving and
depressuring systems. 5th Edition. American
Petroleum Institute.
[18] Ismail O. Sahad and Umukoro G. Ezaina, “
Global Impact of Gas flaring,” Energy & Power
Engineer, 290-302, vol.4
issue 4, (July 2012)
18
SAME-03
Bulge hydroforming of tube by rubber mandrel without axial feed:

Experiment and Numerical Simulation
Faisal Qayyum1, Masood Shah1, Saad Ali1 and Umar Ali1

1
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology Taxila
Taxila, Pakistan
fysalqayyum@yahoo.com
Abstract— Rubber forming has become an expensive try-outs to establish the necessary process,
important tool to manufacture high precision and part and tooling designs. Establishment of process
complex tube parts, but as the part complexity and goes back to 1939 when Grey et al. [1] investigated
the choice of metal increases the calculations manufacturing of seamless copper fittings with T
required to accurately determine the final shape protrusions using a combination of internal pressure
become increasingly complex. The accuracy of the and axial load. The hydroforming process got fame
final shape of the product depends upon the after his work and researchers carried on further
different parameters, like material properties i.e. research on this topic to make complex shapes. As the
Young’s modulus, elongation before rupture, part complexity increases, experience and design rules
plastic properties of material, coefficient of friction may be limited in assisting engineers and designers.
between the die and work piece. Furthermore, there is not an extensively available
mathematical or numerical model for prediction of
In the current research tubes of AISI SS304 have final shapes and deformations yet for hydroforming
been hydroformed into bulge shape without axial technology. Hence, in order to reduce development
feeding mechanism. Urethane rubber instead of time, effort and cost,
hydraulic oil has been used to internally pressurize
the surface. Material properties for tubular SS304 computer aided engineering (CAE) tools need to be
were extracted from already published literature, used effectively [2].
which was further used to carry out successful
The finite element method (FEM) has been proven to
simulation of the process in ABAQUS Standard
be a useful tool in the past for conventional metal
and to analytically calculate several geometric
forming processes to obtain reliable and precise
parameters. Detailed simulation results have been
information about the process, geometry and material
presented and tube wall thinning along the
parameters [3]. Now a days use of FEM for tube
periphery has been observed. Comparison between
hydroforming process simulations has become a
analytical and simulation results show close
standard development tool after numerical
relationship.
investigations and experimental validations conducted
Keywords-Tube Hydroforming; Bulge Shape; by many researchers since the early 1990’s [4] and
Numerical Simulation; rubber mandrel application of current commercial FEM software, such
as LS-DYNA, PAM-STAMP, ABAQUS, MARC,
VII. INTRODUCTION AUTOFORM and DEFORM into tube hydroforming
As compared to stamping process, the tube process was performed and presented successfully [5].
hydroforming process is relatively complex, The feasibility of forming a specific part can be
development of a new hydroforming shape requires predicted by analyzing thinning, thickening, stress and
19
strain distribution on a deformed tube. The effects of In this work, the bulge hydroforming of SS304 was
different parameters can be investigated by varying accomplished without axial feeding under different
important dimensions or loading conditions on loading and boundary conditions. Axial feeding is a
common parts. Hence generic rules can be established parameter which involved complex tooling and
for future problems [3]. Kang showed that axial feed control. Less axial feed results in failure of wall, while
has an important influence in order to obtain sound greater axial feed results in wrinkling. Getting the
products [6], he also showed that poor lubrication desired results without axial feed can save cost of
often results in premature failure, due to excessive tooling and can simplify the production process. The
local thinning. Bandar Alzahrani, Gracious Ngaile and FEA analysis of tube hydroforming process for current
Chen Yang [7] established a model based on case was carried out using ABAQUS/StandardTM
equilibrium conditions, yielding criteria, geometrical software package because it provides detailed material
relationships, and a volume constancy condition. The modeling and is relatively more accurate at high
system of equations was derived and solved for strains. The aim of this research was to verify the
various process parameters. They validated their model accuracy and use of ABAQUS/StandardTM for the
using finite element analysis and experiments. The tube hydroforming under different conditions by
model has the ability to predict process parameters comparing the experimental data with the simulation
such as stresses, strains, internal pressure, geometry results, and see the effect of friction on various
variables, and thinning rate distribution. M. Saboori, parameters like material forming, corner filling, wall
et.al. [8] conducted free expansion testing of AISI SS thickness and final geometry of the finished product.
304 to calculate it more accurate 3D formability.
Tube hydroforming parts have various common
II. Experimentation
features like bulging, protrusion, and local expansions
[9]. Material properties were found essentially Two piece split die made from AISI 1060 steel was
affecting these tube hydroforming process output used during experimentation. The die was
features [10, 11]. A number of friction tests were manufactured by initially cutting metal blocks on
developed to determine the coefficient of friction [5], a DK7740 Wire EDM shown in Fig. 1, followed by
new analytical model to determine the friction surface grinding. Cavity was machined into the split
coefficient in the forming zone was proposed [12]. die by using automatic control die sinking EDM Neuar
Limb [13] reported the effect of lubrication on the M30 shown in Fig. 2.
bulge shape. Purit Thanakijkasem, et.al. [14] used
technique of Bright Annealing (BA) to enhance the
formability of SS 304 in tube hydroforming process.
Yeong-Maw Hwang and Yi-Kai Lin [15] proposed a
mathematical model considering an ellipsoidal surface
for tube hydroforming to analyze the plastic
deformation behavior of a tube during hydraulic bulge
forming. To verify the validity of their model, FEM
code DEFORM was used to simulate the forming
process. The effects of various forming conditions,
such as the strain-hardening exponent, the initial tube
length, etc., upon the forming pressures were
discussed. Abed Alaswad and Abdul Ghani Olabi [16]
Figure 3. DK7740 Wire EDM
performed finite element study using LS DYNA code
to investigate the effect of geometrical factors, bulge
height, stress distribution and thickness variation were
studied for the hydroformed part. B. Yang, et. al. [17]
used LS DYNA code to simulate bulge shape tube
hydroforming process and investigated the effect of
lading path on formation of bulge shape and wall
thickness distribution.
20
Figure 6(a). Split view of hydroforming die with die

sinking electrode
Figure 4. Automatic control die sinking EDM Neuar

M30
To smooth down the rough surface obtained after die

sinking the cavity was polished using Dremel(R) tool.
The reduction in friction is especially important while
performing bulging without axial feed as M. Koc and
L.P. Lei through their research work [18, 19] have
showed that with low friction, more homogeneous
deformation can be achieved.
Both halves of split die with die sinking electrode and
tightening bolts is shown in Fig. 4 (a), Fully finished Figure 4 (b). Polished cavity of die
die as shown in Fig. 4 (b) was mounted on 1 ton
hydraulic press which has been shown in Fig. 3 which
is available in Machine Tools and Manufacturing AISI SS304 Tubular specimens of 47 mm length,
Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering Department, 0.5mm thickness and outer diameter 18 mm as shown
University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila. in shown in Fig. 11 (a) were used, chemical
composition of material is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition of SS304
Table 3:
Chemical
Compositi Comp. C Cr Fe Mn Ni Si
on of
SS304
0.0 20 66. 2 10. 1
Wt. %
8 3 5
AISI SS304 was specifically used during our

experimentation because it is highly ductile grade of
stainless steel, normally used in manufacturing
processes where high formability of material is
Figure 5. Hydraulic press of 1 ton capacity required. Tube and rubber mandrel were inserted into
the die cavity and the plunger was placed above. The
21
schematic diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 5.

We used rubber mandrel to internally pressurize the
tube instead of hydraulic oil because less critical
sealing conditions are required in the case of rubber.
Localized pressurization technique was adopted to
successfully manufacture the part. Rubber mandrels of
smaller lengths which could force tube locally to file
the die cavity were used. Complete procedure was
done in 3 to 4 multiple pressurizing punches by
successively increasing mandrel length in each punch.
The punch had clearance of 0.1 mm from tube so
that no axial load acts upon the walls of the tube and Figure 6. Sectioned view of hydroformed tube
the tube wall might not get gripped against the die
which has been depicted in Fig. 5. The pressure was
applied in 3 steps with different size of rubber VIII. SIMULATION
mandrels for better coroner filling and to make sure Numerical simulation of the tube hydroforming
homogeneous material flow into the die cavity. process, specifically for our case was carried out on
ABAQUS/StandardTM. Detailed finite element analysis
The final shape and geometry of fully developed part was performed in 3-D axisymmetric environment. The
was observed using as axial section as shown in Fig. 6 die was modeled as an analytical rigid surface which
cut from a fully hydrofomed tube by using DK7740 does not require meshing and tube was modeled as a
Wire EDM. The section gave us the possibility of deformable shell of 47 mm length and 1 mm thickness,
measuring radii formation and thicknesses change the elastic and plastic material properties of Stainless
along the periphery of the part. Steel AISI304 were assigned to the tube section which
were taken from ASM Atlas of Stress Strain Curves
[20] as shown in Fig. 7.
Figure 7. Plastic region of stress-strain curve of AISI

SS304 at different temperatures process
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the tube Final assembly of die, tube and depiction of applied
hydroforming process internal pressure is shown in Fig. 8. Die and tube were
assembled together in the assembly mode using
displace instance command. The contact was defined as
frictional contact of frictional coefficient 0.1. A 4-node
bilinear axisymmetric quadrilateral, reduced
integration, hourglass control element type CAX4R
was selected and the tube was freely meshed to 400
elements and 603 nodes. The die was constrained to be
rigid, and the tube was fixed from one end. Different
values of internal pressures were applied during
experimentation. It was observed that for better
22
forming of tube and acceptable corner filling internal was also observed by doing several experiments that
pressure of 50 MPa should be applied. Generalized there must not be sharp corners in the die. As shown in
depiction of results obtained from simulation after Fig. 10(a) and Fig. 10(b) that both tubes have failed due
successful compilation of results has been depicted in to excessive internal pressures, but instead of failing
Fig. 9. from bulge due to excessive thinning of wall the failure
occurred at sharp corners.
As discussed earlier that AISI SS304 tubes were
successfully hydroformed into desired bulge shape. Fig.
11 (a) shows initial shape and size of tube before
hydroforming and Fig. 11 (b) shows the finals shape
and geometry of hydroformed tube. It can be observed
from this figure that reduction in length of tube occurs
when the material flows into the die cavity.
Figure 8. Final assembly with applied boundary

conditions
Figure 10. Failed tubes of mateirlas having low

formability (a) copper (b) alluminum
Figure 9. Depiction of results from FEA analysis,

showing flow of material into the die cavity from free
side of the tube.
IX. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Experimental procedure for tube hydroforming has
been discussed previously. During our experimentation
we tried to hydroform tubes of Copper and Aluminum
as well. Results of those experiments have been
depicted in Fig. 10. It was observed that materials
having low formability and lower yield strength are Figure 11. (a) AISI SS304 tube before
very difficult to hydroform beyond a certain range. It hydroforming (b) shape of tube after hydroforming
23
To get a deep insight of the process, a successfully This study was utilized to calculate the analytical
hydroformed tube was sectioned and was compared values of hoop and longitudinal stress and strain and
with the results obtained from simulation. The the analytical results obtained have been compared
comparison has been showed in Fig. 12. Internal with the ones obtained from numerical simulation in
bulge shape of 10mm has been formed while the
tube forms within 16mm.Outer radii of 3mm are Table 2. The values obtained from these different
also fully formed in experimentation and methods are close to each other within 10% error.
simulation.
Table 2: Comparison of Results
Analytical Numerical
Parameter Calculatio Simulation
Table 2: s n
R 3mm R 3mm Compariso
n of
Analytical
and Hoop
10mm16mm Stress
Numerical 8.75E+08 8.12E+08
results
Hoop
Strain 4.17E-03 3.12E-03
Longitudi
(a) (b)
nal Stress 4.13E+08 4.91E+08
Longitudi
nal Strain 1.97E-03 2.08-03
Equivalent
Stress 7.58E+08 6.67E-03
Variation in thickness of tube wall due to

hydroforming was also examined in simulation, which
Figure 12. Comparison of Experimental results
with numerical solution a) numerical simulation has been shown in Fig. 13. It can clearly be seen from
results b) experimental results. the graph that tube wall gets extensively thin during
free forming at bulge, the wall gets thicker at outer
Friedrich Klaas in 1987 [21] derived the conditions for
yield initiation of a cylindrical straight tube under axial edges due to compressive stresses and remains almost
force and internal pressure and resulting stress state, constant where the tube is in direct contact with the
according to him the circumferential stress, Hoop stress die.
and effective stress values can be described as shown in
equation 1, 2 & 3.
𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √𝜎𝜃2 + 𝜎𝑧2 − 𝜎𝜃𝜎𝑧

(3)
24
process. International Journal of Machine Tools

and Manufacture, 2002. 42(11): p. 1285-1295..
[3] Koç, M., et al., The use of FEA and design of
experiments to establish design guidelines for
simple hydroformed parts. International Journal of
Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2000. 40(15): p.
2249-2266.R. Nicole, “Title of paper with only
first word capitalized,” J. Name Stand. Abbrev., in
press.
[4] Zhou, D. and R. Wagoner, Development and
application of sheet-forming simulation. Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 1995. 50(1): p.
1-16.M. Young, The Technical Writer's
Handbook. Mill Valley, CA: University Science,
1989.
[5] Alaswad, A., K. Benyounis, and A. Olabi, Tube
hydroforming process: A reference guide.
Materials & Design, 2012. 33: p. 328-339.
[6] Kang, B.H., et al., Forming various shapes of
tubular bellows using a single-step hydroforming
process. Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 2007. 194(1): p. 1-6.
[7] Alzahrani, B., G. Ngaile, and C. Yang, Part 1:
Analytical modeling of symmetric multi-nose tube
hydroforming. Journal of Manufacturing
Processes, 2013. 15(2): p. 273-286.
Figure 13. Wall thickness reduction obtained from [8] Saboori, M., et al., Evaluating the flow stress of
numerical solution a) Numerical Simulation b) aerospace alloys for tube hydroforming process by
free expansion testing. The International Journal of
Thickness variation along path (all units are in mm). Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2014. 72(9-
12): p. 1275-1286.
X. CONCLUSION [9] Koç, M., Development of design guidelines for
After conducting experiments on die consisting of part, tooling and process in the tube hydroforming
technology. 1999, Ohio State University.
sharp corners and smooth corners we concluded that [10] Koç, M., E. Billur, and Ö.N. Cora, An
hydroforming of thin tubes is extremely difficult if the experimental study on the comparative assessment
die has sharp corners. By conducting experiments on of hydraulic bulge test analysis methods. Materials
& Design, 2011. 32(1): p. 272-281.
tubes of same geometry and thickness but of different
[11] Lianfa, Y. and G. Cheng, Determination of stress–
materials we concluded that material formability is strain relationship of tubular material with
another very important factor in the hydroforming hydraulic bulge test. Thin-walled structures, 2008.
process, if the material does not have enough 46(2): p. 147-154.
formability it will fail before it fully forms into the die [12] Plancak, M., F. Vollertsen, and J. Woitschig,
Analysis, finite element simulation and
cavity. We used rubber mandrel to internally pressurize experimental investigation of friction in tube
the tube instead of using hydraulic oil, it was observed hydroforming. Journal of materials processing
that less critical sealing conditions are required if we technology, 2005. 170(1): p. 220-228.
use elastomer instead of oil for hydroforming. In our [13] Limb, M., et al. The forming of axisymmetric and
asymmetric components from tube. in Proceedings
research we compared experimental results with results of the 14th International MTDR Conference. 1973.
obtained from simulation and analytical model of sl]:[sn].
Friedrich Klaas in 1987 [21] and a reasonable [14] Thanakijkasem, P., et al., Effect of bright
agreement between these approaches was found. annealing on stainless steel 304 formability in tube
hydroforming. The International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2014: p. 1-
Acknowledgment 9.
[15] Hwang, Y.-M. and Y.-K. Lin, Analysis and finite
The study was funded and supported by element simulation of the tube bulge hydroforming
Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical process. Journal of Materials Processing
Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, 2002. 125–126(0): p. 821-825.
Technology Taxila, Punjab, Pakistan. [16] Alaswad, A. and A.G. Olabi. A numerical study of
the effect of geometrical factors on bi-layered tube
hydroforming. in Proceeding of 7th European LS-
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for making wrought metal T’s. US patent, 1939. finite element simulation of the tube bulge
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[2] Koç, M. and T. Altan, Application of two
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25
[19] Lei, L., B. Kang, and S. Kang, Prediction of the

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usseldorf.
26
SAME-04
Perspectives in Automotive Embedded Systems from Manual to Fully

Autonomous Vehicles
Z. H. Khan1 and Arsalan Khan2

1
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan
zeeshan.hameed@riphah.edu.pk
2
Dept. of Control and Simulation, Center of Excellence in Science & Applied Technologies Islamabad,
Pakistan
arsalan1@mail.nwpu.edu.cn
Abstract—This paper describes the state of the XI. INTRODUCTION

art in embedded system architecture as found in In recent years, a technology breakthrough has
automotive. As the autonomy increases, the man- been achieved in vehicular automation to extend
in-the-loop operation ends up with increased previously manual, teleoperated and semi-
system complexity and total emphasis on autonomous vehicles to fully robotic or autonomous
electronics and software replacing human systems [1]. Thus, the trend in automotive industry
driver. A modern automotive is composed of has transitioned from classical mechanical control to
multiple redundant ECUs connected via reliable drive-by-wire system (drive-by-wireless for
communication network which transfers multi- teleoperated vehicles) and finally to driver-less
sensor data for real time computation of vehicles [2-4] as shown in fig.1. In this paper, we
command that is sent to actuators. Automotive discuss some basic subsystems of such complex
systems are safety critical which requires systems with special consideration on real-time
comprehensive verification, validation and communication, computation and control. While
testing (VVT) produces so as to ensure proper ensuring successful design iteration, a multi-domain
functioning under all situations. Inspired from integrated approach is required for these safety
the “Google self-driving car”, it is expected that critical hard real time embedded systems which have
such high performance fully autonomous cars to sense and control vehicle’s stability, tracking,
will capture the future automotive market. braking, steering and navigation. In-vehicle
Index Terms—Drive-by-wire, automotive embedded networks e.g. CAN, LIN, FlexRay etc.
electronics, embedded systems, real time control, are used as a communication bus to connect all
controller area network. electronic control units (ECUs), sensors and
actuators in a dependable/fault tolerant architecture
[5]. Therefore, time dependency of critical
information must be ensured through intelligent
design of communication system [6].
27
The paradigm shift from semi-autonomous to

fully-autonomous vehicles has put a lot of burden on This paper is organized as follows: Section II
In-vehicle embedded design perspective which describes the details on autonomous vehicle
requires more number of coordinated ECUs, sensors technology, Section III discusses the impact of
and actuators resulting in excessive complexity, autonomous vehicle technology, Embedded
security and safety requirements as well as cost for networks in automotive are presented in Section IV
autonomous operation [7]. One of the greatest with emphasis on CAN protocol and its variants
inspirations for the commercial autonomous vehicles followed by the discussion on embedded
has arrived from the unmanned ground vehicles architectures used in automotive as found in Section
(UGVs) in defense and space applications. These V. Some details on high performance computing in
unmanned vehicles autonomously perform the automotive environment are forecast in Section VI,
desired mission without the human intervention. while section VII concludes the paper.
However, for unexpected scenarios, human
intervention via teleoperation mode is possible.
Some elegant examples of such systems include TABLE I. AUTONOMOUS CAR PIONEER PROJECTS
Mars Rover, Bomb disposable robots, DARPA Project/Le Coun Platform/Theme Year
Grand challenge automotive etc. Now-a-days, these ader try
developed technologies are used in commercial E. Germ Mercedes-Benz 1980’
applications as witnessed by the self-driving cars. Dickmanns any s
The current research describes some experiences in PROMET Germ Autobahn 1987-
developing teleoperated vehicles and its comparison HEUS any 95
with the autonomous systems from control and CMU USA 11 different 1995
automation perspective [8, 9]. Navlab vehicles
Carsense EU Alfa 156 Sport 2000-
wagon 2.0 02
DARPA USA Collision 2001
demo III avoidance demo
Park- Germ Automatic Shuttle 2002
Shuttle any Service
DARPA USA Autonomous drive 2005
Fig. 1. Autonomy spectrum in Automotive Systems Challenge in rough terrain
II without traffic
In fact, DARPA Grand challenge laid the stone of DARPA USA Autonomous drive 2007
benchmarking in autonomous drive [10]. One such Challenge in urban
autonomous vehicle is Stanley, who won the III environment with
competition of driver-less voyage in DARPA’s traffic
grand challenge held in 2005. The vehicle was an Vis-lab Italy Piaggio Porter 2012
actual Volkswagen Touareg modified with actuators Electric vans
driven by onboard computers. It was also equipped Google USA Lexus RX450h 2013
with multiple sensors i.e. 5 LIDAR lasers, Single SDC SUVs
lens and Stereo cameras as well as 24 GHz RADAR
to replace a human driver [11]. Figure 2 shows the
vehicle which uses a path following algorithm using XII. AUTONOMOUS VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY
machine learning approach running in real-time. The history of automobiles dates back to 17th and
th
This algorithm uses real time images and obstacle 18 century when simple machines were invented
avoidance map using lasers. This simultaneous with tri-cycle structure. Steam engines were used at
localization and mapping (SLAM) algorithm shows those times as the only propulsion source, however,
12.6% error due to false obstacles.
28
soon some engineers worked to develop the first compromising on safety

ever electrical vehicle of ancient times. Level 4 Autonomous car can drive it-self
without a human driver. Computer
has full control
Most of the development was witnessed in the

pre and post-world war-II era when more mature
vehicle designs and propulsion techniques were
Fig. 2. Stanley- Winner of DARPA Grand Challenge implemented. In the modern age of automotive
II market, designs are motivated by CAD simulations
to reduce aerodynamic drag, vehicle weight,
increase engine power, optimized fuel consumption
and more security and safety features to human
TABLE II. LEVEL OF AUTONOMY AS DESCRIBED BY driver which is an integral part of a manually driven
NHTSA [12] automotive. Various benchmarks exist in the
Autono Description autonomous driving category as shown in Table 1.
my As suggested by National Highway Traffic Safety
Level 0 Human driver has the complete Administration (NHTSA), different levels of
manual control automation have been described for the automotive
Level 1 One function is automated, others as listed in Table 2.
are manual
Level 2 More than one function is automated
at any instant means higher
autonomy than Level 1
Level 3 Driving is automated. Driver can do
other activities without
Fig. 3. Distributed embedded architecture of a Scania truck (simplified version)
29
Figure 1 depicts the autonomy spectrum in the teleoperation system requires some autonomy to
automotive development. As seen, the classical minimize such effects, whereas, the later one is
approach was limited to manual control by human independent of the communication factor after
driver. Later, some safety measures were paying the cost of increased autonomy.
introduced to avoid accidents as per standards
enforced by SAE. These safety measures were
then combined in the form of a sub-system named TABLE III. COMPARISON OF RELIABILITY
as “driver assistance system” to avoid REQUIREMENTS FOR AUTOMOTIVE SUBSYSTEMS
compromises on the vehicle’s stability. One such Subsystem t r (µs) Reliabilit Comments
example is that of an active yaw control or y
dynamic stability control system which aids the requirem
driver in case of over-steering and limits the ents
vehicle to skid out of the road. Other examples Antilock < 2x104 high Fail-safe
include Anti-lock brake system (ABS), Collision Brake design
avoidance system (CAS) and the automatic cruise System
control systems (CCS) to assist human drivers. A Engine 10-100 high Robust
comparison of their reliability requirements is Manageme control
listed in Table 3. nt
In some cases, driving a ground vehicle is not Air Bag 104 Very DSP based
possible, so a remote driver uses the real-time high switching
communication and control to send commands to Navigation 104 moderate Reliable
the remote vehicle and receive video from the System sensor in
vehicle to carry on driving task [13]. Because of case of GPS
man-in-the-loop operation of a teleoperated outages
ground vehicle, less number of sensors is required.
However, some autonomous features e.g. auto-
In teleoperation applications, a master station
STOP and collision-avoidance task are
drives a slave robot at a distance. The acceleration
implemented on-board in order to handle the
and brake commands are sent via a wireless
communication link failure scenario in which case,
network, while the streaming video is used to take
the vehicle stops immediately [8]. In fully
control decision in real-time. The test-bench setup
autonomous vehicles, all sensing and actuation is
of a networked control ground vehicle “NECS-
done on-board and it increases the system
Car” is shown in fig.4.
complexity [14]. Real time handling of multi-
sensor data and implementation of
computationally efficient fusion and decision
making algorithms require sufficient embedded
power and high performance computing platforms Fig. 4. Bilateral teleoperation schematic
[15]. On the other hand, creating intelligent
automotive systems can be utilized in automated Comparing the hardware and software
urban transport systems, automated highway complexity of an autonomous vehicle, let’s take
driving systems and finally the driverless car the example of Stanley. It used 6 Pentium M
technology as demonstrated by Vis-Lab, Google computers, a Gigabit Ethernet switch, Brake,
and other companies. Throttle, Gear Shifter and steering controller,
This setup is developed and maintained at IMU/GPS sensors, actuators and various
GIPSA-lab, Grenoble, France [8, 16]. While interfacing devices [17]. It consumes about 500 W
comparing remotely teleoperated vehicles with to power up this autonomous vehicle. On the
fully-autonomous ones, one major difference is the software side, the operating system is Linux with
dependency of former on the communication six main functional groups: Sensor interface,
factor. Due to un-deterministic behavior as seen in perception, control, vehicle interface, and user
the presence of delay and packet losses, the interface. This architecture exchanges information
30
with in different modules to cooperate for which ensures fuel savings as compared to manual
autonomous sensing and actuation. On the other control.
hand, if it was developed as a teleoperated vehicle 3) Environment
where driving commands were being sent based on The impact of using computer control for
video received from the car mounted cameras, far critical engine sub-systems results in precise
less computing was required. timing during engine’s intake-injection-
combustion-exhaust cycle. This result in complete
XIII. IMPACT OF AUTONOMOUS VEHICLE burning of fuel which minimizes the residual gases
TECHNOLOGY and smoke expelled into the environment.
The automotive manufacturers used the recent 4) Weight reduction
technologies for ensuring safety, comfort and Considerable weight saving is achieved with
entertainment in compact aerodynamically profiled embedded electronics as drive-by-wire system
cars. Following features are important for removes mechanical links and related accessories
discussion in order to understand the impact of [18]. Due to embedded network, considerable
autonomous vehicle technology on men and weight savings is achieved in terms of decreased
society. volume of cables and wires.
1) Safety 5) Reliability
The purpose of increasing autonomy is to Embedded architectures use fail safe strategy
improve safety of the system. Each year, more for communication of critical information. This
than 1.3 million people die in road accidents. ensures reliable operation [5]. Also, since
About 90% of these accidents are due to human mechanical parts are lesser in number, less wear
error. In driver assisted systems, some functions and tear results in longer down time and mean
are implemented to work autonomously e.g. ABS time between failures (MTBF).
in case of skidding, Airbag deployment after 6) Social Issues
collision detection and interrupted injection of fuel Considering the socio-economic benefits of this
if engine management system detects a broken technology, it is evident that autonomous vehicles
ignition plug which may lead to engine fire will allow improved safety, better fuel economy,
otherwise [10]. efficient traffic flow and considerable savings in
 Longitudinal Controllers: The longitudinal time and maintenance. A considerable decrease in
control functions to control the vehicle’s number of accidents and lives lost due to them
speed and assist in parking, cruise control have been reported after the implementation of
and pre-crash break. Full autonomous autonomous safety features in automotive [19].
system requires an integration of lateral and However, social aspects are often neglected
longitudinal controllers. when technologies are implemented. It seems that
 Lateral Controllers: These control the if autonomous cars will be commonly used in
lateral dynamics of the vehicle e.g. Land urban areas, no licensing requirement will exist as
departure warning system (LDWS) and humans will not be driving the vehicle. Another
Lane Keeping Assist System (LKA) are important aspect of driver-less vehicles is who to
installed in vehicles to keep the vehicle in blame in case of an accident? Human drivers can
the chosen lane and avoid sideswipe violate the signals and can do over-speeding but
crashes. Parallel Parking Assistance System autonomous cars could not. It may be very
(PPA) was first used in 2003 by Toyota to difficult for traffic police to determine whose fault
assist drivers to park in by using a rear is there in case of a crash [20]. In such cases,
camera display on dashboard screen. standardization of safety measures in all
2) Fuel Consumption autonomous cars would also be mandatory. The
The embedded systems in automotive are investigators will require not only the “black-
designed to work in an optimized manner. boxes” of each vehicle but also the video from
Electronic fuel injection (EFI) systems are used for nearby surveillance cameras to precisely find a
controlled injection into combustion chamber clue instead of relying on eye-witness only.
31
XIV. EMBEDDED NETWORKS IN AUTOMOTIVE

A modern automotive vehicle is regarded as
“network on wheels” due to electrification of
major subsystems. Controller area network (CAN)
is the most popular automotive network protocol.
It was proposed by Bosch GmbH in 1983. It was
then used in automotive communication systems to
interconnect various subsystems [21].
Later on, more variants of CAN came into the Fig. 6.Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communication
market e.g. SAE J1939 (higher level protocol for for cooperative awareness and driving
automotive), CANopen (open application CAN),
DeviceNet (distributed industrial automation), XV. IN-VEHICLE EMBEDDED ARCHITECTURE
CAN Kingdom (motion control applications), In modern vehicles, computer assisted driving
SeaCAN (maritime applications) and CAN FD etc. system are common. Model based techniques for
In CAN FD (flexible data-rate), the data rate is the safety critical systems are found to be applicable
same as 1 Mbps but payload can vary longer than on automotive system design too [23]. In usual
8 bytes in each frame. TTCAN is the deterministic architectures a centralized controller is used with
version of the CAN protocol known as time- parallel buses connecting various ECUs [24].
triggered controller area network. In this protocol, Figure 2 describes the distributed embedded
nodes are synchronized by using a periodic signal architecture of a SCANIA truck. It shows three
which is recognized by each node to align its isolated buses connected to a coordinator system
respective clock [22]. (COO). The architecture is based on three CAN
buses and shown as Green, Yellow and Red buses
[22]. This color coding is used to exhibit the
relative importance of each bus. Green bus is the
Fig. 5. CAN message format least important one as it connects the audio
system, road information system, climate control
The worst case message frame size on CAN is etc., while the red bus comprises of the most
134 bits. It depends on how much data bits are critical ECUs including engine and brake
being transmitted. The maximum data rate on management, suspension control and exhaust
CAN is up to 1 Mbps with in a distance of 40 m. emission control. The middle (yellow) bus
The CAN arbitration mechanism follows carrier connects the less critical data as compared to the
sense multiple access with arbitrary message red bus e.g. locking and alarm control, instrument
priority (CSMA/AMP). Each node is assigned a cluster control, Bus chassis control etc. The central
priority according to which it gets access of the ECU (i.e. COO) functions as a gateway to
bus. As such there is no destination address in the interconnect three parallel CAN buses. A
frame sent by the transmitting node. Every node diagnostic bus connected to green CAN is used for
gets all the traffic and it has to filter out the fault detection, diagnosis and error reporting.
relevant messages on the bus. Therefore, low- A higher level protocol above CAN used for
priority nodes may experience excessive delay if trucks is SAE J1939 protocol which enables plug-
high priority nodes are more active. Error and-play function. But due to fixed priorities,
detection in CAN is through bit stuffing with optimization is difficult on this network. More
frame check, ACK and cyclic redundancy check research is going on to obtain a robust protocol for
(CRC). vehicle automation which should offer flexibility
as well as scalability.
It is important to note that the embedded
architecture is dependent on the application type.
CAN is being used in aerospace and even space
applications. Airbus A380 avionics system uses a
CAN bus for aircraft door position sensing. Also,
32
in SMART-1 spacecraft developed by Swedish (JasPar), about 100 car makers and suppliers
space agency, redundant CAN buses are used joined hand to standardize automotive network
which are designed such that they are resistant to technology, middleware and software architecture
radiations effect as desired for space operation. In for automotive control system. This initiative in
addition to embedded networks, a CAN gateway is 2004 resulted in development of ISO 26262
used to inter-connect vehicles for vehicle to guidelines which is a functional safety standard.
vehicle (V2V) and vehicle to infra-structure (V2I) These standards emphasize on model based
communication as shown in fig. 6. design, component based and virtual platform for
software development.
It is required to work for reduction in the
number of ECUs in next generation automotive
and this can only be possible if low power, low
cost but reliable and high performance computing
platforms is used in automotive electronics [25].
One solution to this requirement is by using
graphics processing units (GPUs) to address the
real time data handling, processing and
communication. GPUs are high performance
systems where single GPU can be used to replace
all ECUs in the present day automotive
architecture. These GPUs are found suitable
processing units for multiple applications e.g.
Yearly increase in automotive software
Fig. 7. general purpose processing, real fast, soft real-time
complexity shown by million lines of code of and hard real time. However, since GPUs are
automotive software additional processing units controlled by device
drivers which vary due to different vendors and
XVI. HIGH PERFORMANCE COMPUTING IN driver version, it is important to consider real time
AUTOMOTIVE ENVIRONMENT application constraints while using them for
As stated earlier, the increased autonomy comes critical applications [26].
with a cost and that is complexity. Figure 7 XVII. CONCLUSION
describes how this complexity is increasing yearly
in an exponential manner. It shows that during The paper describes in detail the development
2004 to 2013, the number has increased from 5 history of automotive embedded systems with
million to about 150 million lines of software code emphasis on the autonomous driving vehicles and
in automotive embedded systems due to increased their impact on society. It has been emphasized
autonomy and added number of ECUs. Because it that in order to lower the accident fatalities, the
is believed that in full-autonomous mode, software role of self-driving vehicles is obligatory,
drives the car, so the number of software lines will however, in addition to socio-economic benefits to
increase even more [25]. Due to large number of society, legal and social impact of these systems
ECUs, cost is increasing. Also, due to insufficient must be considered before integration in our
space, these units are difficult to package and place society.
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[19] S. Batchu and S. P. Kumar, "Driver
Drowsiness Detection to Reduce the Major
Road Accidents in Automotive Vehicles,"
2015.
[20] A. Forrest and M. Konca, "Autonomous
Cars and Society," Worcester Polytechnic
Institute, 2007.
[21] ______, "CAN Specification, version 2,"
ed. Stuttgard: Robert Bosch GmbH, 1991.
[22] K. H. Johansson, M. Törngren, and L.
Nielsen, "Vehicle applications of
controller area network," in Handbook of
networked and embedded control systems,
ed: Springer, 2005, pp. 741-765.
[23] A. H. Khan, Z. H. Khan, and Z. Weiguo,
"Model-Based Verification and Validation
of Safety-Critical Embedded Real-Time
Systems: Formation and Tools," in
Embedded and Real Time System
Development: A Software Engineering
Perspective, ed: Springer, 2014, pp. 153-
183.
[24] A. Angerd and A. Johansson, "Design and
implementation of a central control unit in
an automotive drive-by-wire system,"
Master thesis. Chalmers University of
Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, 2013.
[25] G. Macher, A. Holler, E. Armengaud, and
C. Kreiner, "Automotive embedded
software: migration challenges to multi-
core computing platforms," in Industrial
Informatics (INDIN), 2015 IEEE 13th
International Conference on, 2015, pp.
1386-1393.
[26] G. A. Elliott and J. H. Anderson, "Real-
world constraints of GPUs in real-time
systems," in 17th IEEE International
Conference on Embedded and Real-Time
Computing Systems and Applications,
2011, pp. 48-54.
35
SAME-05
Optimization of TIG Welding Parameters using full factorial and ANOVA

Design of Experiments Approach
Muhammad Ijaz Afzal1, Shahid Ikramullah Butt1, Mushtaq Khan1 and Syed Hussain Imran Jaffery1
1
Sector H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
drshahid@smme.nust.edu.pk
Abstract— The TIG welding is most commonly technique is used for the optimization of these
used welding technique in the world. In this parameters for the maximization of output i.e.
research work, the optimization of the welding tensile strength. The 5mm thickness High
process input parameters with Full Factorial Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steel sheet is used in
approach is applied to steel structures of 5mm this experiment. In this work, the Minitab
thickness with TIG welding Process. These input software package is used for Design of
variables/parameters were optimized by using
Experiments.
design of experiments technique in Minitab
software. ANOVA is applied for the optimization of K. M Eazhil, S.Mahendran, S.Ganesh
TIG welding input parameters. In this work, the Kumar [5] optimized TIG welding on 6063
tensile strength was maximized using TIG welding aluminum alloy using Taguchi method for the
input process parameters current, voltage, speed and maximization of mechanical properties.
shielding gas. It was found that current and voltage
A.Sivasankaran [6] optimized TIG welding for
have major contribution towards the tensile
maximizing weld strength of aluminum 8011 using
strength.
Taguchi method. S.Akella, B. Ramesh Kumar [7]
Index Terms—TIG Welding, Tensile Strength, did work for the optimization of weld process
Full Factorial, ANOVA, Optimization parameters with Taguchi approach for the
transverse distortion control applied to MS
I. INTRODUCTION
structures of 3 mm thickness with TIG weld
The TIG welding is complex phenomenon process. Vedprakash Singh, Vijay Patel [8]
and a number of factors and variables effect the discussed about the application of Full-factorial,
output of the process [1]. The four basic variables ANOVA and Regression analysis to analyze the
involved in any welding process are current, effect of process parameters (current, groove angle,
voltage, speed of welding and shielding gas. In welding speed) on welding distortion for SS304
this research work, the effect of these four input under GTAW welding process. C Prabaharan, P
parameters is studied on the output variable. The Venkatachalam, K Suresh Kumar, K Lenin [9]
output variable selected is tensile strength of the optimized the welding parameters in the gas
welded test piece. The design of experiments tungsten arc welding of an Inconel 825 alloy.
36
Enough data must be available before For the optimal welding parameters, a full
planning of every experiment, so that science in factorial model is used in which 4 factors/input
any phenomenon can be understood. First trial variables, two levels of each factor are included and
and error approach is adopted to design in this way it becomes 16 experimentation
experiments. parameters. The high and low settings of these four
input variables are shown in table 1. The Minitab
In this approach, some experiments are software package is used for Design of Experiments
performed by trial and error method to get some and all these values are put in the model. The model
understanding of the phenomenon. The input designed 16 experiments with different input
variables of every experiment are noted and variable combinations as shown in Table 2.
response to those variables is also noted.
Sometimes these experiments do not give positive
result and we have to conduct other experiments
by changing some input variables. Therefore a
number of experiments are performed to reach to
conclusion and to understand the problem
phenomenon in a better way.
Design of experiments is a well-planned and
much better approach than the trial and error
approach to obtain good prediction about the input
parameters. First of all, the factors which are
important for explaining the process variation are
sorted out by previous experience. Then,
understanding is developed as how these factors
will interact in the process to find out the optimal
process performance.
II. FACTORIAL DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
The factorial design of experiments is used to
study simultaneous effect of several parameters on a
process. Varying different factor levels
simultaneously rather than one factor at a time,
saves considerable time and resources in terms of
cost, and at the same time interaction between
different factors can be studies. The screening is
done to reduce the input variables that affect the
quality of product and to focus only on few III. RESPONSE VARIABLE
important variables. Two level full and fractional The output variables or parameters from the
factorial design of experiment approach is used for process are termed as response variable. Following
screening the important variables/factors that affect response variable is critical and need to be
the process response measures. The useful evaluated with respect to integrity of the HSLA
information is gathered at relatively small runs per steel.
input variable and indication is given about the
main tendencies to guide for further experiments
and optimum settings.
37
Tensile Strength: Maximum weld strength measured alloying elements of base metal. Table 4 shows the
on the tensile sample (MPa). chemical composition of filler wire selected (H08).
To evaluate the tensile strength, the test pieces were

welded as per input combinations in Table 2. Then,
the tensile samples were prepared and tested to see
the response value in respect of input variables.
IV. FIXED PARAMETERS Table 5 displays mechanical properties of base
Fixed parameters are those parameters which metal.
were kept fixed in this research work. Fixed
parameters are listed below:
A. In this experiment, Flat Horizontal welding
Position was used
B. Geometry of joint was single V with included
angle of 70 degree with 1mm root gap and 1mm
root face. VI. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
C. The DCSP current was used in this experimental
work The sixteen experimental conditions about the
D. Mixture of Argon and Helium gases was used as input variables were designed by full factorial
shielding gas in this work [25l/min] design of experiments. The tensile samples were
prepared according to these input variables.
V. MATERIAL SELECTION The fully automatic power supply source (SAF
NERTAMATIC) was used in this experiment for the
Chinese Grade D406A (HSLA steel) material was preparation of welded tensile samples. The
automatic movement system was used for the
used for the experiments in this work. High
precise movement of welding torch. The clamping
Strength Low Alloy steels offer excellent arrangement was also used for clamping and
mechanical properties, and excellent resistance to positioning of the test-pieces for welding. The
atmospheric corrosion. Major applications of HSLA welding parameters (current, voltage, welding speed
steels include aerospace, high pressure applications, and shielding gas) were set for each experimental
aircraft industry, and conventional industrial condition as mentioned in Table 2.
applications. The thickness of sheet used in these The two tensile samples with each welding input
experiments was 5mm. The HSLA steel has condition were machined and prepared according to
excellent formability due to low carbon value. ASME Section IX. The tensile samples were tested
for tensile strength on universal testing machine.
The average value of the two results was taken for
The composition of the HSLA material is shown in each experimental condition. Figure 1 shows the
the table 3 machined tensile samples. Figure 2 displays the
response (tensile strength) of the sixteen
experimental conditions obtained after tensile testing
of samples. The table 6 displays the maximum and
minimum values of tensile strength obtained from
Tensile strength is the most important these experiments.
parameter in the structural application of HSLA
steel. The tensile strength of the filler wire must be
comparable with that of base metal along with other
38
The relationship between input variables and

response/output is investigated and modeled using
the analysis of variance (ANOVA). ANOVA was
developed by Ronald Fisher [10] to interpret the
results of agricultural experimentation. The input
welding variables/parameters which can affect the
output/response of the system are checked and
Fig. 1 Tensile samples for strength testing as per investigated with ANOVA.
ASME IX
The importance of the welding input
variable/parameter is evaluated by percentage
contribution in the total sum of the squared
deviations [2].
The significance of the effect of input process
variable/parameter is decided by the F-test, named
after Fisher [2,3]. When F-test value is more than 4,
then the process input parameters are significant
and play important role in the output response [2].
The relationship between input
parameters/variables and response variable/output is
modeled and investigated by full factorial analysis.
Fig. 2 Measured Tensile Strength of sixteen
Experiments The ANOVA is used to analyze the tensile
strength and it predicted the observations which are
listed in Table 7. The analysis shows that input
parameters/variables have significant effect on the
output response.
VII. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS, ANOVA
The tensile strength values obtained from

experiments (shown in Fig. 2) were put in the
Minitab software worksheet next to the
experimental conditions (shown in Table 2)
designed by the software. The effects of input The F Value of Model (8.74) indicates that it is
variables/factors upon the response/output are significant model. The probability that the F Value
discussed with respect to analysis of variance of Model is due to noise is only 0.20%. This noise
(ANOVA), regression and optimization applied to probability is calculated automatically by ANOVA.
test results of tensile samples. F-value of model is compared with F-distribution
value obtained from tables based upon confidence
39
level (95% in this case), degree of freedom of

model and residual. The model is significant if F-
Value of model is greater than F-distribution value.
All the model input variables (terms) are
significant.
In Table 7, the current, voltage, speed and
shielding gas are all model terms. This model is
worthy to navigate the design space.
VIII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Fig. 3 Effect of welding current upon strength
The graphs (Fig. 3 to 6) from ANOVA represent
the effects of altering the levels of each
setting/parameter on strength of the weld while three
other parameters are fixed. The strength of the weld
decreases with increase of current because the heat
input increases. The strength of the weld decreases
with increase of voltage because this also increases
the heat-input. However the strength of the weld
increases with increase of speed of welding because
this reduces the heat-input.
Now the numerical optimization for the
maximization of tensile strength is applied. The
optimization indicates that in TIG welding of high
strength low alloy steel, the tensile strength can be Fig. 4 Effect of welding voltage upon strength
maximized with the following conditions: the low
values of current, low values of voltage, high values
of speed of welding along with the shielding gas.
The Minitab allows for sensitivity analysis of
parameters by varying the input parameters and
evaluates the effect on the optimization plot. The
optimization plot shows the predicted weld strength
(761 MPa) at the optimum input
variables/parameters 230.00 Ampere current, 10.5
Volt Voltage and 18cm/min speed of welding as can
be seen in the figure 7.
Fig. 5 Effect of welding speed upon strength
40
Fig. 6 Effect of shielding gas upon strength
Fig. 7 Optimization Plot of input parameters
the weld tensile strength. Predicted properties at

optimum condition are verified with a
IX. CONCLUSION confirmation test as shown in Table 8.
The Full Factorial experimental design for

deciding the optimal welding parameters for the
maximization of weld tensile strength was
successfully applied. The TIG welding
parameters for HSLA steel were optimized using
design of experiments for the output response
variable (tensile strength) of the welded test piece.
ANOVA was used to determine the level of
influence of the welding input parameters upon
41
REFERENCES Engineering Volume 1, Issue 9, May-2014

[1] Qureshi, M. Ejaz., 2008. Analysis of Residual ISSN (Online): 2347 – 4718
Stresses & Distortions in circumferentially [9] C Prabaharan, P Venkatachalam, K Suresh
welded thin walled cylinders. Thesis (PhD). Kumar, K Lenin.’ Parametric optimization of
NUST Islamabad. gas tungsten arc welding processes by using
factorial design approach. Journal of Scientific
[2] H.L.Lin, C.P. Chou. ‘ Optimization of GTA
& Industrial Research, Vol 73, June 2014, pp.
welding process using the Taguchi method
415-420
and a neural network’. Science and [10] Fisher RA. Statistical Methods for Research
technology of welding and joining. Volume Workers. Edinburgh, United Kingdom: Oliver
& Boyd; 1925.
11, Issue 1 (01 February 2006), pp. 120-126
[3] H.L.Lin, T. Chou and C.P. Chou.
‘optimization of resistance spot welding
process using taguchi method and a neural
network. Experimental techniques. Volume
31, issue 5 (sept 2007), pp 30-36
[4] Dar Naeem ullah, Qureshi M.Ejaz, Hammouda
M.M.I; Analysis of Weld Induced Residual
Stresses and Distortions in Thin Walled
Cylinders; Journal of Mechanical Science and
Technology, KSME, Vol. 23, issue 4 (April,
2009)
[5] K. M Eazhil, S.Mahendran, S.Ganesh Kumar.
‘Optimization of Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
on 6063 Aluminum Alloy on Taguchi
Method’ International Journal of Research and
Scientific Innovation. Volume I, Issue III
(August 2014). ISSN 2321 – 2705
[6] A.Sivasankaran. ‘Taguchi Optimization of
TIG Welding for Maximizing Weld Strength
of Aluminum 8011’ International Journal of
Innovative Research in Science, Engineering
and Technology. Vol. 4, Special Issue 6, May
2015. ISSN(Online) : 2319 - 8753
[7] S.Akella, B. Ramesh Kumar. ‘Distortion
Control in TIG Welding Process with Taguchi
Approach’. International Journal of Advanced
Materials Manufacturing & Characterization.
Vol 3 Issue 1 (2013)
[8] Vedprakash Singh, Vijay Patel. ‘Experimental
Investigation of GTAW for Austenitic
stainless steel using DOE’. International
Journal for Technological Research in
42
SAME-06
Virtual Engineering: A key Enabler for Reconfigurable Manufacturing

Systems
Muhammad Usman Qadir1, Izhar Ul Haq1, Shahzad Anwar1, Kamran Shah1, Ashfaq Khan2
1
Institute of Mechatronics Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar, Pakistan
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar, Pakistan
usmanqadir91@gmail.com, izhar@uetpeshawar.edu.pk
Abstract— Due to global competition the product Index Terms— Reconfigurability,

lifecycle has reduced significantly, forcing Manufacturing Systems, Virtual Engineering,
manufacturers to introduce a new Virtual Commissioning, Virtual Universe Pro
manufacturing paradigm for production systems.
I. INTRODUCTION
Such production systems are easily upgradable
with new technologies in order to quickly launch Manufacturers for surviving in this global
new products with high variety, variable capacity world cannot afford to focus on design and
and reduced lead time. To stay in today’s manufacturing of single product, instead
competitive market, the concept of manufacturing technology today have to focus on
Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems (RMS) producing product families according to customer
has evolved. These systems allow reacting demands in variable capacities [1]. The required
continuously to unpredictable changes in market manufacturing systems can be described by
demands, processing technology, product variety aggressive competitions on global scale driven by
and allow quick adjustment of production rapid changes in process technology. High quality
capacity and functionality by providing variable capacity and responsiveness are the
configurable or reconfigurable design objectives of today’s market [2]. Therefore, to
approaches. One of the key issues associated sustain competitiveness in this dynamic market,
with RMS is their design process in which there manufacturers are required to design production
is no provision for verification/validation of systems with sufficient flexibility to produce
manufacturing system during planning phase variety of products (within a product family)
resulting in increased lead time. Also, the without compromising on the quality [3]. In
reconfiguration period for RMS (when switching addition these systems have to be easily
from one product to another) is significantly upgradable with the ability to absorb new
high, often resulting in costly delays. This paper technologies, allowing manufacturers to quickly
address the above mentioned issue by proposing launch new products with higher production rates
virtual engineering as a key enabler to reduce and rapid adjustment of production capacity [4].
lead time and reconfiguration period for RMS. Thus it is necessary to introduce new
By integrating virtual engineering with RMS the manufacturing paradigms capable of responding to
time to market can be decreased and the fluctuating market demands. On the basis of
responsiveness of the manufacturing system can flexibility, production rate, process technology and
be increased considerably. economic objectives, different types of production
43
systems have been developed which are dedicated These manufacturing systems can be upgraded to
manufacturing systems (DMS), flexible introduce a variety of products, thus increasing the
manufacturing systems (FMS) and reconfigurable lifecycle of manufacturing system.
manufacturing systems (RMS) [5].
DMS are generally equipped with fixed
automation and tooling. The economic objective of
such systems are to produce a specific part (or
product) in high capacity with no (or very limited)
variety and desired quality. These systems are
profitable and cost effective in stable market when
the demand of the product exceeds its supply. But
they are unable to respond to the dynamic market
scenarios. FMS on the other hand are designed to
produce variety of products in predictable market
conditions. These systems (FMS) are generally
equipped with fixed hardware and programmable Fig. 1. Mapping of manufacturing systems in
software. The economic objective of FMS is to capacity-functionality coordinates
produce different kinds of parts within a specific
part family with reduced changeover time at In literature most of the research for RMS is
desired quality. However, they have achieved very related to justification for RMS [6], scheduling
limited success because of high equipment cost architecture [1], design strategies [2], layout
(since in most of the cases they include more selection & optimization [8] and capacity
functionality than needed), low throughput and management [9]. However, little efforts are
complex design [6] reported in the literature to make virtual
In order to address the limitations of DMS and engineering as a key enabler for RMS. Also the
FMS by responding rapidly to variation in market time constraints for RMS while switching from
demands Koran et al. [7] proposed a new paradigm one product to another is a key issue as well. The
of manufacturing system called as Reconfigurable rest of the paper is organized as following. Section
Manufacturing Systems (RMS). RMS allows not II describes the traditional engineering approach to
only the production of variety of parts but offers RMS and presents problem statement. In section
customized flexibility. Functionality in RMS can III a novel approach based on virtual engineering
be increased or decreased by adding or removing is discussed while conclusion and future work is
hardware/software modules and new technologies presented in section IV.
can be easily integrated into these systems, II. TRADITIONAL ENGINEERING APPROACH TO
therefore they are not subjected to obsolescence. MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
The comparison of DMS, FMS and RMS in
capacity-functionality coordinates is shown in fig. The design and build of RMS is one of key
1. It is evident that DMS have high capacity but areas in the product lifecycle. Design and build of
limited functionality. FMS have high but fixed these systems involve geographically distributed
functionality with low capacity. While RMS lie engineering teams of end-user (i.e. production
between DMS and FMS. The capacity as well as companies) and its supply chain partners (i.e.
functionality in RMS can adjusted (increased or machine builders and control vendors) [10].
decreased) in response to fluctuating market Machine builders, also known as Original
demands. Key features of RMS distinguishing it Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), are the Tier-1
from DMS and FMS includes modulatory, suppliers to the end-users. They are responsible for
integrability, convertibility, flexibility, mechanical design, electrical design, control
diagnosability and customization. design, building, testing, and installation of
production machines for the end-users. Machine
RMS have the ability to address the dynamic
builder may also sub-contract certain parts of a
market requirement of accommodating changes in
machine to various component builder or system
6 to 9 months (as product lifecycle has shortened).
designers. The control vendors are the Tier-2
44
suppliers and fulfil control hardware/software validation to be carried out during commissioning
requirements for the end-user [11]. Collectively phase. As a result the planned production ramp-up
all these partners are responsible for the is seldom achieved in time and typically results in
implementation and lifecycle support of the increased lead time and costly delays. Another
automated systems as product and production weakness in the existing approach is that it does
requirements changes [10]. not enable supply chain partners, in particular the
end user to initially design, build and reconfigure
Due to short product life cycle the requirements
the manufacturing system based on previous
of the dynamic market changes frequently. All
system commonalities. This is despite the fact that
new business requirements (e.g. design and
every new project contains about 70%
manufacture of a new powertrains) are planned by
commonality with previous projects. Also, in the
end user’s “planning and business office” in the
existing approach, when the market demand
form of “new business case” for development of
changes the system is reconfigured accordingly.
new RMS or upgradation of existing one. In
The existing reconfiguration process for a
response to new business case, the end user’s
manufacturing system, when switching from
“planning and feasibility” team contacts supply
product A to B is shown in fig. 3. During
chain partners to start simultaneous engineering
reconfiguration the manufacturing system is
(SE) with end user domain experts. The product
required to be shut down for significantly high
design and process requirements are provided by
period due to lack of virtual integration between
end user’s expert to machine builder and
mechanical and control system design. This
component suppliers. The final design of RMS is
ultimately results in costly delays within
completed by machine builders subjected to the
production ramp-up period. In order to address the
approval of end user’s engineering teams. The
current mentioned limitations, a new engineering
design activities of machine builders than take
approach based on integration of virtual
place sequentially, beginning with mechanical
engineering with RMS is proposed focusing on
engineering followed by electrical and control
component based automation. The aim of the
engineering. As a result the design activities for
proposed approach is to visualize the design and
machine hardware and control system remains
verify RMS before actual build to reduce lead time
isolated from one another and overall verification
and to achieve the planned production ramp-up
can only be carried out during final commissioning
time. In addition this research also addresses the
after physical build. Figure 2 presents the
issue of reconfiguration when switching from one
conventional design process for RMS.
product to another and enables end user domain
The engineering process described above is typical experts to design, build, reconfigure and verify the
for most of the manufacturing industries and in manufacturing system based on previous
particular for automotive industries. However, this commonalities without physical build. This paper
mentioned approach has fundamental limitations. also proposes virtual integration between
These limitations are mostly caused by study and mechanical hardware and control system of RMS
SE phase. Currently, the impact of these during reconfiguration. This can enable
limitations is realized after installation, verification of reconfigured mechanical layout and
commissioning and launch phase. During planning control system virtually thus reducing physical
and SE phase the designed processes are entirely shutdown period of RMS resulting in economic
based on the expertise and knowledge of end benefits.
user’s engineering team. As a result inadequate
planning may be performed by domain experts
during this phase. This is due to fact that that there
is no common representation or visualization of
RMS throughout the lifecycle. In addition, within
the existing approach only 20% to 30% testing and
validation is achievable during planning phase,
thus typically leaving 70% to 80% testing and
45
existing and the proposed approach. Figure 4

shows major transformations/migration paths from
existing practice to a more integrated and
concurrent engineering environment. This research
also proposes to develop a virtual library of
reusable, pre-defined and pre-validated standard
mechanism, which can be easily and quickly
reconfigured for any new process requirements.
Fundamentally, all new business requirements
can be easily and quickly managed by virtually
defining, designing and building new production
automation systems during early lifecycle phases.
In response, the domain experts of end user can
virtually design and build manufacturing system,
thus enabling them to visualize the system to be
Fig. 2. Traditional Design Process for RMS. designed. As shown in fig. 4, during virtual design
and build of manufacturing system the mechanical,
electrical and control system phases can be
performed in parallel. The shifting of these design
activities from physical build phase to early design
phase allow end user engineering teams to validate
their system without actual build, thus enabling
them to decide whether proposed system will meet
production targets. In addition the virtual model
enables domain experts to optimize manufacturing
system requirements in terms of their cycle time,
kinematics and control behavior. The virtual
modelling is also capable of virtually validating
and verifying design of manufacturing system.
Fig. 3. Existing Approch for Reconfiguration in Additionally, during virtual modelling the end user
RMS. domain expert team can model the complete set of
operations by allowing workpiece to ultimately
III. PROPOSED APPROACH TO MANUFACTURING produce virtual product. Key difference between
SYSTEMS existing and proposed approach is at study and SE
phase. During this stage all the mechanical,
The advent of globalization is rapidly changing
electrical and control design will be completed and
business plans within all manufacturing sectors.
nearly all the elements, components and sub-
To deliver agility through modularity and
system requirements will be verified. Whereas in
reconfigurability for future RMS, this research
the existing approach all the major design
work has proposed and developed a new
activities are carried out during physical build
engineering approach. Primarily this approach is to
stage. The visualization and verification of RMS
provide 1) ease of reconfiguration, 2) visualization
virtually improve the robustness of manufacturing
and 3) lifecycle support. The application domain
system due to early identification and fixation of
of the proposed approach offers building RMS and
issues related to mechanical, electrical and control
its automation systems with the use of new
system design which are currently realized and
engineering tools from generic library of modules.
addressed during installation and commissioning
Such engineering tools can potentially enable 100
phase. As a result significant time saving can be
% virtual design and build of RMS and its
achieved during physical build, installation and
validation and verification prior to actual build.
commissioning of the RMS. In result, planned
This is one of the key differences between the
production ramp-up can be achieved on time.
46
This paper also proposes virtual integration virtually, the manufacturing system can be shut
between machine hardware and control system of down for a shorter period and reconfigured
manufacturing system during reconfiguration. This quickly.
can enable verification of reconfigured mechanical
layout and control system virtually thus reducing
physical shutdown period of RMS. In the existing
approach, during mechanical reconfiguration the
manufacturing system is physically shutdown. The
mechanical layout is than changed, optimized and
validated. According to the most optimum layout
control system is designed. The control system is
than integrated with mechanical hardware and
further its testing is performed. This
reconfiguration period is significantly high and Fig. 5. Proposed reconfiguration process for
most of the time results in costly delays. Through RMS.
integration of virtual engineering, the
reconfiguration period can be reduced. To support the proposed approach, software
“Virtual Universe Pro” [12] is used in this research
due to its various functionalities provided for
virtual engineering of the RMS. The software
supports virtual engineering to a great extent and
consists of number of modules. Mechanical
models can be designed based on CAD drawings.
The control logic for these mechanical models can
be designed and tested. A pre-defined library of
validated manufacturing mechanisms can be
developed. New mechanisms can also be designed
and added to the library. The control logic can be
designed in ladder logic, sequential flow charts
(SFC) and functional block diagrams (FBD).
Virtual universe pro also offers integration with
number of PLC’s including Siemens S7-1200 and
Fig. 4. Proposed design process for RMS. S7-200 etc. in order to integrate machine hardware
with virtually built models. In addition, using this
application control behaviors can also be
The proposed approach for reconfiguration of generated.
RMS is presented in fig. 5. Initially, the IV. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
manufacturing system is designed and build for the
production of product “A”. At later stages market Rapidly changing global business plan are
demand changes gradually from product “A” to norms within all manufacturing sector. To
product “B”. The manufacturer can then redesign facilitate and accommodate unforeseen business
the manufacturing system through reconfiguration changes within manufacturing industry, the
to produce product “B”. This reconfiguration is concept of RMS has evolved. In this paper, virtual
performed virtually to design and optimize engineering is identified as one of the key enabling
machine layout along with development and technologies for future manufacturing systems
verification of control logic. During this virtual (RMS). In response, a new proactive engineering
reconfiguration the manufacturing system can approach has been introduced to quickly design,
continue to produce product “A” resulting in build and reconfigure RMS. Most prominent
economic benefits to manufacturer. Once the aspect of the proposed approach is to better
mechanical and control system design is verified provide lifecycle support and to reduce lead time
by strengthening the virtual engineering approach.
47
The paper also addresses the issue of high 8. M. R. Abdi, "Selection of a layout
reconfiguration period of RMS. Further, the configuration for reconfigurable
proposed approach will be tested on industrial manufacturing systems using the AHP,"
testbed in order to demonstrate key benefits of the ISAHP, Honolulu, Hawaii, 2005.
virtual engineering to industry and academia.
9. A. M. Deifand W. ElMaraghy,
V. REFERENCES "Investigating optimal capacity scalability
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based production scheduling architecture manufacturing system," The International
suitable for driving a reconfigurable Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
manufacturing system," Computers & Technology, 2007. 32(5-6): p. 557-562.
Industrial Engineering, 1990. 19(1): p. 1-5.
10. A. Colombo, et al. "Service-oriented
2. M. R. Abdi and A.W. Labib, "A design architectures for collaborative automation.
strategy for reconfigurable manufacturing in Industrial Electronics Society, 2005,"
systems (RMSs) using analytical IECON 2005. 31st Annual Conference of
hierarchical process (AHP): a case study", IEEE. 2005. IEEE.
International Journal of Production
Research, 2003. 41(10): p. 2273-2299. 11. M. H. Ong, "Evaluating the impact of
adopting a component-based approach
3. S. E. Chick, T. L. Olsen, K. Sethuraman, within the Automotive Domain," 2004,
K. E. Stecke and C. C. White, "A Loughborough University.
descriptive multi-attribute model for
reconfigurable machining system selection 12. Virtual Universe Pro,
examining buyer-supplier relationships," http://www.iraifrance.com/#!virtual-
International Journal of Agile universe-pro/c8wn (accessed Sept.
Management Systems, 2000. 2(1): p. 33- 30,2015).
48.
4. Y. Koren, "Reconfigurable manufacturing
systems: Key to future manufacturing. in
Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing,"
2010. Citeseer.
5. Y. Koren, et. al., "Reconfigurable
manufacturing systems," CIRP Annals-
Manufacturing Technology, 1999. 48(2):
p. 527-540.
6. R. Singh, N. Khilwani, and M. Tiwari,
"Justification for the selection of a
reconfigurable manufacturing system: a
fuzzy analytical hierarchy based
approach," International Journal of
Production Research, 2007. 45(14): p.
3165-3190.
7. Y. Koren, Z. J. Pasek, A. G. Ulsoy and U.
Benchetrit, "Real-time open control
architectures and system performance,"
CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Technology,
1996. 45(1): p. 377-380.
48
SAME-07
Simulation of Turbulent Flow over a Single and Tandem NACA 0012 Airfoils
Mudassar Hussain1 and Emad Uddin1
1
Sector H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
emaduddin@smme.nust.edu.pk
Abstract—NACA 0012 airfoil has been used as

standard airfoil for a long time. It is used in a lot of II. LITERATURE REVIEW
applications ranging from aircrafts to Flow over an airfoil is a typical case of Fluid
turbomachinery. The incentive of this report is to Structure Interaction (FSI). Peskin used the term
investigate the flow past a single and two in-tandem “Immersed boundary methods for simulating heart
NACA 0012 airfoils at high Reynold number. The mechanics. Peskin [2] extended the previous work by
drag and lift coefficient have been obtained using
solving Navier-Stokes equation for dynamic
ANSYS Fluent. The results have been validated by
meshing/moving grid problems.
comparing them with experimental work. The
Many schemes have been presented for simulating
results obtained by simulation and experiment are
in conformity with each other. flows in complex geometries. J. Mohd-Yusof [3] came
up with a discrete time immersed boundary method for
Index Terms—Simulation, Turbulent Flow, simulation of flow in complex geometries. The scheme
NACA 0012, Airfoils, Tandem proposed by him was tested on the laminar ribbed
channel. E.A. Fadlun et al. [4] developed a efficient
technique for simulating unsteady three-dimensional
I. INTRODUCTION flows in complex sceenarios.
ing design is a critical process. When a body moves Peskin [5] formulated the mathematical structure of
Win air, it experiences a resultant force that tends to the immersed boundary method in order to simulate
resist its motion. However, there is a certain class of FSI especially in biological fluid dynamics. With the
body for which lift is significantly greater than the enhancement and improvements in Immersed
drag. This type of body is quite suitable for use as a boundary methods, Gianluca Iaccarino and Roberto
wing structure for the flight of an aircraft[1]. When an Verzicco [6] came up with the application of
aircraft moves through air, the air moves above and Immersed Boundary (IB) method to simulate
below the wing of the aircraft. The upper surface of the incompressible, turbulent flows around complex
wing is designed in such a manner that the air rushing configurations. They used standard RANS or the more
over the top speeds up and stretches out. From sophisticated LES approach for turbulence modeling.
Bernoulli’s principle we know that, where speed is
high pressure is low and vice versa. Since the air above III. PROBLEM SPECIFICATION
the wing is moving with a high velocity so it creates a The incentive of this research was to investigate the
low pressure region above the wing. In a similar flow past a single and Two-in-Tandem NACA 0012
manner a high pressure region is created below the Airfoils. First, the flow around a single NACA 0012
wing. Since the air moves from a region of high airfoil was considered and then the flow around two-
pressure to a region of low pressure, therefore the air in-tandem airfoils was investigated. The freestream
beneath the surface tends to lift the wing. The more the velocity was calculated to be 43.821 corresponding to
velocity, the more the lift. a Reynold number of 3 × 106. The operating
parameters are summarized in TABLE IV.
49
In order to have a better control of the mesh point V. METHODS

distribution, the top and bottom edge of the airfoil In order to discretize the governing equations for fluid
were split into two halves. This was done in order to flow various methods have been developed. Since
have a non-uniform grid spacing for x < 0.3 and ANSYS Fluent was used to carry out the simulation of
uniform spacing for x > 0.3. There are four boundaries the airfoils, so finite volume method is used for the
in this problem. Farfield 1 and 2 are the velocity-inlet. solution of the problem. A simple scheme has been
Farfield 3 is the pressure outlet, while airfoil is used for the pressure-velocity coupling. In finite
assumed to have the wall type boundary. The mesh is volume method, the property values are stored at nodal
shown in points, so an interpolation is required to establish
Fig. 1. values at faces. In case of our problem, second order
upwind scheme for momentum and modified turbulent
TABLE IV viscosity have been used. Green-Gauss cell based
OPERATING PARAMETERS gradient scheme has been used. Pressure staggering
option has been used as a pressure interpolation
Input Value scheme.
Velocity of flow 43.821 m/s
VI. RESULTS
Operating temperature 300 K After the simulation results were compiled and
Operating pressure 101325 Pa analyzed. A summary of these results is presented
below:
Model Spalart Allmaras (1
equation) A. Contours of Pressure Coefficient
The contours of pressure coefficient for various angles
Density of fluid 1.225 kg/m3 of attack are presented below:
Kinematic viscosity 1.4607 × 10-5
Reynolds number 3 × 106
Length 1m
Angle of Attack -8,-4,0,6,12,17
Fluid Air
IV. GRID GENERATION
Fig. 2. Contours of pressure coefficient for -8° angle of

attack
From the above contour, we can see that there are two
regions. The region at the leading edge is a high
pressure region while a low pressure region on the
upper surface of airfoil. From Bernoulli equation, we
know that where speed is high pressure is low and vice
Fig. 1. Mesh showing the four boundaries. Farfield 1 versa. A similar behavior is observed in case of
and 2 are velocity-inlet type boundary and farfield 3 is contours for other angles of attack. These contours are
pressure-outlet. Airfoil is having wall type boundary. shown below.
50
Fig. 3. Contours of pressure coefficient for -4° angle of

attack
Fig. 6. Contours of pressure coefficient for 12° angle
of attack
Fig. 4. Contours of pressure coefficient for 0° angle of

attack
Fig. 7. Contours of pressure coefficient for 17° angle
of attack
From the above contours, we can see that the pressure
at the leading edge increases with an increase in angle
of attack. At higher angle of attack, eddy formation
and vortex shedding phenomena becomes significant
which will be evident from the contours of velocity.
B. Contours of Velocity
The contours of velocity for various angles of attack
are presented below:
Fig. 5. Contours of pressure coefficient for 6° angle of

attack
51
Fig. 11. Contours of velocity for 6° angle of attack

Fig. 8. Contours of velocity for -8° angle of attack
If we compare the above contour to that of pressure
contour in
Fig. 2, we can see that we have a higher velocity on
the lower surface of airfoil. This is in accordance with
Bernoulli’s principle which states that, where speed is
high pressure is low. A similar behavior is observed at
various other angles of attack.

By comparing the above contours, we can clearly see
that the effects of turbulence at higher angles of attack
become significant. The vortex shedding phenomenon
is significant at higher angles of attack. The
comparison between contours of velocity for 12° and
17° angle of attack clearly indicates that with increase
in angle of attack, flow separation starts occurring at a
very earlier point. In case of 12° angle of attack flow
Fig. 9. Contours of velocity for -4° angle of attack separation starts to occur from the centre of airfoil
while in case of 17° angle of attack it starts to occur at
the leading edge of the airfoil. The formation of
vortices at the trailing edge of airfoil in case of 17°
angle of attack is also clear from the contours of
velocity.
52
It can see that at around 400000 cells, the problem is

grid independent.
D. Variation of Lift and Drag Coefficient with Angle
of Attack
The contours of pressure coefficient and velocity have

been discussed before. With the help of simulation
variation of lift and drag for various angles of attack
was seen. The results are shown below. Fig. 16 shows
the variation of lift coefficient with angle of attack
while shows the variation of drag coefficient with
Fig. 13. Contours of velocity for 17° angle of attack angle of attack.
C. Grid Independence
In order to identify the number of cells at which the
problem is independent of grid, case was simulated for
various number of cells. The variation of lift and drag
with number of cells is shown in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15
respectively.
Fig. 16.Graph showing the variation of lift coefficient

with angle of attack. We can see that the lift coefficient
increases with increase in angle of attack.
Fig. 14. Graph showing the variation of Lift coefficient

with number of cells. We can see that at around
400000 cells, the problem is grid independent.
Fig. 17. Graph showing the variation of drag

coefficient with angle of attack.
It can see that the drag coefficient shows a parabolic
variation. For negative angle of attack the drag
decreases while for positive angle of attack it
increases.
VII. VALIDATION
The results were validated with the experimental data
of Abbott et al [7] and Charles L. Ladson [8]. The
results obtained using simulations were in conformity
Fig. 15. Graph showing the variation of Drag with the results of experimental data. Fig. 18 and Fig.
coefficient with number of cells. 19 show the comparison between the results of
simulation and experimental data.
53
Fig. 20 show the variation of lift coefficient on two

airfoils by varying the distance between them. From
the figure we can see that at small distance the lift is
higher and then it decreases. This is because the
vortices or eddies that are generated lose their energy
as they shed from one airfoil to the second airfoil. Fig.
21 show the variation of lift coefficient on two airfoils
by varying the distance between them.
Fig. 18. Comparison between turbulent models

simulation results and experimental data from Abbott
et al and Charles L. Ladson of the Lift coefficient
curve for NACA 0012 airfoil
Fig. 21. Graph showing the variation of drag

coefficient by changing the distance between two
airfoils.
The contours of velocity for various distances are
Fig. 19. Comparison between turbulent models shown in Fig. 22-25.
simulation results and experimental data from Abbott
et al and Charles L. Ladson of the Drag coefficient
curve for NACA 0012 airfoil
VIII. TWO-IN-TANDEM NACA 0012 AIRFOILS

After the simulation of flow for single airfoil, the
variation of lift and drag coefficient for two-in-tandem
NACA 0012 airfoils was investigated. The variation
was seen by varying the distance between two airfoils.
Fig. 22. Contours of velocity for distance of 0.01 m.
Fig. 20. Graph showing the variation of lift coefficient

by changing the distance between two airfoils.
54
through simulations have been validated with the

experimental works. The simulation results and
experimental results are in conformity with each other.
REFERENCES
[1] H. Glauert, The Elements of Aerofoil and
Airscrew Theory: Cambridge University Press,
1983.
[2] C. S. Peskin, "Numerical analysis of blood

flow in the heart," Journal of Computational
Physics, vol. 25, pp. 220-252, 11// 1977.
Fig. 23. Contours of velocity for distance of 0.5 m. [3] J. Mohd-Yusof, "Combined immersed-
boundary/B-spline methods for simulations of
flow in complex geometries," 1997.
[4] E. Fadlun, R. Verzicco, P. Orlandi, and J.

Mohd-Yusof, "Combined immersed-boundary
finite-difference methods for three-
dimensional complex flow simulations,"
Journal of Computational Physics, vol. 161,
pp. 35-60, 2000.
[5] C. S. Peskin, "The immersed boundary

method," Acta Numerica, vol. 11, pp. 479-517,
2002.
Fig. 24. Contours of velocity for distance of 1 m. [6] G. Iaccarino and R. Verzicco, "Immersed
boundary technique for turbulent flow
simulations," Applied Mechanics Reviews, vol.
56, pp. 331-347, 2003.
[7] I. H. Abbott and A. E. V. Doenhoff, Theory of

Wing Sections: Including a Summary of Airfoil
Data New York: Dover Publications, Inc.,
1959.
[8] C. L. Ladson, "Effects of independent

variation of Mach and Reynolds numbers on
the low-speed aerodynamic characteristics of
the NACA 0012 airfoil section," 1988.
Fig. 25. Contours of velocity for distance of 2 m.
IX. CONCLUSION
This paper investigates the flow past a single and two-
in-tandem airfoils. We have seen that the lift
coefficient increases with the increase in angle of
attack while the drag coefficient varies in a parabolic
manner. The effects of vortex shedding are significant
at high angle of attack. The stall angle has been found
to be 17° in case of single airfoil. We have also seen
that the lift and drag decrease with the increase in
distance between two airfoils. The results obtained
55
SAME-08
Passively flapping energy harvesting eel in a viscous flow

1 1 1 2
Emad Uddin , Muhammad Saif Ullah Khalid , Aamir Mubashar , Hyung Jin Sung
1 School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering (SMME), National University of Sciences and Technology
(NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-701, Korea
emaduddin@smme.nust.edu.pk
Abstract—Inspired by the energy harvesting eel, a point of view, experimental evidence has supported the
flexible flag behind a D-shape half cylinder in a assertion that an appropriate synchronization of
uniform viscous flow was simulated by using the positioning a flag in the wake of a bluff body can be
immersed boundary method. The downstream flag advantageous by increasing the hydrodynamic
was strongly influenced by the vortices shed from resistance due to fluid-structure interaction, thereby,
the upstream cylinder during vortex-vortex and introducing significant energy harvesting [1-5].
Nevertheless, the phenomenon of the hydrodynamic
vortex-body interactions. The flexible flag was
interactions of a flag in the wake of a bluff body has
subjected to passive flapping to optimize geometric not yet well understood, and a more detailed
and flow parameters, which were subsequently understanding of the mechanisms would be desirable.
used in an actively flapping flag. In this study,
dependence of bending energy of the passively Interaction of vortices and a flexible flag in wake
flapping flexible flag on various parameters, i.e., of a bluff body is a common occurrence in various
natural phenomena, e.g. stationing of a fish behind a
length of the flag, diameter of the D-shape half
sea-plants, and sea-stones etc. The application of
cylinder, streamwise gap between the cylinder and flapping wings to extract energy from uniform flows
the flag, and bending coefficient of the flexible flag was first proposed by McKinney and De Laurier [6].
was examined in detail. Constructive and Both experiments and theoretical investigations
destructive vortex interaction modes and, discovered that a foil submerged in the free surface
unidirectional and bidirectional bending were could be propelled by using the energy from the on-
found that explained the variations in the bending coming waves [7-10]. Allen et al. [1] examined the
energy on the downstream flag. response of a piezoelectric membrane to vortex
shedding behind a bluff body for harvesting flow-
Keywords—Immersed boundary method, fluid energy. Tang et al. [11] analytically studied the
structure interaction, energy harvesting eel, immersed response of a flutter-mill for electricity generation.
boundary method These bio-inspired energy converters are
environmentally friendly in terms of noise generation
thus reducing impact on the navigation of aquatic
1. INTRODUCTION animals. These oscillatory devices are not only
Limited availability and the environmental impact structurally robust, but also they sweep a rectangular
of fossil fuels motivate the development of renewable cross section of flow. The swept area for a single
energy sources. Considerable efforts are focused on device can thus be wide and shallow, allowing large
use of renewable energy from natural resources such systems to be installed in shallow water. Subsequently,
as flowing water, rain, tides, wind, sunlight,
geothermal heat and biomass. From a hydrodynamic
56
multi-mega watt devices can be envisaging for a wider

range of the resource areas.
The current study provides details on fluid dynamics where u is the velocity vector, p is the pressure, f is the
around an eel, modeled as a flexible flag in the wake momentum force applied to enforce the no-slip
of a D-shaped half cylinder subjected to two- conditions along the immersed boundary, and the
dimensional uniform viscous flow. There are a few Reynolds number (Re) is defined as Re = ρVL/μ,
earlier analytical and numerical studies on the energy where ρ, V, L, and μ represent the fluid density, free-
harvesting eel but the detailed investigation and stream velocity, the flag length, and the dynamic
optimization of various flow and geometric parameters viscosity of the fluid, respectively. The flag motion
is the missing link [12]. This study provides necessary was governed by
insight for better understanding of the dynamics of a
flapping flexible flag in the wake of the D-shaped half
cylinder subjected to viscous flow and the optimization
of the parameters for energy harvesting eel for the
passive mode of flapping. Dependence of bending
energy on the streamwise gap between a D-shaped half
cylinder and the downstream flag, the flag-length and
the bending rigidity of the downstream flag was
examined in detail. where u is the velocity vector, p is the pressure, f is the
momentum force applied to enforce the no-slip
2. PROBLEMFORMULATION conditions along the immersed boundary, and the
Reynolds number (Re) is defined as Re = ρVL/μ,
A flexible flag in the wake of a D-shaped half cylinder where ρ, V, L, and μ represent the fluid density, free-
was subjected to two-dimensional viscous flow. A stream velocity, the flag length, and the dynamic
schematic of the geometric configuration and the viscosity of the fluid, respectively. The flag motion
coordinate system is shown in Fig. 1. Distance was governed by
between the D-shaped half cylinder and the flexible
flag was varied by adjusting the streamwise gap (S)
between these two bodies. The head of the downstream
flag was fixed under a simply supported boundary
condition. The boundary condition of a free end was
considered at the tail of the flag. Center of the rigid D-
shaped half cylinder is placed at the origin of the
coordinate system. Here, its diameter is denoted as D. where s denotes the arc length, X = X (s,t) is the
An Eulerian coordinate system was used for the fluid position, T is the tension force, γ shows the bending
domain, while a separate Lagrangian coordinate rigidity, and F denotes the Lagrangian force exerted on
system was employed to monitor the motion of the the flexible flag by the fluid. Equation (3) was non-
flexible flag. The flexible flag in a viscous flow was dimensionalized by the flag density, the flag length L,
modeled through an improved immersed boundary and the free stream velocity. It should be pointed out
method [13], in which the governing equations of the that the tension force can be determined from the
fluid flow and the flexible flag were solved in each inextensibility condition of flag [13]. The bending
coordinate system, and the interactions among rigidity is defined as EI, with E being the Young’s
components was calculated using a feedback law. The modulus and I the second moment of area, which gives
fluid motion was governed by the incompressible the non-dimensional value γ. The boundary conditions
Navier–Stokes and continuity equations, applied at the fixed end and the free end were
57
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A schematic of the problem setup and the coordinate

system for the downstream flag in the wake of the D-
shaped half cylinder subjected to a uniform flow is
provided in Fig. 1.
where α and β are large negative free constants [13].

Equation (8) provides an interpolation of the Eulerian
fluid velocity at the Lagrangian points. In physics, (6)
– (8) represent a stiff spring system. This system
connected the Lagrangian points on the immersed
boundary to the surrounding fluid particles. After
obtaining the Lagrangian force F, the expression was
transformed to the Eulerian form using the smoothed The computational configurations were set to be the
Dirac delta function same as described in the previous section. A
quantitative characterization of the resultant
parameters was supplemented by qualitative
evaluations of the flag deformations and the vorticity
contours within the flow that provides an intuitive
understanding of the vortex–flexible body interactions.
Three parameters were chosen for optimization within
the following ranges: the streamwise gap between the
where 𝜌𝜌=𝜌𝜌1𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜𝐿𝐿𝑟𝑟⁄ is based on the non- D-shaped half cylinder and the downstream flag
dimensionalization steps, and denotes the structure (1≤𝑆𝑆𝐷𝐷⁄≤2), the bending coefficient of the flag
region. After discretization, the force was applied over (0.02≤𝛾𝛾≤0.08), and length of the flag
a width of several grids, which supported the smoothed (1.2≤𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷≤2.0⁄).
delta function. The computational domain for fluid
flow ranges from -2 to 6 in the streamwise (x)
direction and from -4 to 4 in the spanwise (y) direction.
Positions along both of these directions were
normalized by the flag-length. The Eulerian grid size
for the fluid was 512×350 in the streamwise and
spanwise directions, respectively, and the Lagrangian
grid size for each flag was 64. The Eulerian grid was
uniformly distributed along the x- direction, and it was
uniform in the y direction for −2≤𝑦𝑦≤2, but stretched
otherwise. A far-field boundary condition was applied
at the top and the bottom boundaries as well as at the
inlet of the fluid domain, whereas the convective
boundary condition was used at the outlet. The
computational time step was set to 0.0002, which
resulted in a CFL number of 0.1. Validation of the Bending energy (𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏) of the downstream flag as a
flow solver employing the immersed boundary function of the length and the bending coefficient of
method, as well as the structure solver for the flag the flag is plotted in Fig. 2a. For a fixed streamwise
motion, has been provided in Ref. [13]. gap of 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝐷⁄ = 1.6, contours of the bending energy
clearly marks two regions; one representing the
maximum bending energy in the range of
58
1.5≤𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄≤1.9 for 0.04≤𝛾𝛾≤0.075, and the second

region showing that low bending energy levels are
constituted by rest of the ranges of 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄, and 𝛾𝛾. The
bending energy in the high value region is four times
larger than the low value region.
Details of the variation in bending energy with the

change in the flag-length and the bending rigidity can
be unfolded by analyzing the evolution of the tail
position and the flag deformation shapes (Fig. 3), the
power spectrum (Fig. 4) and the vorticity contours
(Fig. 5). Four points corresponding to the low and high
bending energies are shown for different 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄ and
𝛾𝛾.
Fig. 3a and 3b show the tail position evolution and flag
deformation shapes with increase in the bending
rigidity from 0.020 to 0.060 for the same L/D ratio.
The tail position evolution shows the increase in the
flapping frequency (seven peaks in 30 seconds as
compared to six peaks) with the increase in the
bending rigidity as well as it is accompanied by
changes in the flag deformation shape.
The flag deformation shape remains constrained at

increased bending coefficient (Fig. 3b) as compared to
the low bending coefficient (Fig. 3a) by virtue of the
more stiffened flag. Power spectra of the
corresponding two cases are shown in Fig. 4. With an
increase in stiffness of the flag, the dominant
frequency of the flag is increased from 0.19 to 0.22.
For the less flexible flag in Fig. 3a and 4a, the flag gets
significant deformation due to the influence of the
upstream vortices. It changes the flag shape
significantly, resulting in decreasing the dominant
frequency.
59
The increase in the stiffness causes more resistance to

the upstream vortices, which decreases the effect of the
upstream vortices resulting in the low deformation of
the flag as well as increase in the dominant frequency
that is closer to the natural frequency of the flag in a
uniform flow.
The power spectra of the two low bending region

points (Fig 3 & 4 (c,d)) show that the dominant
frequency is lesser than that of the higher bending
energy case. The dominant frequency is 0.1 for
𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄=2.0 and the bending stiffness 𝛾𝛾=0.05 (Fig.
4d). With a decrease in the flag-length, increase in
bending rigidity for 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄=1.25 and 𝛾𝛾=0.06, the
deformation switches from bi-curvature bending to the
unidirectional curvature. This bending is also The vorticity contours are shown in Fig. 5. The
flapping flag is in the shear layer shed by the D-shaped
accompanied by the higher dominant frequency of
half cylinder for the length ratio above 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄=1.5, for
0.175 (Fig. 4c).
the length below 1.5, the flag affects the upstream
vortices by increasing the shear resistance to the
upstream vortices which delays/blocks the upstream
vortices and causes the two vortices to combine and
create a shear layer for the downstream flag. For the
flag with reduced length and at the same streamwise
gap, the vortices are completely shed from the D-
cylinder in the upstream shed vortices interacts with
the flag in the constructive manner where the positive
vortices on the downside of the D-shared half cylinder
interacts with the downside (positive vortices) of the
flag and similarly negative vortices shed from the
upper side of the D-cylinder interacts with the upper
side (negative vortices) of the flag. This effect is same
for all the cases as the constructive mode. This mode is
dependent of the gap distance [14]. Production of shear
60
layer causes suction zone in front of the downstream distance for maximum energy harvesting (L/D=1.75,
flag. Beal et. al. [15] reported the suction zone for S/D=1.75) while optimal bending rigidity is γ=0.06.
𝑆𝑆𝐷𝐷<2.0⁄ that reveals its dependence on 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄ ratio
by the action of increased shear resistance. The suction
region generates an extra force on the flag which is
4. CONCLUSIONS
higher for 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄=1.75, and 𝛾𝛾=0.06 shown by the
absence of the vorticies in-front of the flag. While for
the other cases (Fig. 5), presence of the vortices in We examined the dynamics of energy harvesting
front of the flag causes lesser effect of the suction zone
flexible flag behind a half cylinder undergoing passive
resulting in the lower bending energy.
flapping modes subjected to a uniform viscous flow by
The second map (Fig. 2b) showed the relation between using the immersed boundary method. Analysis was
the length and the gap. Details are shown in the tail carried out under different conditions by varying
position evolution, the power spectra and the vorticity 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝐷⁄, 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄, and 𝛾𝛾. For passive flapping, an
contours (Fig. 6, 7 & 8). The tail position evolution increase in bending stiffness for 0.04≤ 𝛾𝛾 ≤0.08 and
shows the lowest energy region at 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄=1.25 and the length ratio of the flag (1.5≤ 𝐿𝐿/𝐷𝐷 ≤1.9) cause an
𝑆𝑆𝐷𝐷⁄=1.75 (Fig. 7a) that corresponds to the lowest increase in the bending energy. Increase in bending
dominant frequency (𝑓𝑓=0.15). As the energy is stiffness is accompanied by an increase in the flag
increased at 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄=1.5 and 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝐷⁄=1.25 (Fig. 7c), it is deformation, and the dominant flapping frequency also
accompanied by a slight increase in the dominant is increased. Constructive mode is observed for the
frequency to 𝑓𝑓=0.18. The bending energy is increased optimal bending energy region when the streamwise
at 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄=2.0 and 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝐷⁄=2.0 (Fig. 7d). It is distance is increased. Also, unidirectional curvature is
accompanied by a small increase in the dominant attributed to the lower bending energy while the
frequency to 𝑓𝑓=0.20. For the highest energy point at bidirectional curvature is attributed to the higher
bending energy. By analyzing the passive flapping, we
𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄=1.75 and 𝑆𝑆𝐷𝐷⁄=1.75 (Fig. 7b), it has the
obtained the optimal length of the flag, gap distance
highest dominant frequency of 𝑓𝑓=0.22. The tail
between the flag, D-cylinder, and the bending rigidity.
position evolution shows two interesting findings. One
The flag-in-fluid system suggested a mechanism by
is the frequency of the tail on the left side of Fig. 8 that
which advantages may be gained via the vortex-
is complementing the power spectrum (Fig. 7). At the
flexible body interactions in the energy harvesting eel.
optimal location (Fig. 8b), there appear seven peaks in
30 seconds, while for the other lower energy cases,
there are six peaks in 30 seconds. Other observation is
the flag deformation shape, for the length ratio of the REFERENCES
flag 𝐿𝐿𝐷𝐷⁄<1.75, unidirectional curvature deformation [1] J.J. Allen and A. J. Smits, 2001, “Energy
of the flag is observed (Fig. 8a & c). For the length harvesting eel”, Journal of Fluids and Structures, vol.
ratio >1.75, there exists bidirectional curvature 15(3–4), pp. pp. 629–640, 2001.
deformation (Fig. 8b & d). The [2] A. Barrero-Gil, G. Alonso and A. Sanz-Andres,
unidirectional/constrained deformation is attributed to “Energy harvesting from transverse galloping”,
Journal of Sound and Vibration, vol. 329(14), pp.
the lower bending energy. The bending rigidity and the
2873–2883, 2010.
gap is same but length is different causes jump from
[3] M. M. Bernitsas, K. Raghavan, Y. Ben-Simon and
the unidirectional to the bidirectional curvature E. M. H. Garcia, “VIVACE (Vortex Induced Vibration
deformation (figure 8a, b) which shows that the Aquatic Clean Energy): a new concept in generation of
curvature change is function of the length of the flag. clean and renewable energy from fluid flow”, J.
At the same bending rigidity, the shorter flag length Offshore Mech. Arct. Eng., vol. 130, pp. 041101,
causes constrained motion, as the shorter flag length 2008.
results in the less effective area for exertion of the [4] Z. Peng, and Q. Zhu, “Energy harvesting through
viscous forces by the fluid, while as the length is flow-induced oscillations of a foil”, Phys. Fluids, vol.
increased to L/D=1.75 provides the sufficient surface 21, pp. 123602, 2009.
area of the flag to exert more viscous forces on the flag [5] K. Singh, S. Michelin and E. De Langre, “The
to cause the bidirectional curvature flapping. This map effect of non-uniform damping on flutter in axial flow
(figure 2b) gives the optimal length and the gap and energy harvesting strategies”, Proc. R. Soc. A, vol.
468, pp. 3620–3635, 2012.
61
[6] W. Mckinney and J. Delaurier, “The wing mill: an

oscillating-wing wind-mill”, Journal of Energy, vol. 5,
pp. 109–115, 1981.
[7] T. Y. Wu, “Extraction of flow energy by a wing
oscillating in waves”, Journal of Ship Research, vol.
16, pp. 66–78, 1972.
[8] T. Y. Wu and A. T. Chwang, “Extraction of flow
energy by fish and birds in a wavy stream”,
Proceedings of the Symposium on Swimming and
Flying in Nature, Plenum Press, New York, 1975.
[9] H. Isshiki and M. Murakami, “A theory of wave
devouring propulsion”, Journal of Society of Naval
Architecture Japan, vol. 156, pp. 102–114, 1984.
[10] J. Grue, A. Mo and E. Palm, “Propulsion of a foil
moving in water waves”, Journal of Fluid Mechanics,
vol. 186, pp. 393–417, 1988.
[11] L. Tang, M. P. Paidoussis and J. Jiang,
“Cantilevered flexible plates in axial flow: Energy
transfer and the concept of flutter-mill”, Journal of
Sound and Vibration, vol. 326, pp. 263-276, 2009.
[12] J. Eldredge, “Dynamically coupled fluid–body
interactions in vorticity-based numerical simulations”,
J. Comput. Phys., vol. 227, pp. 9170–9194, 2008.
[13] W. X. Huang, S. J. Shin and H. J. Sung,
“Simulation of flexible filaments in a uniform flow by
the immersed boundary method” J. Comput. Phys.,
vol. 226, pp. 2206-2228, 2007.
[14] S. Kim,W. X. Huang and H. J. Sung,
“Constructive and destructive interaction modes
between two tandem flexible flags in viscous flow”
Journal of Fluid Mechanics, vol. 661, pp. 511-521,
2010.
[15] D. Beal, F. Hover, M. Triantafyllou, J. Liao and
G. Lauder, “Passive propulsion in vortex wakes”,
Journal of Fluid Mechanics, vol. 549
62
SAME-09
CZM based Strength Prediction for Scarf Adhesive Joints with Varying
Bondline Angle
Aamir Mubashar1, I. A. Ashcroft2, Erum Aamir3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, National University
of Sciences and Technology, H-12, Islamabad, Pakistan,
2
Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
3
Muhammad Ali Jinnah University, Islamabad, Pakistan
aamir@smme.nust.edu.pk
Abstract — In this research, an investigation of Several type of joints configurations are used to test the
the effects of triaxial stress state in the adhesive experimental joint strengths including double cantilever
layer of scarf joints on the failure prediction was beam (DCB), single lap joint and double lap joint. The
carried out. Three types of scarf joints with zero, stress state in the bondline changes with the changing
9.5 and 26.5 angle bondline were manufactured loads and joint type. Triaxial stress becomes important,
using steel adherends and a structural epoxy especially in case of adhesives with hydrostatic stress
adhesive FM73-M. The joints were tested to failure dependence. Using the finite element analysis, Wahab
under tensile loading. A finite element based model et al [1] showed that the triaxial stress state changes
of the joints was used to predict the failure along the bondline of single lap and butt adhesive
strength. The model consisted of continuum as well joints. Scarf adhesive joints were selected for study of
as cohesive zone elements. The cohesive zone failure under different values of stress triaxiality as the
elements were used to represent the adhesive layer state of stress triaxiality remains same along the
in the scarf joint and are capable of bondline in a scarf adhesive joint [2]. Based on the low
phenomenological modeling of damage and failure. cycle fatigue data, a damage law was defined and its
Using the same set of cohesive zone model parameters were calibrated as functions of stress levels
parameters, the strength of the scarf joints was and triaxiality.
predicted. The finite element modeling showed that The damage and failure in adhesive joints has been
the middle of the adhesive layer had higher damage predicted by using cohesive zone modeling (CZM) [3-
than the edges of the bondline. The predicted 5]. Mubashar et al [6] used a cohesive zone model
strength of the joints was in good agreement with based approach to predict the failure strength and
the experimental results for zero and 26.5 bondline damage propagation in single lap adhesive joints that
joints while lower failure load was observed for 9.5 were conditioned at 50C in water. A bilinear cohesive
bondline joints. zone model was used with moisture concentration and
moisture history dependence. The predicted results,
Keywords— Scarf Joint; Cohesive Zone Model; based on the generic methodology used for simulations,
Stress Triaxiality; Adhesive Joints were in good agreement with experimental failure
results of the joints. The strength of single and double
lap adhesive joints subjected to moist environments
I. INTRODUCTION was also predicted by Liljedahl et al [7]. The joints
used aluminum and carbon fiber reinforced plastic
Prediction of failure and joint strength is a topic of (CFRP) composite adherends. The cohesive zone
great interest because of the increasing use of structural parameters were determined by using mixed mode
adhesive joints in automotive and aerospace sectors. flexure test specimens. Good agreement with
63
experimental results was observed and it was shown

that the cohesive zone parameters determined from one
type of specimens may be used to predict the strength
of other types of adhesive joints when the loading
modes are similar.
In this research, scarf joints with three different
bondline angles were selected and tested
experimentally to determine their failure strengths. The
three bondline angles produce three different stress
triaxiality conditions in the adhesive bondline. The
failure strength of the scarf joints was predicted using
finite element method. A cohesive zone modeling
approach was used where the damage in the bondline
was predicted in the form of a damage parameter. Same Figure 1. Configuration and geometry of scarf
set of cohesive zone parameters was used to determine joint. All dimensions are in mm.
the strength of all three types of scarf joints to explore
the effect of stress triaxiality on the cohesive zone III. FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
parameters. The scarf joints were modeled using commercially
available finite element code Abaqus. Three
II. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS dimensional models of the scarf joint were prepared as
the triaxial stress state in bondline of the scarf joint
Three types of scarf joints with bondline angles of changes with the change in bondline angle. The
0, 9.5 and 26.5 degree were manufactured and tested to adherends were modeled using 8 node linear brick
determine their failure response. The geometry and elements with reduced integration. A biased mesh with
bondline angles of the scarf joints were selected so that a dense mesh in the middle and a coarse mesh at the
the triaxial stress state in the bondline are different ends was used, as shown in Fig. 2. A linear elastic
from each other [2, 8]. Triaxial state of stress is material model was used for steel adherends, as the
important in the failure of the used adhesive joints due adherends are of much high stiffness than the bondline
to the hydrostatic stress dependence of the adhesive. and did not deform during the experimentation.
The adherends were made from steel and an epoxy The geometric dimensions of the bondline are very
based structural adhesive FM73-M was used to join the small as compared to the overall dimensions of the
adherends. FM73-M is a rubber toughened epoxy and scarf joints and it can be modeled as a zero thickness
is supplied in film form. It has a polyester knit carrier layer of cohesive elements, as shown on left in Fig. 2.
for support and handling. The configuration and These were 8 node three dimensional cohesive
geometry of the scarf joints is shown in Fig. 1 where  elements with their thickness direction perpendicular to
represents the bondline angle. The adherends were 5 the bondline thickness. Bilinear cohesive zone law was
mm thick. The surface of the adherends was prepared used for the cohesive elements, which is represented in
for bonding by degreasing followed by sand blasting. traction () and separation () form in Fig. 3. The
The sand blasted adherend surfaces were coated with parameters used in the cohesive zone law are cohesive
BR172 corrosion inhibiting primer, which was air dried energy Gcoh, stiffness K, tripping traction c, critical
for 30 minutes. The air dried joints were then cured for displacement c and final displacement f.
1 hour at 120C. Adhesive was applied to the prepared
bondline surfaces and the joints were cured at 120C Damage initiation in the adhesive layer was based
for one hour. on a stress criterion, which is based on the ratio of
The adhesive overflown to the sides of the stress at any time increment to the maximum stress
adherends was removed after curing. The prepared reached. Damage initiates when this ratio reaches one
joints were stored in desiccators. Tensile testing of the as given below:
scarf joints was carried out on Instron 3366 dual      
max  n , s , t   1 (1)
  nm  sm  tm 
column testing machine where the scarf joints were
loaded to failure and force-displacement data was
recorded. where nm is the maximum normal stress and sm,
tm are maximum stresses in transverse shear
directions. n, s and t are corresponding stresses at
any time increment.
64
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The experimental load-displacement response of the

scarf joints is shown in Fig. 4. It can be observed that
the failure load of the scarf joints increased as the
bondline angle was changed from zero to 26.5. The
force-displacement response of the scarf joints becomes
non-linear after an initial linear force increase with
increasing displacement. The non-linear increase in
force is observed when adhesive starts to deform
plastically. The initial linear portion of the force-
displacement curve is increased in joints with 9.5 and
26.5 when compared to the zero bondline scarf joints.
It was also observed that with increasing bondline
angle of the scarf joints, the strain to failure increases
and the scarf joint with 26.5 bondline angle exhibits
more plastic deformation than the zero bondline angle
scarf joints. The higher joint strengths with changing
Figure 2. Scarf joint meshing scheme. The zero
bondline angles may be attributed to the increased
thickness adhesive layer is shown on the left.
adhesive area and changed stress state in the bondline.
Since no damage occurs under compression, a The stress triaxiality in the bondline, which is the ratio
Macaulay Bracket  is used in Eq 1. Values of different of hydrostatic stress to the von-Mises stress, changes
parameters used for the cohesive zone law are given in from 3.45 to 1.36 as the bondline angle changes from
Table 1. The values are based on the cohesive zone law zero to 26.5 [2]. This shows that the effect of shear
studies conducted for single lap joints [6], however, a stresses is more in scarf joints with an angular bondline
lower value of tripping traction was used for scarf than a scarf joint with zero bondline angle. It may also
joints, as compared to the single lap joints, owing to the be observed from Fig. 4 that for a particular applied
difference in stress state of the two joints. The scarf force, the displacement 26.5 bondline is more than the
joint was held from one end and displacement loading zero degree bondline scarf joints. This is owing to the
was applied to the other end to obtain the failure increased plastic deformation of the scarf joints with
response of the scarf joints. greater bondline angles. The scarf joints fail suddenly
as the load approaches the failure load.
TABLE I. THE COHESIVE ZONE MODEL PARAMETERS The equivalent von Mises stress in the middle of
FOR SINGLE LAP JOINT. the bondline, at maximum failure load, is plotted in Fig.
5. It may be seen that the stresses are uniform along the
Tripping Stiffness Cohesive
bondline for zero and 9.5 bondline angle scarf joints.
traction c energy Gcoh
However, a small variation in stress magnitude is
(MPa) K (N/mm3) (kJ/mm2)
observed along the bondline for 26.5 angle scarf
joints, which is due to the change in loading direction.
32 1 x 105 2.9 Stress levels at joint failure are also higher for joints
with higher bondline angles. This occurs as the loading
conditions change from pure tensile to combined
tensile and shear loading. With increasing bondline
angle, the area of bondline interface also increases.
The cohesive zone based model predicted the
damage propagation and failure load of the scarf joints.
The cohesive zone model used a scalar damage variable
to represent the damage initiation and propagation. The
value of damage parameter is between zero and one,
where one means that the material has failed. The
damage variable used in Abaqus is SDEG. The
predicted damage evolution in the bondline of the three
selected scarf joints with varying bondline angles is
shown in Fig. 6. The upper adherends of the scarf joints
Figure 3. Bilinear cohesive zone law.
65
are removed in Fig. 6 to make the zero thickness

cohesive element layer visible. The damage variable,
SDEG, is plotted as contours of varying levels of
damage. Since the elastic material model used for
adherends is not capable of predicting damage, the
lower adherend is depicted in a single colour, which
does not relate to the legend shown in Fig. 6. It may be
seen that the damage initiates in the middle of the
bondline and propagates towards the edges of the joint.
The phenomenon is symmetric in the zero bondline
angle scarf joints but becomes asymmetric in the scarf
joints with 26.5 bondline angle. This happens as the
loading conditions on the bondline change with change
in scarf angle of the joint and with increase in scarf Figure 5. Experimental force-displacement
angle from zero to 26.5, the loading does not remain response of scarf joints.
perpendicular to the bondline.
The predicted failure loads of the three types of
scarf joints are plotted in Fig. 7. It is observed from
published experimental results that adhesive joints
exhibit variations in failure loads for joints of similar
type and manufactured under similar conditions [9].
These variations may be attributed to various factors
including material variability, porosity in bondline,
curing of the adhesive and environmental factors. To
include the effects of variability in the adhesive joint
failure strength, vertical variation bars of ±5% of the
mean failure strength were added in Fig. 7. The
cohesive zone model based predicted failure strength of
the scarf joints is in good agreement with the
experimental results for zero and 26.5 bondline angle
scarf joints., Lower than experimentally observed
failure strength is predicted by the cohesive zone model
for 9.5 bondline angle joints. However, if the
variability in the joint failure strength is considered, the
predicted strengths for all bondline angles are close to
the experimental results.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6. Damage predicted by CZM in the

scarf joints with bondline angle of (a) 0 (b) 9.5 and
(c) 26.5.
Figure 4. Experimental force-displacement

response of scarf joints.
66
joints," Int. J. Adhesion and Adhesives, vol. 26, pp.

325-336, 2006.
[5] S. Li, M. D. Thouless, A. M. Waas, J. A.
Schroeder, and P. D. Zavattieri, "Competing
failure mechanisms in mixed-mode fracture of an
adhesively bonded polymer-matrix composite,"
Int. J. Adhesion and Adhesives, vol. 26, pp. 609-
616, 2006.
[6] A. Mubashar, I. A. Ashcroft, G. W. Critchlow, and
A. D. Crocombe, "Strength prediction of adhesive
joints after cyclic moisture conditioning using a
Figure 7. Comparison of experimental and finite cohesive zone model," Engineering Fracture
element method predicted failure loads for scarf joints. Mechanics, vol. 78, pp. 2746-2760, 2011.
V. CONCLUSIONS [7] C. D. M. Liljedahl, A. D. Crocombe, M. A.
The failure strength of scarf adhesive joints with Wahab, and I. A. Ashcroft, "Modelling the
varying bondline angle was determined experimentally environmental degradation of adhesively bonded
and predicted using cohesive zone modeling. The aluminium and composite joints using a CZM
experimental results showed that as the bondline angle approach," Int. J. Adhesion and Adhesives, vol. 27,
increased, the scarf joint strength also increased. This pp. 505-518, 2007.
may be attributed to increase in bonded area and
change of loading conditions. The load-displacement [8] I. Hilmy, M. M. Abdel Wahab, I. A. Ashcroft, and
response of the scarf joints was nonlinear for most of A. D. Crocombe, "A finite element analysis of
the loading duration. The cohesive zone modeling scarf joint for controlling the triaxiality function in
provided damage and failure strength predictions of the adhesive bonding," Key Engineering Materials,
scarf adhesive joints. A single set of cohesive zone vol. 385-387, pp. 17-20, 2008.
parameters gave good predictions of the failure strength
of scarf joints with bondline at three different angles. [9] A. Mubashar, I. A. Ashcroft, G. W. Critchlow, and
A. D. Crocombe, "Moisture absorption-desorption
effects in adhesive joints," International Journal of
REFERENCES Adhesion and Adhesives, vol. 29, pp. 751-760,
2009.
[1] M. A. Wahab, I. Hilmy, I. A. Ashcroft, and A. D.
Crocombe, "Damage Parameters of Adhesive
Joints with General Triaxiality Part I: Finite
Element Analysis," Journal of Adhesion Science
and Technology, vol. 25, pp. 903-923, 2011.
[2] M. A. Wahab, I. Hilmy, I. A. Ashcroft, and A. D.
Crocombe, "Damage Paramters of Adhesive Joints
with General Triaxiality Part 2: Scarf Joint
Analysis," Journal of Adhesion Science and
Technology, vol. 25, pp. 925-947, 2011.
[3] M. F. S. F. de Moura and J. A. G. Chousal,
"Cohesive and continuum damage models applied
to fracture characterization of bonded joints," Int.
J. Mech. Sci., vol. 48, pp. 493-503, 2006.
[4] A. D. Crocombe, Y. Hua, W. K. Loh, M. A.
Wahab, and I. A. Ashcroft, "Predicting the residual
strength for environmentally degraded adhesive lap
67
SAME-10
Design and Fabrication of Three-Dimensional Printing Machine
Jasim Arif Ali1, Syed Zohaib Ali Naqvi1, Rehan Afzal1, Tufail Ahmed Memon1, Muhammad Fahad1, Maqssod
Ahmed Khan1
1
Department of Industrial and Manufacturing, NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi,
Pakistan.
mfahad@neduet.edu.pk
Abstract model. First a CAD model is designed which is imported

in slicing software; this software slices the image into
This paper outlines the fabrication of three- small layers which are then printed by the three-
dimensional (3D) printing machine using fused dimensional (3D) printer. The CAD model needs to be
deposition modeling technique. The purpose of this
converted into an STL file format. This file format is
research was to fabricate a low cost 3D printer to be
used in schools and households. In 3D printing a usually used for 3DP. Three commonly used techniques
computer aided design (CAD) model is converted into for 3D printing are Selective laser sintering (SLS),
G-codes which are used by the controller to print the StereoLithography (SL) and Fused Deposition Modeling
model. The three commonly used techniques for 3D (FDM).
printing are fused deposition modeling (FDM),
In 1980 Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal
selective laser sintering (SLS) and stereolithography
(STL). The fabricated 3D printer is based on FDM Industrial Research Institute first invented the technique
technique. In fused deposition modeling a plastic now called as stereo lithography [1]. In 1984 Chuck Hull
filament is used which is melted and deposited by a of 3-D Systems Corp patented the stereo lithography
nozzle layer by layer on a bed forming a replicate of method of printing objects [2] and designed the STL file
CAD model. Detailed discussion on design of our 3D format. The STL file format is the basis of almost all the
printer is made involving the steps of manufacturing of open source slicing software available today and
some major components. Furthermore costing of the different types of infill pattern also called as air gaps are
individual component of printer is mentioned. In the defined based on STL file format. The 3-D printing
end comparisions were made between a commercial 3D technology has evolved since then and researchers have
printer and the fabricated one. concluded that 3-D printing could help in sustainable
Keywords: Fabrication, 3D printer, FDM, design. development [3].
A. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
VI. INTRODUCTION
In this process a laser of high power is used to sinter
This paper is the outcome of the project done in final
particles of materials like plastic, ceramic or metal to
year engineering project-making. The aim is to
form a three-dimensional model. The CAD model is
manufacture a low cost three-dimensional printing (3DP)
traced by the laser on surface of powdered bed. The
machine to promote the use of 3DP in Pakistan. 3DP is
main components of SLS printers are as follows;
an additive manufacturing technique in which layers of
plastic are deposited one over another to form an object
which is replicate of a computer aided design (CAD)
68
 High power CO2 Laser

 Build Platform
 Leveling Roller
 Control System
 Powder Cartridge
The high power laser sinters the particles by tracing a

cross sectional area of the part. The platform is moved
down by a single layer thickness and the material is
pushed by the leveling roller across the build platform.
In this way complete part is built. 3D systems are
leading developers of SLS printers. [4]
B. STEREOLITHOGRAPHY (SL)
The basic principle of SL is using a laser and a
photopolymer. Four main components of the SL printers
are as follows;
 An Ultraviolet (UV) laser.

 Perforated platform. C. FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)
 Photopolymer liquid plastic that is filled in a
tank. The basic principle of FDM printers is melting of a
 A Platform that is run by computer. plastic filament and extruding it out through the nozzle.
The major components of FDM printers are as follows;
An Ultra Violet (UV) laser beam is directed by a
computer guided mirror on the surface of the UV  Extruder
photopolymer resin. The model is built one layer at a  Nozzle
time from supplied 3D CAD data [5].The process starts  Plastic filament
by immersion of the perforated platform into the liquid.  Bed
The UV laser strikes the photopolymer and hardens it. The nozzle is guided by axes which are controlled by
The cross sectional area of part is traced by the laser. computer. The plastic filament used could be Polylactic
After each layer the platform descends for the formation acid (PLA) or Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS).
of next layer and at the end of the process the part is Pure PLA has a glass transition temperature (Tg) of
lifted out of the vat. 3D systems are leading developers about 55 °C and melting point (Tm) of about 180 °C [6].
of SL printers. The glass transition temperature of ABS is
approximately 104 °C (219 °F), due to amorphous nature
this material does not display a melting point [7]
.However 220 °C is usually used as a melting point for
3DP .The melted filament coming out from the nozzle
forms the cross sectional area of the part in the form of
layers. After each layer the bed on Z axis descends to a
distance equal to the layer thickness and the process is
repeated resulting in a completed part. Stratasys is the
leading developer of FDM printers.
FDM technology was less expensive and
complicated, therefore it was adopted to develop desktop
printers.
69
D. DESKTOP PRINTERS distribute the load on all the shafts. This is shown in Fig.
Desktop printers like Prusai3, Ultimaker, and 2
Makerbot etc. all are Cartesian co-ordinate printers. The
Following are the most important components of the
success of desktop printers is due to their high quality as
X-Y axes assembly;
compared to their costs. Some of these printers like
Repraps are self replicating as many of their parts are  Steel rods
made of plastic and can easily be 3D printed.  Timing pulleys and Belts
 Sliders
Reprap forum provides all the basic information needed
for making a desktop 3-D printer. 1) Timing Pulleys
FDM technology has become so powerful that The timing pulleys are also manufactured in NED
researchers at MIT have achieved glass printing through university of Engineering and technology(UET). The
a nozzle [8] plus the advancements made in the diameter of the pulleys is fifteen millimeters with a pitch
development of different filaments have opened up gates of two and half millimeter as shown in Fig. 3. Our first
for 3D printed electronics board as well [9]. material choice was Aluminum as it is light weight and
has good strength to weight ratio, but the aluminum
In Pakistan 3DP is not as common as in other available could not withstand cutting forces and was
countries. Pakistan does not have any 3D printer fracturing, therefore we chose Brass for manufacturing
manufacturing firm. The common misconception the pulleys that can easily bear the cutting forces and is
prevailing in Pakistan is that 3D printing is expensive also corrosion resistant.
and time consuming which is untrue. In the following
study an attempt has been made to modify certain The pulleys are manufactured in three Steps
components of a desktop 3D printer and make a low cost Steps of Manufacturing
3D printer in Pakistan with all the possible resources
available in the country.
VII. METHODOLOGY
The methodology we adopted for fabricating the
machine is discussed in this section. Fabrication of
major components is also discussed in detail.
A. Frame
The construction of the frame is inspired from
Ultimaker as showm in Figure.1, however few changes
are made to minimize the cost. The frame is erected out
of steel conduits which are welded to form a cubic
structure. Brackets are used to hold motors and rods.
Ball bearings are tight fit into brackets. These brackets
are fixed with nuts and bolts on the conduits.
B. X- Y Axes Assembly
The X-Y axes are controlled using NEMA17 Stepper  Grooves were cut into a Brass rod of diameter
motors coupled with Steel rods that are mounted with 15mm and length of 150mm
timing pulleys and belts in order to make the nozzle  Another brass rod was used to make the top and
move in the desired direction. Also a slider facilitates the bottom flanges of the pulley so that the belt may
smooth motion of the nozzle and helps to equally not slip.
70
 The grooved rod was cut into 8 pulleys and the

flanges are press fit on them.
2) Sliders
The slider facilitates the smooth movement of the
nozzle. Its function is to grip the timing belt and move
with it. The material of slider is Aluminum. They are
fitted with LM8UU bearing for smooth linear movement
on the surface of the steel rod. While on the other face of
the slider an eight millimeter diameter hole is drilled to
hold the extruder assembly as per the design (see Fig. 6).
On the top surface of the slider a Carbon Steel plate is
screwed, this plate has grooves with the same pitch as
the belt for gripping the belt.
71
C. Extruder
The cold end of extruder is made up of Aluminum. It
has an adjustable bearing assembly as shown in Fig. 7.
The bearing could be adjusted such that the filament
could be driven properly into the nozzle. A stepper
motor with a knurled bush provides the necessary grip to
push the filament forward. The cold end of extruder is
manufactured completely in Pakistan, at NED University
of engineering and technology, manufacturing lab while
the hot end (consisting of heat sink, 0.4mm nozzle, and
40 watt heater) is imported from China.
The cold end of extruder assembly is divided into two
separate sub assemblies
1. The motor assembly
2. The adjustable bearing assembly
Steps of Manufacturing
1) The motor assembly
 Aluminum block was faced according to the
dimensions of the design. Steps of manufacturing of motor assembly are given
 A 15 mm hole was drilled into the front face of below :
the block for LM8UU bearing.  A rectangular block of Aluminum was faced to
 Another hole of 8mm diameter (visible in the required dimensions by using an end mill cutter.
 Then the center hole was drilled.
side view of the block in Fig. 6) was drilled.
 After that four M3 holes were drilled as per the
 Grooves were cut into a Steel plate of 2.5 mm given dimensions.
pitch for gripping the belt.  Then a 3mm hole was drilled in the two small
rectangular blocks using a drill press.
 Motor was then mounted on the plate.
2) The adjustable bearing assembly
Steps of manufacturing of adjustable bearing assembly
are given below:
 The Aluminum block is milled to form a U-shaped
plate, with holes on the top right corner to fit into
the motor assembly.
 Another separate Aluminum plate was used to
mount the bearing with a threaded bush in the
center so that the bearing rests on the plate and
inner ring of the bearing does not move.
 A slot was then cut on the top side of the bearing
plate
 This bearing plate slides into the U shaped housing
and the slot was screwed into a hole and can be
adjusted by loosening the screw slightly.
72
 The two assemblies are then screwed together using 7 GT2.5 Pulleys 8 4,000
M3 socket head screws.
Total price 15,480
D. Electronics
We have used RepRap Arduino Mega Pololu Shield
(RAMPS) for our 3D printer. It is commonly used
electronics board for desktop 3D printers. It uses an
Arduino board which serves as a brain of printer, Pololu TABLE III. COST OF EXTRUDER’S COMPONENTS
drivers DRV8825 are used for driving motors and ATX Serial Component Quantity Total cost
power supply is used. no. in PKR
VIII. COSTING 1 Hot end 1 800
The manufacturing of complete printer costs 25,182 assembly
Pakistani Rupees (PKR). Most of the things were
fabricated in Pakistan. The price breakdown of major 2 Cold end 1 800
components is discussed in this section. Costs of assembly
individual components are mentioned in the separate
Total price 1,600
tables, fabrication as well as raw material’s costs are
taken into account while documenting.
TABLE I. COST OF EACH FRAME COMPONENT
Serial Component Quantity Total cost TABLE IV. COST OF ELECTRONICS
no. in PKR
Serial Component Quantity Total cost
1 Steel conduits 12 1000 no. in PKR
2 Steel brackets 8 500 1 RAMPS 1 4,600
2 Stepper motors 4 1,200
3 Aluminum 1 500 3 ATX power 1 600
bed supply
Total price 2,000 Total price 6,400
TABLE II. COST OF EACH X-Y AXES COMPONENT

Serial Component Quantity Total cost TABLE V. OVERALL COST
no. in PKR
Serial Components Total cost
1 Ball bearings 8 80 no. in PKR
1 Frame 2,000
2 Linear 10 1,500 2 X-Y assembly 15,480
bearings 3 Extruder 1,600
3 Steel rods 12 6,000 4 Electronics 6,400
Total price 25,480
4 Sliders 4 2,000
5 GT2.5 belts 4 700 IX. COMAPARISONS

In this section we will compare our 3D printer with
6 Lead screw 1 1,200
commercial desktop 3D printer in terms of cost,
73
structure and build envelop. The comparisions drawn are REFERENCES

based on our experimentation with Prusa i3.
The average cost of a commercial desktop printer [1] Hideo Kodama “A Scheme for Three Dimensional
such as Prusa i3 is 400 US Dollars(USD), [10] while our Display by Automatic Fabrication of Three
printer costs around 25,500 Pakistani Rupees (255 Dimensional-Model” IEICE TRANSACTIONS on
USD). Electronics (Japanese edition), Vol.J-64C, No.4, pp,
237-234 April 1981
The structure of Prusa i3 is quite fragile as it is made [2] Charles W. Hull “Apparatus of Production of Three-
up of Acrylic for this reason we have used Iron conduits Dimensional objects by Stereolithography”
to provide rigidity to the frame. US4575330 11 March 1986
[3] Joshua M. Pierce, Christine Morris Blair, Kristen J.
The build envelope of Prusa i3 is 200mm x 200mm x
Laciak, Rob Andrews, Amir Nosrat, Ivana Zelinka -
180 mm whereas the build envelope of our 3D printer is Zovko “3-D Printing of Open Source Appropriate
200 mm x 200 mm x 300 mm. Technologies for Self Directed Sustainable
TABLE VI COMPARISONS BETWEEN PRUSAI3 Development”. Journal of Sustainable Development
AND OUR 3D PRINTER 3 (4): 17-29. Do: 10.5539/jsd. v3n4p17. Retrieved
2012-01-31.
Parameters Prusa i3 3D Printer [4] Anatomy of SLS Process (2015, October 10)
Cost 400 USD 250 USD Retrieved from
http://www.3dsystems.com/quickparts/learning-
Material of structure Acrylic Iron center/sls-anatomy
conduits [5]Anatomy of SL Process (2015, October10) Retrived
From
Build Envelope 200 mm x 200 mm x http://www.3dsystems.com/quickparts/learning-
200 mm x180 200 mm x center/sla-anatomy
mm 300 mm [6] Ewa Rudnik (2007)“Compostable Polymer
Materials” Edition-2, Elsevier.
X. CONCLUSION [7]Melting and Boiling points of ABS and PLA
Retrieved From
The effort was made to fabricate a low cost 3D printer to http://www.nrri.umn.edu/NLTC/ABS07.pdf
promote the use of these printers in schools for teaching [8] Rankin, T. M., Giovinco, N. A., Cucher, D. J., Watts,
purposes, also for promoting research and development G., Hurwitz, B., & Armstrong, D. G. (2014). Three-
environment in our country. The cost was reduced by dimensional printing surgical instruments: are we
designing a lean structure, few components were there yet?. Journal of Surgical Research, 189(2),
inexpensive in China therefore they were imported. As 193-197.
the project is in its partial fulfillment stage therefore [9] Church, K. H., Tsang, H., Rodriguez, R.,
final phase which is the calibration phase is still left to Defembaugh, P., & Rumpf, R. (2013, July). Printed
be done. We hope that by our efforts the awareness and circuit structures, the evolution of printed circuit
use of 3D printers will increase in our country. boards. In IPC APEX EXPO Conference
Proceedings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT [10] Prusa i3 cost (2015, October 5) Retrived from
https://www.3dprintersonlinestore.com/full-acrylic-
We would like to express our deep gratitude to the lab reprap-prusa-i3-kit/
technicians of NEDUET, Industrial and manufacturing
department, for their support and help in the fabrication
of 3D printer.
74
SAME-11
Development of Hybrid Mold casting for wheel Hubs
Waseem Arshad1, Muhammad Adnan Hanif1, Muhammad Usman Bhutta1 and Usman Abdullah1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering (SMME), National
University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
Abstract— Some products for automotive industries quantities from one to thousands [2]. Green sand molding
are difficult to manufacture using the conventional is the least expensive among all the molding techniques
metal casting processes. In such situation different as sand is replenished after each batch [3] and chances of
methods are combined to form a hybrid casting hot tearing of the casting are low [4]. In sand casting
process. The hybrid casting process is a technique in there is a limit to complexity of design [5] and it has poor
which different casting process are combined to get a dimensional accuracy as the size of the casting increases.
cast product. Therefore, the hybrid casting technique Also, surface finish is poor as compared to other
gives advantage over conventional casting process. In techniques [6].
this work we discuss the hybrid casting process Permanent mold casting process is the process in
where sand mold is combined with permanent mold which pouring is done under gravity in a permanent mold
before pouring. This hybrid casting process is used to [7] which is made after machining grey or nodular iron
cast wheel hubs to get better properties. Sand Molds [8]. Permanent mold casting is suitable for a broad
are made from green sand while cores are made variety of shapes [9]. Permanent mold temperature is
using NaSi sand. As we combine permanent mold raised using a flame and mold is filled with molten metal
with sand mold to get the hybrid mold casting [10]. Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish are
process it enables a broader range of products to the main advantage of permanent mold casting [11].
have a superior surface finish and lesser porosity Today most of the wheel hubs are made from ductile
when facing with a thick section products. The iron. With elongation of more than 18% and high
hybrid casting process gave close tolerance than the strength up to 1000 MPa provides the opportunity to
traditional casting process, better surface finish on choose ductile iron. Ductile iron has cost savings benefit
the permanent mold side and lower porosity as over malleable iron and steel [12] [13]. The metallic
compared to the conventional casting process. charge used for making ductile iron generally consists of
steel scrap, pig iron and ductile iron scrap [14].
Index Terms—Hybrid casting, automotive, wheel Sometime carbides are formed in ductile iron due to the
hubs. following reasons [15]:
XI. INTRODUCTION Elements in the charge that promote carbide
formation
In a casting manufacturing process molten metal is 1. Unnecessary Magnesium
transferred into a mold which has the desired/anticipated 2. The cooling rate is high
shape and after solidification the metal gets the shape of 3. Melt having Low C.E
the mold cavity [1]. Most of the castings are made from 4. Bad or no inoculation
sand casting process. Approximately all casting alloys
Carbon, Carbon equivalent, Manganese, Magnesium,
can be sand cast. Sand casting is widely used for metals
Silicon, Aluminum and Phosphorous are the important
that have high melting temperatures such as nickel, steel
elements that should be controlled wisely [16].
and titanium. Its adaptability allows the casting ranging
in dimensions from small to very large and in fabrication,
75
XII. METHODOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTATION Figure 1. Permanent Mold Drag

The hybrid mold casting process is developed in
which one half of the casting is made from sand mold Graphite as a stripping agent is used which helped us
and other half is made from permanent mold. Sand mold in the smooth knocked out finish of the casting. The
was prepared from green sand. Green sand consists of Si Coating was ignited to remove the moisture and to get
sand, Bentonite, coal dust and water. Table 1 shows the the thermoplastic layer. Core was made from the Si sand
various parameters determined using different sand test. and sodium silicate. The core was coated with mixture of
graphite, spirit and phenolic resin as shown in figure 2.
The coating was ignited to obtain the thermoplastic layer.
TABLE 1. MOLDING SAND PARAMETERS Permanent mold was coated with the mixture of
No Sand Test Value graphite, spirit and phenolic resin and then the coating
was ignited to obtain a thermoplastic layer which helped
1 Compactability 35% in the stripping of the casting.
Ductile iron was obtained from steel scrap in which
2 Specimen weight 142g carbon and silicon is added to get the desired
composition as shown in Table 2. Molten metal having
3 Compression strength 21.7N/cm2 the carbon between 3.7-4% and Silicon between 2.7% to
4 Splitting strength. 4 N/cm2 2.9% is treated with FeSiMg after which FeSi is added
for inoculation.
5 Permeability 116
6 Moisture 4.1% TABLE 2. DUCTILE IRON COMPOSITON

7 Cope Hardness 90 (B scale)
Element Percentage
Composition
A permanent mold is made from cast iron. Hybrid
casting process is developed for wheel hubs. In this C 3.7-4.1%
experiment cope is made from sand mold while drag is
made from permanent mold as shown in Figure 1. Sand
mold was prepared from a mixture of silica sand, Si 3.1-3.3%
bentonite and coal dust. The Permanent mold is started
from polyurethane pattern in a sequence in which Mn 0.1-0.3%
negative sand mold is prepared from which positive sand
mold was prepared. Cast iron melt was poured into the Mg 0.03-0.06%
positive sand mold to get the negative permanent mold.
Permanent mold heating was done up to 120oC. S <0.03%
76
Ductile iron having the desired composition is poured

into a hybrid mold as shown in Figure 3. Molten metal
pouring temperature was at about 1480OC.
Figure 7. Ductile Iron Pouring

Casting was knocked out after 3.2 minutes and then
shot blasting was done to remove the sand which was
stuck to casting mold. After shot blasting casting was
sent to paint shop for painting. Figure 4 shows the final
shape of wheel hubs.
Figure 4. Wheel Hubs

XIII. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
There were no defects in the casting of the hub.
Figure 2. Core preparation
Wheel hub is cut into eight equal parts to check its cross
section. Each section showed that there is no porosity and
all the sections are perfectly sound.
77
Cross section was cut to get hardness and samples taken from the permanent mold side shows that
microstructure samples at different points. The last microstructure is predominantly carbidic as shown in
poured hub was sectioned through their casting gate figure 7. The nodule count is higher in the permanent
locations to produce longitudinal cross section, as shown mold side as compared to sand mold.
in Figure 5. Cross section was subjected to Brinell
hardness (HB) testing. The results of the hardness testing, TABLE 3. WHEEL HUB HARDNESS
given in Table 3, revealed that hub generally exhibited
variation in hardness values at the locations tested. The Section Hardness (BHN)
results show that cross section cast in permanent mold position
has high hardness as compared to sand mold.
Sand mold
1 171
2 181
3 171
4 190
Permanent Mold
5 441
6 294
7 341
8 441
Figure 8. Wheel Hub Cross Section

The removed longitudinal cross section is polished
and etched in natal 3% solution. Cut section was further
divided into eight sections to observe the overall
microstructure at different points. The microstructure of
the wheel hub cast in sand mold is shown in Figure 6.
The four samples that were taken from the sand mold
sides show that microstructure is predominantly ferritic-
pearlitic and some carbides are found while the four
78
Figure6. Sand Mold Microstructures at 100X

(Predominantly Ferritic-Pearlitic)
Figure 8. Permanent Mold microstructure at 100X

(Predominantly Carbidic)
XIV. CONCLUSION
79
In this work the hybrid mold casting process is [13] Jones, J. and B.G. Corbett Jr, Restraining
developed in which sand mold and permanent molds are mechanical joint gasket for ductile iron pipe, 2008,
combined to improve the quality of the wheel hubs. The Google Patents
hardness of the cross section, taken from the wheel hubs,
shows that permanent mold side has a much higher [14] Karsay, S.I., Ductile iron production1967:
hardness as compared to sand mold side. This is Quebec Iron and Titanium Corporation.
concluded because the microstructure of the permanent
mold is predominantly carbidic, which give rise to [15] A. Javaid, J.T., M. Sahoo and K.G. Davis, AFS
hardness. Moreover, the surface finish on the permanent Transactions. Vol. First Edition 1999. 107.
mold side is good as compared to sand mold side. In sand
mold side microstructure is predominantly ferritic- [16] Hughes, I.C., BCIRA, International Centre for
pearlitic due to which sand mold side has more ductility. Cast Metals Technology, Great Britain1990.
Dimensional control is easy on the permanent mold side.
REFERENCES
[1] Callister, Materials Science and Engineering. 2007
[2] Groover, M.P., Fundamentals of Modern

Manufacturing Materials, Processes and Systems.
Vol. Fourth Edition.
[3] M. M. Avedesian, H.B., ASM Specialty Handbook:

Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys. p. 61.
[4] Davis, J.R., ASM Specialty Handbook Cast Irons.

1996: p. 494
[5] Wanlong Wang, H.W.S., James G. Conley, Rapid

Tooling Guidelines For Sand Casting. 2010.
[6] Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys, ed. J.R.

Davis1993. 784.
[7] Yu, K.-O., Modeling for Casting and Solidification

Processing. 2002: p. 373-374.
[8] John Gilbert Kaufman, E.L.R., Aluminum Alloy

Castings: Properties, Processes, and Applications.
2004.
[9] Jack V. Michaels, W.P.W., Design to Cost. 1989.
[10] Hybrid Casting:

http://www.industrialmetalcastings.com/casting_hyb
rid_mold_casting.html.
[11] Donald Askeland, P.F., The Science &

Engineering of Materials2005.
[12] SORELMETAL Ductile Iron Advantage,

http://www.sorelmetal.com/en/ductile/main_advanta
ge.htm
80
SAME-12
Comparative Study of Wax and Nitrate Salts as Thermal Storage for

Cooling Purpose of Automobiles
Umair Saleem, Muhammad Adnan Hanif and Adeel Waqas

Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, National University
of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
Department of Energy System Engineering, Centre for Advance Studies in Energy, National University of Sciences
and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Umair_saleem41@hotmail.com
Abstract—Energy Demand of the world is increasing basic human needs and Thermal storage can prove
exponentially. Transportation sector holds the major helpful in this regard as it will store the excess heat
share in this energy demand. During summer inside the car and thus reduce cooling load[3]. Among
conditions in countries like Pakistan, cars utilize all the thermal heat storage Latent Heat Thermal Energy
more fuel due to use of car air conditioning unit. Storage (LHTES) using Phase Change Materials (PCM)
Thermal storage can prove to be helpful in reducing is useful as it provides heat at constant temperature
this cooling demand by storing extra heat inside the during discharge time and store a lot of heat during
car and reducing car temperature and thus reducing charge time at constant temperature.[4]
cooling load of the car. This paper presents a
comparative study between two phase change This paper focuses on a comparative study of PCM Wax
materials; nitrate salts and wax for energy storage and Nitrate Salt as a thermal storage to enhance its
for cooling purpose of automobiles. A comparison operational capability. Comparison is performed
between their thermal storage capacities, their between their charge and discharge time using
charge and discharge time is made using CFD tool COMSOL Multiphysics as a CFD tool for this
like COMSOL. comparative study and results of this comparison are
discussed below.
VII. RESEARCH APPROACH

Index Terms— CFD, COMSOL, AUTOMOBILE
The methodology followed in this research incorporates
AC, PCM study of two phase change materials, i.e., wax and
sodium salt primarily sodium nitrate. Study comprises of
VI. INTRODUCTION detailed three dimensional analyses, review of the
physics involved, definition of computational domain
Energy demand is increasing exponentially with
and numerical solution of the physics over the domain.
transportation sector as major stake holder. In countries
Heat transfer with phase change analysis has been
like Pakistan especially during summer season, cars
performed in two phases. Firstly, phase change material
utilizes more fuel due to excessive use of air
experience change in its phase due to compartment high
conditioning unitError! Bookmark not defined.[1]. In
temperature of 70oC followed by retaining previous state
a stationary car parked under the sun inside temperature
by heat loss in PCM at temperature of 25oC. In the end
can reach up to 70ᵒC[2]. Thermal comfort is one of the
81
results of comparison of wax and sodium salt, i.e., TABLE II. COMPUTATIONAL DOMAIN DIMENSION
sodium nitrate are presented.
Tubes [mm]
A. Phase change materials
Diameter 100
Length 1500
Two phase change materials, i.e., wax and sodium
nitrate were selected for comparison. The required Thickness 10
properties of both materials are presented in Table 1
below. Cylinder [mm]
Diameter 500
Length 1500
TABLE I. PHASE CHANGE MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Properties Wax Sodium Unit

Nitrate
Thermal 2.132 0.9 W/(m*K)
conductivity
Heat capacity at 3.43 1.75 J/(kg*K)

constant pressure
Density 775 2260 kg/m^3
Ratio of specific 1 1 1
heats
Fig.1. Computational domain

B. Computational Domain
C. Mesh Structure
COMSOL Multiphysics has been selected for the
simulation of heat transfer in fluid. It uses a finite
element discretization over an unstructured grid. Free tetrahedral meshing is used to create an
unstructured mesh with tetrahedral elements for the three
dimensional models of both phase change materials.
Geometry selected for simulation consists of three tubes High mesh density was in regions where gradients of
which are placed in a large cylinder. Tubes contain temperature were expected to be higher based on the
vegetable oil at 300oC while phase change material is physics of the problem. Statistics of the generated
present in a large cylinder at 25oC. Dimensions of meshes for both cases are shown in table 3 while Figure
computational domain selected for simulation are 2 depicts the mesh structure.
presented in Table 2 and Figure 1.
82
TABLE III. MESH STATISTICS 300o C. With time, heat is being stored in a phase change
Property Value material. Table 4 shows the conditions that are defined
in this case.
Minimum element quality 0.08798
TABLE IV. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR CASE I
Average element quality 0.6563
Boundary Patch Equation
Tetrahedral elements 58988 Condition
Triangular elements 11404 Initial values All patches T=To=25o C
Edge elements 1610 Temperature Tubes T=To=300o C
1
Vertex elements 56
Temperature Inlet and outlet of T=To=25o C
Number of elements 58988 2 large cylinder
Element volume ratio 0.00076 Symmetry External surface of -n.(-
Mesh volume 0.2895 m^3 large cylinder
Maximum growth rate 4.855
Average growth rate 1.916 Case II: In this case vegetable oil is at room
temperature, 25o C while phase change materials are at
300oC transfer their restored heat to vegetable oil
retaining previous state. Table 5 shows the conditions
that are defined in this case.
TABLE V. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR CASE II

Boundary Patch Equation
Condition
Initial values All patches T=To=25o C
Symmetry Tubes -n.(-
Temperature Inlet, outlet and T=To=300o C

1 external surface of
large cylinder
Fig.2. Free tetrahedral meshing

E. Governing Equations
D. Boundary Conditions
Governing equations which define the physics of this
problem are given below;
Heat transfer with phase change analysis has been
performed in two directions. Phase change material T
experiences change in state while in second direction it cp   c p u.T  .(k T )  Q  Qvh  W p
t
retains its previous state.
k   k phase1  (1   ) k phase 2
Case I: Phase change materials, i.e., wax and sodium
salt is maintained at room temperature of 25o C while
vegetable oil which is flowing through the tubes is at
83
d
c p   c p. phase1  (1   )c p. phase 2  L
dT
 phase1c p. phase1  (1   )  phase 2c p. phase2


 c p. phase1  (1   )c p. phase 2
In Eq. 1  shows material density,

Wp
shows work
Qvh
input, shows stored latent energy, Q is the stored
Case I: error in non linear solver of wax phase
heat, T shows temperature difference. In Eq.2 k
b.
change material
cp
shows the thermal conductivity, is the specific heat at
constant pressure and  shows the direction for phase
change.
F. Solution and Results
Relative tolerance for both cases is 0.01 while results are

computed using direct solver PARDISO to obtain results
of heat transfer with phase change in COMSOL
Multiphysics utility.
c. Case II: error in non linear solver of sodium nitrate
phase change material
Error plots for both the cases are shown in figure 3.
d. Case II: error in non linear solver of wax phase

change material
Fig.3. Relative Error
a. Case I: error in non linear solver of sodium nitrate

phase change material Case I: Fig. 4 & 5 shows charging of PCM, i.e., heat is
transferred from the hot medium and stored in PCM.
Figure 4 shows the temperature rise of sodium nitrate
from room temperature to high temperature after a time
interval of every 15 min and the whole outer cylinder
that contains sodium nitrate is charged and is at 550 K in
84
105 minutes and stored 8.5 KJ/kg of energy. Similarly,

figure 5 shows charging of wax at the same time interval
as for sodium nitrate. Wax is charged faster, i.e., 45
minutes as compared to sodium nitrate and stored energy
8.8 KJ/kg. Similar amount of energy was released by
both materials during discharging
Fig.5. case I temperature surface plot of wax
Case II: A Fig. 6 & 7 show discharging of the PCM, i.e.,

stored heat in the PCM is transferred to the cold region.
Figure 6 shows discharging of Sodium nitrate after a
time interval of 15 min and shows that oil traveling in
the tubes is heated after 90 minutes. Similarly, figure 7
shows discharging of wax at same time intervals and in
45 minutes complete oil is heated. Figure 8 & 9 shows
how sodium nitrate and wax is converted back to solid as
heat is released respectively. As time passes PCM is
converted back to solid and liquid form shown by red
cylinder is reduced with time and after complete melting
blank surface is present.
Fig.4. case I temperature surface plot of sodium nitrate
85
Fig.6. case II temperature surface plot of sodium nitrate
Fig.8. case II isothermal contours of sodium nitrate
Fig.7. case II temperature surface plot of wax
86
Constant temperature in last 15 min shows that heat is

being stored in the form latent heat thus temperature
remains the same.
Fig.11 shows the charging profile of WAX compared to

the graph of sodium nitrate shown in figure 10 wax is
charged faster in 45 min and a constant temperature
shown in the graph in the next time intervals. This shows
more heat is stored in wax.
Fig.9. case II isothermal contours of wax
Fig.11. Charging Profile of WAX
VIII. PRACTICAL EFFECT ON THE VEHICLE IN USE

This system comprises of an insulated case having PCM
in it and pipes for the flow of air and will be placed on
the dashboard of the cabin of automobiles. Flow
mechanism attached to it will suck the hot air from the
cabin and extracts heat from it and release cold air back
in the cabin. After reaching the desired temperature flow
mechanism will stop and no further air heat will be
extracted or transferred into the cabin. This stored heat
in PCM can then be dissipated into the atmosphere.
IX. CONCLUSIONS
Simulation performed and the results obtained shows
that wax is charged and discharged faster as compared to
Fig.10. Charging Profile of Sodium Nitrate sodium nitrate, i.e., in almost half of the time taken by
sodium nitrate. Charging graphs shows that after
reaching their melting point both store further energy as
latent heat. In case of discharging time taken by wax is
87
same as for charging but in case of sodium nitrate it

reduces to 90 min from 105 min. This shows that it can
be extremely effective to be used in Automobiles for
cooling purposes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank the School of Mechanical and

Manufacturing Engineering & Centre for Energy System
for their continues support and for providing students a
platform to apply their knowledge gained during their
professional studies
References
[1] K. Mahmoud, E. Loibner, B. Wiesler, C.

Samhaber, And C. Kußmann, "Simulation-
Based Vehicle Thermal Management System-
Concept And Methodology," SAE Technical
Paper 0148-7191, 2003.
[2] A. Mezrhab And M. Bouzidi, "Computation Of

Thermal Comfort Inside A Passenger Car
Compartment," Applied Thermal Engineering,
Vol. 26, Pp. 1697-1704, 10// 2006.
[3] H. O. Nilsson, "Thermal Comfort Evaluation

With Virtual Manikin Methods," Building And
Environment, Vol. 42, Pp. 4000-4005, 2007.
[4] J. Jeon, J.-H. Lee, J. Seo, S.-G. Jeong, And S.

Kim, "Application Of PCM Thermal Energy
Storage System To Reduce Building Energy
Consumption," Journal Of Thermal Analysis
And Calorimetry, Vol. 111, Pp. 279-288, 2013.
88
SAME-13
Energy Consumption in Orthogonal Machining of Al 6061-T6 Alloy
Salman Sagheer Warsi1, Syed Husain Imran Jaffery1, Mushtaq Khan1, Riaz Ahmad1, Sohail Akram1
1
School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering (SMME), National University of Sciences and Technology
(NUST), Sector H-12, 44000, Islamabad, Pakistan
salman.warsi@smme.nust.edu.pk
Abstract— Recent researches in machining have [6], energy savings through enhanced utilization of
revealed that electricity consumption of machine tools cutting tools [7]. Two important aspects in the
accounts for 90% of their environmental impact. environmental analysis of the machining operations are
Therefore, minimization of energy consumption will the modelling of the energy consumption during
yield both environmental and economic gains. The machining and optimisation of machining operation.
research work presented here focuses on the analysis Modelling of energy consumption is currently being
of energy consumption in the machining of aluminium investigated at machine tool level, component level and
alloy Al-6061 T6, which is one of the widely used system level [8].
materials in manufacturing industry. Full factorial Mechanistic models are developed by applying well
experimental plan was developed and performed for understood physical principles [9]. The mechanistic
orthogonal machining of Al-6061 T6 to investigate the modeling of the energy consumption was initially done
effect of machining parameters (cutting speed and by using exergy framework [10] and [11]. The
feed) on the energy consumption and energy efficiency proposed framework aimed at explaining the power
of the machining process. All the experiments were consumption ( ) in machining, as a function idle power
performed by unused inserts, therefore, tool wear ( ) of machine and a product of specific process
effect was not considered for power calculations. The energy ( ) and process rate ( ). The exergy framework
analysis of the results revealed a strong correlation model was modified by dividing the total power
between the energy consumption and the machining consumed in machining in to three parts namely; the
parameters (feed and speed). The Material Removal constant power, the power to drive spindle and
Rate (MRR) also showed good correlation with worktable during cutting and the power to
different cutting parameters and power consumption of accelerate/decelerate the spindle [12]. The above
the machine tool. mentioned two approaches were blended and altered to
present a more detailed energy consumption model
Key words— Cutting parameters, Energy [13]. Total energy in a single pass turning operation
consumption, Energy efficiency, Full factorial was modelled using the approach similar to the
experiments, Orthogonal Machining traditional machining cost modelling [14]. Energy
consumption was related with the G and M codes used
XV. INTRODUCTION
in the CNC programming[15]. This methodology was
Despite many recent developments in furthered by incorporating the machinability of
manufacturing technology, machining holds a workpiece in the energy model[16].
prominent place as the most widely used production A machine tool is a complex system that is
process [1] and reduction in environmental impact of susceptible to losses which can’t be explained through
machining processes is expected to yield considerable well-defined mechanical theories. In order to overcome
gains for the betterment of environment. Therefore, these complications, empirical modelling of energy and
various efforts can be found in literature to explore the efficiency of machine tools was also explored by the
numerous perspective of machining such as; researchers. Model for efficiency of a vertical milling
environmentally conscious process planning [2], machine tool was statistically developed through
evaluation of energy consumption data of machine tool response surface methodology [17]. The relationship
[3], energy efficient controls of machine tool [4], between material removal rate (MRR) and specific
standardized energy consumption measurement [5], energy consumption (SEC) was statistically modelled
evaluation of combined efficiency of a machine shop using response surface methodology [18]. A mixed
89
energy modeling approach was proposed in [19] that TABLE 1. Full factorial design of experiments
comprised of mechanistic and empirical modeling. The
impact of depth of cut on specific energy consumption
Parameters Level Level Level Level
was statistically modelled in [20]. Specific energy
consumption as a function of material removal rate 1 2 3 4
during turning operations was empirically modeled Feed (mm/rev) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
[21].
The trend towards sustainability and environment Cutting Speed 250 500 750 1000
has also influenced the optimisation studies and (m/min)
sustainable objectives like energy/power minimisation
and minimisation/elimination of cutting fluid can be
found to be incorporated in these studies. Therefore, Electric power was measured and logged through
another emerging approach towards minimization of Yokogawa Power Analyzer CW 240, which was
energy consumption in the machining processes is installed at the main bus of the machine. First power
through optimization of cutting conditions. Design of measurements were made during the air cut which
experiment (DOE) techniques like Taguchi methods didn’t involve material removal (denoted as Pair) and
and Response Surface methods (RSM) along with other then the power was measured during the actual
multi-objective optimization methods like grey machining operation (denoted as Pactual). The difference
relational analysis (GRA), composite desirability of two powers provided the power specifically required
function analysis have often been used in optimization to remove material (denoted as Pcut). This cutting
of machining parameters (speed, feed and depth of cut) power was divided by material removal rate (MRR) to
to minimize energy and power consumption in a obtain specific cutting energy (SCE). Similarly, total
machining process. specific energy (TSE) was evaluated by dividing the
The present research analyses the energy actual power by material removal rate. Finally,
consumption during the orthogonal machining of efficiency of the machining operation was defined as
aluminum alloy Al-6061 T6 at high cutting speed of the ratio of SCE and TSE.
1000 m/min and feed rates up to 0.4 mm/rev. The effect
XVII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
of machine parameter settings on efficiency of the
machining process has also been analyzed and Specific cutting energy and total specific energy
optimum machining conditions have also been were computed and their relationship with the cutting
proposed. parameters were established.
XVI. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS A. Energy Consumption Trends in Machining
Orthogonal machining was performed in this study Total specific energy (TSE) and specific cutting
and for this purpose Al-6061 T6 pipes of 200 mm energy (SCE) were analyzed for different cutting
diameter having wall thickness of 4mm were used as conditions and specific efficiency of the machining
the workpiece. Sandvik cutting tool SCACL 1616 K process was evaluated. Fig. shows the trends followed
09-S with uncoated inserts of CMW 09 T3 04-H13A by TSE, SCE and ηs, when cutting speed was gradually
was used. In order to simulate orthogonal cutting, increased while maintaining the feed at a constant
cutting tool was fed in perpendicular direction to the value. The specific efficiency ( s) of the machining
workpiece and the length of the cutting edge was process greatly improved while working at higher
greater than the wall thickness of the workpiece. Full cutting speeds as the contribution of the productive
factorial experimental plan was used to explore the SCE towards TSE gradually increased. It has been
energy consumption pattern during the machining at observed that milling at high speeds reduced energy
varied cutting speed and feed. Table 1 shows the range consumption if subjected to the appropriate cutting load
of cutting parameters. Initially 16 experiments were [22]. In orthogonal machining, depth of cut was fixed
done based on these conditions. The results obtained so the cutting load was gradually increased by
were analyzed and were further refined by performing increasing the feed rate. For this purpose, cutting speed
additional experiments. In total 70 different cutting was fixed at a high value of 1000 m/min and feed rate
conditions were tested and the results were analyzed. was gradually increased from 0.1 mm/rev to 0.4
mm/rev as shown in Fig..
90
TABLE V. Average values of Responses (v= 1000m/min)

Speed Feed MRR SCE TSE
(m/min) (mm/rev (mm3/s) (J/mm3) (J/mm3)
)
1000 0.1 7.11 0.63 1.26

1000 0.2 13.94 0.57 0.86
1000 0.3 20.58 0.55 0.77
Fig. 1. Energy consumption trends and specific 1000 0.4 27.32 0.52 0.69
efficiency of machining process (feed fixed)
TSE and SCE consumption reduced as the cutting

load was increased consequently increasing the specific B. Main Effect Plots
efficiency (ηs) of the machining process. Balogun and The influence of cutting speed and feed on cutting
Mativenga (2014) pointed out that specific energy was power (Pcut), specific cutting energy (SCE) and specific
related to feed and the roughing operations should be efficiency (ηs) was further investigated through main
done at higher feed rates greater than the tool radius. effects plots as shown in Fig. 3-5. The values of SCE
Fig. depicts that ηs generally improved when feed was and Pcut were judged against the criterion of smaller the
increased but the difference between the ηs at f=0.3 better, whereas, ηs was judged against the larger the
mm/rev and that at f=0.4 mm/rev was marginal. Error! better criterion. The two main effect plots in Fig. and
Reference source not found. presents the comparison Fig. depicted an almost opposite trend. The smallest
of MRR, SCE and TSE at these cutting conditions. value of Pcut was achieved with minimum cutting
velocity of 250 m/min and minimum value of SCE was
achieved at higher cutting speed of 850 m/min.
Minimum cutting feed of 0.05 mm/rev resulted in the
smallest value of Pcut and minimum value of SCE was
achieved at highest cutting feed of 0.4 mm/rev. These
results indicated that Pcut and SCE were contradictory
in nature and different settings of cutting parameters
were required for their minimization. For specific
efficiency (ηs), setting of cutting parameters at highest
levels has resulted in highest specific efficiency. The
results of mean effect plots highlighted the importance
of choosing the appropriate response in studies
pertaining to the environmental impact of machining.
Considering only cutting power as a response variable
Fig. 2. Energy consumption trends and efficiency of
would be misleading as it doesn’t take into account the
machining process (speed fixed) amount of material removed and would result in setting
Although material removal rate increased by 33% of cutting parameters at lower specific efficiency
when the feed was increased to 0.4 mm/rev from 0.3 levels.
mm/rev but SCE and TSE reduced just by 7% and 10%
respectively. This might be due to the fact that at such
high level of feed, MRR substantially increased but at
the same time machine drew more power to
compensate for this high feed which averaged out TSE
and SCE.
91
Levels of cutting parameters identified through main

effect plots were used for confirmatory tests. The
setting of cutting parameters at lowest level would
result in low power consumption but the process would
not be efficient from environmental point of view,
therefore, these setting were not pursued further. For
minimum SCE, cutting speed should be 850 m/min and
feed should be 0.4 mm/rev. As discussed above, that
improvement in specific efficiency of machining
process was marginal when feed was increased from
0.3 mm/rev to 0.4 mm/rev, therefore, maximum feed of
0.4 mm/rev was disregarded and the next best level of
feed at 0.325 mm/rev was used for confirmatory trial
and it resulted in SCE of 0.5 J/mm3 that was indeed the
lowest value of SCE.
Fig. 3. Effects of Cutting Speed on Cutting Power and

SCE
Fig. 5. Effects of Cutting Speed and Feed on

Specific Efficiency (ηs)
XVIII. CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions can be made from analysis of
energy consumption trend:
Fig. 4. Effects of Cutting Feed on Cutting Power 1. Energy minimization was not achieved by just
and SCE rotating the workpiece at higher speeds,
92
however, when complimented with higher pp. 640–645, 2013.

cutting feeds significant energy reduction was
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Proceedings of the

SAME-01 Cylinder Liner Temperature Mapping of Heavy Duty Diesel Engine 1

Performance Improvement of Compressor to Recover Flare Gas by 10

Bulge hydroforming of tube by rubber mandrel without axial feed: 19

Perspectives in Automotive Embedded Systems from Manual to Fully 27

Optimization of TIG Welding Parameters using FULL FACTORIAL 36

Virtual Engineering: A key Enabler for Reconfigurable Manufacturing 43

Simulation of Turbulent Flow over a Single and Tandem NACA 0012 49

SAME-08 Passively flapping energy harvesting eel in a viscous flow 56

SAME-10 Design and Fabrication of Three-Dimensional Printing Machine 68

SAME-11 Development of Hybrid Mold casting for wheel Hubs 75

Comparative Study of Wax and Nitrate Salts as Thermal Storage for 81

SAME-13 Energy Consumption in Orthogonal Machining of Al 6061-T6 Alloys 89

Cylinder Liner Temperature Mapping of Heavy Duty Diesel Engine

a heavy duty diesel engine. For this purpose eighteen

Compression ratio 20.3:1 Outer Diameter of Sleeve 110mm

Firing order 1-4-2-6-3-5 Inner Diameter of Sleeve 96.92mm

Thickness of Wall of Sleeve 6.54mm

pressure P TC: Thermocouple on Fuel Injection Pump Side

center BDC so all points were marked and specified

P6: 6th TC from Top of Sleeve on Pump Side

Figure 4: Machining of Cylinder Liner

Figure 3: Layout block diagram

B. Instrumenting the Cylinder Liner with Thermocouples

E. Fitting of Engine on Engine Dynamometer

D. Software Development for Data Acquisition System

B. Temperature from Flywheel Side

thermocouples were mounted, three in radial directions

Advanced data acquisition system was configured

Performance Improvement of Compressor to Recover Flare Gas by Factors

foreign exchange earnings by the LNG (liquified TABLE I: Selected Factors

The objective of this research is to develop a

Table II depicts that only one factor (suction pressure)

In Table III, two factors factors (suction pressure and

In Table IV, three factors at a time method is given.

120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 2

Fig. 3: Suction pressure, temperature and specific

Gas Flow Gas flow

2 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 2.7

Gas Flow Gas Flow

[1] Opportunities in Pakistan’s upper stream oil and

[6] Blasing T, Hand J. And Kimberly B. Monthly

[16] Imail OS, Umokoro GE (2012) Global

Bulge hydroforming of tube by rubber mandrel without axial feed:

Faisal Qayyum1, Masood Shah1, Saad Ali1 and Umar Ali1

Figure 6(a). Split view of hydroforming die with die

Figure 4. Automatic control die sinking EDM Neuar

To smooth down the rough surface obtained after die

Table 1. Chemical composition of SS304

AISI SS304 was specifically used during our

schematic diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 7. Plastic region of stress-strain curve of AISI

Figure 8. Final assembly with applied boundary

Figure 10. Failed tubes of mateirlas having low

Figure 9. Depiction of results from FEA analysis,

IX. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Variation in thickness of tube wall due to

𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √𝜎𝜃2 + 𝜎𝑧2 − 𝜎𝜃𝜎𝑧

process. International Journal of Machine Tools

[19] Lei, L., B. Kang, and S. Kang, Prediction of the

Perspectives in Automotive Embedded Systems from Manual to Fully

Z. H. Khan1 and Arsalan Khan2

Abstract—This paper describes the state of the XI. INTRODUCTION