5.

3 Energy from the Water

Rivers flow from higher locations to lower ones. If the drop is big enough it makes sense
to dam a river and use the height difference upstream and downstream to produce electric
power (Section 5.3.1). In other cases the flow of the river may be used to turn a water wheel
and use its rotation directly (sawing wood or grinding grain), or again to produce electric
power (Section 5.3.2).
Ocean waves are caused by winds that blow irregularities on the ocean’s surface into
running waves. The kinetic energy of the water particles may be converted into rotation of
a turbine and then into electric power (Section 5.3.3). Finally, the kinetic energy of the tidal
motion caused by sun and moon may, in favourable locations, be converted into electric
power (Section 5.3.4).
5.3.1 Power from Dams
A hydropower station uses a dam, from which water will go down a height h and pass a
turbine. The potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy of the turbine,
which is coupled to an electric generator. A mass m with height h will have a potential
energy mgh, where g is the acceleration of gravity. If Q [m3 s− 1] is passing the turbine its
Environmental Physics
mass will be ρQ [kg s− 1], where ρ is the density of water. Consequently the mechanical
power P the dam produces will be
P = ρQgh[Js− 1] ≈ 10hQ [kW] (5.40)
This of course is equivalent to Eq. (4.126), which was derived in the context of pumped
hydro storage of electric power. For large power stations 90% of the mechanical output
(5.40) may be converted into electric power.
The principal use of the dam is to use the reservoir to regulate the electric output by
regulating the flow Q through the turbines. Besides storage as a second use, many dams
also are used to regulate irrigation water to downstream agriculture. Both uses, of course,
may compete.
Hydropower provided around 1/6 of all electric power on world level in 2008. In most
industrial countries most of the hydropower resources are already in use; the expansion
must come from developing nations. By 2050 the total output of hydropower may have
doubled.
5.3.2 Power from Flowing Rivers
The kinetic energy of a flowing river in some places still is used to drive waterwheels.
The rotational energy then is used directly for powering saws in the woodcutting industry,
or looms, as in the early British textile industries. Modern waterwheels often convert the
rotation of the wheel into electric power.
For a flow with velocity u and mass m, the kinetic energy equals mu2/2. If Q [m3 s− 1]
passes the waterwheel or turbine its mass again will be Qρ [kg s− 1], giving a mechanical
power
P= 1
2
Qρ u 2 ≈ 1
2
Qu2 [kW] (5.41)
5.3.2.1 Comparison of Dams and Flowing Rivers
The height h in Eq. (5.40) easily can be 50 [m], while the velocity u in Eq. (5.41) often is
not much higher than 1 [m s− 1]. This implies that for the same amount Q of water passing,
dams are 1000 times as effective as flows. Besides, in a dam one may use all the water
from a stream, while in a waterwheel usually only part of the stream is forced to pass the
wheel. Altogether this means that the kinetic energy of flows nowadays only will be useful
in specialized small-scale applications.
5.3.3 Power from Waves
We estimate the power in the motion of the waves by considering a very deep ocean with
gravity as the only acting force.We use mathematics which may be too advanced for some
students and we also have to make a few drastic mathematical approximations in order to
derive Eq. (5.52). If you skip the derivation, try to understand Eq. (5.52).
↓ A water particle is defined by its equilibrium position (x, y, z). In general, the water
particle will have a displacement s(x, y, z, t) from this position. The local pressure p(x, y, z,
t) is defined as the deviation from the equilibrium pressure. The extra pressure will be the

172 Environmental Physics

With Eqs. (5.43) and (5.42) we find
∂2
∂t2 (− ∇ψ) = − 1
ρ
∇ p= −1
ρ
∇(ρgsz) (5.46)
We assume that the density ρ is constant and use that spatial and time derivatives may
be interchanged and find
∇ ∂2
∂t2 (ψ) = ∇(gsz) = ∇
_
−g
∂ψ
∂z
_
(5.47)
We integrate the ∇ operator by omitting it and find
∂2ψRenewable Energy 171
Wave direction
ssz
z=0
s
(x, y, z) s s
p(x, y, z, t) = ρgs z
Figure 5.14 A particle with equilibrium position (x, y, z) is displaced from its equilibrium by
a vector s(x, y, z, t). The pressure p(x, y, z, t) is found as the extra water pressure caused by
the extra water sz on top.
hydrostatic pressure (3.4) due to the extra water above, so
p(x, y, z, t) = ρgsz (5.42)
The situation is sketched in Figure 5.14 where s(x, y, z, t) and p(x, y, z, t) are indicated.
Note that the vectors s(x, y, z, t) are drawn at a level a little below z = 0 in order to avoid
erroneous pressures at z = 0 in the valley of the wave.
We now calculate the kinetic energy in the wave motion with the simplest assumptions.
First, assume that everywhere rot s = 0. This is a strong assumption as it means that
everywhere relations exist between the components sx, sy, sz of the field s(x, y, z, t). The
x-component of rot s = 0, for example, reads ∂sy/∂z − ∂sz/∂y = 0. It has been proven in
courses of mathematical physics that in such cases there exists a wave function ψ(x, y, z, t)
(note the name !) with the property that
s = − ∇ψ (5.43)
The equation of motion for a general case was given in Eq. (3.35). In the application
to waves one may ignore viscous forces and Coriolis forces. Also it may be assumed that
the gravity force cancels the equilibrium pressure force. The only remaining force on the
right in Eq. (3.35) is the local pressure force p(x, y, z, t), which for a volume element dτ
becomes − ∇pdτ (Eq. (3.38). The force on the left of Eq. (3.29) is written as ρdτ (du/dt).
The equation of motion for waves becomes
ρ
du
dt
= − ∇p (5.44)
In Eq. (3.63) the time derivative of the x-component in this equation is written out as
dux/dt = (u · ∇)ux + ∂ux/∂t with similar relations for the other components. We make
the simplification dux/dt = ∂ux/∂t and similarly u = ds/dt = ∂s/∂t. From Eq. (5.44) we
then find
ρ
du
dt
=ρ
∂u
∂t
=ρ
∂2s
∂t2
= − ∇p (5.45)
We assume that there is no net outflow of mass in any element of volume. In Appendix
B (Eq. (B14)) it is shown that in this case with ρ = constant one has
0 = divu = div
∂s
∂t
=∂
∂t
divs (5.49)
which must hold for all times and places. Consequently divs = 0. From Eq. (5.43) it
follows that div gradψ = 0. We assume that the waves propagate in the x-direction and
extend infinitely in the y-direction. Then ψ will not depend on y; therefore ψ = ψ(x, z, t)
and
0 = div gradψ = ∂2ψ
∂x2
+ ∂2ψ
∂z2
= 0 (5.50)
This Laplace equation has many solutions, but we are looking for a wave with velocity
v of which the amplitude is decreasing with depth. We try
ψ=a
k
sin k(x − vt)ekz (5.51)
For t → t + 1 and x → x + v the function ψ remains the same; it therefore represents
a wave propagating in the x-direction with velocity v. The wavelength λ is the smallest
distance for which the wave repeats itself: x→x + λ gives the same result, so kλ = 2π.
One may show that solution (5.51) obeys Eq. (5.50), while the water particles move in
circles with a radius diminishing with depth (Exercise 5.17, where also the Eqs up to (5.56)
are derived in more detail). At z = 0 the amplitude equals a. The kinetic energy of a unit
volume dτ = 1 is found as
T= 1
2
ρ
_
u2x
+ u2z
_
=1
2
ρ
__
∂sx
∂t
_2
+
_
∂sz
∂t
_2
_
=1
2
ρa2k2v2ekz J m− 3] (5.52)

↑
The kinetic energy contained in a complete column is found by integrating this equation
from z = –∞to z = 0, which gives
Tcolumn = 1
4
ρa2kv2 [J m− 2] (5.53)Renewable Energy 173
The propagation velocity v which appears in this equation is found by substituting ψ
from Eq.(5.51) in Eq. (5.48), which results in
v2 = g
k
(5.54)
The kinetic energy contained in a column becomes
Tcolumn = 1
4
ρga2[J m− 2] (5.55)
The power Pcolumn contained in a complete column equals the energy passing 1 [m]
perpendicular to the waves in 1 [s]. Therefore
Pcolumn = Tcolumn × v = 1
4
ρga2v [Wm− 1] (5.56)
It is convenient to rewrite this relation in quantities that are easy to measure. The first is
the distance between the valley and crest of the wave: H = 2a. The second is the time T
between two successive highest points of the wave at a certain location. From Eq. (5.51)
we see that kvt and kv(t + T) must give the same wave, which leads to kvT = 2π.With Eq.
(5.54) one finds v = Tg/2π. This leads to
P = ρg2H2T
32π
[Wm− 1] ≈ H2T[kWm− 1] (5.57)
This is the correct relation for a pure wave (5.51). Real waves are not pure, but comprise
a range of k-values around a certain value. The waves that are observed propagate with the
group velocity
vg = v + k(dv/dk) = v/2 (5.58)
The power in real ocean waves becomes
P = ρg2H2T
64π
[Wm− 1] ≈ 1
2
H2T[kWm− 1] (5.59)
For waves with H = 3 [m] and T = 8 [s] one would find P = 36 [kWm− 1]. When
approaching the coast part of this power will be lost to friction against the ocean floor.
5.3.3.1 Converters
Most converters remain stationary at one location and convert the up and down movement
of the water into rotational motion. An example is given in Figure 5.15.
The sea water performs a vertical motion s(x, t). A buoy floating on the water has an
open tube in its middle through which the sea water may enter. The waves (5.51) passing
the buoy will cause a harmonic vertical motion Z(x, t) of the buoy and a similar vertical
motion s1(x, t) inside the tube. The three motions will be out of phase and will have different
amplitudes
s = a sin k(x − vt)
Z = Z0 sin k(x − vt − δZ )
s1 = s0 sin k(x − vt − δ1)
(5.57)
174 Environmental Physics
Figure 5.15 Matsuda’s pneumatic wave energy conversion device. (Reproduced by permission
of Academic Press Ltd, London.)
The phase difference means that with respect to the buoy the tube water will perform an
up-and-down movement s1 – Z. One may observe this effect in old-fashioned fishing boats
with a well in the middle; the water goes up and down with respect to the boat. The valves
in Figure 5.15 are positioned in such a way that both during the upward movement and
during the downward movement the air passes the propeller near the turbine in the same,
upward direction.
5.3.4 Power from the Tides
A tidal power station has a barrage or dam at a location where high tidal height differences
occur. Inland there should be enough space to store a lot of water, often at the mouth of a
river or at a wide cleft. With incoming tide the water will pass the dam through a system
of locks; at low tide the water is let out by a hydraulic turbine to generate electricity. It
is also possible to use the power of the incoming tide to drive a turbine, using the tidal
wave twice.
The power of the tidal station will depend on the potential energy mgh of the water inland
from the dam. Here Eq. (5.40) applies. The height difference h and the flux Q [m3 s− 1] of
the outgoing water are the decisive factors in determining the economic feasibility.
If one used the incoming tidal wave as well, Eq. (5.41) of the flowing river would apply.
The tides are determined by the lunar cycle and are very predictable. Therefore the
amount of power to be produced can be calculated accurately and sold on the market. A
difficulty is the high capital expense to build the tidal power station, which will make the
electricity cost high. On the other hand, the station could be combined with pumped storage
during the few hours of low tide, which might increase its economic competitiveness [17].