Chapter 23

Biochemical
Energy Production
 Chapter 23
Table of Contents

23.1Metabolism
23.2 Metabolism and Cell Structure
23.3 Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways
23.5 High-Energy Phosphate Compounds
23.6 An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production
23.7 Chemical Processes Prior to Metabolism

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 Section 23.1
Metabolism

• Sum total of all chemical reactions in a

living organism
• The various chemical processes by
which food is utilized by a living
organism to provide energy, growth
substance, and cell repair
• Metabolism will provide the source of
energy we need for all our activities
such as thinking, moving, breathing,
walking, talking, etc.
• Energy is also needed for many of the
cellular processes such as protein
synthesis, DNA replication, RNA
transcription and transport across the
membrane, etc.

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 Section 23.1
Metabolism

Catabolism and Anabolism

• Catabolism: All metabolic reactions in
which large biochemical molecules
are broken down to smaller ones
– Usually energy is released in
these reactions
– Example: Oxidation of glucose
• Anabolism: All metabolic reactions in
which small biochemical molecules
are joined to form larger ones
– Usually require energy
– Example: The synthesis of
proteins

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 Section 23.1
Metabolism

• Metabolic Pathway: Series of consecutive biochemical

reactions used to convert a starting material into an end
product
• There are two types of metabolic pathways
– Linear
– Cyclic
• The major pathways for all forms of life are similar:

A B
A B C D
Linear Pathway

C D
Cyclic Pathway

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 Section 23.1
Metabolism

Practice Exercise
• Classify each of the following chemical processes as
anabolic or catabolic.
a. Synthesis of a protein from amino acids
b. Formation of a triacylglycerol from glycerol and fatty
acids
c. Hydrolysis of a polysaccharide to monosaccharides
d. Formation of a nucleic acid from nucleotides

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 Section 23.1
Metabolism

Practice Exercise
• Classify each of the following chemical processes as
anabolic or catabolic.
a. Synthesis of a protein from amino acids
b. Formation of a triacylglycerol from glycerol and fatty
acids
c. Hydrolysis of a polysaccharide to monosaccharides
d. Formation of a nucleic acid from nucleotides
Answers:

a. Anabolic

b. Anabolic

c. Catabolic
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 Section 23.2
Metabolism and Cell Structure

Eukaryotic Cell Organelles and Their Function

• Nucleus: DNA replication and
RNA synthesis
• Plasma membrane: Cellular
boundary
• Cytoplasm: The water-based
material of a eukaryotic cell
• Mitochondria: Generates most
of the energy needed for cell.
• Lysosome: Contain hydrolytic
enzymes needed for cell
rebuilding, repair and
degradation
• Ribosome: Sites for protein
synthesis

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 Section 23.2
Metabolism and Cell Structure

Mitochondria
• An organelle that is responsible
for the generation of most of the
energy for a cell:
– Outer membrane:
Permeable to small
molecules: 50% lipid, 50%
protein
– Inner membrane: Highly
impermeable to most
substances: 20% lipid, 80%
protein
– Inner membrane folded into
cristae to increase surface
area
– Synthesis of ATP occurs on
the inner membrane
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 Section 23.3
Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

High-energy Phosphate Compounds

• Several phosphate containing compounds found in metabolic
pathways are known as high energy compounds
• High energy compounds have greater free energy of hydrolysis than
a typical compound:
– They contain at least one reactive bond -- called strained bond
– Energy to break these bonds is less than a normal bond --
hydrolysis of high energy compounds give more energy than
normal compounds
– More negative the free energy of hydrolysis, greater the bond
strain
– Typically the free energy release is greater than 6.0 kcal/mole
(indicative of bond strain)
– Strained bonds are represented by sign ~ (squiggle bond)

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 Section 23.3
Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

Adenosine Phosphates (ATP, ADP and AMP)

• AMP: Structural component of RNA
• ADP and ATP: Key components of
metabolic pathways
– Phosphate groups are connected to
AMP by strained bonds which require
less than normal energy to hydrolyze
them
ATP + H2O  ADP + PO43- +
Energy
ADP + H2O  AMP + PO43- +
Energy
Overall Reaction: ATP + 2H2O  AMP + 2
PO43- + Energy
• The net energy produced in these
reactions is used for cellular reactions
• e.g., conversion of glucose to
glucose-6-phosphate

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 Section 23.3
Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)

• A coenzyme required in
numerous metabolic redox
reactions
• FAD is oxidized form
• FADH2 is reduced form
• In enzyme reactions FAD goes
back and forth (equilibrium)
from oxidized to reduced form.
• A typical cellular reaction in
which FAD serves as oxidizing
agent involves conversion of
an alkane to an alkene

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 Section 23.3
Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)

• NAD+: coenzyme
• NADH is reduced form
• 3 Subunit structure:
– Nicotinamide - ribose - ADP
– 6 Subunit structure:
Nicotinamide -- ribose
-phosphate --phosphate -
ribose – adenine
• A typical cellular reaction in
which NAD+ serves as the
oxidizing agent is the oxidation
of a secondary alcohol to give a
ketone.

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 Section 23.3
Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

Coenzyme A
• A derivative of vitamin B
• Active form of coenzyme A is the sulfhydryl group (-SH group) in the
ethanethiol subunit of the coenzyme
• Acetyl-CoA (acetylated)

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 Section 23.3
Important Nucleotide-Containing Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

Classification of Metabolic Intermediate Compounds

• Metabolic intermediate compounds can be classified into
three groups based on their functions

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 Section 23.6
An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production

• Energy needed to run human body is obtained from food

• Multi-step process that involves several different
catabolic pathways aid in this process
• There are four general stages in the biochemical energy
production process:
– Stage 1: Digestion
– Stage 2: Acetyl group formation,
– Stage 3: Citric acid cycle
– Stage 4: Electron transport chain and Oxidative
phosphorylation,
• Each stage also involves numerous reactions

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 Section 23.6
An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production

Stage 1. Digestion
• Begins in mouth (saliva contains starch digesting
enzymes), continues in the stomach (gastric juice),
completed in small intestine:
– Results in small molecules that can cross intestinal
membrane into the blood
• End Products of digestion:
– Glucose and monosaccharides from carbohydrates
– Amino acids from proteins
– Fatty acids and glycerol from fats and oils
• The digestion products are absorbed into the blood and
transported to body’s cells
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 Section 23.6
An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production

Stage 2. Acetyl Group Formation

• The small molecules from Stage 1 are further oxidized.
• End product of these oxidations is acetyl CoA
• Primary products include two-carbon acetyl units (which
become attached to coenzyme A to give acetyl CoA) and
the reduced coenzyme NADH.
• Involves numerous reactions:
– Reactions occur both in cytosol (glucose metabolism)
as well as mitochondria (fatty acid metabolism) of the
cells.

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 Section 23.6
An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production

Stage 3. Citric Acid Cycle

• Takes place inside the mitochondria

• In this stage acetyl group is oxidized to produce CO2
(which we exhale during breathing) and energy
• Most energy is trapped and carried by the reduced
coenzymes NADH and FADH2 to the fourth stage
• Some energy produced in this stage is lost in the form of
heat

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 Section 23.6
An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production

Stage 4. Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation

• Takes place in mitochondria

• NADH and FADH2 are oxidized to release H+ and electrons
• H+ are transported to the inter-membrane space in mitochondria
• Electrons are transferred to O2 and O2 is reduced to H2O
• H+ ions reenter the mitochondrial matrix and drive ATP-synthase
reaction to produce ATP
• ATP is the primary energy carrier in metabolic pathways
• The reactions in stages 3 & 4 are common to the processing of
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
• Collectively known as the common metabolic pathways, i.e., the
sum of the reactions that occur in the citric acid cycle, the electron
transport chain, and the oxidative phosphorylation

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 Section 23.6
An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production

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 Section 23.6
An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production
Chemical Processes Prior to Metabolism

• A. Digestion
• Breakdown of food molecules by
hydrolysis into simpler chemical units that
can be used by cells in metabolic
processes
• B. Absorption
• The process of getting the digested
molecules into the bloodstream and
ultimately into the cells where metabolism
occurs
• Takes place in the small intestine through
tiny, finger-like projections, called villi,
that line the inner surface
• Each villus is richly supplied with a fine
network of blood vessels and a central
lymph vessel
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