INTRODUCTION TO

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
Week 1
Pre-test (Quiz) I (time: 8 minutes)
1. List/name type of rocks (and percentage) in earth!
2. What is rock? Mention some minerals from rock !
3. Could you write type of trap?
4. List/name fluid properties from oil
Outlines

A. Overview mineralogy
B. Sedimentary geology
C. Hydrocarbon traps
D. Origin of petroleum
E. Migration & accumulation of petroleum
F. Properties of Subsurface fluids
G. Petroleum Chemistry
Overview mineralogy
• What is petrophysics?
• Petrophysics is the study of rock properties and their interactions with fluids
(gases, liquid hydrocarbons, and aqueous solutions).
• the porosity of the reservoir rocks and their permeability are the
most fundamental physical properties with respect to the storage and
transmission of fluids
• Accurate knowledge of these two properties for any hydrocarbon
reservoir, together with the fluid properties, is required for efficient
development, management and prediction of future performance of
the oilfield
MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF ROCKS: A
REVIEW
MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF ROCKS: A
REVIEW
Igneous Rocks (about 20% of all rocks)
The Metamorphic Rocks (about 14% of all
rocks)
• The metamorphic rocks (about 14% of all rocks) originate from
mechanical, thermal and chemical changes of igneous rocks
• Mechanical changes on or near the surface are due to the expansion
of water in cracks and pores, and tree roots, and to the burrowing of
animals
• Chemical metamorphosis of igneous, intrusive, rocks aided by high
pressure, temperature, and the presence of water, results in the
chemical rearrangement of the elements into new minerals
The Sedimentary Rocks (about 66% of all rocks)
The Sedimentary Rocks
• Mechanical weathering is responsible for breaking large preexisting rocks
into small fragments.
• The most important mechanism is the expansion of water upon freezing
which results in a 9% increase of volume
• The large forces produced by the freezing of water in cracks and pores
results in fragmentation of the rocks.
• Mechanical degradation of rocks also occurs when a buried rock is uplifted
and the surrounding overburden is removed by erosion.
• In addition to ice, the growth of salts and minerals (deposited from
aqueous solutions) in the pores and micro-fractures also exerts a
disintegration force within rocks, which is very effective in braking them
into fine grains.
The Sedimentary Rocks
• Chemical weathering occurs simultaneously with mechanical
weathering.
• Water is the principal contributor to chemical weathering, and
mechanical weathering provides access to a larger area for contact by
water.
• Chemicals dissolved in the water, such as carbonic acid, enter into the
chemical reactions that are responsible for rock degradation
Clays
• Clays are the products of ultimate weathering decomposition of rocks.
• Large regional beds accumulate in low areas, basins, river channels, and
deltas.
• The deposits may accumulate in the zone where they were originally
formed from weathering or the terminal depositories of the movement of
winds, water, and glaciers.
• The most important member of the group is bentonite which is composed
of three layers (two tetrahedral silicon sheets between an octahedral
aluminum sheet).
• Bentonite is actually composed of 75-80% montmorillonite and is sub-
divided into three types of clays: sodium, potassium, and calcium
bentonite.
Shale
• Shale develops in a depositional environment from a mixture of clay, silt,
and organic material, all of which are transported to the area by wind,
water or ice (glacier).
• Clay minerals that represent 50%, or more, of the shale body, are usually
transported to the river delta, lake or surface depression as suspensions
and colloidal solutions that precipitate when they encounter changes in pH
and electrolytic differenced in the water of the depositional area
• Compaction shale is the most important with respect to hydrocarbon
production and fortunately is the majority of the shale bodies.
• This shale can be ductile if it contains clay that swell when contacted with
low salinity water, such as montmorillonite
Shale
• Cementation shale develops during burial as increased pressure and
temperature induces a chemical bonding of the grains by the
reactions of calcium carbonates, silicates, and other minerals.
• Some crystallization of the inorganic materials occurs and the loose
sedimentary particles clay and silt are compacted into hard, cohesive,
shale.
Sandstones
• The quartz grains and mixed rock fragments resulting from
mechanical and chemical degradation of igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks may be transported to other areas and later
transformed into sandstones.
Sandstones
• Layering introduces considerable difference between the vertical
(cross bedding plane direction) and horizontal (parallel to the bedding
planes) flow of fluids.
• The vertical permeability can be 50-75% less than the horizontal
permeability; therefore, any fluid flow experiments, or numerical
simulations, must account for the directional permeability, called
hydraulic flow units.
Carbonates
• Carbonate rocks form in shallow marine environments. Many small
lime (CaO) secreting animals, plants and bacteria live in the shallow
water.
• Their secretions and shells form many of the carbonate rocks.
• In addition, calcite can precipitate chemically: calcite is soluble in
water containing carbon dioxide; however, if the amount of dissolved
carbon dioxide is decreased by changes of environmental conditions,
or uplift, the dissolved calcite will precipitate because it is only slightly
soluble in water free of carbon dioxide.
Carbonates
• There are three major classifications of limestone (which is generally
biogenic in origin):
1. Oolitic limestone is composed of small spherical grains of calcite
(encapsulated fossils and shell fragments);
2. chalk is composed of accumulated deposits of skeletal or shell remains of
microscopic animals; and
3. coquina is fossiliferous limestone composed almost entirely of fossil
fragments cemented by a calcareous mud.
Carbonates
• In some cases the limestone formations are changed to dolomite by
their reaction with magnesium dissolved in water percolating through
pores and fractures in the limestone.
• Porous carbonate rocks derived from chemical and biogenic
precipitation of calcium carbonate form a large portion of the
petroleum reservoirs
PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY PARTICLES
USE OF PETROPHYSICS
• Buckley and Leverett who developed two equations that are known
as the Fractional Flow Equation and the Frontal Advance Equation.
These two equations enabled the calculation of oil recovery resulting
from displacement by an immiscible fluid (gas or water).
• The evaluation of any petroleum reservoir, new or old, for the
maximum rate of production and the maximum recovery of the
hydrocarbons requires a thorough knowledge of the fluid transport
properties of rocks and the fluid-rock interactions that influence the
flow of the fluids.
INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
Petroleum System

Reservoir

Seal/Cap Hydrocarbon
rock Trap

Petroleum
System

Migration Source Rock

SEDIMENTARY GEOLOGY
• Sedimentary geology is fundamental to exploration and development
of petroleum reservoirs
• It establishes the criteria for petroleum exploration by providing the
geologic evidence for prediction of the location of new petroleum
provinces
• Petroleum is found in all areas of a variety of sedimentary basins
• Hydrocarbons may occur at shallow depth along the edges of the
basin, the deep central areas, and in the far edges where tectonic
motion may have provided sealed traps for oil and gas
BASINS
• Sedimentary basins differ in origin and lithology and they are individually
unique, but they share several common characteristics
• They represent accumulations of clastic and evaporite materials in a
geologically depressed area (an area that has undergone subsidence with
respect to the surrounding land mass) or an offshore slope.
• They have thick sedimentary layers in the center that thin toward the
edges.
• The layers represent successive sedimentary episodes.
• Continual movement of the plates against each other will result in
formation of a long narrow trough (several hundreds of miles long) called a
geosyncline
 ACCUMULATION OF SEDIMENTS
• Accumulation of quartzose-type sediments in a
basin from a low relief continental shelf.
• On a low relief land surface, erosion is at a
minimum and chemical degradation of rocks to
quartz is at a maximum clean, well sorted,
sediments with uniform composition and texture.
• The sediments may remain as unconsolidated
sand formations, or the grains may be cemented
by carbonate and silica compounds precipitated
from the sea, or from the interstitial waters
percolating gradually through the deposits at
some later stage
• Well sorted, granular, quartzose, reservoirs
The primary oil recovery will be relatively high exhibit high vertical permeability (kv) with
while secondary recovery will be very low due to respect to the horizontal permeability (kh);
severe fingering and early water breakthrough however, kh is still higher than kv.
ACCUMULATION OF SEDIMENTS
• Accumulation of graywacke-type
sediments in a geosyncline adjacent
to a land mass of moderate relief
• The sedimentary particles are
irregular in shape and poorly sorted
with variable amounts of
intergranular clay particles
• The permeabilities of these
reservoirs vary considerably over
short distances, and the vertical
permeability is usually much less
than the horizontal permeability

• The permeability variation is one reason why graywacke-type reservoirs do not produce as well
during primary production as the quartzose-type reservoirs, but exhibit excellent secondary
recovery.
• Due to the mixed sediments containing clay minerals,the reservoirs are generally subject to water
sensitivity problems (clay swelling and particle movement).
ACCUMULATION OF SEDIMENTS
• Idealized conditions that lead to deposition
of arkose-type sediments.
• Steep land relief results in incomplete
chemical weathering that yields arkose-type
sediments
• Reactive clays and unstable minerals such as
feldspars are mixed with the grains and make
up a large portion of the cementing agents.
• Variable climatic conditions of the
physiographic area result in a period of
deposition of coarse clastics followed by fine
sediments that eventually become the cap
rocks of reservoirs
• Thick reservoirs are formed, but the
permeability is extremely variable, both
vertically and horizontally.
• Consequently both primary and secondary
production may be poor and the reactive
clays produce severe water sensitivity.
HYDROCARBON TRAPS
• Hydrocarbon traps may be illustrated by considering a porous,
permeable, formation that has been folded into an anticlinal trap by
diastrophism (processes of deformation) and is enclosed between
impermeable rocks
Classification of Traps

Combination
Structural traps
1.fold traps formed by either compression or compaction anticlines
2.fault traps formed by displacement of blocks of rocks due to unequal
tectonic pressure
3.diapiric traps produced by intrusion of salt or mud diapirs
 domal trap

Trap formed by a normal fault

trap sealed by the salt dome

stratigraphic pinch-out trap

Stratigraphic traps
• Stratigraphic traps are produced by facies changes around the porous,
permeable, formation such as pinchouts and lenticular sand bodies
surrounded by impermeable shales.
• Stratigraphic traps may develop from off shore bars, reefs, and river
channels.
• The processes of formation are more complex than those of structural
traps because they involve changes of the depositional environment
that lead to the isolation of permeable zones by different lithologies.
• Distinctions are made between those that are associated with
unconformities and those that are not
Unconformity, showing the uplifted, eroded strata
overlain unconformably by younger sediments
ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM
• The biogenic origin of petroleum is widely accepted on the basis of
geochemical studies
• Petroleum contains compounds that have characteristic chemical
structures which are related to plants and animals such as porphyrins,
isoprenoids, steranes, and many others
• The evidence for the origin of petroleum in a low-energy, anaerobic
environment is supported by the fact that in the opposite condition (a
high-energy, aerobic environment) aerobic bacteria decompose
organic matter to carbon dioxide and water
TRANSFORMATION OF ORGANICS INTO
KEROGEN
• Organic materials from dead plants and animals are either consumed
by living organisms or left to be decomposed by bacteria.
• If the organic material remains in an oxygen-rich, aerobic
environment, aerobic bacteria will decompose it to carbon dioxide
and water
• If the environment is anaerobic, the products of decomposition will
be essentially compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• The hydrocarbons of crude oils can originate from the fundamental
biological molecules: proteins (aminoacids), lipids (fats, waxes and
oils), carbohydrates (sugars and starches), and lignins (polymeric
hydrocarbons related to cellulose) of plants.
TRANSFORMATION OF KEROGEN INTO OIL
AND GAS
• Consecutive deposition of sediments in the basin leads to deeper burial reaching
several thousand feet deep, which imposes an increase of temperature and
pressure on the kerogen mixed with the finegrained sediments.
• The increase of temperature with burial places the materials once more out of
thermodynamic equilibrium which induces further reactions and transformations
(catagenetic stage).
• During the catagenesis, are catalyzed to some extent by the inorganic matrix.
• While the organic material is undergoing major transformations, the sediments
are being compacted with expulsion of water and decrease of porosity and
permeability.
• The kerogen evolves through liquid bitumen to liquid petroleum.
• If the petroleum remains in the compacted source rock undergoing deeper burial
with continued heating, the kerogen is ultimately reduced to graphite and
methane.
TRANSFORMATION OF KEROGEN INTO OIL
AND GAS
• The approximate depths for the various digenetic and catagenetic
changes
1. The zone of change to humic materials is 3-10 m (10-20 ft)
2. Diagenic changes take place between 6 and 450 m (20-1500 ft)
3. Catagenic changes and formation of oil from kerogen occur
between 450 and 1800 m(1500-6000 ft)
4. The metageneic changes to graphite and methane take place below
1800 m (6000 ft).
MIGRATION AND ACCUMULATION OF
PETROLEUM
• The processes by which hydrocarbons migrate from the source rock
to a porous, permeable, reservoir (called primary migration)
• several different mechanisms may be operative under different
environmental and geological conditions. Some of these are:
a. Transport in colloidal solutions as micells
b. Transport as a continuous hydrocarbon phase
c. Buoyant movement of individual droplets
d. Solution of hydrocarbons in water moving out of the source rock
e. Transport by mechanical forces during clay diagenesis
f. Movement through microfractures in the source rock.
SECONDARY MIGRATION
• The migration of oil as distinct droplets in a water-saturated rock is
opposed by the capillary forces, which are functionally related to the pore
size, the interfacial tension between the oil and water, and the adhesion
of the oil to the mineral surface (wettability).
• This is expressed through a contact angle for a capillary of uniform size as:
𝑃𝑐 = (2𝜎 cos 𝜃)/𝑟𝑐
𝑃𝑐 =capillary pressure, Pa
𝜎 =interfacial tension, Nx10-3/m
θ=contact angle
𝑟𝑐 =radius of the capillary, m
SECONDARY MIGRATION
• The more usual case is one in which
the oil droplet exists within the
confines of a large pore containing
several smaller sized pore throat exits
• Under these conditions, the pressure
required to displace the droplet from
the large pore through the constriction
of a pore throat (the displacement
pressure) is the difference between
the capillary pressures of the leading
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡
𝑃𝐷 = 2𝜎 − (l) and trailing (t) pores
𝑟𝑙 𝑟𝑡
SECONDARY MIGRATION
• The two forces in a reservoir that are most likely to be operating on
the droplet are buoyancy and hydrodynamic pressure, neither of
which is normally sufficient to dislodge an isolated droplet of oil.
• The displacement pressure due to buoyancy is expressed as
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑍0 𝑔𝑐 𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑜
𝑍0 = height of the oil column
𝑔𝑐 = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2
𝜌𝑤 = water density, kg/m3
𝜌𝑜 = oil density, kg/m3
𝑃𝑑 = displacement pressure, Pa
PROPERTIES OF SUBSURFACE FLUIDS

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE GRADIENT

LITHOSTATIC PRESSURE GRADIENT

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT

OILFIELD WATERS

PETROLEUM
 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE GRADIENT
• An important physical property of reservoir fluids is the density and its relationship
to the hydrostatic gradient (the increase of the fluid pressure with increasing depth
due to the increasing weight of the overlying fluid)
• Density measurements are made relative to the maximum density of water which is
1.0 g/cm3 at 15°C (60°F) and 1 atm of pressure.
• When the specific weight (or mass) of any substance is divided by the specific weight
(or mass) of an equal volume of water at 15°C and 1 atm of pressure, the resulting
dimensionless value is described as the specific gravity relative to water (𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 Τ𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 at 15°C).
• The pressure gradient (Gp) of any fluid is determined from the specific gravity as
follows:
1000𝑘𝑔 9.81𝑚
𝐺𝑝 = 𝜌. 𝑔. 𝑑. 𝑆𝐺 = 𝑚 = 9.81 𝑘𝑃𝑎 Τ𝑚 𝑆𝐺
𝑚3 𝑠2
= (0.433 𝑝𝑠𝑖 Τ𝑓𝑡)𝑆𝐺
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE GRADIENT
• The hydrostatic gradient of subsurface
waters is greater than 9.81 kPa per meter
of depth because the brines contain
dissolved solids that increase the specific
gravity of the fluids
• The gradient also is affected by
temperature and in some areas by
dissolved gas, both of which decrease the
hydrostatic pressure gradient.
• An average hydrostatic gradient of 10.53
kPa/m (0.465 psi/ft) generally is used in
the literature for subsurface brines
• This value corresponds to about 80,000
ppm of dissolved solids at 25°C (specific
gravity=1.074).
 LITHOSTATIC PRESSURE GRADIENT
• The lithostatic pressure gradient is caused by the density of the rocks
and is transmitted through the grain to grain contacts of successive
layers of rocks.
• The lithostatic weight, however, is supported by the pressure of the
subsurface fluids in the pore spaces.
• The overburden pressure is equal to the grain-to-grain lithostatic
pressure plus the fluid pressure of the porous formation times the
depth, yielding an average overburden pressure gradient of 22.7 kPa per
meter of depth (1.0 psi/ft) which corresponds to an overall bulk specific
gravity of the rocks plus the interstitial fluids equal to 2.31
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 + 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 1 − 𝜙 𝜌𝑚 + 𝜙. 𝜌𝑓
𝑝𝑜𝑏 = ×𝑑 = ×𝑑
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
LITHOSTATIC PRESSURE GRADIENT
• When the hydrostatic pressure gradient for any region is
approximately 10.53 kPa/m, it is known as the normal pressure
gradient, abnormal pressure gradients may be either abnormally low
or high.
• Abnormally high hydrostatic pressure gradients of 21.5 kPa per meter
(0.95 psi/ft) have been encountered in a geopressure/geothermal
zone along the Gulf Coast of the United States extending from New
Orleans into Mexico, the Niger delta and the North Sea.
• Abnormally low pressures have been encountered, in some gas fields
of Pennsylvania and the Morrow formation in N.W. Oklahoma.
 GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
• Heat rising from the mantle produces a heat flux in midcontinent regions ranging
from 0.8 to 1.2 μcal/cm2 s (3.0-4.4 μBTU/ft2 s) measured at the surface which
results in a geothermal gradient (Gt)
• The geothermal gradient varies at different areas on the globe depending on the
annual mean surface temperature and the thermal conductivity of the subsurface
formations, but an overall average temperature gradient (Gt) of 18.2°C/km
(1.0°F/100 ft) depth has been recorded around the world.
• Using this average value and the region’s mean annual surface temperature (Ts), an
estimate of subsurface formation temperatures (Tf) can be obtained as follows:
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑠 + 𝐺𝑓 𝑑
• When the bottom hole temperature (Tf) of a well is accurately measured, the local
geothermal gradient may be obtained from Equation above and used to estimate
the temperature of formations at any other depth (d).
EXAMPLE 1
• The bottom hole temperature at 2.2 km was found to be 70°C. The
mean surface temperature for the region is 24°C. Determine the
geothermal gradient (Gt) and the temperature of a formation at 1700
m?
OILFIELD WATERS
• The genesis of petroleum is intimately associated with shallow marine
environments, hence it is not surprising that water found associated
with oil generally contains dissolved salts, especially sodium and
calcium chlorides.
• The common order of evaporative deposition from sea water in a
closed basin is: calcium carbonate (limestone)>calcium magnesium
carbonate (dolomite)>calcium sulfate (gypsum)>sodium chloride
(halite)>potassium chloride (sylvite).
• Oilfield waters are frequently referred to as connate or interstitial
water which is water found in small pores and between fine grains in
the rocks
 Compressibility • Compressibility of water is a function
of the environmental pressure and
temperature
• At any given pressure, the
compressibility decreases as the
temperature is increased from ambient
reaching a minimum compressibility at
about 55°C (131°F)
• then the compressibility increases
continually as the temperature is
increased
1 𝑑𝑉 𝑉2 1 • At any given temperature, the
𝑐𝑤 = − = 1− compressibility decreases as the
𝑉1 𝑑𝑝 𝑇
𝑉1 𝑝2 − 𝑝1
pressure in increased
where: V1 and V2 are the volumes at pressure p1 and p2
The ratio V2/V1 is equivalent to the amount of water expansion as the pressure drops from p2 to p1
Gas Solubility • The solubility of hydrocarbon gases in
water at any given pressure does not
change very much as the temperature is
increased.
• The behavior is similar to compressibility
since the solubility decreases slightly as
the temperature is increased from ambient
temperature reaching a minimum
solubility at about 66°C (150°F) and then
increasing continuously as the
temperature is increased
• pressure has a large influence
• the solubility of natural gas in water at 500
psi and 150°F is about 4.1 ft3/bbl and at
2000 psi and 150°F the solubility increases
Figure 2.14 to about 11.9 ft3/bbl (2.1 m3 gas/m3)
Gas Solubility
• The solubility of gas in water also is influenced by the amount of dissolved salts.
• Increasing salinity decreases the solubility of hydrocarbon gases in water according to
the following empirical relationship:
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝑤𝑝 1 − 𝑋𝑐 × (𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑠, 𝑝𝑝𝑚)(10−7 )
• where: Rwp=solubility of gas in pure water, m3/m3 (SCF/bbl)
• RB=solubility of gas in brine, m3/m3 (SCF/bbl)
• Xc=salinity correction factor
EXAMPLE 3
• Brine from a 7000 feet deep reservoir in Kansas where the mean
annual surface temperature is 70°F contains 80,000 ppm of total
dissolved salts (TDS). If the reservoir pressure is 3300 psi, estimate
the solubility of hydrocarbon gas in the oilfield brine at reservoir
conditions. Assume a geothermal gradient of 1°F/100 feet of depth
and use Equation above to estimate the reservoir temperature (Tf):
Viscosity
• All fluids resist a change of form, and many solids exhibit gradual yield in
response to an applied force.
• The force acting on a fluid between two surfaces is called a shearing force
because it tends to deform the fluid.
• The shearing force per unit area is the shear stress (τ). Consider two layers
of fluid with area, A, separated by a distance, y.
• The upper layer is in motion with velocity, v, resulting from action of a
force, F; and, the lower area is at rest (velocity=0) A.
• Newtonian fluid (shear rate is a linear function of the applied shear force
between the two layers) will develop a constant shear velocity (dv=dy
between the two layers, which is opposed by the friction between the fluid
molecules, and the absolute viscosity is defined by:
𝜏 = 𝐹 Τ𝐴 = −𝜇(𝑑𝑣 Τ𝑑𝑦)
𝜏=shear stress
𝜇=absolute viscosity
v=fluid velocity=distance between the plates
• The viscosity of gases increases as temperature (T) is increased at
constant pressure (P) and also increases as P increases at constant T.
• Liquids, however, exhibit a decrease of viscosity as T is increased, and
an increase of viscosity as P is increased.
• Viscosity is reported in terms of several different units: Poise (CGS unit
of absolute viscosity)=g/cm s=14.88 lbm/ft s; Centipoise=0.0 l poise;
stoke (CGS of kinematic viscosity)=g/cm s g/cm3); Centistoke=0.0 l
Stoke; and Pascal-seconds (SI units)=0.1 Poise
Viscosity of water as a
function of temperature,
salinity, and pressure
PETROLEUM
• Petroleum is a complex mixture containing thousands of different
compounds, most of which are composed exclusively of hydrogen
and carbon (hydrocarbons)
• Included in the mixture are compounds containing nitrogen, sulfur,
oxygen, and metals (heterogeneous compounds)
• The density and viscosity of hydrocarbon gases and liquids are very
important physical quantities.
• They are used to characterize pure and mixed hydrocarbons and to
evaluate their fluid flow behavior in the reservoir.
Gas Density
• The density of gases may be calculated from the equation of state for real gases
which is corrected for non-ideal behavior by a compressibility factor Z
• The factor Z is the ratio of the actual volume occupied by a real gas to the volume
it would occupy if it behaved like an ideal gas where Z=1.0
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑍𝑚𝑅𝑇Τ𝑀
𝜌 = 𝑚Τ𝑉 = 𝑃𝑀/𝑍𝑅𝑇
Where
P=pressure, psi
V=volume, ft3
Z=real gas deviation factor
m=mass of gas, lbs
R=gas constant (10.73 psi-ft3/lbmole-°R)
T=temperature, °R
M=molecular weight of the gas
Gas Density
• The compressibility factor, or real-gas deviation factor, is obtained
from the reduced temperatures and pressures and the
compressibility charts for pure and mixed gases
• The reduced temperature and pressure are calculated from the gas
pseudo critical temperatures and pressures as follows:
𝑇𝑝𝑟 = 𝑇Τ𝑇𝑝𝑐 𝑇𝑝𝑟 = 𝑝Τ𝑝𝑝𝑐
T and p =pseudo reduced temperature and pressure
pr pr

T and p =critical temperature and pressure

pc pc
Viscosity of Gases
• Gas viscosity varies with respect to temperature, pressure, and
molecular weight
Viscosity of gases at one atmosphere as a function
Viscosity ratio as a function of pseudo reduced pressure
of temperature
Oil Density
• The most commonly measured physical property of crude oils and its
fractions is the API gravity.
• It is an arbitrary scale which was adopted for simplified
measurements by hydrometers, because it enables a linear scale for
gravity measurement.
• The API gravity is directly related to the specific gravity (measured at
60°F) as follows:
°𝐴𝑃𝐼 = (141.5Τ𝑆𝐺) − 131.5
A comparison of API gravity and specific gravity is shown in Table 2.6. Specific gravity (SG) is the density of the fluid at any
temperature and pressure divided by the density of water at 60°F and l4.7 psia (62.34 lbm/ft3; where lbm=pounds mass).

Note that the °API gravity is inversely proportional to the specific gravity and an °API gravity of 10° corresponds to the
specific gravity of water at 60°F (SG=1.0).
Oil Viscosity
• Two methods for measuring the viscosity of crude oils and their
fractions that have received universal acceptance are:
• (1) the kinematic viscosity measurement, which is obtained by timing the flow
of a measured quantity of oil through a glass capillary, yielding the viscosity in
centistokes, and
• (2) the Saybolt viscosity measurement which is the time (seconds) required
for a standard sample of oil to flow through a standard orifice (ASTM Test D-
88).
PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY
• Petroleums are frequently characterized by the relative amounts of four
series of compounds
• The members of each series are similar in chemical structure and
properties
• The four series (or classes of compounds) that are found in petroleums are:
(1) the normal and branched alkane series (paraffins),
(2) cycloalkanes (naphthenes)
(3) the aromatic series
(4) asphalts, asphaltenes and resins (complex,high-molecular-weight
polycyclic compounds containing nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen atoms in
their structures—the NSO compounds)-(Asphaltic)
Ternary diagram for classification of crude oils as either paraffinic, naphthenic or
aromatic
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 1

EXAMPLE 3