EE35T - Overhead Line Design and

Transmission Line Construction

The fundamental purpose of a Transmission or Distribution Line is to carry the
active power from one point to another.

A Transmission line should possess the following characteristics:

 The voltage should be kept as constant as possible over the entire length of the
line.

 The line losses must be small so as to obtain a high transmission efficiency

 The Copper losses must not overheat the conductor.

Components of a High Voltage Transmission Line

1. Conductors

 Conductors are always bare

 They are the vital link in the transmission system and distribution system

 They must be designed to meet the specified voltage level

 The conductor consideration should include the voltage level at which the
power is transmitted, the maximum allowable losses on the line, the maximum
thermal capacity of the line, the current carrying capacity and the tension of the
line

 Factors which affect the location of the line include the climate of the country,
the atmospheric conditions and vibration of the line

There are several different types of conductors that are used to transmit power and
these include:

(i) ACSR - Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced. This is the most popular
conductor that is used because of its high strength and relatively low cost. It
comprises aluminum strands bound around a steel core. The most common are 6/1,
26/7, 54/7.
(ii) ACSR/AW - ACSR Conductor with Aluminum clad steel reinforced core. This
is very useful in corrosive environments.

(iii) ACSR/SD - ACSR Conductor that is self damping. It is more expensive than
regular ACSR, and comprises two trapezoidal layers of conductor around a steel core.
The strands are made of #6201 Aluminum, and the structure makes them self damping
against Aeolian Vibration. They can be strung at very high tensions.

(iv) ACAR - Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced. This comprises strands of

#1350 Aluminum around a core made of #6201 Aluminum. It is lighter than ACSR,
but more expensive and just as strong. It is used in corrosive environments.

(v) AAC-1350 - Aluminum Conductor made of #1350 Strands. It is used in

construction that requires good conductivity and short spans.

(vi) AAAC-6201 - Conductor composed of #6201 Aluminum Alloy. It is stronger

than ACSR, and lighter, but more expensive. It is used for long spans in corrosive
environments.

Some factors to be considered when selecting the transmission line conductors

include:

 Required sag and span between conductors

 Tension on the conductors

 Whether or not the atmosphere is corrosive

 Whether or not the line is prone to vibration

 Power loss allowed on the line

 Voltage loss allowed on the line

 Climate at the line location

Finally, the size of the conductor has to be considered. Again, several factors are used
in determining the size of the conductor to be used.

Voltage Drop Considerations: The conductor meets the minimum size requirement
but transmits the power with an acceptable loss. It is often expressed as a maximum
voltage drop of 5%. The total series impedance is equal to the maximum allowable
voltage drop divided by the maximum load current.

Thus:

Thermal Capacity: The conductor should be able to carry the maximum long term
load current without overheating. The Conductor is assumed to withstand a
temperature of 75 degrees celsius without a decrease in strength. Above this
temperature, the strength decreases.

Economic Considerations: The conductor is rarely sized to meet the minimum

requirements. The total cost per kilometer or mile must be taken into account as too
the present worth of energy losses associated with the conductor. There must also be
some compensation for load growth.

2. Insulators

There are two types of insulators: Suspension Type and Pin Type. The function of
the insulator is to support and anchor the insulator. Additionally, they also insulate the
conductor from ground and tend to be made of either glass or porcelain and in some
cases, ceramic.

3. Support Structures

These serve the purpose of keeping the conductors at a safe height from ground as
well as at an adequate distance from each other. The construction of the support is
dependent on the cost. The cost takes into account the design and the materials as well
as transportation and labour. Galvanised steel self supporting towers as well as
wooden H-frame and K-frame are commonly used. The erection of structures is an
important part of transmission line construction. The method chosen is dependent on:

 Terrain

 Access Roads

 Workspace

 Experience and Availability of workmen

  Allowed time for the completion of project

Additionally, there are several factors that need to be considered when choosing the
method of construction. These include:

 What type of structures are to be erected

 What are the natural divisions

 What are the dimensions of the natural divisions

 What are the conditions of access to the right of way

 What are the conditions of access along the right of way

The above factors are determined by whether there is the choice to use maximum
equipment and minimum labour or minimum equipment and maximum labour.

Location of Poles and Structures: Poles and Structures have to be located in

observance of the right of way (See Definitions below). The initial step when locating
the poles is to establish a plan-profile drawing. These drawings show a topographical
contour map of the terrain along the right of way, and a sideview profile of the line,
showing elevations and towers. The plan profile drawing acts as a worksheet as to
what needs to be done, in dealing with the problems that are posed. They are used to
complete the work with respect to structure spotting.

Structure spotting is a process that determines the height, location and type of
consecutive structures on the plan profile drawing. Structure spotting should closely
conform to the design criteria established for the line. The following steps should be
taken when spotting structures:

 Establish the plan profile drawing on a fixed scale

 Establish the sag template on the same scale as the plan profile drawing

 Make a table showing the conductor clearances to ground as well as relative to

other overhead lines

 Decide on the horizontal and vertical span limitations due to clearance and
strength requirements
Towers have to be buried at a certain depth to ensure that they do not collapse. The
depth may be from 6 feet up to the height of the tower.

Two types of towers are used:

1. Towers used for straight runs
2. Towers used when bends have to be made in the path of the line (Deviation Towers)

In putting down deviation towers, guyed wires and guyed blocks have to be used to
balance the tensile forces on the tower. When two forces act on a tower (which is
usually the tension of the line), a resultant force is produced. A guyed wire is used to
counteract this resultant force so as to prevent the tower from collapsing. The guyed
block is also used, and this is the buried block to which the guyed wire is connected.
The block is usually buried at an angle to negate the resultant force on the line. The
above description is figuratively shown below.

Figure 1. This is the diagrammatic representation of the use of the deviation tower
with the Guyed Wire
 Figure 2. This is the diagrammatic representation of the use of the Guyed Block

Some Basic Definitions to be familiar with

Right Of Way:
This is the legally granted free space that may be leased or purchased when
constructing overhead lines. The right of way has to take into account the
environmental and aesthetic value of the area through which the line passes. In
locating towers and stringing the lines, the electricity commission has to determine the
route of the line. Once this is established, then it is necessary to determine the right of
way. In some cases, the right of way cannot be obtained, and as a result, alternate
routes, in which the right of way can be obtained must be devised. Right of Way must
be clear of trees, or any obstructions which may cause the line to fault, or touch, or
even result in the tower collapsing.

Sag:

Sag is defined as the vertical distance between the point where the line is joined to the
tower and the lowest point on the line.

Figure 3. Diagram showing the definition of sag.

The sag is as a result of the tensioning of the line and must not be too low otherwise
the safety clearances may not be met. Also, the sag had to be such that it caters for ice
loading in the winter of temperate climates. If the sag is large, and the line becomes
heavily loaded, then the sag will further increase and breach the safety clearances.
Similarly, if the sag is low, then when the line contracts in the winter, a low sag will
indicate a high tension, and as a result of this contraction, the line may snap. Sag is
inversely proportional to the tension of the line, and is given by the formula below.

For high tensions, the sag should be small.

For low tensions, the sag should be high.

Clearances must also be observed when stringing a line. The normal clearances for
overhead lines are shown in the table below.

Voltage Level Clearance to Ground

less than 66kV 20 feet (6.1m)
66kV to 110kV 21feet (6.4m)
110kV to 165kV 22feet (6.7m)
greater than 165kV 23feet (7.0m)

Span and Ruling Span:

Span is the horizontal distance between two towers. The Ruling Span is defined as
the assumed uniform span that most closely resembles the variety of spans that are in
any particula section of the line. The ruling span is used to calculate sag and
clearances on the plan profile drawing, and it is necessary in structure spotting. When
stringing the line, the general rule is that the spans in the line should not be more than
twice the ruling span, or less than half of the ruling span. The approximate
relationship for the ruling span is given by the formula below.

EE35T - Transformer Differential Protection

A Differential System can be arranged to cover a complete Transformer. The
underlying principle of such a protection scheme is shown in the figure below.
The General Idea behind the Differential Protection is that the CT's on the primary
and Secondary side must transform the respective Line currents to the same value. For
the Bias Coils in the relay to function without any damage, this transformed current
may lie between 1A and 5A. Hence the function of the CT's is to transform the line
currents to the same magnitude and phase under normal operation of the Transformer.

Should some imbalance occur within the Transformer, such as Interturn Faults within
the Windings of the Transformer or Faults on the incoming or outgoing feeders to the
transformer, the Line Currents are no longer at the balanced value. Thus, the
transformed current at the relay coils is no longer the same at both ends, but different.
This causes an imbalance within the differential relay, and as a result, some protection
mechanism will be operated, so as to isolate the Transformer and protect it.

Basic Considerations for Transformer Differential Protection

1. Line Current Transformer Primary Ratings

The rated currents on the primary and secondary sides of the transformer depends on
the Line Current. This current will be an inverse ratio of the primary or secondary
voltages. Consequently, the line current transformers should have primary ratings
equal to or greater than the rated line currents of the power transformer to which they
are applied. Standard primary ratings will usually limit the choice and availability of
the Current Transformers that are used.

For Example.
Consider a two winding, 11kV/132kV, 30MVA Power Transformer.
The rated line current on the 11kV side of the Transformer is:
Irated = MVA / Line Voltage
= 30000000 / (11000)(sqrt 3)
= 1574.59A

Thus, choose a CT with a primary rating of 1600/1.

The line current on the 132kV side of the Transformer is:

Irated = 30000000 / (132000)(sqrt 3)
= 131.22A

Thus choose a CT with a primary rating of 200/1.

Notice that in both cases, the current that the Bias Coils in the relay see is 1A at both
ends. Any deviation of this 1A will causes an imbalance within the relay, which will
consequently cause protection to operate and isolate the Transformer.

2. Current Transformer Connections

In certain configurations of Power Transformers, the CT's must be connected such that
they compensate for phase differences on each side of the Power Transformer. For a
WYE-DELTA connected power transformer, the phase shift is 30 degrees. So a CT
must be able to compensate for the phase shift on both sides, such that the resultant
current that is seen by the relay in of Equal Phase and Magnitude.

So, for a DELTA-WYE connected power transformer, in order for the phase to be to
be the same at both the primary and secondary CT, the CT's must be connected as
WYE-DELTA. By doing this, the resultant phase that is seen by the relay is
effectively Zero. (Similarly, for a WYE-DELTA connected power transformer, the
CT's must be connected as DELTA-WYE).

This configuration is shown by following the link here .

With the configuration of CT's shown, the zero sequence current flowing on the star
side of the Transformer will not produce current outside the delta on the other side.
Thus, the zero sequence is eliminated on the star side by connecting the CT's in a
Delta connection, and that on the delta side is connected as star. Also, by connecting
the CT's as shown, the phase shift of 30 degrees is removed.

Finally, for the CT's connected in delta, the secondary ratings must reduce to 1/(sqrt 3)
times the secondary rating of the Star connected CT's. This is to balance the currents
on the delta side with that of the star side of the power transformer.

3. Magnetising Inrush Conditions

Magnetising Inrush produces current input to the energised winding which has no
equivalent on the other sides of the transformer. The Inrush appears as an imbalance,
not distinguishable from a fault. To prevent this, several methods have been
employed:

(i) TIME DELAY

This is a transient phenomena, and as a result, the stability of the transformer system
may be maintained by providing a small time delay after switching on the transformer.
The use of an instantaneous kick fuse diverts most of the current. Under transient
conditions, the fuse does not blow. Under faulted conditions, the fuse blows and
thereby allows the relays to operate.

(ii) SECOND HARMONIC FILTER

Tests have shown that the magnetising inrush current has a high second harmonic
content. However, this component does not exist in fault currents. As a result, the CT's
must be sufficiently large such that the harmonics produced does not delay relay
operation.

The filter uses a circuit which extracts the second harmonic current. This differential
current is then applied to another circuit which applies a restraining quantity,
sufficient to overcome the operating tendency due to the whole of the inrush current
which flows in the operating circuit. In effect the second harmonic component is used
to prevent the relay from operating under transformer energising conditions.

(iii) BUCHOLZ RELAY

This relay is used to protect Oil Immersed Transformers. The relay comprises two
floats contained in an enclosed housing located in the pipe from the transformer tank
to the conservators.
Any fault in the transformer causes the oil to decompose. generating a gas which
passes up the pipe towards the conservator tank, and thus trapped in the relay.

In the case of a heavy fault, bulk displacement of the oil takes place. In a two float
relay, the upper float responds to the slow accumulation of gas due to mild incipient
faults. The lower relay is deflected by oil surge caused by major faults. These floats
control contacts, which in the first case generates an alarm, and in the second case,
causes isolation of the transformer.

Alarms are given for incipient faults such as

 Hot spots on the core due to short circuiting of lamination insulation.

 Core bolt insulation failure.

 Faulty joints.

 Interturn faults on other winding faults.

 Loss of oil due to leakage

Major faults which will cause isolation of the transformer include

 All severe winding faults, either to earth or inter phase.

 Loss of oil if allowed to continue to a dangerous degree.