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Khazars
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Khazar Khaganate
Xəzər Xaqanlığı
c. 650–969
Khazar Khaganate, 650–850

Status Khazar Khaganate
Balanjar (c. 650–720)

Capital Samandar (720s–750)
Atil (750-c. 965–969)
Common languages Khazar

Religion
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Khazars 1/54
Tengrism
Judaism[1]
Christianity
Islam
Paganism
Religious syncretism[2]
Qaghan
• 618–628 Tong Yabghu
• 9th century Bulan
• 9th century Obadiah
• 9th century Zachariah
• 9th century Manasseh
• 9th century Benjamin
• 10th century Aaron
• 10th century Joseph
• 10th century David
• 11th century Georgios
Historical era Middle Ages
• Established c. 650
• Disestablished 969
Area
3,000,000 km2
850 est.[3]
(1,200,000 sq mi)
900 est.[4] 1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi)
Population
• 7th century[5] 1,400,000
Currency Yarmaq
Preceded by Succeeded by
Turkic Khaganate Cumania
Old Great Bulgaria Pechenegs
The Khazars (/ˈkɑːzɑːrz/, /ˈxɑː-/; Kuzarim;[9] Persian:

‫ ;ﺧﺰر‬Turkish: Hazarlar; Azerbaijani: Xəzərlər;
Bashkir: Хазарҙар; Tatar: Хəзəрлəр, Xäzärlär; Xazar;
Ukrainian: Хоза́ри, Khozáry; Russian: Хаза́ры,
Khazáry; Hungarian: Kazárok; Greek: Χάζαροι,
Házaroi; Latin: Gazari[10][11]/Gasani[12][13]) were a
semi-nomadic Turkic people with a confederation of History of the Turkic peoples
Turkic-speaking tribes that in the late 6th century CE Pre-14th century
established a major commercial empire covering the Turkic Khaganate 552–744
southeastern section of modern European Russia.[14] Western Turkic
powerful
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polity to emerge from the break-up of theKhazars - Wikiwand
Eastern Turkic
Western Turkic Khaganate. [15] Astride a major artery Khazar Khaganate 618–1048
of commerce between Eastern Europe and Xueyantuo 628–646
Southwestern Asia, Khazaria became one of the
foremost trading emporia of the medieval world, Great Bulgaria 632–668
commanding the western marches of the Silk Road and Danube Bulgaria
playing a key commercial role as a crossroad between Volga Bulgaria
China, the Middle East and Kievan Rus'.[16][17] For Kangar union 659–750
some three centuries (c. 650–965) the Khazars
Turk Shahi 665–850
dominated the vast area extending from the Volga-Don
steppes to the eastern Crimea and the northern Türgesh Khaganate 699–766
Caucasus.[18] Uyghur Khaganate 744–840

Karluk Yabgu State 756–940
Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the
Kara-Khanid Khanate 840–1212
Byzantine Empire and both the nomads of the northern
steppes and the Umayyad Caliphate, after serving as Western Kara-Khanid
Byzantium's proxy against the Sasanian Persian Eastern Kara-Khanid
empire. The alliance was dropped around 900. Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom 848–1036
Byzantium began to encourage the Alans to attack Qocho 856–1335
Khazaria and weaken its hold on Crimea and the
Caucasus, while seeking to obtain an entente with the Pecheneg Khanates Kimek confederation
rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to 860–1091 743–1035
Cumania Oghuz Yabgu State
convert to Christianity.[19] Between 965 and 969, the
Kievan Rus' ruler Sviatoslav I of Kiev conquered the 1067–1239 750–1055
capital Atil and destroyed the Khazar state. Ghaznavid Empire 963–1186
Seljuk Empire 1037–1194
Determining the origins and nature of the Khazars is
Sultanate of Rum
closely bound with theories of their languages, but it is
a matter of intricate difficulty since no indigenous Kerait khanate 11th century–13th century
records in the Khazar language survive, and the state Khwarazmian Empire 1077–1231
was polyglot and polyethnic. The native religion of the Naiman Khanate –1204
Khazars is thought to have been Tengrism, like that of
Qarlughid Kingdom 1224–1266
the North Caucasian Huns and other Turkic peoples.
[20] The polyethnic populace of the Khazar Khaganate Delhi Sultanate 1206–1526
appears to have been a multiconfessional mosaic of Mamluk dynasty
pagan, Tengrist, Jewish, Christian and Muslim Khalji dynasty
worshippers.[21] The ruling elite of the Khazars was Tughlaq dynasty
said by Judah Halevi and Abraham ibn Daud to have
Golden Horde | [6][7][8] 1240s–1502
converted to Rabbinic Judaism in the 8th century,[22]
but the scope of the conversion within the Khazar Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) 1250–1517
Khanate remains uncertain. Bahri dynasty
Bengal Sultanate 1352–1487
Proposals of Khazar origins have been made regarding
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Khazars Ilyas Shahi dynasty 3/54
the Bukharan Jews, the Muslim Kumyks, Kazakhs, the
Krymchaks
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and their Crimean neighbours the Karaites
Khazars - Wikiwand
in Anatolia
to the Moldavian Csángós, the Mountain Jews, Artuqid dynasty
Subbotniks and others.[23][24][25] In the late 19th Saltuqid dynasty
century, a theory emerged that the core of today's in Azerbaijan
Ashkenazi Jews descended from a hypothetical
Ahmadili dynasty
Khazarian Jewish diaspora who had migrated westward
from modern Russia and Ukraine into modern France Ildenizid dynasty
and Germany. This theory still finds occasional in Bengal
support, but most scholars view it with scepticism.[26] Khalji dynasty
[27] The theory is sometimes associated with Balban dynasty
antisemitism[28] and anti-Zionism.[29] in Egypt
Tulunid dynasty
Etymology Ikhshidid dynasty
in Fars
Gyula Németh, following Zoltán Gombocz, derived Salghurid dynasty
Xazar from a hypothetical *Qasar reflecting a Turkic in The Levant
root qaz- ("to ramble, to roam") being an hypothetical Burid dynasty
velar variant of Common Turkic kez-.[30] In the Zengid dynasty
fragmentary Tes and Terkhin inscriptions of the Uyğur
empire (744–840) the form 'Qasar' is attested, though This box:
uncertainty remains whether this represents a personal
or tribal name, gradually other hypotheses emerged. view
talk
Louis Bazin derived it from Turkic qas- ("tyrannize, edit
oppress, terrorize") on the basis of its phonetic
similarity to the Uyğur tribal name, Qasar.
[31] András Róna-Tas connects it with Part of a series on the
Kesar, the Pahlavi transcription of the History of Tatarstan
Roman title Caesar.[32]
D. M. Dunlop tried to link the Chinese term

for "Khazars" to one of the tribal names of
the Uyğur Toquz Oğuz, namely the Gésà.
[33][34] The objections are that Uyğur Great Bulgaria
Gesa/Qasar was not a tribal name but rather Turco-Mongols
the surname of the chief of the 思结 Sijie Great Tartary
tribe (Sogdian: Sikari) of the Toquz Oğuz, Volga Bulgaria
and that in Middle Chinese the ethnonym Kipchaks
"Khazars", always prefaced with the word Mongol invasion
Tūjué (Tūjué Kěsà bù:突厥可薩部; Tūjué Golden Horde
Hésà:突厥曷薩), is transcribed with Khanate of Kazan
characters different from those used to Muscovy
render the Qa- in the Uyğur word 'Qasar'.
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Khazars Kazan Governorate 4/54
[35][36][37]
Idel-Ural State
After their conversion it is reported that they
Tatar ASSR
adopted the Hebrew script,[38] and it is Republic of Tatarstan
likely that, though speaking a Türkic
language, the Khazar chancellery under
Judaism probably corresponded in Hebrew. v
[39] In Expositio in Matthaeum t
Evangelistam, Gazari, presumably Khazars, e
are referred to as the Hunnic people living
in the lands of Gog and Magog and said to
be circumcised and omnem Judaismum Part of a series on the
observat, observing all the laws of Judaism.
History of Russia
While the Khazar language went extinct
centuries ago, modern Turkic languages still
refer to the Caspian Sea as the "Khazar Sea"
(cf. Khazar University and Khazar Islands
in Baku, Azerbaijan). Early Slavs/Rus' pre-9th century
Old Great Bulgaria 632–668
Linguistics Khazar Khaganate 650-969
Rus' Khaganate 9th century
Volga Bulgaria 9th–13th century
Main article: Khazar language
Kievan Rus' 882–1240
Grand Duchy of Vladimir 1157–1331
Determining the origins and nature of the Novgorod Republic 1136–1478
Khazars is closely bound with theories of Golden Horde 1240s–1480
their languages, but it is a matter of intricate Grand Duchy of Moscow 1283–1547
difficulty, since no indigenous records in the
Tsardom of Russia 1547–1721
Khazar language survive, and the state was
Russian Empire 1721–1917
polyglot and polyethnic.[40] Whereas the
royal or ruling elite probably spoke an Russian Republic 1917
eastern variety of Shaz Turkic, the subject Russian SFSR 1917–1991

tribes appear to have spoken varieties of Lir Soviet Union 1922–1991
Turkic, such as Oğuric, a language variously Russian Federation 1991–present
identified with Bulğaric, Chuvash, and
Hunnish (the latter based upon the assertion Timeline
of the Persian historian al-Iṣṭakhrī that the
Khazar language was different from any Russia portal
other known tongue).[41][42] One method
for tracing their origins consists in analysis v
of the possible etymologies behind the t
ethnonym "Khazar".
e
Tribal origins and early history
Part of a series on the
History of Ukraine
The tribes[43] that were to comprise the
Khazar empire were not an ethnic union, but
a congeries of steppe nomads and peoples
who came to be subordinated, and
subscribed to a core Turkic leadership.[44] Prehistory
Many Turkic groups, such as the Oğuric
peoples, including Šarağurs, Oğurs, Trypillian–Cucuteni culture
Onoğurs, and Bulğars who earlier formed Yamnaya culture
part of the Tiĕlè (鐵勒) confederation, are Catacomb culture
attested quite early, having been driven Taurica
West by the Sabirs, who in turn fled the Scythia
Asian Avars, and began to flow into the Bosporan Kingdom
Volga-Caspian-Pontic zone from as early as Sarmatia
the 4th century CE and are recorded by Zarubintsy culture
Priscus to reside in the Western Eurasian Chernyakhov culture
steppelands as early as 463.[45][46] They Hunnic Empire
appear to stem from Mongolia and South
Siberia in the aftermath of the fall of the
Hunnic/Xiōngnú nomadic polities. A Early history
variegated tribal federation led by these
Turks, probably comprising a complex Early East Slavs
assortment of Iranian,[47] proto-Mongolic, Onoghuria
Uralic, and Palaeo-Siberian clans, White Croatia
vanquished the Rouran Khaganate of the Rus' Khaganate
hegemonic central Asian Avars in 552 and Khazars
swept westwards, taking in their train other Kievan Rus'
steppe nomads and peoples from Sogdiana. Galicia–Volhynia
[48] Cumania
Mongol invasion of Rus'
The ruling family of this confederation may Golden Horde
have hailed from the Āshǐnà (阿史那) clan Principality of Moldavia
of the West Türkic tribes,[49] though Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Constantine Zuckerman regards Āshǐnà and Crimean Khanate
their pivotal role in the formation of the
Khazars with scepticism.[50] Golden notes Early modern history
that Chinese and Arabic reports are almost
identical, making the connection a strong Cossacks
one, and conjectures that their leader may Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
have been Yǐpíshèkuì (Chinese:乙毗射匱), Zaporozhian Host
who lost power or was killed around 651. Khmelnytsky Uprising
[51]https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Khazars
Moving west, the confederation reached 6/54
The Ruin
important
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allies of Byzantium in fighting off Khazars - Wikiwand
Left bank
Attila's army. Sloboda Ukraine
Right bank
Rise of the Khazar state Danube
Russian Empire
An embryonic state of Khazaria began to Little Russia
form sometime after 630,[53] when it New Russia
emerged from the breakdown of the larger Habsburg Monarchy
Göktürk Qağanate. Göktürk armies had Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
penetrated the Volga by 549, ejecting the Bukovina
Avars, who were then forced to flee to the Carpathian Ruthenia
sanctuary of the Hungarian plain. The
Āshǐnà clan whose tribal name was 'Türk'
Modern history
(the strong one) appear on the scene by 552,
when they overthrew the Rourans and
Ukraine during World War I
established the Göktürk Qağanate.[54] By Ukraine after the Revolution
568, these Göktürks were probing for an
Ukrainian War of Independence
alliance with Byzantium to attack Persia. An
Ukrainian People's Republic
internecine war broke out between the
West Ukrainian People's Republic
senior eastern Göktürks and the junior West
Ukrainian State
Turkic Qağanate some decades later, when
on the death of Taspar Qağan, a succession Directorate of Ukraine
dispute led to a dynastic crisis between Ukrainian SSR
Taspar's chosen heir, the Apa Qağan, and Soviet Union
the ruler appointed by the tribal high Communist Party of Ukraine
council, Āshǐnà Shètú (阿史那摄图), the Holodomor
Ishbara Qağan. Ukraine in World War II
Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists
By the first decades of the 7th century, the Chernobyl
Āshǐnà yabgu Tong managed to stabilise the Cassette Scandal
Western division, but upon his death, after Orange Revolution
providing crucial military assistance to Russia–Ukraine gas disputes
Byzantium in routing the Sasanian army in Euromaidan
the Persian heartland,[55][56] the Western Russian military intervention (2014–
Turkic Qağanate dissolved under pressure present)
from the encroaching Tang dynasty armies Crimean crisis
and split into two competing federations, War in Donbass
each consisting of five tribes, collectively
known as the "Ten Arrows" (On Oq). Both
briefly challenged Tang hegemony in Topics by history
eastern Turkestan. To the West, two new
nomadic states arose in the meantime, Old Name of Ukraine
Great Bulgaria under Kubrat, the Duōlù clan Historical regions
leader, and the Nǔshībì subconfederation,
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Khazars Christianity in Ukraine 7/54
challenged
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the Avars in the Kuban River- Khazars - Wikiwand
Sea of Azov area while the Khazar Ukraine portal

Qağanate consolidated further westwards,
led apparently by an Āshǐnà dynasty. With a
resounding victory over the tribes in 657, v
engineered by General Sū Dìngfāng (蘇定 t
方), Chinese overlordship was imposed to e
their East after a final mop-up operation in
659, but the two confederations of Bulğars
and Khazars fought for supremacy on the western steppeland, and with the ascendency of the
latter, the former either succumbed to Khazar rule or, as under Asparukh, Kubrat's son, shifted
even further west across the Danube to lay the foundations of the First Bulgarian Empire in the
Balkans (c. 679).[58][59]
The Qağanate of the Khazars thus took shape out of the ruins of this nomadic empire as it
broke up under pressure from the Tang dynasty armies to the east sometime between 630–650.
[51] After their conquest of the lower Volga region to the East and an area westwards between
the Danube and the Dniepr, and their subjugation of the Onoğur-Bulğar union, sometime
around 670, a properly constituted Khazar Qağanate emerges,[60] becoming the westernmost
successor state of the formidable Göktürk Qağanate after its disintegration. According to
Omeljan Pritsak, the language of the Onoğur-Bulğar federation was to become the lingua
franca of Khazaria[61] as it developed into what Lev Gumilev called a 'steppe Atlantis'
(stepnaja Atlantida/ Степная Атлантида).[62] Historians have often referred to this period of
Khazar domination as the Pax Khazarica since the state became an international trading hub
permitting Western Eurasian merchants safe transit across it to pursue their business without
interference.[63] The high status soon to be accorded this empire to the north is attested by Ibn
al-Balḫî's Fârsnâma (c. 1100), which relates that the Sasanian Shah, Ḫusraw 1, Anûsîrvân,
placed three thrones by his own, one for the King of China, a second for the King of
Byzantium, and a third for the king of the Khazars. Though anachronistic in retrodating the
Khazars to this period, the legend, in placing the Khazar qağan on a throne with equal status to
kings of the other two superpowers, bears witness to the reputation won by the Khazars from
early times.[64][65]
Khazar state: culture and institutions
Royal Diarchy with sacral Qağanate
Khazaria developed a Dual kingship governance structure,[66] typical among Turkic nomads,
consisting of a shad/bäk and a qağan.[67] The emergence of this system may be deeply
entwined with the conversion to Judaism.[68] According to Arabic sources, the lesser king was
called îšâ and the greater king Khazar xâqân; the former managed and commanded the
military, while the greater king's role was primarily sacral, less concerned with daily affairs. 8/54
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Khazars
The greater king was recruited from the Khazar house of notables (ahl bait ma'rûfīn) and, in an
initiation
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ritual, was nearly strangled until he declared the number of years he wished to reign,
Khazars - Wikiwand
on the expiration of which he would be killed by the nobles.[69][70][71][72] The deputy ruler
would enter the presence of the reclusive greater king only with great ceremony, approaching
him barefoot to prostrate himself in the dust and then light a piece of wood as a purifying fire,
while waiting humbly and calmly to be summoned.[73] Particularly elaborate rituals
accompanied a royal burial. At one period, travellers had to dismount, bow before the ruler's
tomb, and then walk away on foot.[74] Subsequently, the charismatic sovereign's burial place
was hidden from view, with a palatial structure ('Paradise') constructed and then hidden under
rerouted river water to avoid disturbance by evil spirits and later generations. Such a royal
burial ground (qoruq) is typical of inner Asian peoples.[75] Both the îšâ and the xâqân
converted to Judaism sometime in the 8th century, while the rest, according to the Persian
traveller Ahmad ibn Rustah, probably followed the old Tūrkic religion.[76][77]
Ruling elite
The ruling stratum, like that of the later Činggisids within the Golden Horde, was a relatively
small group that differed ethnically and linguistically from its subject peoples, meaning the
Alano-As and Oğuric Turkic tribes, who were numerically superior within Khazaria.[78] The
Khazar Qağans, while taking wives and concubines from the subject populations, were
protected by a Khwârazmian guard corps, or comitatus, called the Ursiyya.[79][80] But unlike
many other local polities, they hired soldiers (mercenaries) (the junûd murtazîqa in al-
Mas'ûdî).[81] At the peak of their empire, the Khazars ran a centralised fiscal administration,
with a standing army of some 7–12,000 men, which could, at need, be multiplied two or three
times that number by inducting reserves from their nobles' retinues.[82][83] Other figures for
the permanent standing army indicate that it numbered as many as one hundred thousand.
They controlled and exacted tribute from 25–30 different nations and tribes inhabiting the vast
territories between the Caucasus, the Aral Sea, the Ural Mountains, and the Ukrainian steppes.
[84] Khazar armies were led by the Qağan Bek (pronounced as Kagan Bek) and commanded by
subordinate officers known as tarkhans. When the bek sent out a body of troops, they would
not retreat under any circumstances. If they were defeated, every one who returned was killed.
[85]
Settlements were governed by administrative officials known as tuduns. In some cases, such as
the Byzantine settlements in southern Crimea, a tudun would be appointed for a town
nominally within another polity's sphere of influence. Other officials in the Khazar
government included dignitaries referred to by ibn Fadlan as Jawyshyghr and Kündür, but
their responsibilities are unknown.
Demographics
It has been estimated that from 25 to 28 distinct ethnic groups made up the population of the
Khazar Qağanate, aside from the ethnic elite. The ruling elite seems to have been constituted
provinces or principalities, each of which would have been allocated to a clan.[70] In terms of
caste or class, some evidence suggests that there was a distinction, whether racial or social is
unclear, between "White Khazars" (ak-Khazars) and "Black Khazars" (qara-Khazars).[70] The
10th-century Muslim geographer al-Iṣṭakhrī claimed that the White Khazars were strikingly
handsome with reddish hair, white skin, and blue eyes, while the Black Khazars were swarthy,
verging on deep black, as if they were "some kind of Indian".[86] Many Turkic nations had a
similar (political, not racial) division between a "white" ruling warrior caste and a "black"
class of commoners; the consensus among mainstream scholars is that Istakhri was confused
by the names given to the two groups.[87] However, Khazars are generally described by early
Arab sources as having a white complexion, blue eyes, and reddish hair.[88][89] The name of
the presumed founding Āshǐnà clan may reflect an etymology suggestive of a darkish colour.
[90][91] The distinction appears to have survived the collapse of the Khazarian empire. Later
Russian chronicles, commenting on the role of the Khazars in the magyarisation of Hungary,
refer to them as "White Oghurs" and Magyars as "Black Ogurs".[92] Studies of the physical
remains, such as skulls at Sarkel, have revealed a mixture of Slavic, other European, and a few
Mongolian types.[93]
Economy
The import and export of foreign wares, and the revenues derived from taxing their transit, was
a hallmark of the Khazar economy, though it is said also to have produced isinglass.[94]
Distinctively among the nomadic steppe polities, the Khazar Qağanate developed a self-
sufficient domestic Saltovo[95] economy, a combination of traditional pastoralism – allowing
sheep and cattle to be exported – extensive agriculture, abundant use of the Volga's rich fishing
stocks, together with craft manufacture, with a diversification in lucrative returns from taxing
international trade given its pivotal control of major trade routes. The Khazars constituted one
of the two great furnishers of slaves to the Muslim market (the other being the Iranian Sâmânid
amîrs), supplying it with captured Slavs and tribesmen from the Eurasian northlands.[96] It was
profits from the latter which enabled it to maintain a standing army of Khwarezm Muslim
troops. The capital Atil reflected the division: Kharazān on the western bank where the king
and his Khazar elite, with a retinue of some 4,000 attendants, dwelt, and Itil proper to the East,
inhabited by Jews, Christians, Muslims and slaves and by craftsmen and foreign merchants.[97]
The ruling elite wintered in the city and spent from spring to late autumns in their fields. A
large irrigated greenbelt, drawing on channels from the Volga river, lay outside the capital,
where meadows and vineyards extended for some 20 farsakhs (ca. 60 miles?).[98] While
customs duties were imposed on traders, and tribute and tithes were exacted from 25–30 tribes,
with a levy of one sable skin, squirrel pelt, sword, dirham per hearth or ploughshare, or hides,
wax, honey and livestock, depending on the zone. Trade disputes were handled by a
commercial tribunal in Atil consisting of seven judges, two for each of the monotheistic
inhabitants (Jews, Muslims, Christians) and one for the pagans.[99]
Khazars and Byzantium
See also: Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 and Third Perso-Turkic War
Byzantine diplomatic policy towards the steppe peoples generally consisted of encouraging
them to fight among themselves. The Pechenegs provided great assistance to the Byzantines in
the 9th century in exchange for regular payments.[100] Byzantium also sought alliances with
the Göktürks against common enemies: in the early 7th century, one such alliance was
brokered with the Western Tűrks against the Persian Sasanians in the Byzantine–Sasanian War
of 602–628. The Byzantines called Khazaria Tourkía, and by the 9th century referred to the
Khazars as 'Turks'.[101] During the period leading up to and after the siege of Constantinople
in 626, Heraclius sought help via emissaries, and eventually personally, from a Göktürk
chieftain[102] of the Western Tűrkic Qağanate, Tong Yabghu Qağan, in Tiflis, plying him with
gifts and the promise of marriage to his daughter, Epiphania.[103] Tong Yabghu responded by
sending a large force to ravage the Persian empire, marking the start of the Third Perso-Turkic
War.[104] A joint Byzantine-Tűrk operation breached the Caspian gates and sacked Derbent in
627. Together they then besieged Tiflis, where the Byzantines may have deployed an early
variety of traction trebuchets (ἑλέπόλεις) to breach the walls. After the campaign, Tong
Yabghu is reported, perhaps with some exaggeration, to have left some 40,000 troops behind
with Heraclius.[105] Though occasionally identified with Khazars, the Göktürk identification is
more probable since the Khazars only emerged from that group after the fragmentation of the
former sometime after 630.[53] Some scholars argued that Sasanian Persia never recovered
from the devastating defeat wrought by this invasion.[106]
Khazar Khaganate and surrounding states, c. 820 (area of direct Khazar control in dark blue,
sphere of influence in purple).
Once the Khazars emerged as a power, the Byzantines also began to form alliances with them,
dynastic and military. In 695, the last Heraclian emperor, Justinian II, nicknamed the slit-nosed
(ὁ ῥινότμητος) after he was mutilated and deposed, was exiled to Cherson in the Crimea,
where a Khazar governor (tudun) presided. He escaped into Khazar territory in 704 or 705 and
was given asylum by qağan Busir Glavan (Ἰβουζήρος Γλιαβάνος), who gave him his sister in
marriage, perhaps in response to an offer by Justinian, who may have thought a dynastic
marriage would seal by kinship a powerful tribal support for his attempts to regain the throne.
[107] The Khazarian spouse thereupon changed her name to Theodora.[108] Busir was offered a
bribe by the Byzantine usurper, Tiberius III, to kill Justinian. Warned by Theodora, Justinian
escaped, murdering two Khazar officials in the process. He fled to Bulgaria, whose Khan
during his exile, he sent for Theodora; Busir complied,
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and she was crowned as Augusta,
Khazars - Wikiwand
suggesting that both prized the alliance.[109][110]
Decades later, Leo III (ruled 717–741) made a similar alliance to co-ordinate strategy against a
common enemy, the Muslim Arabs. He sent an embassy to the Khazar qağan Bihar and
married his son, the future Constantine V (ruled 741–775), to Bihar's daughter, a princess
referred to as Tzitzak, in 732. On converting to Christianity, she took the name Irene.
Constantine and Irene had a son, the future Leo IV (775–780), who thereafter bore the
sobriquet, "the Khazar".[111][112] Leo died in mysterious circumstances after his Athenian wife
bore him a son, Constantine VI, who on his majority co-ruled with his mother, the dowager.
He proved unpopular, and his death ended the dynastic link of the Khazars to the Byzantine
throne.[citation needed] By the 8th century, Khazars dominated the Crimea (650-c.950), and even
extended their influence into the Byzantine peninsula of Cherson until it was wrested back in
the 10th century.[113] Khazar and Farghânian (Φάργανοι) mercenaries constituted part of the
imperial Byzantine Hetaireia bodyguard after its formation in 840, a position that could openly
be purchased by a payment of seven pounds of gold.[114][115]
Arab–Khazar wars
Main article: Arab–Khazar wars
During the 7th and 8th centuries, the Khazars fought a series of wars against the Umayyad
Caliphate and its Abbasid successor. The First Arab-Khazar War began during the first phase
of Muslim expansion. By 640, Muslim forces had reached Armenia; in 642 they launched their
first raid across the Caucasus under Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah. In 652 Arab forces advanced
on the Khazar capital, Balanjar, but were defeated, suffering heavy losses; according to Persian
historians such as al-Tabari, both sides in the battle used catapults against the opposing troops.
A number of Russian sources give the name of a Khazar khagan from this period as Irbis and
describe him as a scion of the Göktürk royal house, the Ashina. Whether Irbis ever existed is
open to debate, as is whether he can be identified with one of the many Göktürk rulers of the
same name.
Due to the outbreak of the First Muslim Civil War and other priorities, the Arabs refrained
from repeating an attack on the Khazars until the early 8th century.[116] The Khazars launched
a few raids into Transcaucasian principalities under Muslim dominion, including a large-scale
raid in 683–685 during the Second Muslim Civil War that rendered much booty and many
prisoners.[117] There is evidence from the account of al-Tabari that the Khazars formed a
united front with the remnants of the Göktürks in Transoxiana.
Caucasus region, c. 740
The Second Arab-Khazar War began with a series of raids across the Caucasus in the early 8th
century. The Umayyads tightened their grip on Armenia in 705 after suppressing a large-scale
rebellion. In 713 or 714, Umayyad general Maslamah conquered Derbent and drove deeper
into Khazar territory. The Khazars launched raids in response into Albania and Iranian
Azerbaijan but were driven back by the Arabs under Hasan ibn al-Nu'man.[118] The conflict
escalated in 722 with an invasion by 30,000 Khazars into Armenia inflicting a crushing defeat.
Caliph Yazid II responded, sending 25,000 Arab troops north, swiftly driving the Khazars back
across the Caucasus, recovering Derbent, and advancing on Balanjar. The Arabs broke through
the Khazar defence and stormed the city; most of its inhabitants were killed or enslaved, but a
few managed to flee north.[117] Despite their success, the Arabs had not yet defeated the
Khazar army, and they retreated south of the Caucasus.
In 724, Arab general al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah al-Hakami inflicted a crushing defeat on the
Khazars in a long battle between the rivers Cyrus and Araxes, then moved on to capture Tiflis,
bringing Caucasian Iberia under Muslim suzerainty. The Khazars struck back in 726, led by a
prince named Barjik, launching a major invasion of Albania and Azerbaijan; by 729, the Arabs
had lost control of northeastern Transcaucasia and were thrust again into the defensive. In 730,
Barjik invaded Iranian Azerbaijan and defeated Arab forces at Ardabil, killing the general al-
Djarrah al-Hakami and briefly occupying the town. Barjik was defeated and killed the next
year at Mosul, where he directed Khazar forces from a throne mounted with al-Djarrah's
severed head[citation needed]. In 737, Marwan Ibn Muhammad entered Khazar territory under
the guise of seeking a truce. He then launched a surprise attack in which The Qaghan fled
north and the Khazars surrendered.[119] The Arabs did not have resources to influence affairs
of Transcaucasia.[119] The Qağan was forced to accept terms involving conversion to Islam,
and to subject himself to the Caliphate, but the accommodation was short-lived as a
combination of internal instability among the Umayyads and Byzantine support undid the
agreement within three years, and the Khazars re-asserted their independence.[120] The
suggestion that the Khazars adopted Judaism as early as 740 is based on the idea that, in part,
it was, a re-assertion of independence with regard to both Byzantium and the Caliphate, while
conforming to a general Eurasian trend to embrace a world religion.[121]
Whatever
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ceased for more than two decades after 737. Arab raids continued until 741, but their control in
the region was limited as maintaining a large garrison at Derbent further depleted the already
overstretched army. A third Muslim civil war soon broke out, leading to the Abbasid
Revolution and the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in 750.
In 758, the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur attempted to strengthen diplomatic ties with the
Khazars, ordering Yazid ibn Usayd al-Sulami, one of his nobles and the military governor of
Armenia, to take a royal Khazar bride. Yazid married a daughter of Khazar Khagan Baghatur,
but she died inexplicably, possibly in childbirth. Her attendants returned home, convinced that
some Arab faction had poisoned her, and her father was enraged. Khazar general Ras Tarkhan
invaded south of the Caucasus in 762–764, devastating Albania, Armenia, and Iberia, and
capturing Tiflis. Thereafter relations became increasingly cordial between the Khazars and the
Abbasids, whose foreign policies were generally less expansionist than the Umayyads, broken
only by a series of raids in 799 over another failed marriage alliance.
Rise of the Rus' and the collapse of the Khazarian state
Trade routes of the Black Sea region, 8th–11th centuries
By the 9th century, groups of Varangian Rus', developing a powerful warrior-merchant system,
began probing south down the waterways controlled by the Khazars and their protectorate, the
Volga Bulgarians, partially in pursuit of the Arab silver that flowed north for hoarding through
the Khazarian-Volga Bulgarian trading zones,[122] partially to trade in furs and ironwork.[123]
Northern mercantile fleets passing Atil were tithed, as they were at Byzantine Cherson.[124]
Their presence may have prompted the formation of a Rus' state by convincing the Slavs,
Merja and the Chud' to unite to protect common interests against Khazarian exactions of
tribute. It is often argued that a Rus' Khaganate modelled on the Khazarian state had formed to
the east, and that the Varangian chieftain of the coalition appropriated the title of qağan
(khagan) as early as the 830s: the title survived to denote the princes of Kievan Rus', whose
capital, Kiev, is often associated with a Khazarian foundation.[125][126][127][128] The
construction of the Sarkel fortress, with technical assistance from Khazaria's Byzantine ally at
the time, together with the minting of an autonomous Khazar coinage around the 830s, may
have been a defensive measure against emerging threats from Varangians to the north and from
the Magyars on the eastern steppe.[129][130] By 860, the Rus' had penetrated as far as Kiev and,
via the Dnieper, Constantinople.[131]
Site of the Khazar fortress at Sarkel (aerial photo from excavations conducted by Mikhail
Artamonov in the 1950s).
Alliances often shifted. Byzantium, threatened by Varangian Rus' raiders, would assist
Khazaria, and Khazaria at times allowed the northerners to pass through their territory in
exchange for a portion of the booty.[132] From the beginning of the 10th century, the Khazars
found themselves fighting on multiple fronts as nomadic incursions were exacerbated by
uprisings by former clients and invasions from former allies. The pax Khazarica was caught in
a pincer movement between steppe Pechenegs and the strengthing of an emergent Rus' power
to the north, both undermining Khazaria's tributary empire.[133] According to the Schechter
Text, the Khazar ruler King Benjamin (ca.880–890) fought a battle against the allied forces of
five lands whose moves were perhaps encouraged by Byzantium.[134] Though Benjamin was
victorious, his son Aaron II faced another invasion, this time led by the Alans, whose leader
had converted to Christianity and entered into an alliance with Byzantium, which, under Leo
VI the Wise, encouraged them to fight against the Khazars.
By the 880s, Khazar control of the Middle Dnieper from Kiev, where they collected tribute
from Eastern Slavic tribes, began to wane as Oleg of Novgorod wrested control of the city
from the Varangian warlords Askold and Dir, and embarked on what was to prove to be the
foundation of a Rus' empire.[135] The Khazars had initially allowed the Rus' to use the trade
route along the Volga River, and raid southwards. See Caspian expeditions of the Rus'.
According to Al-Mas‘udi, the qağan is said to have given his assent on the condition that the
Rus' give him half of the booty.[132] In 913, however, two years after Byzantium concluded a
peace treaty with the Rus' in 911, a Varangian foray, with Khazar connivance, through Arab
lands led to a request to the Khazar throne by the Khwârazmian Islamic guard for permission
to retaliate against the large Rus' contingent on its return. The purpose was to revenge the
violence the Rus' razzias had inflicted on their fellow Muslim believers.[136] The Rus' force
was thoroughly routed and massacred.[132] The Khazar rulers closed the passage down the
Volga to the Rus', sparking a war. In the early 960s, Khazar ruler Joseph wrote to Hasdai ibn
Shaprut about the deterioration of Khazar relations with the Rus': 'I protect the mouth of the
river (Itil-Volga) and prevent the Rus arriving in their ships from setting off by sea against the
Ishmaelites and (equally) all (their) enemies from setting off by land to Bab.'[137]
Sviatoslav I of Kiev (in boat), destroyer of the Khazar Khaganate.[138]
The Rus' warlords launched several wars against the Khazar Qağanate, and raided down to the
Caspian sea. The Schechter Letter relates the story of a campaign against Khazaria by HLGW
(recently identified as Oleg of Chernigov) around 941 in which Oleg was defeated by the
Khazar general Pesakh.[139] The Khazar alliance with the Byzantine empire began to collapse
in the early 10th century. Byzantine and Khazar forces may have clashed in the Crimea, and by
the 940s emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was speculating in De Administrando
Imperio about ways in which the Khazars could be isolated and attacked. The Byzantines
during the same period began to attempt alliances with the Pechenegs and the Rus', with
varying degrees of success. Sviatoslav I finally succeeded in destroying Khazar imperial
power in the 960s, in a circular sweep that overwhelmed Khazar fortresses like Sarkel and
Tamatarkha, and reached as far as the Caucasian Kassogians/Circassians and then back to
Kiev.[140] Sarkel fell in 965, with the capital city of Atil following, c. 968 or 969.
In the Russian chronicle the vanquishing of the Khazar traditions is associated with Vladimir's
conversion in 986.[141] According to the Primary Chronicle, in 986 Khazar Jews were present
at Vladimir's disputation to decide on the prospective religion of the Kievan Rus'.[142]
Whether these were Jews who had settled in Kiev or emissaries from some Jewish Khazar
remnant state is unclear. Conversion to one of the faiths of the people of Scripture was a
precondition to any peace treaty with the Arabs, whose Bulgar envoys had arrived in Kiev
after 985.[143]
A visitor to Atil wrote soon after the sacking of the city that its vineyards and garden had been
razed, that not a grape or raisin remained in the land, and not even alms for the poor were
available.[144] An attempt to rebuild may have been undertaken, since Ibn Hawqal and al-
Muqaddasi refer to it after that date, but by Al-Biruni's time (1048) it was in ruins.[145]
Aftermath: impact, decline and dispersion
Though Poliak argued that the Khazar kingdom did not wholly succumb to Sviatoslav's
campaign, but lingered on until 1224, when the Mongols invaded Rus',[146][147] by most
Jews in flight,[148] and leaving behind at best a minor rump state. It left little trace, except for
some placenames,[149] and much of its population was undoubtedly absorbed in successor
hordes.[150] Al-Muqaddasi, writing ca.985, mentions Khazar beyond the Caspian sea as a
district of 'woe and squalor', with honey, many sheep and Jews.[151] Kedrenos mentions a joint
Rus'-Byzantine attack on Khazaria in 1016, which defeated its ruler Georgius Tzul. The name
suggests Christian affiliations. The account concludes by saying, that after Tzul's defeat, the
Khazar ruler of "upper Media", Senaccherib, had to sue for peace and submission.[152] In 1024
Mstislav of Chernigov (one of Vladimir's sons) marched against his brother Yaroslav with an
army that included "Khazars and Kassogians" in a repulsed attempt to restore a kind of
'Khazarian'-type dominion over Kiev.[140] Ibn al-Athir's mention of a 'raid of Faḍlūn the Kurd
against the Khazars' in 1030 CE, in which 10,000 of his men were vanquished by the latter, has
been taken as a reference to such a Khazar remnant, but Barthold identified this Faḍlūn as Faḍl
ibn Muḥammad and the 'Khazars' as either Georgians or Abkhazians.[153][154] A Kievian
prince named Oleg, grandson of Jaroslav was reportedly kidnapped by "Khazars" in 1079 and
shipped off to Constantinople, although most scholars believe that this is a reference to the
Cumans-Kipchaks or other steppe peoples then dominant in the Pontic region. Upon his
conquest of Tmutarakan in the 1080s Oleg Sviatoslavich, son of a prince of Chernigov, gave
himself the title "Archon of Khazaria".[140] In 1083 Oleg is said to have exacted revenge on
the Khazars after his brother Roman was killed by their allies, the Polovtsi/Cumans. After one
more conflict with these Polovtsi in 1106, the Khazars fade from history.[152]
By the end of the 12th century, Petachiah of Ratisbon reported travelling through what he
called "Khazaria", and had little to remark on other than describing its minim (sectaries) living
amidst desolation in perpetual mourning.[155] The reference seems to be to Karaites.[156] The
Franciscan missionary William of Rubruck likewise found only impoverished pastures in the
lower Volga area where Ital once lay.[98] Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, the papal legate to the
court of the Mongol Khan Guyuk at that time, mentioned an otherwise unattested Jewish tribe,
the Brutakhi, perhaps in the Volga region. Though connections are made to the Khazars, the
link is based merely on a common attribution of Judaism.[157]
The Pontic steppes, c. 1015 (areas in blue possibly still under Khazar control).
The 10th century Zoroastrian Dênkart registered the collapse of Khazar power in attributing its
eclipse to the enfeebling effects of 'false' religion.[158] The decline was contemporary to that
suffered by the Transoxiana Sāmānid empire to the east, both events paving the way for the
of the Great Seljuq Empire, whose founding traditions mention Khazar connections.[159] 17/54
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Kimeks and Qipchaqs, thrusting
westwards, pressured the Oğuz, who in turn pushed the Pechenegs west towards Byzantium's
Balkan provinces.[161]
Khazaria nonetheless left its mark on the rising states and some of their traditions and
institutions. Much earlier, Tzitzak, the Khazar wife of Leo III introduced into the Byzantine
court the distinctive kaftan or riding habit of the nomadic Khazars, the tzitzakion (τζιτζάκιον),
and this was adopted as a solemn element of imperial dress.[162] The orderly hierarchical
system of succession by 'scales' (lestvichnaia sistema:лествичная система) to the Grand
Principate of Kiev was arguably modelled on Khazar institutions, via the example of the Rus'
Khaganate.[163]
The proto-Hungarian Pontic tribe, while perhaps threatening Khazaria as early as 839 (Sarkel),
practiced their institutional model, such as the dual rule of a ceremonial kende-kündü and a
gyula administering practical and military administration, as tributaries of the Khazars. A
dissident group of Khazars, the Qabars, joined the Hungarians in their migration westwards as
they moved into Pannonia. Elements within the Hungarian population can be viewed as
perpetuating Khazar traditions as a successor state. Byzantine sources refer to Hungary as
Western Tourkia in contrast to Khazaria, Eastern Tourkia. The gyula line produced the kings of
medieval Hungary through descent from Árpád, while the Qabars retained their traditions
longer, and were known as "black Hungarians" (fekete magyarság). Some archaeological
evidence from Čelarevo suggests the Qabars practised Judaism[164][165][166] since warrior
graves with Jewish symbols were found there, including menorahs, shofars, etrogs, lulavs,
candlesnuffers, ash collectors, inscriptions in Hebrew, and a six-pointed star identical to the
Star of David.[167][168]
Seal discovered in excavations at Khazar sites. However, rather than having been made by
Jews, these appear to be shamanistic sun discs.[169]
The Khazar state was not the only Jewish state to rise between the fall of the Second Temple
(67–70 CE) and the establishment of Israel (1948). A second state in Yemen also adopted
Judaism in the 4th century, lasting until the rise of Islam.[170]
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Khazar kingdom is said to have stimulated messianic aspirations for a return to Israel as 18/54
[171]
one Solomon ben Duji, often identified as a Khazarian Jew,[172] attempted to advocate for a
messianic effort for the liberation of, and return of all Jews to, Palestine. He wrote to many
Jewish communities to enlist support. He eventually moved to Kurdistan where his son
Menachem some decades later assumed the title of Messiah and, raising an army for this
purpose, took the fortress of Amadiya north of Mosul. His project was opposed by the
rabbinical authorities and he was poisoned in his sleep. One theory maintains that the Star of
David, until then a decorative motif or magical emblem, began to assume its national value in
late Jewish tradition from its earlier symbolic use by Menachem.[173]
The word Khazar, as an ethnonym, was last used in the 13th century by a people in the North
Caucasus believed to practice Judaism.[174] The nature of a hypothetical Khazar diaspora,
Jewish or otherwise, is disputed. Avraham ibn Daud mentions encountering rabbinical students
descended from Khazars as far away as Toledo, Spain in the 1160s.[175] Khazar communities
persisted here and there. Many Khazar mercenaries served in the armies of the Islamic
Caliphates and other states. Documents from medieval Constantinople attest to a Khazar
community mingled with the Jews of the suburb of Pera.[176] Khazar merchants were active in
both Constantinople and Alexandria in the 12th. century.[177]
Religion
Tengrism
Main article: Tengrism
Direct sources for Khazar religion are not many, but in all likelihood they originally engaged
in a traditional Turkic form of cultic practices known as Tengrism, which focused on the sky
god Tengri. Something of its nature may be deduced from what we know of the rites and
beliefs of contiguous tribes, such as the North Caucasian Huns. Horse sacrifices were made to
this supreme deity. Rites involved offerings to fire, water, and the moon, to remarkable
creatures, and to "gods of the road" (cf. Old Türk yol tengri, perhaps a god of fortune). Sun
amulets were widespread as cultic ornaments. A tree cult was also maintained. Whatever was
struck by lightning, man or object, was considered a sacrifice to the high god of heaven. The
afterlife, to judge from excavations of aristocratic tumuli, was much a continuation of life on
earth, warriors being interred with their weapons, horses, and sometimes with human
sacrifices: the funeral of one tudrun in 711-12 saw 300 soldiers killed to accompany him to the
otherworld. Ancestor worship was observed. The key religious figure appears to have been a
shamanising qam,[178] and it was these (qozmím) that were, according to the Khazar Hebrew
conversion stories, driven out.
Many sources suggest, and a notable number of scholars have argued, that the charismatic
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protective providence.[179] The qağan was deemed to rule by virtue of qut, "the heavenly
mandate/good fortune to rule."[180]
Christianity
Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the Byzantine empire and both the nomads of
the northern steppes and the Umayyad empire, after serving as Byzantium's proxy against the
Sasanian Persian empire. The alliance was dropped around 900. Byzantium began to
encourage the Alans to attack Khazaria and weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus,
while seeking to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to
convert to Christianity.[19]
On Khazaria's southern flank, both Islam and Byzantine Christianity were proselytising great
powers. Byzantine success in the north was sporadic, though Armenian and Albanian missions
from Derbend built churches extensively in maritime Daghestan, then a Khazar district,[181]
Buddhism also had exercised an attraction on leaders of both the Eastern (552–742) and
Western Qağanates (552–659), the latter being the progenitor of the Khazar state.[182] In 682,
according to the Armenian chronicle of Movsês Dasxuranc'i, the king of Caucasian Albania,
Varaz Trdat, dispatched a bishop Israyêl to convert Caucasian "Huns" who were subject to the
Khazars, and managed to bring Alp Ilut'uêr, a son-in-law of the Khazar qağan, and his army, to
abandon their shamanising cults and join the Christian fold.[183][184]
The Arab Georgian martyr St Abo, who converted to Christianity within the Khazar kingdom
around 779-80, describes local Khazars as irreligious.[185] Some reports register a Christian
majority at Samandar,[186] or Muslim majorities[187]
Judaism
The Khazar so-called "Moses coin" found in the Spillings Hoard and dated c. 800. It is
inscribed with "Moses is the messenger of God" instead of the usual Muslim text "Muhammad
is the messenger of God".
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sources and in the Khazar
Correspondence, though doubts persist.[188] Hebrew documents, whose authenticity was long
doubted and challenged,[189] are now widely accepted by specialists as either authentic or as
reflecting internal Khazar traditions.[190][191][192][193] Archaeological evidence for
conversion, on the other hand, remains elusive,[194] and may reflect either the incompleteness
of excavations, or that the stratum of actual adherents was thin.[195] Conversion of steppe or
peripheral tribes to a universal religion is a fairly well attested phenomenon,[196] and the
Khazar conversion to Judaism, though unusual, would not have been unique.[197] Other
scholars have concluded that the conversion of the Khazar elite to Judaism never happened. A
few scholars, Moshe Gil, recently seconded by Shaul Stampfer, dismiss the conversion as a
myth.[198][199]
Jews from both the Islamic world and Byzantium are known to have migrated to Khazaria
during periods of persecution under Heraclius, Justinian II, Leo III, and Romanus Lakapēnos.
[200][201] For Simon Schama, Jewish communities from the Balkans and the Bosphoran
Crimea, especially from Panticapaeum, began migrating to the more hospitable climate of
pagan Khazaria in the wake of these persecutions, and were joined there by Jews from
Armenia. The Geniza fragments, he argues, make it clear the Judaising reforms sent roots
down into the whole of the population.[202] The pattern is one of an elite conversion preceding
large-scale adoption of the new religion by the general population, which often resisted the
imposition.[182] One important condition for mass conversion was a settled urban state, where
churches, synagogues or mosques provided a focus for religion, as opposed to the free
nomadic lifestyle of life on the open steppes.[203] A tradition of the Iranian Judeo-Tats claims
that their ancestors were responsible for the Khazar conversion.[204] A legend traceable to the
16th-century Italian rabbi Judah Moscato attributed it to Yitzhak ha-Sangari.[205][206][207]
Both the date of the conversion, and the extent of its influence beyond the elite,[208] often
minimised in some scholarship,[209] are a matter of dispute,[210] but at some point between
740 and 920 CE, the Khazar royalty and nobility appear to have converted to Judaism, in part,
it is argued, perhaps to deflect competing pressures from Arabs and Byzantines to accept either
Islam or Orthodoxy.[211][212]
History of discussions of Khazar Jewishness
The earliest surviving Arabic text that refers to Khazar Jewishness appears to be that of ibn
Rustah, a Persian scholar who wrote an encyclopedic work on geography in the early tenth
century.[213] It is believed that ibn Rustah derived much of his information from the works of
his contemporary Abu al Jayhani based in Central Asia.
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OKHQURÜM, "I read (this or it)".
Christian of Stavelot in his Expositio in Matthaeum Evangelistam (ca. 860–870s) refers to

Gazari, presumably Khazars, as living in the lands of Gog and Magog, who were circumcised
and omnem Judaismum observat—observing all the laws of Judaism.[214] New numismatic
evidence of coins dated 837/8 bearing the inscriptions arḍ al-ḫazar (Land of the Khazars), or
Mûsâ rasûl Allâh (Moses is the messenger of God, in imitation of the Islamic coin phrase:
Muḥammad rasûl Allâh) suggest to many the conversion took place in that decade.[215] Olsson
argues that the 837/8 evidence marks only the beginning of a long and difficult official
Judaization that concluded some decades later.[216] A 9th-century Jewish traveller, Eldad ha-
Dani, is said to have informed Spanish Jews in 883 that there was a Jewish polity in the East,
and that fragments of the legendary Ten Lost Tribes, part of the line of Simeon and half-line of
Manasseh, dwelt in “the land of the Khazars”, receiving tribute from some 25 to 28 kingdoms.
[217][218][219] Another view holds that by the 10th century, while the royal clan officially
claimed Judaism, a non-normative variety of Islamisation took place among the majority of
Khazars.[220]
By the 10th century, the letter of King Joseph asserts that, after the royal conversion, "Israel
returned (yashuvu yisra'el) with the people of Qazaria (to Judaism) in complete repentance (bi-
teshuvah shelemah).[221] Persian historian Ibn al-Faqîh wrote that 'all the Khazars are Jews,
but they have been Judaized recently'. Ibn Fadlân, based on his Caliphal mission (921–922) to
the Volga Bulğars, also reported that 'the core element of the state, the Khazars, were
Judaized',[222] something underwritten by the Qaraite scholar Ya'kub Qirqisânî around 937.
[223] The conversion appears to have occurred against a background of frictions arising from
both an intensification of Byzantine missionary activity from the Crimea to the Caucasus, and
Arab attempts to wrest control over the latter in the 8th century CE,[224] and a revolt, put
down, by the Khavars around the mid-9th century is often invoked as in part influenced by
their refusal to accept Judaism.[225] Modern scholars generally[226] see the conversion as a
slow process through three stages, which accords with Richard Eaton's model of syncretic
inclusion, gradual identification and, finally, displacement of the older tradition.[227][228]
Some time between 954 and 961, Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ, from al-Andalus (Muslim Spain), wrote
a letter of inquiry addressed to the ruler of Khazaria, and received a reply from Joseph of
Khazaria. The exchanges of this Khazar Correspondence, together with the Schechter Letter
discovered in the Cairo Geniza and the famous platonizing dialogue[229] by Judah Halevi,
Sefer ha-Kuzari ('Book (of) The Khazari'), which plausibly drew on such sources,[230][231]
provide us with the only direct evidence of the indigenous traditions[232] concerning the
conversion. King Bulan[233] is said to have driven out the sorcerers,[234] and to have received
angelic visitations exhorting him to find the true religion, upon which, accompanied by his
vizier, he travelled to desert mountains of Warsān on a seashore, where he came across a cave
rising from the plain of Tiyul in which Jews used to celebrate the Sabbath. Here he was
[235]
three Abrahamic religions. He decided to convert Khazars
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he was convinced of Judaism's
superiority. Many scholars situate this c. 740 CE, a date supported by Halevi's own account.
[236][237] The details are both Judaic [238] and Türkic: a Türkic ethnogonic myth speaks of an
ancestral cave in which the Āshǐnà were conceived from the mating of their human ancestor
and a wolf ancestress.[239][240][241] These accounts suggest that there was a rationalising
syncretism of native pagan traditions with Jewish law, by melding through the motif of the
cave, a site of ancestral ritual and repository of forgotten sacred texts, Türkic myths of origin
and Jewish notions of redemption of Israel's fallen people.[242] It is generally agreed they
adopted Rabbinical rather than Qaraite Judaism.[243]
Ibn Fadlan reports that the settlement of disputes in Khazaria was adjudicated by judges
hailing each from his community, be it Christian, Jewish, Muslim, or Pagan.[244] Some
evidence suggests that the Khazar king saw himself as a defender of Jews even beyond the
kingdom's frontiers, retaliating against Muslim or Christian interests in Khazaria in the wake
of Islamic and Byzantine persecutions of Jews abroad.[245][246] Ibn Fadlan recounts
specifically an incident in which the king of Khazaria destroyed the minaret of a mosque in
Atil as revenge for the destruction of a synagogue in Dâr al-Bâbûnaj, and allegedly said he
would have done worse were it not for a fear that the Muslims might retaliate in turn against
Jews.[243][247] Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ sought information on Khazaria in the hope he might
discover 'a place on this earth where harassed Israel can rule itself' and wrote that, were it to
prove true that Khazaria had such a king, he would not hesitate to forsake his high office and
his family in order to emigrate there.[248]
Abraham Harkavy[249][250] noted in 1877 that an Arabic commentary on Isaiah 48:14,[251]

ascribed to Saadia Gaon or to the Karaite scholar Benjamin Nahâwandî, interpreted "The Lord
hath loved him" as a reference "to the Khazars, who will go and destroy Babel" (i.e.,
Babylonia), a name used to designate the country of the Arabs. This has been taken as an
indication of hopes by Jews that the Khazars might succeed in destroying the Caliphate.[205]
Islam
In 965, as the Qağanate was struggling against the victorious campaign of the Rus' prince
Sviatoslav, the Islamic historian Ibn al-Athîr mentions that Khazaria, attacked by the Oğuz,
sought help from Khwarezm, but their appeal was rejected because they were regarded as
'infidels' (al-kuffâr:pagans). Save for the king, the Khazarians are said to have converted to
Islam in order to secure an alliance, and the Turks were, with Khwarezm's military assistance
repelled. It was this that, according to Ibn al-Athîr, led the Jewish king of Khazar to convert to
Islam.[143]
Claims of Khazar ancestry

Claims of Khazar origins for peoples, or suggestions that Khazars were absorbed by them,
Kazakhs,
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Avars, the Cossacks of the Don region, the Turkic-speaking Krymchaks and their
Khazars - Wikiwand
Crimean neighbours the Karaites to the Moldavian Csángós, the Hungarians, the Mountain
Jews and others.[252][23][253][25] Turkic-speaking Crimean Karaites (known in the Crimean
Tatar language as Qaraylar), some of whom migrated in 19th century from Crimea to Poland
and Lithuania have claimed Khazar origins. Specialists in Khazar history question the
connection.[254][255][256] Scholarship is likewise sceptical of claims that the Tatar-speaking
Krymchak Jews of the Crimea descend from Khazars.[257]
Ashkenazi-Khazar theories
Main article: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
Several scholars have suggested that the Khazars did not disappear after the dissolution of their
Empire, but migrated west to eventually form part of the core of the later Ashkenazi Jewish
population of Europe. This hypothesis is greeted with scepticism or caution by most scholars.
[258][259][260] The German Orientalist Karl Neumann, in the context of an earlier controversy
about possible connections between Khazars and the ancestors of the Slavic peoples, suggested
as early as 1847 emigrant Khazars might have influenced the core population of Eastern
European Jews.[261]
The theory was then taken up by Abraham Eliyahu Harkavi in 1869, when he also claimed a
possible link between the Khazars and Ashkenazi,[262] but the theory that Khazar converts
formed a major proportion of Ashkenazi was first proposed to a Western public in a lecture by
Ernest Renan in 1883.[263][264] Occasional suggestions emerged that there was a small Khazar
component in East European Jews in works by Joseph Jacobs (1886), Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu,
a critic of anti-Semitism, (1893)[265] Maksymilian Ernest Gumplowicz,[266] and by the
Russian-Jewish anthropologist Samuel Weissenberg.[267] In 1909 Hugo von Kutschera
developed the notion into a book-length study,[268] arguing Khazars formed the foundational
core of the modern Ashkenazi.[269] Maurice Fishberg introduced the notion to American
audiences in 1911.[270] The idea was also taken up by the Polish-Jewish economic historian
and General Zionist Yitzhak Schipper in 1918.[271][272] Scholarly anthropologists, such as
Roland B. Dixon (1923), and writers like H. G. Wells (1921) used it to argue that "The main
part of Jewry never was in Judea",[273][274] a thesis that was to have a political echo in later
opinion.[275][276] In 1932, Samuel Krauss ventured the theory that the biblical Ashkenaz
referred to northern Asia Minor, and identified it with the Khazars, a position immediately
disputed by Jacob Mann.[277] Ten years later, in 1942, Abraham N. Polak (sometimes referred
to as Poliak), later professor for the history of the Middle Ages at Tel Aviv University,
published a Hebrew monograph in which he concluded that the East European Jews came from
Khazaria. [278][279][280] D.M. Dunlop, writing in 1954, thought very little evidence backed
what he regarded as a mere assumption, and argued that the Ashkenazi-Khazar descent theory
went far beyond what "our imperfect records" permit.[281] Léon Poliakov, while assuming the
Jews of Western Europe resulted from a "panmixia" in the Ist millennium, asserted in 1955
that it was widely assumed that Europe's Eastern Jews descended from a mixture of Khazarian
and German Jews.[282] Poliak's work found some support in Salo Wittmayer Baron and Ben-
Zion Dinur,[283][284] but was dismissed by Bernard Weinryb as a fiction (1962).[285] Bernard
Lewis is of the opinion that the word in Cairo Geniza interpreted as Khazaria is actually
Hakkari and therefore it relates to the Kurds of the Hakkari mountains in southeast Turkey.
[286]
The Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the
publication of Arthur Koestler's The Thirteenth Tribe in 1976.[287] which was both positively
reviewed and dismissed as a fantasy, and a somewhat dangerous one. Israel's ambassador to
Britain branded it "an anti-Semitic action financed by the Palestinians", while Bernard Lewis
claimed that the idea was not supported by any evidence whatsoever, and had been abandoned
by all serious scholars.[287][288] Raphael Patai, however, registered some support for the idea
that Khazar remnants had played a role in the growth of Eastern European Jewish
communities,[289] and several amateur researchers, such as Boris Altschüler (1994),[255] kept
the thesis in the public eye. The theory has been occasionally manipulated to deny Jewish
nationhood.[287][290] Recently, a variety of approaches, from linguistics (Paul Wexler)[291] to
historiography (Shlomo Sand)[292] and population genetics (Eran Elhaik, a geneticist from the
University of Sheffield)[293] have emerged to keep the theory alive.[294] In broad academic
perspective, both the idea that the Khazars converted en masse to Judaism, and the suggestion
they emigrated to form the core population of Ashkenazi Jewry, remain highly polemical
issues.[295]
One thesis, held that the Khazar Jewish population went into a northern diaspora and had a
significant impact on the rise of Ashkenazi Jews. Connected to this thesis is the theory,
expounded by Paul Wexler, that the grammar of Yiddish contains a Khazar substrate.[296] In
2018, Kevin Alan Brook cited genetic data to argue against the claim that Ashkenazim have
any amount of Khazarian ancestry.[297]
Use in anti-Semitic polemics
According to Michael Barkun, the Khazar hypothesis never played any major role in anti-
Semitism,[298] though he writes that histories of the latter rather oddly overlook the influence
it has exercised on American antisemites since the restrictions on immigration in the 1920s.
[299][300] Maurice Fishberg and Roland B Dixon's works were later exploited in racist and
religious polemical literature in both Britain, in British Israelism, and the United States.[301]
Particularly after the publication of Burton J. Hendrick's The Jews in America (1923)[302] it
began to enjoy a vogue among advocates of immigration restriction in the 1920s; racial
theorists [303] like Lothrop Stoddard; anti-Semitic conspiracy-theorists like the Ku Klux Klan's
[304]
Robertson, whose views influenced David Duke.[305] According to Yehoshafat Harkabi (1968)
and others,[306] it played a role in Arab anti-Zionist polemics, and took on an anti-semitic
edge. Bernard Lewis, noting in 1987 that Arab scholars had dropped it, remarked that it only
occasionally emerged in Arab political discourse.[307] It has also played some role in Soviet
anti-Semitic chauvinism[308] and Slavic Eurasian historiography, particularly in the works of
scholars like Lev Gumilev.[309] it came to be exploited by the White supremacist Christian
movement [310] and even by terrorist esoteric cults like Aum Shinrikyō.[311]
Genetic studies
See also: Ashkenazi Jews § Genetic origins, Genetic studies on Jews, and Khazar theory of
Ashkenazi ancestry § Genetics
The hypothesis of Khazarian ancestry in Ashkenazi has also been a subject of discussion in the
field of population genetics, wherein claims have been made concerning evidence both for and
against it. Eran Elhaik argued in 2012 for a significant Khazar component in the paternal line
based on the study of Y-DNA of Ashkenazi Jews using Caucasian populations, Georgians,
Armenians and Azerbaijani Jews, as proxies.[312] The evidence from historians he used has
been criticised by Shaul Stampfer[313] and the technical response to such a position is
dismissive, arguing that, if traces of descent from Khazars exist in the Ashkenazi gene pool,
the contribution would be quite minor,[314][315][316][317][318] or insignificant.[319][320]
According to Nadia Abu El-Haj, the issues of origins are generally complicated by the
difficulties of writing history via genome studies and the biases of emotional investments in
different narratives, depending on whether the emphasis lies on direct descent or on conversion
within Jewish history. The lack of Khazar DNA samples that might allow verification also
presents difficulties.[321]
Crimean Karaite claims
Main article: Crimean Karaites
In 1839, Abraham Firkovich was appointed by the Russian government as a researcher into the
origins of the Jewish sect known as the Karaites.[322] In 1846, one of his acquaintances the
Russian orientalist Vasilii Vasil'evich Grigor'ev (1816–1881) theorised that the Crimean
Karaites were of Khazar stock. Firkovich vehemently rejected the idea.[323] The allegation,
though unfamiliar to the Karaites themselves at the time, was quickly taken up by outsiders.
Firkovich
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successfully petitioned the Russian government to exempt the Karaites from anti-
Khazars - Wikiwand
Jewish laws on the grounds that Karaites had immigrated to Europe before the crucifixion of
Jesus and thus could not be held responsible for his death. He travelled widely and amassed a
large collection of Judaic artefacts, visiting Egypt and Palestine, as well as the Caucasus and
Crimea.[324] The authenticity of his collection has been widely challenged among historians,
and today Firkovich is widely regarded as a forger who falsified older documents and changed
the dates on tombstones, and also exaggerated the size and importance of the kingdom.[324]
Many Karaim deny Israelite origins and consider themselves to be descendants of the Khazars,
[325] while specialists in Khazar history also question the connection.[255][326]
Brook's genetic study of European Karaites found no evidence of a Khazar or Turkic origin for
any uniparental lineage but did reveal the European Karaites' links to Egyptian Karaites and to
Rabbinical Jewish communities.[327][328]
In literature
The Kuzari is an influential work written by the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet
Rabbi Yehuda Halevi (c. 1075–1141). Divided into five essays (ma'amarim), it takes the form
of a fictional dialogue between the pagan king of the Khazars and a Jew who was invited to
instruct him in the tenets of the Jewish religion. The intent of the work, although based on
Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ's correspondence with the Khazar king, was not historical, but rather to
defend Judaism as a revealed religion, written in the context, firstly of Karaite challenges to
the Spanish rabbinical intelligentsia, and then against temptations to adapt Aristotelianism and
Islamic philosophy to the Jewish faith.[329] Originally written in Arabic, it was translated into
Hebrew by Judah ibn Tibbon.[229]
Benjamin Disraeli's early novel Alroy (1833) draws on Menachem ben Solomon's story.[330]
The question of mass religious conversion and the indeterminability of the truth of stories
about identity and conversion are central themes of Milorad Pavić's best-selling mystery story
Dictionary of the Khazars.[331]
H.N. Turteltaub's Justinian, Marek Halter's Book of Abraham and Wind of the Khazars, and
Michael Chabon's Gentlemen of the Road allude to or feature elements of Khazar history or
create fictional Khazar characters.[332]
Cities associated with the Khazars

Atil, Khazaran, Samandar; in the Caucasus, Balanjar, Kazarki, Sambalut, and Samiran; in
Crimea and the Taman region, Kerch, Theodosia, Yevpatoria (Güzliev), Samkarsh (also called
Tmutarakan, Tamatarkha), and Sudak; and in the Don valley, Sarkel. A number of Khazar
settlements have been discovered in the Mayaki-Saltovo region. Some scholars suppose that 27/54
[333]
See also
List of Turkic dynasties and countries

Gog and Magog
History of Kiev
Kuzari
List of Khazar rulers
Rus' Khaganate
Rus'–Byzantine War (860)
Rus'–Byzantine War (968-971)
Turkic peoples
Turkish Jews
Yarmaq
Notes
1. ^ Wexler 1996, p. 50
2. ^ Brook, pp. 107
3. ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West
Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-systems Research. 12 (2): 222.
ISSN 1076-156X. Retrieved 16 September 2016.
4. ^ Rein Taagepera (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large
Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 496.
doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793.
5. ^ Herlihy 1972, pp. 136–148;Russell1972, pp. 25–71. This figure has been calculated on
the basis of the data in both Herlihy and Russell's work.
6. ^ Marshall Cavendish Corporation (2006). Peoples of Western Asia. p. 364.
7. ^ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2007). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. p. 280.
8. ^ Borrero, Mauricio (2009). Russia: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the
Present. p. 162.
9. ^ Luttwak 2009, p. 152
10. ^ Meserve 2009, p. 294, n.164.
11. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 139.'The Gazari are, presumably, the Khazars, though this term or the
Kozary of the perhaps near contemporary Vita Constantini . . could have reflected any of
a number of peoples within Khazaria.'
12. ^ Golden 2001a, p. 33.'Somewhat later, however, in a letter to the Byzantine Emperor
Basil I, dated to 871, Louis the German, clearly taking exception to what had apparently
become Byzantine usage, declares that 'we have not found that the leader of the Avars, or
Khazars (Gasanorum),'
13. ^ Petrukhin 2007, p. 255
14.https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Khazars
^ "Khazar | people". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 July 2018. 28/54
15. ^ Sneath 2007, p. 25.
16.5/15/2019
^ Noonan 1999, p. 493. Khazars - Wikiwand
17. ^ Golden 2011, p. 65.

18. ^ Noonan 1999, p. 498
19. ^ a b Noonan 1999, pp. 499,502–3.
20. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 131
21. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 28
22. ^ 2007aGolden 2007a, p. 149
23. ^ a b Kizilov 2009, p. 335
24. ^ Patai & Patai 1987, p. 73.
25. ^ a b Wexler 1987, p. 70.
26. ^ Wexler 2002, p. 536: 'Most scholars are sceptical about the hypothesis (that has its roots
in the late 19th century) that Khazars became a major component in the ethnogenesis of
the Ashkenazic Jews'.
27. ^ Rubin 2013.
28. ^ Davies 1992, p. 242.
29. ^ Vogt 1975.
30. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 15
31. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 16 and n.38 citing L. Bazin, 'Pour une nouvelle hypothèse sur
l'origine des Khazar,' in Materialia Turcica, 7/8 (1981–1982): 51–71.
32. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 16. Compare Tibetan dru-gu Gesar (the Turk Gesar).
33. ^ Dunlop 1954, pp. 34–40
34. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 16
35. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 17. Kěsà (可薩) would have been pronounced something like kha'sat
in both Early Middle Chinese/EMC and Late Middle Chinese/LMC while Hésà (曷薩)
would yield γat-sat in (EMC) and xɦat sat (LMC) respectively, where final 't' often
transcribes –r- in foreign words. Thus, while these Chinese forms could transcribe a
foreign word of the type *Kasar/*Kazar, *Gatsar, *Gazr, *Gasar, there is a problem
phonetically with assimilating these to the Uyğur word Qasar/ Gesa (EMC/LMC Kat-sat=
Kar sar= *Kasar).
36. ^ Shirota 2005, pp. 235,248.
37. ^ Brook 2010, p. 5
38. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 148: Ibn al-Nadīm commenting on script systems in 987-8 recorded
that the Khazars wrote in Hebrew.
39. ^ Erdal 2007, pp. 98–99: "The chancellery of the Jewish state of the Khazars is therefore
also likely to have used Hebrew writing even if the official language was a Turkic one."
40. ^ Erdal 2007, p. 75, n.2.'there must have been many different ethnic groups within the
Khazar realm ... These groups spoke different languages, some of them no doubt
belonging to the Indo-European or different Caucasian language families.'. The high
chancery official of the Abbasid Caliphate under Al-Wathiq, Sallām the interpreter
(Sallam al-tardjuman), famous for his reputed mastery of thirty languages, might have
been both Jewish and a Khazar.Wasserstein 2007, p. 376, and n.2 referring to.Dunlop
1954, pp. 190–193.
41. ^ Golden 2006, p. 91.'Oğuric Turkic, spoken by many of the subject tribes, doubtless,
was one of the linguae francae of the state. Alano-As was also widely spoken. Eastern 29/54
remained the language of the ruling elite in the
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same way that Mongol continued to be
Khazars - Wikiwand
used by the rulers of the Golden Horde, alongside of the Qipčaq Turkic speech spoken by
the bulk of the Turkic tribesmen that constituted the military force of this part of the
Činggisid empire. Similarity, Oğuric, like Qipčaq Turkic in the Jočid realm, functioned as
one of the languages of government.'
42. ^ Golden 2007a, pp. 13–14, 14 n.28. al-Iṣṭakhrī 's account however then contradicts itself
by likening the language to Bulğaric.
43. ^ Golden 2001b, p. 78.'The word tribe is as troublesome as the term clan. It is commonly
held to denote a group, like the clan, claiming descent from a common (in some culture
zones eponymous) ancestor, possessing a common territory, economy, language, culture,
religion, and sense of identity. In reality, tribes were often highly fluid sociopolitical
structures, arising as "ad hoc responses to ephemeral situations of competition," as
Morton H. Fried has noted.'
44. ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 220–223
45. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 14
46. ^ Szádeczky-Kardoss 1994, p. 206
47. ^ Golden 2007a, pp. 40–41;Brook 2010, p. 4 note that Dieter Ludwig, in his doctoral
thesis Struktur und Gesellschaft des Chazaren-Reiches im Licht der schriftlichen Quellen,
(Münster,1982) suggested that the Khazars were Turkic members of the Hephthalite
Empire, where the lingua franca was a variety of Iranian.
48. ^ Golden 2006, p. 86
49. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 53,
50. ^ Zuckerman 2007, p. 404.Cf.'The reader should be warned that the A-shih-na link of the
Khazar dynasty, an old phantom of . . Khazarology, will . .lose its last claim to reality'.
51. ^ a b Golden 2006, p. 89.
52. ^ Golden 2006, pp. 89–90. In this view, the name Khazar would derive from a
hypothetical *Aq Qasar.
53. ^ a b Kaegi 2003, p. 143 n.115, citing also Golden 1992, pp. 127–136,234–237.
54. ^ Whittow 1996, p. 221. The word Türk, Whittow adds, had no strict ethnic meaning at
the time: 'Throughout the early middle ages on the Eurasian steppes, the term 'Turk' may
or may not imply membership of the ethnic group of Turkic peoples, but it does always
mean at least some awareness and acceptance of the traditions and ideology of the Gök
Türk empire, and a share, however distant, in the political and cultural inheritance of that
state.'
55. ^ Kaegi 2003, pp. 154–186.
56. ^ Whittow 1996, p. 222.
57. ^ Golden 2010, pp. 54–55 The Duōlù (咄陆) were the left wing of the On Oq, the
Nǔshībì (弩失畢: *Nu Šad(a)pit), and together they were registered in Chinese sources as
the 'ten names' (shí míng:十名).
58. ^ Golden 2001b, pp. 94–5.
59. ^ Somogyi 2008, p. 128.
60. ^ Zuckerman 2007, p. 417
61. ^ Golden 2006, p. 90.
^ Golden 2007a, pp. 11–13. 30/54
64.5/15/2019
^ Golden 2007a, pp. 7–8 Khazars - Wikiwand
65. ^ Golden 2001b, p. 73

66. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 155–156. Several scholars connect it to Judaization, with
Artamonov linking its introduction to Obadiyah's reforms and the imposition of full
Rabbinical Judaism and Pritsak to the same period (799–833), arguing that the Beg, a
majordomo from the Iranian *Barč/Warâ</Bolčan clan, identified with Obadiyah,
compelled the Qağanal clan to convert, an event which putatively caused the Qabar
revolt. Golden comments: "There is nothing but conjecture to connect it with the reforms
of Obadiyah, the further evolution of Khazar Judaism or the Qabars ... The fact is we do
not know when, precisely, the Khazar system of dual kingship emerged. It could not have
come ex nihilo. It was not present in the early stages of Khazar history. Given the Old
Türk traditions of the Khazar state ... and the overall institutional conservation of steppe
society, one must exercise great caution here. Clear evidence for it is relatively late (the
latter part of the ninth century perhaps and more probably the tenth century)- although it
was probably present by the first third of the ninth century. Iranian influences via the Ors
guard of the Qağans may have also been a factor"
67. ^ Noonan 1999, p. 500
68. ^ Olsson 2013, p. 496.
69. ^ Dunlop 1954, pp. 97,112. There was a maximum limit on the number of years of a
king's reign, according to Ibn Fadlan; if a Qağan had reigned for at least forty years, his
courtiers and subjects felt his ability to reason would become impaired by old age. They
would then kill the Qağan.
70. ^ a b c Noonan 2001, p. 77.
71. ^ Golden 2006.
72. ^ Petrukhin 2007, pp. 256–257 notes that Ibn Fadlan's description of a Rus' prince (malik)
and his lieutenant (khalifa) mirrored the Khazarian diarchy, but the comparison was
flawed, as there was no sacral kingship among the Rus'.
73. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 133–4.
74. ^ Shingiray 2012, pp. 212
75. ^ de Weese 1994, p. 181
76. ^ Golden, 2006 & pp. 79–81.
77. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 130–131: "the rest of the Khazars profess a religion similar to that of
the Turks."
78. ^ Golden 2006, p. 88
79. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 138. This regiment was exempt from campaigning against fellow
Muslims, evidence that non-Judaic beliefs was no obstacle to access to the highest levels
of government. They had abandoned their homeland and sought service with the Khazars
in exchange for the right to exercise their religious freedom, according to al-Masudi.
80. ^ Olsson 2013, p. 507 writes that there is no evidence for this Islamic guard for the 9th
century, but that its existence is attested for 913.
81. ^ Golden 2006, pp. 79–80,88.
82. ^ Olsson 2013, p. 495.
83. ^ Noonan 2007, p. 211,217 gives the lower figure for the Muslim contingents, but adds
that the army could draw on other mercenaries stationed in the capital, Rūs, Ṣaqāliba and31/54
pagans. Olsson's 10,000 refers to the spring-summer
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horsemen in the nomadic king's
Khazars - Wikiwand
retinue.
84. ^ Koestler 1977, p. 18
85. ^ Dunlop 1954, p. 113
86. ^ Dunlop 1954, p. 96
87. ^ Brook 2010, pp. 3–4
88. ^ Patai & Patai 1989, p. 70.
89. ^ Brook 2010, p. 3
90. ^ Golden 2006, pp. 86 n.39,89The ethnonym in the Tang Chinese annals, Āshǐnà (阿史
那), often accorded a key role in the Khazar leadership, may reflect an Eastern Iranian or
Tokharian word (Khotanese Saka âşşeina-āššsena 'blue'): Middle Persian axšaêna ('dark-
coloured'): Tokharian A âśna ('blue', 'dark').
91. ^ Luttwak 2009, p. 152.
92. ^ Oppenheim 1994, p. 312.
93. ^ Brook 2010, pp. 3–4.
94. ^ Barthold 1993, p. 936.
95. ^ Zhivkov 2015, p. 173.
96. ^ Golden 2011, p. 64.
97. ^ Noonan 2007, pp. 208–209, 216–219. A third division may have contained the
dwellings of the tsarina. The dimensions of the western part were 3x3, as opposed to the
eastern part's 8 x 8 farsakhs.
98. ^ a b Noonan 2007, p. 214.
99. ^ Noonan 2007, pp. 211–214. Outside Muslim traders were under the jurisdiction of a
special royal official (ghulām).
100. ^ Luttwak 2009, p. 52
101. ^ Róna-Tas 1999, p. 282: Theophanes the Confessor around 813 defined them as Eastern
Turks. The designation is complex and Róna-Tas writes: 'The Georgian Chronicle refers
to the Khazars in 626–628 as the 'West Turks' who were then opposed to the East Turks of
Central Asia. Shortly after 679 the Armenian Geography mentions the Turks together
with the Khazars; this may be the first record of the Magyars. Around 813, Theophanes
uses – alongside the generic name Turk – 'East Turk' for the designation of the Khazars,
and in context, the 'West Turks' may actually have meant the Magyars. We know that
Nicholas Misticus referred to the Magyars as 'West Turks' in 924/925. In the 9th century
the name Turk was mainly used to designate the Khazars.'
102. ^ Many sources identify the Göktürks in this alliance as Khazars, for example, Beckwith
writes recently: 'The alliance sealed by Heraclius with the Khazars in 627 was of seminal
importance to the Byzantine Empire through the Early Middle Ages, and helped assure its
long-term survival.'Beckwith 2011, pp. =120,122. Early sources such as the almost
contemporary Armenian history, Patmutʿiwn Ałuanicʿ Ašxarhi, attributed to Movsēs
Dasxurancʿ, and the Chronicle attributed to Theophanes identify these Turks as Khazars
(Theophanes has: 'Turks, who are called Khazars'). Both Zuckerman and Golden reject
the identification. Zuckerman 2007, pp. 403–404.
103. ^ Kaegi 2003, pp. 143–145.
^ Róna-Tas 1999, p. 230. 32/54
105. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 145.
106.5/15/2019
^ Zuckerman 2007, p. 417. Scholars dismissKhazars
Chinese annals which, reporting the events
- Wikiwand
from Turkic sources, attribute the destruction of Persia and its leader Shah Khusrau II
personally to Tong Yabghu. Zuckerman argues instead that the account is correct in its
essentials.
107. ^ Bauer 2010, p. 341.
108. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, pp. 124–126.
109. ^ Cameron 1984, p. 212.
110. ^ Bauer 2010, pp. 341–342.
111. ^ Luttwak 2009, pp. 137–8
112. ^ Piltz 2004, p. 42.
113. ^ Noonan 2007, p. 220.
114. ^ Beckworth 2009, p. 392, n.22.
115. ^ McBride & Heath 2004, p. 14.
116. ^ Mako 2010, p. 45
117. ^ a b Brook 2010, pp. 126–7
118. ^ Brook 2010, pp. 127
119. ^ a b Golden, Peter B. (1980). Khazar Studies. p. 64.
120. ^ Wasserstein 2007, pp. 375–376
121. ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 149:'The Khazars, the close allies of the Byzantines, adopted
Judaism, as their official religion, apparently by 740, three years after an invasion by the
Arabs under Marwan ibn Muhammad. Marwan had used treachery against a Khazar
envoy to gain peaceful entrance to Khazar territory. He then declared his dishonourable
intentions and pressed deep into Khazar territory, only subsequently releasing the envoy.
The Arabs devastated the horse herds, seized many Khazars and others as captives, and
forced much of the population to flee into the Ural Mountains. Marwan’s terms were that
the kaghan and his Khazars should convert to Islam. Having no choice, the kaghan
agreed, and the Arabs returned home in triumph. As soon as the Arabs were gone, the
kaghan renounced Islam – with, one may assume, great vehemence. The Khazar
Dynasty’s conversion to Judaism is best explained by this specific historical background,
together with the fact that the mid-eighth century was an age in which the major Eurasian
states proclaimed their adherence to distinctive world religions. Adopting Judaism also
was politically astute: it meant the Khazars avoided having to accept the overlordship
(jhowever theoretical) of the Arab caliph or the Byzantine emperor.'
122. ^ Moss 2002, p. 16. Over 520 separate hoards of such silver have been uncovered in
Sweden and Gotland.
123. ^ Abulafia 1987, pp. 419,480–483.The Volga Bulgarian state was converted to Islam in
the 10th century, and wrested liberty from its Khazarian suzerains when Svyatislav razed
Atil.
124. ^ Shepard 2006, p. 19.
125. ^ Petrukhin 2007, p. 245
126. ^ Noonan 2001, p. 81.
127. ^ Whittow 1996, pp. 243–252 argues however that:The title of qaghan, with its claims to
lordship over the steppe world, is likely to be no more than ideological booty from the 965
victory.
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^ Korobkin 1998, p. xxvii citing Golb & Pritsak 1982, p. 15 notes that Khazars have
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often been connected with Kiev's foundations. Pritsak and Golb state that children in Kiev
were being given a mixture of Hebrew and Slavic names by c. 930. Toch 2012, p. 166 on
the other hand is sceptical, and argues that 'a significant Jewish presence in early
medieval Kiev or indeed in Russia at large remains much in doubt'.
129. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 156.The yarmaq based on the Arab dirhem was perhaps issued in
reaction to fall-off in Muslim minting in 820s, and to a felt need in the turbulent
upheavals of the 830s to assert a new religious profile, with the Jewish legends stamped
on them.
130. ^ Petrukhin 2007, p. 247, and n.1: Scholars are divided as to whether the fortification of
Sarkel represents a defensive bulwark against a growing Magyar or Varangian threat.
131. ^ Petrukhin 2007, p. 257.
132. ^ a b c Kohen 2007, p. 107.
133. ^ Noonan 1999, pp. 502–3.
134. ^ Kohen 2007, p. 106.MQDWN or the Macedon dynasty of Byzantium;SY, perhaps a
central Volga statelet, Burtas, Asya; PYYNYL denoting the Danube-Don Pechnegs;BM,
perhaps indicating the Volga Bulgars, and TWRQY or Oghuz Turks. The provisory
identifications are those of Pritsak.
135. ^ Noonan 1999, p. 508.
136. ^ Olsson 2013, p. 507: Al-Mas‘udi says the king secretly tipped off the Rus' of the attack
but was unable to oppose the request of his guards.
137. ^ Petrukhin 2007, p. 257. The letter continues:'I wage war with them. If I left them (in
peace) for a single hour they would crush the whole land of the Ishmaelites up to
Baghdad.'
138. ^ From Klavdiy Lebedev (1852–1916), Svyatoslav's meeting with Emperor John, as
described by Leo the Deacon.
139. ^ Petrukhin 2007, p. 259.
140. ^ a b c Petrukhin 2007, p. 262.
141. ^ Petrukhin 2007, pp. 262–263.
142. ^ The Russian Primary Chronicle (Laurentian text), trans. and edited by Samuel Hazzard
Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, p. 97.
143. ^ a b Petrukhin 2007, p. 263.
144. ^ Dunlop 1954, p. 242.
145. ^ Dunlop 1954, p. 248. Dunlop thought the later city of Saqsin lay on or near Atil
146. ^ Gow, p. 31, n.28.
147. ^ Sand 2010, p. 229
148. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 148.
149. ^ Brook 2010, p. 156. The Caspian Sea is still known to Arabs, and many peoples of the
region, as the 'Khazar Sea' (Arabic Bahr ul-Khazar)
150. ^ Noonan 1999, p. 503.
151. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 147–8.
152. ^ a b Kohen 2007, p. 109.
153. ^ Shapira 2007a, p. 305.
^ Dunlop 1954, p. 253. 34/54
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^ Dubnov 1980, p. 792. Khazars - Wikiwand
157. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 45, and n.157

158. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 130:'thus it is clear that the false doctrine of Yišô in Rome (Hrôm)
and that of Môsê among the Khazars and that of Mânî in Turkistan took away their might
and the valor that they once possessed and made them feeble and decadent among their
rivals'.
159. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 159.
160. ^ Peacock 2010, pp. 27–35, 27–28,35 for details.Some sources claim that the father of
Seljuk, the eponymous progenitor of the Seljuk Turks, namely Toqaq Temür Yalığ, began
his career as an Oghuz soldier in Khazar service in the early and mid-10th century, and
rose to high rank before he fell out with the Khazar rulers and departed for Khwarazm.
Seljuk's sons, significantly, all bear names from the Jewish scriptures: Mîkâ'il, Isrâ'îl,
Mûsâ, Yûnus. Peacock argues that early traditions attesting a Seljuk origin within the
Khazar empire when it was powerful, were later rewritten, after Khazaria fell from power
in the 11th century, to blank out the connection.
161. ^ Peacock 2010, p. 35.
162. ^ Erdal 2007, p. 80, n.22:Wexler 1987, p. 72 Tzitzak is often treated as her original
proper name, with a Turkic etymology čiček ('flower') Erdal, however, citing the
Byzantine work on court ceremony De Ceremoniis, authored by Constantine
Porphyrogennetos, argues that the word referred only to the dress Irene wore at court,
perhaps denoting its colourfulness, and compares it to the Hebrew ciciot, the knotted
fringes of a ceremonial shawl tallit.
163. ^ Golden 2001a, pp. 28–29,37.
164. ^ Golden 1994b, pp. 247–248.
165. ^ Róna-Tas 1999, p. 56
166. ^ Golden 2007a, pp. 33.
167. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 150.
168. ^ Brook 2010, p. 167.
169. ^ Brook 2010, pp. 113, 122–3 n.148. 'Engravings that resemble the six-pointed Star of
David were found on circular Khazar relics and bronze mirrors from Sarkel and
Khazarian grave fields in Upper Saltov. However, rather than having been made by Jews,
these appear to be shamanistic sun discs.'
170. ^ See "The Trhone of Adulis" by GW Bowerstock, Oxford 2013
171. ^ Schweid 2007, p. 286.
172. ^ Brook 2010, pp. 191–192, n.72 says this thesis was developed by Jacob Mann, based on
a reading of the word "Khazaria" in the Cairo Geniza fragment. Bernard Lewis, he adds,
challenged the assumption by noting that the original text reads Hakkâri and refers to the
Kurds of the Hakkâri mountains in south-east Turkey.
173. ^ Baron 1957, pp. 202–204, p.204.
174. ^ Wexler 2002, p. 514.
175. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 149.
176. ^ Brook 2010, pp. 177–178
177. ^ Noonan 2007, p. 229.
^ Golden 2007, pp. 131–133 35/54
179. ^ Whittow 1996, p. 220
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^ Golden 2007b, p. 133. Whittow 1996, p. 220 notes that this native institution, given the
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constant, lengthy, military and acculturating pressures on the tribes from China to the
East, was influenced also by the sinocentric doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven
(Tiānmìng:(天命), which signaled legitimacy of rule.
181. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 124, 135.
182. ^ a b Golden 2007b, p. 125.
183. ^ de Weese 1994, pp. 292–293.
184. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 124:Alp Ilut'uêr is a Turkish subordinate title.
185. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 135–6:Shapira 2007b, pp. 347–348 thinks the evidence from such
Georgian sources renders suspect a conversion prior to this date.
186. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 135–136, reporting on al-Muqaddasi.
187. ^ de Weese 1994, p. 73 during Islamic invasions, some groups of Khazars who suffered
defeat, including a qağan, were converted to Islam.
188. ^ Stampfer 2013, pp. 1–72.
189. ^ Kohen 2007, p. 112 Johannes Buxtorf were first published the letters around 1660.
Controversy arose over their authenticity; it was even argued that the letters represented:
'no more than Jewish self-consolation and fantasmagory over the lost dreams of
statehood' (Kohen ibid).
190. ^ Dunlop 1954, p. 130:'If anyone thinks that the Khazar correspondence was first
composed in 1577 and published in Qol Mebasser, the onus of proof is certainly on him.
He must show that a number of ancient manuscripts, which appear to contain references
to the correspondence, have all been interpolated since the end of the sixteenth century.
This will prove a very difficult or rather an impossible task.'
191. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 145–6:'The issue of the authenticity of the Correspondence has a
long and mottled history which need not detain us here. Dunlop and most recently Golb
have demonstrated that Hasdai's letter, Joseph's response (dating perhaps from the 950s)
and the "Cambridge Document" are, indeed, authentic.'
192. ^ deWeese 2010, pp. 171,305:'(a court debate on conversion)appears in accounts of
Khazar Judaism in two Hebrew accounts, as well as in one eleventh-century Arabic
account. These widespread and evidently independent attestations would seem to support
the historicity of some kind of court debate, but, more important, clearly suggest the
currency of tales recounting the conversion and originating among the Khazar Jewish
community itself' … 'the "authenticity" of the Khazar correspondence is hardly relevant'.
(p.171): 'The wider issue of the "authenticity" of the "Khazar correspondence", and of the
significance of this tale's parallels with the equally controversial Cambridge document
/Schechter text, has been discussed extensively in the literature on Khazar Judaism; much
of the debate loses significance if, as Pritsak has recently suggested, the accounts are
approached as "epic" narratives rather than evaluated from the standpoint of their
"historicity".
193. ^ Szpiech 2012, p. 102.
194. ^ Toch 2012, pp. 162–3:'Of the intensive archaeological study of Khazar sites (over a
thousand burial sites have been investigated!), not one has yet yielded finds that yet fit in
some way the material legacy of antique European or Middle Eastern Jewry.' Shingiray
2012, pp. 209–211 noting the widespread lack of artifacts of wealth in Khazar burials, 36/54
arguing that nomads used few materials to express their personal attributes:'The SMC
assemblages-even if they were not entirely missing
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from the Khazar imperial center-
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presented an outstanding instance of archaeological material minimalism in this region.'

195. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 150–1, and note137'But, one must ask, are we to expect much
religious paraphernalia in a recently converted steppe society? Do the Oğuz, in the
century or so after their Islamization, present much physical evidence in the steppe for
their new faith? These conclusions must be considered preliminary.'
196. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 128–9 compares Ulfilas's conversions of the Goths to Arianism;Al-
Masudi records a conversion of the Alans to Christianity during the Abbasid period;the
Volga Bulğars adopted Islam after their leader converted in the 10th century; the Uyğur
Qağan accepted Manichaeism in 762
197. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 123 taking exception to J. B. Bury's claim (1912) that it was 'unique
in history'.Koestler 1977, p. 52);Golden 2007b, p. 153 cites from Jewish history the
conversion of Idumeans under John Hyrcanus; of the Itureans under Aristobulus I; of the
kingdom of Adiabene under Queen Helena; the Ḥimyârî kings in Yemen, and Berber
assimilations to North African Jewry.
198. ^ Stampfer 2013, pp. 1–72
199. ^ Gil 2011, pp. 429–441
200. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 141–145,161
201. ^ Noonan 2001, pp. 77–78.
202. ^ Schama 2013, p. 266.
203. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 126:'The Șûfî wandering out into the steppe was far more effective in
bringing Islam to the Turkic nomads than the learned 'ulamâ of the cities.'
204. ^ Wexler 1987, p. 61.
205. ^ a b Szyszman 1980, pp. 71,73).
206. ^ Dunlop 1954, pp. 122–124.
207. ^ Brook 2009, pp. 95,117 n.51,52.
208. ^ Cahen 1997, pp. 137–139 argues the conversion was restricted to the elite.Wexler 2002,
p. 514:'the Khazars (most of whom did not convert to Judaism, but remained animists, or
adopted Islam and Christianity), …'
209. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 127:'In much of the literature on conversions of Inner Asian peoples,
attempts are made, "to minimize the impact" … This has certainly been true of some of
the scholarship regarding the Khazars.'
210. ^ Olsson 2013, p. 496:'scholars who have contributed to the subject of the Khazars'
conversion, have based their arguments on a limited corpus of textual, and more recently,
numismatic evidence … Taken together these sources offer a cacophony of distortions,
contradictions, vested interests, and anomalies in some areas, and nothing but silence in
others.'
211. ^ Noonan 1999, p. 502:'Judaism was apparently chosen because it was a religion of the
book without being the faith of a neighbouring state which had designs on Khazar lands.'
212. ^ Salo 1957, p. 198:'Their conversion to Judaism was the equivalent of a declaration of
neutrality between the two rival powers.'
213. ^ Stampfer, Shaul (2013). "Did the Khazars Convert to Judaism?" (PDF). Jewish Social
Studies: History, Culture, Society. 19 (3): 1–72. doi:10.2979/jewisocistud.19.3.1.
Retrieved 16 June 2014. p.17
214.5/15/2019
^ Golden 2007b, p. 139:"We are not aware ofKhazars
any- nation
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under the sky that would not
have Christians among them. For even in Gog and Magog, the Hunnic people who call
themselves Gazari, those whom Alexander confined, there was a tribe more brave than
the others. This tribe had already been circumcised and they profess all dogmata of
Judaism (omnem Judaismum observat)."
215. ^ Olsson 2013, p. 497. The idea of a forced general conversion imposed on the Qağanal
dynasty in the 830s was advanced by Omeljian Pritsak, and is now supported by Roman
Kovalev and Peter Golden.
216. ^ Olsson 2013, p. 507. He identifies this with the onset of Magyar invasions of the Pontic
steppe in the 830s, the construction of Sarkel, and the Schechter letter's reference to
Bulan, converted to his Jewish wife Serakh's faith, wresting power, in a period of famine,
elements which undermined the qağan, and allowed the creation of the royal
diarchy.Olsson 2013, pp. 507,513ff..
217. ^ Brook 2009, p. 6
218. ^ Dunlop 1954, pp. 140–142
219. ^ Zhivkov 2015, p. 42
220. ^ Shingiray 2012, pp. 212–214.
221. ^ Szpiech 2012, pp. 92–117,104.
222. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 143,159:wa al-ḥazarwa malikuhum kulluhum yahûd('The Khazars
and their king are all Jews')
223. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 143, citing his comment on Genesis 9:27:'some other commentators
are of the opinion that this verse alludes to the Khazars who accepted Judaism', with
Golden's comment:'Certainly, by this time, the association of Khazaria and Judaism in the
Jewish world was an established fact'.
224. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 137–138,
225. ^ Spinei 2009, p. 50.
226. ^ Shapira 2007b, p. 349, and n.178 and Zuckerman 1995, p. 250 disagree, consider there
was only one stage and place it later. Shapira takes stage 1 as a Jewish-Khazar
reinterpretation of the Tengri-cult in terms of a monotheism similar to Judaism's;
Zuckerman thinks Judaisation took place, just once, after 861.
227. ^ Golden 2007b, pp. 127–128,151–153.Dunlop 1954, p. 170 Dunlop thought the Ist stage
occurred with the king's conversion c. 740; the second with the installation of Rabbinial
Judaism c. 800.
228. ^ DeWeese 1994, pp. 300–308.
229. ^ a b Melamed 2003, pp. 24–26.
230. ^ Schweid 2007, p. 279. Arabic original: Kitâb al-ḥuyya wa'l-dalîl fi naṣr al-din al-dhalîl
(Book of the Argument and Demonstration in Aid of the Despised Faith).
231. ^ Korobkin 1998
232. ^ Brook 2010, pp. 30; 41, n.75 mentions also a letter in Hebrew, the Mejelis document,
dated (985–986), which refers to "our lord David, the Khazar prince" who lived in Taman.
As Brook noted, both D. M. Dunlop and Dan Shapira dismiss it as a forgery.
233. ^ Shapira 2009, p. 1102. The name is commonly etymologized as meaning 'elk' in Türkic.
Shapira identifies him with the Sabriel of the Schechter letter, and suggests, since Sabriel
is unattested as a Jewish name, though the root is 'hope, believe, find out, understand' that
it is a calque on the Oğuz Türkic bulan(one who finds out) or bilen (one who knows)
234.5/15/2019
^ Szpiech 2012, pp. 93–117,102, citing the letter of Letter of King Joseph:et ha-qosmim
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ve-et'ovdei 'avodah zarah('expelled the wizards and idolators').

235. ^ DeWeese 1994, p. 302. This detail is in Halevi's Sefer Ha-Kusari. Golden has identified
Warsān as Transcaucasian Varaˇc'an (Olsson 2013, p. 512) Ḥasdai ibn Shaprūṭ's letter also
mentions a legend that the Chaldaeans, under persecution, hid the Scriptures in a cave,
and taught their sons to pray there, which they did until their descendants forgot the
custom. Much later, a tradition has it, a man of Israel entered the cave and, retrieving the
books, taught the descendants how to learn the Law.(De Weese 1994, pp. 304–5).
236. ^ Korobkin 1998, p. 352, n.8.
237. ^ Dunlop 1954, p. 170.
238. ^ De Weese 1994, p. 303;Golb & Pritsak 1882, p. 111:The Schechter document has
officers during the religious debate speak of a cave in a certain plain (TYZWL) where
books are to be retrieved. They turn out to be the books of the Torah.
239. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 157.
240. ^ DeWeese 1994, pp. 276,300–304. The original ancestral cavern of the Türks, according
to Chinese sources, was called Ötüken and the tribal leaders would travel there annually
to conduct sacrificial rites.
241. ^ Dunlop 1954, pp. 117–118.
242. ^ DeWeese 1994, pp. 304–305.
243. ^ a b Róna-Tas 1999, p. 232.
244. ^ Maroney 2010, p. 72
245. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 34.
246. ^ Kohen 2007, pp. 107–108, refers to Khazar killings of Christians or the uncircumcized
in retaliation for persecutions of Jews in Byzantium, and Khazar reprisals against
Muslims for persecutions of Jews in Caucasian Albania, perhaps under Emir Nasr.
247. ^ Golden 2007b, p. 161.
248. ^ Koestler 1977, p. 63;Leviant 2008, pp. 159–162,162:'If indeed I could learn that this
was the case, then, despising all my glory, abadndoning my high estate, leaving my
family, I would go over mountains and hills, through seas and lands, till I should arrive at
the place where my Lord the King resides, that I might see not only his glory and
magnificence, and that of his servants and ministers, but also the tranquillity of the
Israelites. On beholding this my eyes would brighten, my reins would exult, my lips
would pour forth praises to God, who has not withdrawn his favour from his afflicted
ones.'
249. ^ Abraham Harkavy,Ha-Maggid (1877) p.357.
250. ^ Jewish Encyclopedia, 1906.
251. ^ https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah%2048:12-15&version=KJV,
NIV, NRSV
252. ^ Brook 2018, pp. 145, 149–151, 162–163, 164
253. ^ Patai & Patai 1987, p. 73.
254. ^ Brook 2018, pp. 210–216
255. ^ a b c Golden 2007a, p. 9
256. ^ Róna-Tas 1999, p. 232:Rabbinic Judaism rather than Qaraism was the form adopted.
Small Karaim communities may have existed, but the linguistic and historical evidence 39/54
existed in Crimea, descend from the Khazars.Khazars
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'At most, it is conceivable that the smaller
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Karaite community which lived in Kharazia gained the Kipchak type Turkic language,
that they speak today, through an exchange of language.' Khazars probably converted to
Rabbinic Judaism, whereas in Karaism only the Torah is accepted, the Talmud being
ignored.
257. ^ Brook 2018, pp. 208–209.
258. ^ Wexler 2002, p. 536."Most scholars are sceptical about the hypothesis". Wexler, who
proposes a variation on the idea, argues that a combination of three reasons accounts for
scholarly aversion to the concept: a desire not to get mixed up in controversy, ideological
insecurities, and the incompetence of much earlier work in favour of that hypothesis.
259. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 56:"Methodologically, Wexler has opened up some new areas, taking
elements of folk culture into account. I think that his conclusions have gone well beyond
the evidence. Nonetheless, these are themes that should be pursued further."
260. ^ Mariner 1999, pp. 95–96:"Arthur Koestler's book The Thirteenth Tribe which claimed
that the converted Khazars were the progenitors of today's Ashkenazi Jews, has been
largely rejected by serious scholars. However, the disputed theory that the stereotypical
European Jew is descended from an Eastern European nation of Jewish converts, has been
sufficiently unwelcome as to render study of the Khazars an area of research largely off
limits for Jewish as well as Russian archaeologists, the Russians being unhappy with the
prospect that their empire was initially ruled by Jewish kings as the Ashkenazim were
that they might not have a genetic connection with the freed slaves who met with God at
Sinai."
261. ^ Kizilov 2014, p. 389 citing Karl Neumann, Die Völker des südlichen Russlands in ihrer
geschichtlichen Entwicklung, (1847) 2nd ed.Teubner 1855 pp.125–6.
262. ^ Rossman 2002, p. 98: Abraham Harkavy, O yazykye evreyev, zhivshikh v drevneye
vremya na Rusi i o slavianskikh slovakh, vstrechaiuschikhsia u evreiskikh pisatelei, St.
Petersburg.
263. ^ Barkun 1997, p. 137: Ernest Renan, "Judaism as a Race and as Religion." Delivered on
27 January 1883.
264. ^ Rossman 2002, p. 98.
265. ^ Singerman 2004, pp. 3–4, Israël chez les nations (1893)
266. ^ Polonsky, Basista & Link-Lenczowski 1993, p. 120. In the book Początki religii
żydowskiej w Polsce, Warsaw: E. Wende i S-ka, 1903.
267. ^ Goldstein 2006, p. 131. Goldstein writes: "The theory that Eastern European Jews
descended from the Khazars was originally proposed by Samuel Weissenberg in an
attempt to show that Jews were deeply rooted on Russian soil and that the cradle of
Jewish civilization was the Caucasus". Weissenberg's book Die Südrussischen Juden, was
published in 1895.
268. ^ Koestler 1976, pp. 134,150. Die Chasaren; historische Studie, A. Holzhauen, Vienna
1909.2nd ed., 1910.
269. ^ Koestler 1976, pp. 134,150.
270. ^ Goldstein 2006, p. 131. Maurice Fishberg, The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment.
271. ^ Litman 1984, pp. 85–110,109 Schipper's first monograph on this was published in the
Almanach Žydowski (Vienna) in 1918. While in the Warsaw ghetto before falling victim 40/54
to the Holocaust at Majdanek, Schipper (1884–1943)
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was working on the Khazar
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hypothesis.
272. ^ Brook 2010, p. 210.
273. ^ Wells 2004, p. 2:"There were Arab tribes who were Jews in the time of Muhammad,
and a Turkic people who were mainly Jews in South Russia in the ninth century. Judaism
is indeed the reconstructed political ideal of many shattered peoples-mainly semitic. As a
result of these coalescences and assimilations, almost everywhere in the towns throughout
the Roman Empire, and far beyond it in the east, Jewish communities traded and
flourished, and were kept in touch through the Bible, and through a religious and
educational organization. The main part of Jewry never was in Judea and had never come
out of Judea."
274. ^ Singerman 2004, p. 4
275. ^ Morris 2003, p. 22: Pasha Glubb held that Russian Jews "have considerably less Middle
Eastern blood, consisting largely of pagan Slav proselytes or of Khazar Turks." For
Glubb, they were not "descendants of the Judeans ...The Arabs of Palestine are probably
more closely related to the Judeans (genetically) than are modern Russian or German
Jews" ..."Of course, an anti-Zionist (as well as an anti-Semitic) point is being made here:
The Palestinians have a greater political right to Palestine than the Jews do, as they, not
the modern-day Jews, are the true descendants of the land's Jewish inhabitants/owners".
276. ^ Roland Burrage Dixon The Racial History of Man, 1923; H. G. Wells, The Outline of
History (1921)
277. ^ Malkiel 2008, p. 263, n.1.
278. ^ First written as an article in 1941 – "The Khazars' Conversion to Judaism", then as a
monograph (1943), it was twice revised in 1944, and 1951 as Kazariyah: Toldot
mamlacha yehudit be'Eropa (Khazaria: History of a Jewish Kingdom in Europe) Mosad
Bialik, Tel Aviv, 1951.
279. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 29. "Poliak sought the origins of Eastern European Jewry in
Khazaria".
280. ^ Sand 2010, p. 234.
281. ^ Dunlop 1954, pp. 261,263.
282. ^ Poliakov 2005, p. 285:"As for the Jews of Eastern Europe (Poles, Russians, etc.,) it has
always been assumed that they descended from an amalgamation of Jews of Khazar stock
from southern Russia and German Jews (the latter having imposed their superior
culture)."
283. ^ Sand 2010, pp. 241–2. Sand cites Salo Wittmayer Baron,Baron 1957, pp. 196–206,
p.206:"before and after the Mongol upheaval the Khazars sent many offshoots into the
unsubdued Slavonic lands, helping ultimately to build up the great Jewish center of
Eastern Europe"; and Ben-Zion Dinur, Yisrael ba-gola 5 vols., 3rd ed.(1961–1966)Tel-
Aviv: Jerusalem:Dvir;Bialik Institute, 1961. (OCLC 492532282) vol.1 p.2,5:"The Russian
conquests did not destroy the Khazar kingdom entirely, but they broke it up and
diminished it And this kingdom, which had absorbed Jewish immigration and refugees
from many exiles, must itself have become a diaspora mother, the mother of one of the
greatest of the diasporas (Em-galuyot, em akhat hagaluyot hagdolot)-of Israel in Russia,
Lithuania and Poland."
284.5/15/2019
^ Golden 2007a, p. 55:'Salo Baron, who incorrectly viewed them as Finno-Ugrians,
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believed that the Khazars "sent many offshoots into the unsubdued Slavonic lands,
helping ultimately to build up the great Jewish centers of eastern Europe"
285. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 55:"dismissed ... rather airily".
286. ^ Brook, Kevin Alan (2006). The Jews of Khazaria. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman &
Littlefield. p. 192. ISBN 9781442203020.
287. ^ a b c Sand 2010, p. 240.
288. ^ Lewis 1987, p. 48:"Some limit this denial to European Jews and make use of the theory
that the Jews of Europe are not of Israelite descent at all but are the offspring of a tribe of
Central Asian Turks converted to Judaism, called the Khazars. This theory, first put
forward by an Austrian anthropologist in the early years of this century, is supported by
no evidence whatsoever. It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the
field, including those in Arab countries, where Khazar theory is little used except in
occasional political polemics." Assertions of this kind has been challenged by Paul
WexlerWexler 2002, pp. 538 who also notes that the arguments on this issue are riven by
contrasting ideological investments:"Most writers who have supported the Ashkenazi-
Khazar hypothesis have not argued their claims in a convincing manner ... The opponents
of the Khazar-Ashkenazi nexus are no less guilty of empty polemics and unconvincing
arguments."(p.537)).
289. ^ Patai & Patai 1989, p. 71: "it is assumed by all historians that those Jewish Khazars
who survived the last fateful decades sought and found refuge in the bosom of Jewish
communities in the Christian countries to the west, and especially in Russia and Poland,
on the one hand, and in the Muslim countries to the east and the south, on the other. Some
historians and anthropologists go so far as to consider the modern Jews of East Europe,
and more particularly of Poland, the descendants of the medieval Khazars."
290. ^ Toch 2012, p. 155, n.4.
291. ^ Wexler 2007, pp. 387–398.
292. ^ Sand 2010, pp. 190–249.
293. ^ Elhaik 2012, pp. 61–74.
294. ^ Spolsky, 2014 & 174–177.
295. ^ Golden 2007, pp. 9–10.
296. ^ Wexler 2002, pp. 513–541.
297. ^ Brook 2018, pp. 207–208
298. ^ Barkun 1997, pp. 136–7
299. ^ Barkun 1997, pp. 136–7:'The Khazar theory never figured as a major component of
anti-Semitism. The connection receives only scant attention in Léon Poliakov's
monumental history of the subject. It did however come to exercise a particular attraction
for advocates of immigration restriction in America.'
300. ^ Barkun 2012, p. 165:'Although the Khazar theory gets surprisingly little attention in
scholarly histories of anti-Semitism, it has been an influential theme among American
anti-Semites since the immigration restrictionists of the 1920s,'.
301. ^ Goldstein 2006, p. 131.
302. ^ Singerman 2004, pp. 4–5.
^ Goodrick-Clarke 2003, p. 237. 42/54
304.5/15/2019
^ Boller 1992, pp. 2,6–7. Barkun 1997, pp. 141–2. Beaty was an anti-Semitic,
Khazars - Wikiwand
McCarthyite professor of Old English at SMU, author of 'The Iron Curtain over America,
(Dallas 1952). According to him, 'the Khazar Jews . .were responsible for all of America's
– and the world's ills, beginning with World War 1. The book 'had little impact' until the
former Wall Street broker and oil tycoon J. Russell Maguire promoted it.
305. ^ Barkun 1997, pp. 140–141. Cf. Wilmot Robertson Dispossessed Majority(1972)
306. ^ Wexler 2002, p. 514 has a more detailed bibliography.
307. ^ Harkabi 1987, p. 424:"Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from
the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as
Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a
historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most
of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin." This essay was translated
from Harkabi Hebrew text 'Arab Antisemitism' in Shmuel Ettinger, Continuity and
Discontinuity in Antisemitism, (Hebrew) 1968 (p.50).
308. ^ Shnirelman 2007, pp. 353–372:'in the very late 1980s Russian nationalists were fixated
on the "Khazar episode." For them the Khazar issue seemed to be a cruial one. They
treated it as the first historically documented case of the imposition of a foreign yoke on
the Slavs, .. In this context the term "Khazars" became popular as a euphemism for the
so-called "Jewish occupation regime." (p.354)
309. ^ Rossman 2007, pp. 121–188.
310. ^ Barkun 1997, pp. 142–144.
311. ^ Goodman & Miyazawi 2000, pp. 263–264
312. ^ Elhaik 2012, pp. 61–74: "Strong evidence for the Khazarian hypothesis is the clustering
of European Jews with the populations that reside on opposite ends of ancient Khazaria:
Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbaijani Jews".
313. ^ Stampfer 2016.
314. ^ Ostrer 2012, pp. 24–7,93–95,124–125
315. ^ Nebel, Filon & Brinkmann 2001, pp. 1095–1112
316. ^ Behar, Skorecky & Hammer 2003, pp. 769–779
317. ^ Nebel, Filon & Faerman 2005, pp. 388–391
318. ^ Atzmon & Ostrer 2010, pp. 850–859
319. ^ Costa, Pereira & Richards 2013, pp. 1–10
320. ^ "Ashkenazi Jews are probably not descended from the Khazars". 8 August 2012.
321. ^ El-Haj 2012, pp. 1–2,28–9,120–123, 133:'if the genome does not prove Sand wrong,
neither can it prove him right. It is the wrong kind of evidence and the wrong style of
reasoning for the task at hand.'(p.28):'They (researchers) will never be able to prove
descent from Khazars: there are no "verification" samples.'(p.133).
322. ^ Miriam Goldstein (2011). Karaite Exegesis in Medieval Jerusalem. Mohr Siebeck. p. 9.
ISBN 9783161509728.
323. ^ Shapira 2006, p. 166.
324. ^ a b Bernard Dov Weinryb (1973). The Jews of Poland: A Social and Economic History
of the Jewish Community in Poland from 1100 to 1800. Jewish Publication Society.
pp. 21–22. ISBN 9780827600164.
^ Blady 113–130. 43/54
326.5/15/2019
^ Róna-Tas 1999, p. 232:Rabbinic Judaism rather than Qaraism was the form adopted.
Khazars - Wikiwand
Small Karaim communities may have existed, but the linguistic and historical evidence
suggests that the Turkic-speaking Karaites in Poland and Lithuania, one branch also
existed in Crimea, descend from the Khazars. 'At most, it is conceivable that the smaller
Karaite community which lived in Kharazia gained the Kipchak type Turkic language,
that they speak today, through an exchange of language.' Khazars probably converted to
Rabbinic Judaism, whereas in Karaism only the Torah is accepted, the Talmud being
ignored.
327. ^ Brook 2018, pp. 213–215
328. ^ Kevin Alan Brook, "The Genetics of Crimean Karaites," Karadeniz Arastirmalari No.
42 (Summer 2014): pp. 69–84, pdf
329. ^ Lobel 2000, pp. 2–4.
330. ^ Baron 1957, p. 204.
331. ^ Wachtel 1998, pp. 210–215.
332. ^ Cokal 2007.
333. ^ Róna-Tas 1999, p. 152:'Kiev in Khazar is Sambat, the same as the Hungarian word
szombat,'Saturday', which is likely to have been derived from the Khazar Jews living in
Kyiv.'
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External links
The Kievan Letter scan in the Cambridge University Library collection.

Khazaria.com
Resources – Medieval Jewish History – The Khazars The Jewish History Resource
Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem
Khazar Historic Maps at the Wayback Machine (archived 26 October 2009)
The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com
Ancient lost capital of the Khazar kingdom found
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Khazars
Introduction
Etymology
Linguistics
History
1. Tribal origins and early history
2. Rise of the Khazar state
3. Khazar state: culture and institutions
4. Khazars and Byzantium
5. Arab–Khazar wars
6. Rise of the Rus' and the collapse of the Khazarian state
7. Aftermath: impact, decline and dispersion
Religion
1. Tengrism
2. Christianity
3. Judaism
4. Islam
Claims of Khazar ancestry
1. Ashkenazi-Khazar theories
2. Crimean Karaite claims
In literature
Cities associated with the Khazars
See also
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Eastern Europe Turkic people Kievan Rus'

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Khazar Khaganate, 650–850

Balanjar (c. 650–720)

Common languages Khazar

The Khazars (/ˈkɑːzɑːrz/, /ˈxɑː-/; Kuzarim;[9] Persian:

Caucasus.[18] Uyghur Khaganate 744–840

D. M. Dunlop tried to link the Chinese term

eastern variety of Shaz Turkic, the subject Russian SFSR 1917–1991

Sea of Azov area while the Khazar Ukraine portal

Khazar state: culture and institutions

Royal Diarchy with sacral Qağanate

See also: Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 and Third Perso-Turkic War

suggesting that both prized the alliance.[109][110]

Main article: Arab–Khazar wars

Caucasus region, c. 740

Rise of the Rus' and the collapse of the Khazarian state

Trade routes of the Black Sea region, 8th–11th centuries

via the Dnieper, Constantinople.[131]

Sviatoslav I of Kiev (in boat), destroyer of the Khazar Khaganate.[138]

Aftermath: impact, decline and dispersion

Main article: Tengrism

History of discussions of Khazar Jewishness

OKHQURÜM, "I read (this or it)".

Christian of Stavelot in his Expositio in Matthaeum Evangelistam (ca. 860–870s) refers to

Abraham Harkavy[249][250] noted in 1877 that an Arabic commentary on Isaiah 48:14,[251]

Claims of Khazar ancestry

Main article: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

Use in anti-Semitic polemics

Crimean Karaite claims

Main article: Crimean Karaites

Cities associated with the Khazars

List of Turkic dynasties and countries

17. ^ Golden 2011, p. 65.

65. ^ Golden 2001b, p. 73

157. ^ Golden 2007a, p. 45, and n.157

presented an outstanding instance of archaeological material minimalism in this region.'

ve-et'ovdei 'avodah zarah('expelled the wizards and idolators').

Medieval Period. 2. Associated University Presses. ISBN 978-0-8453-6659-2. Retrieved 5

Khazars and Qipchaqs. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-86078-885-0. Retrieved 10 February 2013.

University Press. pp. 369–393. ISBN 978-6-155-22576-5. Retrieved 28 May 2016.

Gerashim. pp. 149–161.

The Kievan Letter scan in the Cambridge University Library collection.

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