Characteristics of Asphalt Binders Foamed in the

Laboratory to Produce Warm Mix Asphalt

Zelalem A. Arega 1; Amit Bhasin, A.M.ASCE 2; Wei Li 3;
David E. Newcomb, M.ASCE 4; and Edith Arambula, M.ASCE 5

Abstract: Foamed asphalt binders are increasingly being used to produce warm mix asphalt. This paper presents the findings from a study
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conducted to (1) identify a repeatable and accurate method to characterize the quality of asphalt binder foams, and (2) use this method to
evaluate the influence of water content, binder type, and foaming device on the quality of foamed binders. Laser and ultrasonic distance-
measuring tools were used in combination with digital imaging of the foamed surface to quantify and better understand the expansion and
decay of foamed asphalt binders over time. Measurements obtained from these methods were used to evaluate the extent and stability of foams
produced using three different asphalt binders at three water contents and two laboratory foaming devices. Rheological properties and mois-
ture content of selected binder residues were also measured. Results indicate that both the laser- and ultrasonic-based methods were promising
in terms of their ability to provide a repeatable and detailed history of the change in volume of the foamed asphalt binder as the foam
collapses. It was also shown that water content and binder type have a significant influence on the maximum expansion ratio and rate
of collapse of foams. Higher water contents were associated with higher expansion ratios but also faster rates of collapse. The two foaming
devices used in this study produced foams with similar properties. Rheological tests conducted on foamed binder residues revealed that the
foaming process slightly increased the high temperature continuous performance grade (PG) of the binder. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-
5533.0000981. © 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Warm mix asphalt; Foam; Laser; Ultrasonic; Expansion ratio; Half-life; Digital image; Rheology.

Introduction (Hansen and Newcomb 2011), mechanical foaming units were

An increase in environmental awareness and energy concerns has
led to a significant increase in the production of warm mix asphalt
(WMA). There have been a number of products and processes in-
troduced to produce WMA over the last several years. These prod-
ucts and processes have allowed the production and placement of
WMA mixtures at reduced temperatures. Benefits of using WMA
include, but are not limited to, lower energy consumption, lower
greenhouse gas emissions, and an extended construction season.
As of 2011, the most popular method of producing WMA was by
foaming the asphalt binder (Hansen and Newcomb 2011). Accord-
ing to a survey done by the National Asphalt Pavement Association
1 Brookfield viscometer and suggested using viscosity values over
Research Engineering and Scientist Associate I, Center for Transpor-
tation Research, Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineer-
ing, Univ. of Texas at Austin, 301 E. Dean Keeton St., ECJ 6.508, Austin,
TX 78712 (corresponding author). E-mail: arega@mail.utexas.edu
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental
Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Austin, 301 E. Dean Keeton St., ECJ
6.108, Austin, TX 78712. E-mail: a-bhasin@mail.utexas.edu
3
Associate Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Univ. of Texas
at Austin, 204 E. Dean Keeton St., ETC 5.146, Austin, TX 78712. E-mail:
weiwli@austin.utexas.edu
4
Senior Research Scientist, Texas A&M Transportation Institute,
Materials Engineering, 3135 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843. E-mail:
d-newcomb@tamu.edu
5
Associate Research Engineer, Texas A&M Transportation Institute,
Materials Engineering, 3135 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843. E-mail:
e-arambula@ttimail.tamu.edu
Note. This manuscript was submitted on May 17, 2013; approved on
November 12, 2013; published online on November 14, 2013. Discussion
period open until October 30, 2014; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561/04014078(10)/$25.00.
responsible for approximately 83% of all WMA produced in
2009, and 92% of all WMA produced in 2010. Foamed asphalt
binder is produced through the injection of small droplets of water
into hot asphalt binder (typically above 150°C). When a droplet of
water comes in contact with the hot binder, it turns into steam and
expands until a film of binder holds the bubble by balancing the
internal pressure, external pressure, and its surface tension. This
process occurs for each droplet, resulting in a foamed binder with
improved workability and allowing production and compaction of
mixtures at lower than conventional mixing temperatures.
Recent studies also evaluated viscosity, moisture dissipation,
and bubble size distribution of foamed asphalt binders. Saleh
(2006) evaluated the viscosity of foamed asphalt binders using
the first 60 s as a measure of foam quality. Huang et al. (2013) used
neutron scattering to detect presence of residual moisture in foamed
asphalt binders. They reported that no water entity less than 0.1 μm
was detected in the foamed asphalt binder. A study conducted by
Kutay and Ozturk (2012) evaluated the bubble size distribution in
foamed binders. They used X-ray microtomography on cryogeni-
cally frozen samples to show that foamed asphalt binders had a
distribution of bubble diameters that were larger than 0.1 mm dur-
ing various stages of foam collapse. They also showed that the rate
of moisture dissipation was affected by the type and performance
grade (PG) of the binder, and foaming process.
Despite a steady increase in the use of foamed binder by the
construction industry, there is a need to better understand the fac-
tors that affect the foaming characteristics of asphalt binders and its
impact on mixture design and performance. The focus of this study
is to develop methods to quantitatively evaluate the quality of the
foamed asphalt binder. More specifically, this paper presents the
findings from a study conducted to:

© ASCE 04014078-1 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2014.26.

 • Develop a method and metrics to characterize the quality of
foamed asphalt binders;
• Evaluate the effect of water content, binder type, and foaming
device on the quality of the foamed asphalt binder;
• Quantify the residual moisture in foamed binders; and
• Investigate the effect of foaming on the high temperature proper-
ties of foamed binder residue.
Quality of Foamed Binder
In order to effectively use foamed binder to produce WMA, it is
important to understand the characteristics of the foamed asphalt
binder that influence mixture workability and performance. An
impediment to achieve this is the ability to precisely quantify the
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frequently (approximately 1 point per second) but was more robust.
The limitation in the data collection rate for the laser sensor may be
overcome using different hardware operating on the same principle.
The following method was used to measure the height and
corresponding change in the volume of the foam using the two pre-
viously mentioned sensors. The two sensors were mounted on a
tripod and aligned to point directly into a 1-gal. (3.79 L) can of
asphalt binder.. The sensors were at least 1 m away from the surface
of the can to avoid damage due to splatter from the hot foaming
asphalt binder. A tube was used to enclose the ultrasonic sensor
and prevent the sound waves from spreading to a larger area before
reaching the container. No such arrangement was necessary for the
laser sensor. The sensors were then connected to a computer using
their respective data acquisition systems. The distance of each

characteristics of the foamed binder in a laboratory environment
prior to mixture production. A review of the literature shows that
a graduated dipstick is commonly used to characterize foamed as-
phalt binders for WMA and base stabilization applications (He and
Wong 2006; Namutebi 2011). Most investigators have also regarded
the expansion ratio (ER) and half-life (HL) of the foam as mean-
ingful indicators for the quality of the foam (Abel 1978; Brennen
et al. 1983; Jenkins 2000; Namutebi 2011). In fact, similar metrics
(and bubble size distribution, which will be discussed subsequently
in this paper) are typically used to characterize foam in other indus-
tries such as food and polymer (Huang et al. 1997; Phillips et al.
1987; Wilde 1996). However, the dipstick method that is typically
used to measure both HL and ER is highly dependent on the oper-
ator because it is based on manual observation of foam height and
time. This approach is also limited to only two points in describing
the rate at which the foamed asphalt binder collapses. Also, the idea
of using HL to describe foaming characteristics of the binder implic-
itly assumes that the foam collapses following an exponential decay.
The introduction of foamed binder to produce WMA has prompted
the need to better understand the relationship between the quality
of the foamed binder and the WMA. In order to achieve this, it
is important to have an accurate and repeatable method to
characterize the quality of the foamed asphalt binders. The follow-
ing section describes the development of a method that can be used
to obtain both ER as well as the stability of the foam over time.
sensor from the bottom of a 1-gal. can was measured. Because the
bottom of the 1-gal. can was not perfectly smooth but corrugated to
improve stiffness, measurements were made to calibrate the weight
and volume of the binder to the height of the binder in the can. In
order to measure the decay in the foaming of an asphalt binder, a
sample of the foamed binder was dispensed into a 1-gal. container.
The container was immediately removed from underneath the
foamer and placed under the sensors to measure the height of the
foam as it collapsed over time. The ER was determined as the ratio
of the volume of the foamed asphalt to the volume of the same mass
of the asphalt binder without foaming. The volume of the foam (as a
function of time) was calculated using the diameter of the can and
height of the foam, which was measured using the sensors as it
collapsed over time. The same weight of binder used for foaming
was placed into a similar can, and the height of the binder in the can
was measured. The height of the binder and the diameter of the can
were used to calculate the volume of the binder without foaming.
Fig. 1 shows the setup of the sensors and Fig. 2 illustrates the
ER for a typical foamed asphalt binder using both the ultrasonic
and laser sensors. In Fig. 2, the electrical noise resulting from
the ultrasonic sensor measurement was filtered. Based on test

Test Methods
Two different types of sensors were used to measure the change in
height and corresponding volume of the foamed asphalt binder
in real time: (1) an ultrasonic sensor, and (2) a laser-based sensor.
In addition, digital imaging was also used to evaluate the change in
bubble size distribution on the surface of the foamed asphalt binder
over time. The following sections briefly describe the use of the
ultrasonic and laser-based sensors to measure the change in the
height and volume of the foamed binder.
The ultrasonic sensor comprises a transmitter and receiver to
measure the distance from the sensor to a surface based on time-
of-flight measurement. The laser-based sensor comprises an emitter
and detector to measure the distance from the sensor to a reflecting
surface based on the phase-shift principle. The main difference be-
tween the two methods is that the ultrasonic sensor measures the
height of the surface by reflecting sound waves over a circular area
of approximately 100 mm in diameter, whereas the laser sensor
measures the height of the surface by reflecting light of different
wavelengths over a very small circular spot of approximately 1 mm
in diameter. The ultrasonic sensor was able to collect data more
frequently (approximately 10 points per second) but was suscep-
tible to secondary sound reflections from the sidewalls of the con-
Fig. 1. Ultrasonic and laser sensors test setup
tainer if not properly centered. The laser sensor collects data less

© ASCE 04014078-2 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2014.26.

 19
17
15
13
Expansion Ratio
11
Raw Data_Ultrasonic
9 collapse
Raw Data_Laser
7 2γ
5 R
3 where Pbubble = pressure inside the bubble (Pa); Patm = atmospheric
1
0 30 60 90 120
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Time (s)
Fig. 2. Expansion ratio measurements using the two types of sensors
results collected in this study, both methods were promising in
terms of their ability to provide a detailed history of the change
in the ER of the foamed asphalt binder. However, the method using
the laser sensor was preferred for two reasons. First, it requires min-
imal hardware and software for set up and use. Second, the laser
can be pointed into the sampling container without interference
from other parts of the foaming unit. This allows measurement
of foam formation and collapse as it is being dispensed into the
sampling container.
Metrics to Evaluate the Quality of the Foam
The foaming unit homogenously combines a fine mist of water or
very fine droplets with the asphalt binder at elevated temperatures.
The water droplets turn into steam that expands and creates bubbles
in the asphalt binder. The following two mechanisms of bubble
growth and collapse are proposed based on a review of such mech-
anisms for asphalt and other materials in the literature (Schick
2004; Schramm 1994; Sunarjono 2008) as well as observations
made during this study.
Unstable and Short-Life Bubbles
In the case of larger water droplets (or coalescence of many fine
droplets) that turn into steam, the vapor pressure inside the bubble
causes the bubble diameter to grow rapidly to a point where the
bubble becomes unstable and collapses. Larger bubbles also have
a much higher velocity migrating to the surface (proportional to
the square of the diameter).
Semistable and Long-Life Bubbles
In the case of smaller water droplets that turn into steam, the vapor
pressure inside the bubble causes the bubble diameter to grow
rapidly as before. However, the bubble diameter reaches an equi-
librium size because the surface forces of the bubble balance the
internal pressure of the steam. The equilibrium bubble diameter
or radius was given by Laplace as shown in Eq. (1) (Pellicer et al.
2000). The internal pressure of the steam can be obtained from the
mass of the water droplet and using the ideal gas law. Eq. (1) also
demonstrates that the size of the bubble (and consequently the
expansion) is inversely related to the surface tension of the fluid
(asphalt binder in this case). As before, such bubbles migrate to-
wards the surface of the binder. However, the bubble velocity is
much lower due to the smaller size. In addition, as the temperature
of the foamed binder reduces, its viscosity increases and further
© ASCE
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2014.26.
reduces the speed of the bubbles. The relationship between bubble
velocity and bubble diameter is given by Stoke’s law in Eq. (2) and
clearly shows that the bubble velocity is directly proportional to the
square of the bubble diameter and inversely proportional to the vis-
cosity of the fluid. Finally, when such bubbles reach the surface of
the binder or cool down, the vapor pressure inside the bubbles re-
duces triggering an unstable reduction in the bubble diameter and
Pbubble − Patm ¼ ð1Þ
pressure (Pa); γ = surface tension of the binder (N=m); and R =
150 bubble radius (m).
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
18μV
D¼ ð2Þ
ðρf − ρb Þg
where V = rising velocity of the bubble (m=s); ρ = density of the
binder and the bubble (ρf , ρb ) (kg=m3 ); and μ = viscosity of the
binder (Pa · s).
In summary, the largest bubbles that contribute most to the ex-
pansion of the binder are also the most unstable and short-lived.
This effect was observed during the first few seconds as the foamed
binder collapses and is exaggerated at higher water contents that are
likely to result in larger water droplets and larger bubbles (Figs. 3
and 4). The collapse of the larger unstable bubbles was followed
by a gradual rise and collapse of relatively less unstable or semi-
stable smaller diameter bubbles. This effect was relatively clear at
lower water contents where bubbles continued to rise and collapse
with the smaller bubbles taking the longest to rise and collapse
(Figs. 5 and 6).
Based on the previously mentioned understanding of foaming in
asphalt binders, the following metrics were used to characterize the
foamed asphalt binder. The ER versus time data obtained using the
laser device was first smoothened to remove any noise due to mea-
surements over bubble surfaces and differences among replicate
measurements. The following function was found to fit best the
data obtained from testing the different binder, water content,
and foaming equipment combinations:
ERt ¼ 1 þ ae−bt þ ðERmax − a − 1Þe−ct ð3Þ
In Eq. (3), ERt is the expansion ratio at any time t; a, b, and c are
constants; and ERmax is the maximum expansion ratio that was di-
rectly measured during the foaming process. Based on the form of
this equation, it may be tempting to conclude that the overall decay
observed in the foam is the sum effect of two different decay proc-
esses proceeding at different rates. However, it must be noted that
the previous equation was used only for data reduction purposes
and it is premature to interpret the phenomenon purely based on
this mathematical form. In fact, observations of the foam decay pro-
cess suggests that it may be more appropriate to model the collapse
in the semistable foam after the first few seconds of foaming when
the foam is in the semistable stage. This will be discussed in more
detail in the following section.
Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate the typical measurements for the ER of
the binder versus time for a typical asphalt binder (denoted as A6)
at 1 and 3% moisture content. The discrete points illustrate the raw
data and the continuous line shows the fit. The high ER shown in
Fig. 3 is extremely short lived and the collapse of foam is faster as
compared with the lower water content presented in Fig. 4, where
the foam collapse is slower. The figures also illustrate a digitally
inverted image of the surface of the foamed binder with bubbles
at different points in time (bright annular bands indicate locations
04014078-3 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 17

15

13

Expansion Ratio
11

7
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1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (s)

Fig. 3. Binder A6 with 3% water content

of bubbles). As discussed previously, the foamed binder with 3%

water content initially expands much more than the foamed binder
with 1% water content. However, the foamed binder at the lower
water content is more stable or semistable and clearly shows the
migration and collapse of bubbles at the surface with the diameter
of the bubbles decreasing with time.
Selected images of the foamed surface at different points in time
were analyzed using an image processing and analysis program,
ImageJ (Schneider et al. 2012), to obtain the size and distribution
of the bubble diameter on the surface. The following is a brief de-
scription of the methodology used to obtain this distribution. A dig-
ital camera with a flash pointing directly into the foamed container
was used to periodically photograph the surface of the foamed
binder. Due to the spherical nature of the bubbles, light from
the flash is reflected strongly at the center of the bubble and along
the edges of the bubble. The highlight at the center and edge com-
bined with the low reflection of the curved surface (between the
bubble center and edge) creates a distinct high-contrast annular ring
for each bubble. The outer circumference of this annular ring is Fig. 4. Binder A6 with 1% water content
used as a measure of the bubble diameter. The image analysis is
achieved in three steps. The first step is to convert the image to
a black and white image using ImageJ; this step demarcates the (Kutay and Ozturk 2012). This may be considered for future work.
bubble boundaries from the center of the bubble. The second step Figs. 5 and 6 show the size distribution of bubbles at three different
is to identify individual bubble boundaries on the image. This was points in time on the surface of the A6 asphalt binder foamed with 3
achieved using Hough transformation, which is an algorithm typ- and 1% water contents, respectively. The figures show that the bub-
ically used to identify circular boundaries. The boundaries identi- ble diameter at the surface becomes smaller as the foam continues
fied using this transformation were overlaid onto the image and to collapse over time. This is consistent with what can be expected
manually compared and corrected for any artifacts. The final step from Eq. (2) in that the larger-diameter bubbles rise to the surface
was to use the particle analysis feature in ImageJ to obtain the size faster. In addition, the effect of water content and time on the mean
(and location) of individual bubbles. Each image was calibrated diameter of the bubbles is clearly visible from the two figures.
with the known internal diameter of the container to convert the The following metrics were considered to characterize foamed
image dimensions from pixels to millimeters. This analysis could asphalt binders:
only be conducted on images obtained after approximately 15 s of • Maximum expansion ratio: This is the ratio of the maximum
foaming when the large unstable bubbles had collapsed and smaller volume occupied by the foamed asphalt binder to the volume
semistable bubbles became clearly discernible. The authors also occupied by the same mass of the binder without any water
recognize that use of images from the surface of the foamed binder or foam in it. During initial testing there was a short delay in
provides only partial validation of the proposed mechanism and moving the container from underneath the foamer to placing
metrics. An alternative validation can be obtained by using the it under the sensor. In this case, the maximum height of the foam
three-dimensional (3D) images of the bulk of the foamed binder was obtained by directly measuring the height of binder coating
using methods such as X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning on the inside of the container. The variability in the maximum

© ASCE 04014078-4 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2014.26.

 11
Expansion Ratio
7
5
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1
0 10 20 30
Fig. 5. Change of bubble size distribution of A6 binder at 3% water content with time
Fig. 6. Change of bubble size distribution of A6 binder at 1% water
content with time
expansion ratio between replicates was less than 5%. In subse-
quent tests it was possible to place the container directly under-
neath the dispensing spigot of the foaming unit with the laser
sensor positioned on top of the container. In this case, the max-
imum value was measured by the laser sensor as well as by
recording the height of the binder coating on the inside of
the container. The variability in the maximum expansion ratio
between replicates as well as between the two methods of
measurement (direct measurement of coating line inside the
container and laser) was typically 5%.
• Half-life: This is the time in seconds it takes ERmax of the binder
to reduce in half. It was found that the HL for all the combina-
tions of binder, water content, and foaming equipment obtained
so far was in the range of 1–4 s. This parameter was not very
repeatable and was associated with the more turbulent collapse
of larger unstable bubbles in the foamed binders.
• Rate of collapse of semistable foam: Based on the results ob-
tained thus far, a significant portion of the unstable bubbles
collapsed during the first few seconds after foaming. The rate
© ASCE
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (s)
of collapse of the semistable foam was determined as the para-
meter k obtained by fitting the ER versus time to an exponential
curve: ERt ¼ 1 þ ce−kt . The ER after 10 s of foaming was used
to determine this parameter. The 10 s cutoff was selected based
on analyses on the change in decaying trends due to collapse of
bubbles over time. Initially, the foam decays at a faster rate due
to collapse of unstable and short-life bubbles. The decaying rate
starts to decrease as the semistable bubbles start to collapse. The
change in trend between the two rates was close to 10 s for most
of the data collected.
The maximum expansion ratio, ERmax , and the rate of collapse
of the semistable foam, k, were used in the remainder of the tasks to
evaluate the effect of water content, foaming equipment, and binder
type. The findings from these evaluations suggest that these param-
eters may be reasonable to characterize the different foamed
binders.
Materials and Experiment Plan
Three binders from two sources were used to evaluate the sensitiv-
ity of the test methods to the three most common factors associated
with foamed asphalt binders: moisture content, type of binder, and
type of foamer. One of the three binders was a PG64-22 (denoted as
A6) and the other two binders were PG70-22 (denoted as A7 and
V7). Water content used for foaming was varied from 1 to 5%. The
A7 and A6 binders were foamed at 1, 3, and 5% water contents, and
the V7 binder was foamed at 1, 2, and 3% water content. All
foamed binders were produced at a temperature of 160°C. The rel-
atively lower water contents used when foaming the V7 binder was
because of its tendency to expand more than the other two binders.
All three binders were foamed using Wirtgen and Accufoamer
(from D+H and InstroTek) foaming units. The quality of the foam
was evaluated based on ERmax and k of the semistable foam for all
binder-water content combinations produced using these two foam-
ing units. ERmax represents the workability of the foamed asphalt
binder and affects dispersion of the foamed binder in the mix. Foam
with higher ERmax has a lower overall viscosity and easily coats
aggregate particles. The parameter k represents the stability of the
foam and affects the time available for mixing before the semistable
foam collapses. Foam with a lower k decays at a lower rate and has
more effective time to coat the aggregate particles.
04014078-5 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2014.26.
 19 10

17 9

15 8

Expansion Ratio
Expansion Ratio
13 7

11 6

9 5

7 4

5 3

3 2

1
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1
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
(a) Time (s) (b) Time (s)

Fig. 7. Two replicates of expansion ratio measurements using laser sensor

The control and foamed binder residues from the Accufoamer
were also short-term aged in the rolling thin film oven (RTFO)
using the ASTM D2872 (ASTM 2012) procedure. In the case
of foamed binders, the samples were poured into RTFO bottles just
after foaming. Temperature-frequency sweep testing was con-
ducted at a strain of 10% on a 25-mm-diameter parallel plate geom-
etry at frequencies between 0.1 and 25 Hz. Testing temperatures
were 58, 64, 70, and 76°C for the PG64-22 control and foamed
binder residues, and 64, 70, 76, and 82°C for the PG70-22 control
and foamed binder residues. For the PG70-22 (V7) binder control
and foamed with 2% water content, weight measurements were
also conducted after 0, 15, 30, 60, and 85 min of RTFO aging
at 163°C. At least two replicates of each test were performed. Fig. 7
illustrates the ER for two replicates of a typical foamed asphalt
binder using the laser sensor. A summary of the materials and
devices used for the experimental design is provided in Table 1.
Results and Analysis
Influence of Water Content and Laboratory Foaming
Units
Characteristics of foamed asphalt binders produced using the
Wirtgen and Accufoamer foaming devices were compared. The
two units produce foamed asphalt binder differently, resulting in
possibly different foam structure and property. There are two
notable differences between the Accufoamer and the Wirtgen
foamer. First, the nozzle types that spray the binder and the water
to produce the foamed mix are different. Second, the Wirtgen
foamer produces the foam by directing the two nozzles at each
by directing the two nozzles at each other but the foam is produced
inside a small mixing chamber before being dispensed through
a 0.25-in. (2.54 cm) tube to a container or mixer. As a result,
the Accufoamer dispenses approximately 200 g of foamed binder
in 10–12 s, while the Wirtgen dispenses approximately 200 g of
binder in 2 s. This arrangement also slightly reduces the maximum
expansion achieved by the Accufoamer as the foamed binder is
being dispensed. Notwithstanding these differences, the goal of this
exercise was to determine whether the characteristics of different
foamed binders at different water contents were similar for the
two foaming units. Fig. 8 compares ERmax for the different binders
at different water contents produced using the Accufoamer and
Wirtgen foaming units.
The following observations can be made based on data
presented in Fig. 8:
• Different binders clearly have different values at the same water
content. This finding was consistent with foams produced using
both foaming units.
• For any given binder, increases with an increase in the water
content and the relationship appear to be linear. This was con-
sistent for data collected using both Wirtgen and Accufoamer
units. The trends for the water content versus ERmax were
similar for the two foaming units. However, the foams pro-
duced using Accufoamer exhibited slightly lower ERmax values.
25
20
Expansion Ratio

other. The resulting foam is dispensed into a container directly

15
as it is being formed. The Accufoamer also produces the foam

10
Table 1. Summary of Materials and Devices
Variable Levels
5
Foaming device Accufoamer A6 Wirtgen A6 Accufoamer A7 Wirtgen
Wirtgen A7 Accufoamer V7 Wirtgen V7 Accufoamer
Water content 1, 3, 5% for A6 and A7 0
1, 2, 3% for V7 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6%
Binder source Source 1 (A6 and A7) Water Content (%)
Source 2 (V7)
Measuring device Laser Fig. 8. Influence of water content and binder type on the maximum
Ultrasonic (selected trials only) expansion ratio of asphalt foams

© ASCE 04014078-6 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2014.26.

 0.020
Rate of Semistable Bubble Collapse
0.015
0.010
0.005
A6 Wirtgen
A7 Wirtgen
V7 Wirtgen
0.000
0% 1% 2% 3%
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Water Content (%)
Fig. 9. Influence of water content and binder type on the rate of col-
lapse of the semistable foam
This can be attributed to the differences in the dispensing me-
chanisms between the two devices: the Accufoamer creates the
foam in a small enclosed chamber and dispenses it through a
0.25-in. diameter tube into the container, whereas the Wirtgen
foamer creates the foam under atmospheric pressure and is
dispensed directly into the container.
• The V7 binder was more sensitive to water content compared
with the A6 and A7 binders. Also, both A6 and A7 binders
had similar sensitivity to water content. The A6 and A7 binders
were from the same refinery and possibly produced using the
same crude oil, whereas the V7 binder was from a different
refinery. According to Eqs. (1) and (2), properties of the binder
such as its surface tension and viscosity are related to the
maximum expansion and stability of the foamed binders. The
surface tension and viscosity of the V7 binder were very
different from that of the A6 and A7 binders. Researchers spec-
ulate that these differences influence the efficiency with which
water mixes with the asphalt binder during the production of the
foam, and consequently on the maximum expansion ratio and
rate of collapse.
Fig. 10. Surface of foamed asphalt binder at approximately 30 s after foaming in the Wirtgen for the same binder at (a) 3% water content; (b) 1%
water content
© ASCE
The rates of collapse, k, of the semistable foam using the two
different foaming units are presented in Fig. 9. This rate corre-
sponds with the rate of collapse of foam after the first 10 s of foam-
ing. As discussed previously, during the first few seconds the foam
collapses very rapidly in a turbulent manner. The following simi-
larities and differences are observed in the rate of collapse of
the foam:
• For both foaming units, an increase in the water content resulted
in an increase in k. This is consistent with the hypothesized me-
chanism described previously in this paper. Higher water con-
A6 Accufoamer
tent typically results in larger droplet sizes and larger bubbles,
A7 Accufoamer
V7 Accufoamer
which in turn have a higher velocity to move to the surface (at a
given temperature and viscosity) and collapse faster, and lower
4% 5% 6%
water contents produce smaller bubbles that take more time to
come to the surface and collapse. This effect is also illustrated
through Figs. 10 and 11, which show the bubble size distribu-
tion of the surface of the binder at two different water contents
after approximately 30 s of foaming.
• The rate of collapse from both foaming units was in the similar
range or order of magnitude. Although the general trend for the
rate of collapse with respect to increasing water content was
similar for both foaming units, the rate of collapse of the semi-
stable foam was typically higher for the Accufoamer compared
with the Writgen foaming unit. This could be due to the differ-
ences in the delivery of the foamed binder between the two units
(direct versus through a tube).
Higher water contents result in higher ER but also faster k val-
ues (Figs. 8 and 9). An interesting consequence of the combination
of these two effects is that a binder foamed with higher water con-
tent will start out with a higher ER compared with binders foamed
with lower water contents. However, over time binders foamed with
lower water content will tend to be relatively more stable and retain
this expansion longer. This effect is illustrated in Figs. 12 and 13.
Also, the almost instantaneous collapse of the foamed binder sug-
gests that the HL of the foamed binder may not be of relevance in a
real mixture production scenario at a hot mix plant. Of greater im-
portance is the state of the foamed asphalt binder after it is exposed
to the atmospheric pressure (as in a drum mix plant) for the few
minutes during which time the binder is mixed with the aggregates.
04014078-7 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2014.26.
 0.25 0.2
3% Water Content at 30s 1% Water Content at 33s
Weibull distribution fit Weibull distribution fit

0.2
0.15

0.15
Density

Density
0.1

0.1
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by New York University on 05/14/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

0.05
0.05

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
(a) Bubble Diameter (mm) (b) Bubble Diameter (mm)

Fig. 11. Bubble size distribution of A6 binder at (a) 3; (b) 1% water content

25 3.0

21
2.5 1% water content
1% water content 2% water content
17
Expansion Ratio
Expansion Ratio

2% water content 3% water content

3% water content
13 2.0

9
1.5

1.0
1 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time (s)
Time (s)

Fig. 12. Foam decay in PG70-22 valero binder Fig. 13. Foam decay in PG70-22 Valero: magnified view of expansion
from 1 to 3 min

Residual Moisture in Foamed Binder

As discussed previously, one of the mechanisms associated with the
collapse of the foamed asphalt binder is when the internal steam
pressure causes the bubble diameter to increase to a point where
the tensile stresses in the bubble film cause the bubble to collapse
and the entrapped steam to escape. However, it is possible that not
all the water used for foaming escapes as steam during this process.
To investigate this, the V7 binder at 2% water content was poured
into RTFO bottles after foaming and aged in the RTFO at 163°C.
Weight measurements were taken for the foamed binder sample as
well as the control binder after 0, 15, 30, 60, and 85 min of RTFO
aging. Two replicates of each test were performed. Fig. 14 illus-
trates the weight loss during RTFO aging in the foamed as well
as the control binder. Note that the weight loss in a typical binder,
as in the case of the control, is associated with the loss of volatiles
during short-term aging. Although this data is limited, it is clear that
the foamed binder has a greater weight loss compared to the control
suggesting that presence of residual water from the foaming pro-
cess. The error bars in this figure indicate the high and low values
for the weight loss. It is clear that the variability in weight loss for
the foamed binder is significantly higher than the control. This is
expected because any trapped moisture may not be homogenously
distributed. Also, since the total initial water content was 2% by
mass of the binder, even a small increase in percent points of weight
loss indicates significant fraction of the residual water. It is also
observed that the weight loss in the foamed binder slowly
approaches that of the control as it aged.
Rheological Properties of Foamed Residue
The presence of residual water entrapped in the binder may alter its
rheological properties. Also, the presence of water during the foam-
ing and short-term aging processes may promote oxidative aging of
asphalt binders. Rheological tests were conducted on foamed

© ASCE 04014078-8 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2014.26.

 3.0%
of foamed binders (i.e., foam expansion and stability). These met-
V7 with 2% water content rics were used to compare the foaming characteristics of different
V7 Control binders produced using two different laboratory devices. Research-
ers envision that the findings from this study will be used to com-
2.0% pare additional laboratory foaming devices and field samples in
Mass Loss

future research. Future work will also focus on physical modeling

of foam decay process as well as on the relationship of the metrics
identified in this paper to the workability, coatability, and perfor-
1.0% mance of WMA mixtures.
The following conclusions were drawn on the basis of the re-
sults from this study:
• A laser- or ultrasonic-based distance-measuring sensor can be
0.0% used to characterize the decay in the foamed binder in an accu-
15 30 60 85 rate and repeatable manner. The procedure described in this
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RTFO Aging Time (minutes)

paper was sensitive to distinguish between foaming character-
Fig. 14. Weight loss in foamed and control binder during RTFO aging istics of different asphalt binders as well as influence of water
content on the foaming characteristics of any given asphalt bin-
der. This procedure can be used in future studies to relate the
foaming characteristics of different asphalt binders to the work-
Table 2. DSR Test Results of RTFO-Aged Binders ability, coatability, and performance properties of full asphalt
G
= sin δ at
mixtures.
Increase in high PG • The foaming characteristics of different asphalt binders (expan-
High PG Continuous continuous tempeature sion and time stability) varied with the source and type of the
Binder Type grade grade PG grade (kPa) asphalt binder in addition to external factors such as water
content.
A6 Control (%) PG64 66.5 — 3.08
1 67.7 1.2 3.78 • For any given asphalt binder, the ERmax increased with an in-
3 67.0 0.5 3.31 crease in the water content and the relationship appears to be
5 67.0 0.5 3.12 linear. However, an increase in the water content also resulted
A7 Control (%) PG70 74.2 — 3.36 in an increase in the k of the foam. This finding was consistent
1 74.7 0.5 3.54 with the previous literature that evaluated foamed asphalt for
3 74.3 0.1 3.45 soil stabilization purposes. However, previous studies have also
5 74.5 0.3 3.52 suggested that the collapse of foam over time follows an expo-
V7 Control (%) PG70 72.0 — 2.75 nential decay process. Data collected in this study using a more
1 74.7 2.7 3.66
precise and faster method to measure expansion indicate that
2 74.8 2.8 3.71
3 74.7 2.7 3.64 the asphalt foam does collapse following an exponential decay
form, but only after the first few seconds after foaming. During
the first few seconds (typically 3–5 s), the ER of the foam
diminishes significantly at a much faster rate. This observa-
binder residues using the dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) to verify
whether these effects exist. The high temperature grades of the con- tion was consistent for the foam evaluated using laboratory
trol binders used for foaming were determined after RTFO aging in foaming units for all nine combinations of water contents
accordance with AASHTO M320 (AASHTO 2010). Similarly, the and binder types. In the context of workability of foamed bin-
residues of the foamed binders were RTFO aged and subsequently ders to effectively coat the aggregate particles, the maximum
graded to determine the impact of foaming on the high temperature expansion ratio may be relatively less important compared with
PG. In the case of RTFO aging of foamed binders, samples of other factors such as rate of collapse of the semistable foam.
the foamed binder were poured into RTFO bottles immediately This will be explored in future work being conducted by the
after completion of the foaming measurements that lasted for a authors.
few minutes. Table 2 presents the results of the high-temperature • The characteristics of foamed asphalt binders produced using
performance tests for all binders. The coefficient of variation for two different laboratory foaming devices were evaluated in this
the data was less than 5%. There was a slight increase in the high- study and k of semistable foam were used as the metrics for this
temperature continuous grade of the binders (based on RTFO-aged comparison. Results show that these two metrics were different
binder). Foaming increased the continuous high temperature grade for the two foaming units. However, the metrics were in the
of binders A6, A7, and V7 on average by 0.7, 0.3, and 2.7°C similar range for the two devices and the relative trends for
compared with their respective controls. The increase was similar different combinations of water content and asphalt binders
for all water contents. were also similar.
• During the first 15 min of RTFO aging of the foamed binder,
the binder continued to lose more mass than the control binder,
Conclusions and Discussion indicating the presence of residual moisture from the foaming
process. However, upon the completion of RTFO aging process
In order to effectively use foamed binder to produce WMA mix- the mass loss from the foamed binder sample was similar to the
tures, it is important to quantitatively characterize the foaming char- mass loss from the control binder.
acteristics of different asphalt binders and to evaluate the impact of • The high-temperature continuous grade of foamed binders was
foaming on the workability and performance of different WMA slightly higher than the control binders after RTFO aging. The
mixtures. This study focused on the former objective, i.e., to de- magnitude of this increase varied with the type of binder and
velop a method and concomitant metrics to characterize the quality was most significant for one of the PG 76-22 binders.

© ASCE 04014078-9 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2014.26.

 Acknowledgments
This study was conducted as part of the National Cooperative
Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Project 9-53 “Properties
of Foamed Asphalt for Warm Mix Asphalt Applications.” The
support of NCHRP is greatly appreciated.
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