COMPUTER

SCIENCE
A Breadth-First Approach with С

John Impagliazzo
Paul Nagin
Hofstra University
Hempstead, New York

®
John Wiley & Sons
New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto Singapore
 Contents

1 Introduction to Computing Systems

1.1 A P a n o r a m a of C o m p u t e r Science 3
Introduction, 3
1.1.1 The Elements of Computing, 3
1.1.2 The Social Context of Computing, 5
1.1.3 End-User Applications, 7
Exercises 1.1, 8
1.2 C o m p u t e r H a r d w a r e a n d Software 10
Introduction, 10
1.2.1 Preliminaries, 10
1.2.2 Peripheral Input and Output Devices, 11
1.2.3 More on Hardware Basics, 15
1.2.4 Software Basics, 17
1.2.5 Communications Basics, 18
Exercises 1.2, 19
1.3 Computing Perspectives 22
Introduction, 22
1.31 Evolution of Computer Hardware and
Software, 22
1.3-2 von Neumann and Non-von Neumann
Architectures, 28
1-3-3 Professional Roles, 32
1.3-4 The Future of Computing, 32
Exercises 1.3, 33

2 Problem-Solving Concepts
2.1 T h e Analytic A p p r o a c h 38
Introduction, 38
2.1.1 Problem-Solving Approaches, 38
2.1.2 The Analytic Approach, 39
2.1.3 Unsolvable Problems, 42
Exercises 2.1, 42
2.2 T h e Algorithmic A p p r o a c h 44
Introduction, 44
2.2.1 Algorithms, 44
2.2.2 Phases of Algorithmic Problem Solving, 48
2.2.3 Sequence, 48
2.2.4 Selection, 51
2.2.5 Repetition, 54
CONTENTS

2.2.6 Conditional Looping, 56

Exercises 2.2, 59

3 Elements of the C Language

31 Background a n d Structure of С 64
Introduction, 64
3-1.1 History of C, 64
3-1.2 A Simple Program in C, 65
3-1-3 A High-Quality С Program, 67
Exercises 3-1, 71
3-2 Data Types, Variables, a n d I n p u t / O u t p u t 73
Introduction, 73
3-2.1 int Data Type, 73
3-2.2 float and double Data Types, 74
3-2.3 char Data Type, 74
3-2.4 Naming Conventions, 75
3-2.5 Symbolic Constants, 76
3-2.6 Variables, 77
3-2.7 Input and Output, 78
Exercises 3-2, 80
3.3 Arithmetic in С 82
Introduction, 82
3-3-1 Operator Precedence, 82
3-3-2 Integer Arithmetic, 84
3-3-3 Mixed-Mode Arithmetic, 85
3-3-4 Assignment Statements, 86
3-3-5 Increment and Decrement Operators, 89
3-3-6 Type Casting, 90
Exercises 3-3, 91

4 Computer Logic and Architecture

4.1 N u m b e r Systems 95
Introduction, 95
4.1.1 Binary Codes: ASCII and EBCDIC, 95
4.1.2 Positional Notation, 97
4.1.3 Binary to Decimal Conversion, 99
4.1.4 Decimal to Binary Conversion, 103
4.1.5 Negative Numbers in Twos Complement Form, 106
4.1.6 Addition and Multiplication, 108
4.1.7 Subtraction and Division, 112
Exercises 4.1, 114
4.2 Logic a n d Computers 115
Introduction, 115
4.2.1 Logic and Binary Systems, 116
4.2.2 Truth Tables: NOT, AND, OR, XOR, 117
4.2.3 Logic Gates, 119
4.2.4 Logic Functions Using Gates, 120
4.2.5 Equivalent Circuits, 122
4.2.6 Relational and Logical Operators in C, 126
Exercises 4.2, 130
 CONTENTS XVI i

4.3 Machine Representation of N u m b e r s 132

Introduction, 132
4.3-1 Integers and Real Numbers, 132
4.3-2 Floating-Point Numbers, 134
4.3-3 Precision and Accuracy, 138
4.3-4 Machine and Program Considerations, 140
Exercises 4.3, 141

5 Functions and Control Structures 143

5.1 Functions 145
Introduction, 145
5.1.1 Writing Functions, 145
5.1.2 Functions with Arguments, 147
5.1.3 Function Prototypes, 151
Exercises 5.1, 152
5.2 Selection Structures 154
Introduction, 154
5.2.1 One-Way Selection Using the if Statement, 154
5.2.2 Two-Way Selection Using the if...else
Statement, 157
5.2.3 Multiple Selection Using the if Ladder, 161
5.2.4 Multiple Selection Using the switch Statement, 165
Exercises 5-2, 170
5.3 Looping Structures 172
Introduction, 172
5-3-1 Conditional Looping Using the while Statement, 172
5-3-2 Conditional Looping Using the do...while
Statement, 174
5-3-3 Iterative Looping Using the for Statement, 177
5.3-4 Nested Loops, 180
Exercises 5-3, 186

6 Operating Systems 191

6.1 W i n d o w s to H a r d w a r e 193
Introduction, 193
6.1.1 The System Executive, 193
6.1.2 Timesharing, 195
6.1.3 Scheduling Algorithms, 198
6.1.4 Protection and Security, 200
Exercises 6.1, 201
6.2 System Tools a n d Virtual Memory 202
Introduction, 202
6.2.1 Editors and Debuggers, 203
6.2.2 Assemblers, Compilers, and Interpreters, 203
6.2.3 Linkers and Loaders, 205
6.2.4 Virtual Memory, 206
6.2.5 Pages and Page Frames, 206
6.2.6 Other Considerations with Virtual Memory, 209
6.2.7 Large-Scale and Personal Computers, 211
Exercises 6.2, 212
xviii CONTENTS

7 Arrays 214
7.1 Overview of Arrays 216
Introduction, 216
7.1.1 Array Basics, 216
7.1.2 Using Arrays, 218
7.1.3 Initializing Arrays, 224
Exercises 7.1, 225
7.2 Arrays a n d Functions 227
Introduction, 227
7.2.1 Using Arrays with Functions, 227
Exercises 7.2, 238
7.3 Higher-Dimensional Arrays 240
Introduction, 240
7.3-1 Matrices, 240
7.3-2 Passing Multidimensional Arrays, 245
Exercises 7.3, 250
7.4 String Processing 251
Introduction, 251
7.4.1 Fundamentals of Strings, 251
7.4.2 String Input/Output, 252
7.4.3 Built-in String Functions, 253
7.4.4 Examples of Character and String Processing, 255
Exercises 7.4, 260

8 Data Communications 262

8.1 Communications Overview 264
Introduction, 264
8.1.1 Data Communications and Standards, 264
8.1.2 Digital and Analog Transmission, 266
8.1.3 Modems, 268
8.1.4 Communications Media and Modalities, 269
8.1.5 Protocols, 272
Exercises 8.1, 275
8.2 Parity a n d Error in Communications 277
Introduction, 277
8.2.1 Parity, 277
8.2.2 Error Detection and Correction, 280
8.2.3 Hamming Codes and Error Detection, 281
8.2.4 Error-Correcting Codes, 282
Exercises 8.2, 291

9 Pointers and Function Parameters 294

9.1 Pointers 296
Introduction, 296
9.1.1 An Overview of Pointer Variables, 297
Exercises 9.1, 299
9.2 Functions with O u t p u t Parameters 302
Introduction, 302
9.2.1 Input and Output Parameters, 302
9.2.2 Inout Parameters, 306
 CONTENTS XIX

9.2.3 Variable Scope, 309

Exercises 9.2, 311
10 Software Engineering 314
10.1 T h e Software Engineering A p p r o a c h 316
Introduction, 316
10.1.1 Tools for Algorithmic Design, 316
10.1.2 Design Strategies: Bottom-Up or Top-Down, 317
10.1.3 Formal Problem Statement, 318
10.1.4 The Waterfall Model, 319
10.1.5 Program Maintenance, 320
Exercises 10.1, 321
10.2 T h e Software Life Cycle: T w o Applications 322
Introduction, 322
10.2.1 First Application: Grading Problem, 323
10.2.2 Second Application: Payroll Calculations, 326
Exercises 10.2, 335

11 Data Structures 338

11.1 Tools for Creating Data Structures 340
Introduction, 340
11.1.1 The Array Revisited, 341
11.1.2 The enum Specifier, 342
11.1.3 The typedef Specifier, 343
11.1.4 The struct Specifier, 344
Exercises 11.1, 350
11.2 ADT Stacks 352
Introduction, 352
11.2.1 The ADT Stack, 354
11.2.2 Implementing the Stack as an Array, 358
11.2.3 Postfix Arithmetic Using a Stack, 364
Exercises 11.2, 366
11.3 ADT Q u e u e s 368
Introduction, 368
11.3-1 The ADT Queue, 369
11.3-2 Implementing the Queue as a Circular
Array, 373
Exercises 11.3, 381

12 Databases 383
12.1 An Overview of Files a n d Databases 385
Introduction, 385
12.1.1 Records, 385
12.1.2 Files, 387
12.1.3 Databases, 394
12.1.4 Database Entities and Attributes, 395
Exercises 12.1, 397
12.2 Logical Database Models 399
Introduction, 399
12.2.1 Overview of logical Models, 399
12.2.2 The Entity-Relationship Model, 400
XX CONTENTS

12.23 The Hierarchical and Network

Models, 401
12.2.4 The Relational Model, 404
12.2.5 A Database Program, 407
Exercises 12.2, 418
13 Dynamic Lists 421
13-1 M e m o r y Allocation a n d Dynamically Linked Stacks 423
Introduction, 423
13.1.1 The ADT Stack Revisited, 424
13-1.2 Tools for Dynamic Memory Allocation, 425
13 13 The Dynamic Stack: An Informal Tour, 426
13-1.4 Implementing the ADT Stack, 430
131-5 Dynamically Allocating Arrays, 434
Exercises 13.1, 439
13-2 Dynamically Linked Q u e u e s 440
Introduction, 440
13-2.1 The ADT Queue Revisited, 441
13.2.2 Implementing the ADT Queue, 442
Exercises 13-2, 447
153 Generalized Linked Lists 449
Introduction, 449
133-1 ADT Linked Lists, 449
133-2 Implementing the ADT Linked-List Functions, 451
13-33 Other Linked Structures, 459
Exercises 133, 461

14 Programming Languages 463

14.1 Overview of Programming Languages 465
Introduction, 465
14.1.1 Historical Perspectives, 465
14.1.2 Grammars, Syntax, and Semantics, 468
14.1.3 What Makes a Language Tick?, 471
Exercises 14.1, 472
14.2 Language Paradigms 474
Introduction, 474
14.2.1 Imperative Languages, 475
14.2.2 Object-Oriented Languages, 476
14.2.3 Applicative Languages, 479
14.2.4 Declarative Languages, 481
14.2.5 Reflections, 483
Exercises 14.2, 484

15 Recursive Algorithms 486

15.1 Thinking Recursively 488
Introduction, 488
15.1.1 Examples of Recursive Functions, 488
151.2 Recursion and Reversal, 491
15.1-3 How Recursion Works: The Run-Time
Stack, 494
Exercises 15 1, 496
 CONTENTS XXJ

15.2 Applying Recursion 498

Introduction, 498
15.2.1 Applications of Recursion with ADTs, 498
15-2.2 An Application from Medical Imaging, 504
15.2.3 Final Comments on Recursion, 507
Exercises 15.2, 508

16 Searching and Sorting Algorithms 510

16.1 Linear a n d Binary Search 512
Introduction, 512
16.1.1 Linear Search: Unordered Data Structures, 512
16.1.2 Binary Search: Ordered Data Structures, 516
Exercises 16.1, 519
16.2 Sorting Functions 520
Introduction, 520
16.2.1 Simple Sorts: Selection and Insertion, 521
16.2.2 Advanced Sorting: Shell Sort and
Quicksort, 529
16.2.3 The Best Sort of All?, 533
Exercises 16.2, 535

17 Numerical Algorithms 538

17.1 Zeros of Functions 540
Introduction, 540
17.1.1 Functions and Their Zeros, 540
17.1.2 The Bisection Method, 544
17.1.3 The Secant Method, 550
17.1.4 The Newton-Raphson Algorithm, Abbreviated, 555
17.1.5 Reflections, 561
Exercises 17.1, 562
17.2 Solving Systems of Equations 564
Introduction, 564
17.2.1 Two Equations in Two Unknowns, 564
17-2.2 Gaussian Elimination, 566
17.2.3 Matrix Reduction of Equations, 568
17-2.4 Gaussian Elimination with Backward Substitution, 573
17-2.5 Gauss-Seidel Iteration, 578
Exercises 17.2, 582
17.3 Differentiation a n d Integration 584
Introduction, 584
173-1 The Meaning of Differentiation, 585
17.3-2 Algorithms for Approximating Derivatives, 589
17.3-3 The Meaning of Integration, 593
17.3-4 Algorithms for Integrals, 595
17.3-5 Reflections, 603
Exercises 17.3, 604

18 Theoretical Perspectives in Computing 608

18.1 Finite-State a n d Turing Machines 610
Introduction, 610
18.1.1 Finite-State Machines, 610
xxii CONTENTS

18.1.2 Graphs and Finite-State Machines, 613

18.1.3 Turing Machines, 615
18.1.4 Turing Machines and Computability, 618
Exercises 18.1, 620
18.2 Algorithmic Efficiency and Complexity 622
Introduction, 622
18.2.1 Two Search Algorithms, 622
18.2.2 Big-O Notation, 627
18.2.3 Analysis of Search Algorithms, 631
18.2.4 Further Thoughts About Complexity, 637
Exercises 18.2, 638
19 Artificial Intelligence 641
19.1 Areas of Inquiry 643
Introduction, 643
19.1.1 Basic Issues, 643
19.1.2 Expert Systems, 645
19.1.3 Natural-Language Processing, 648
Exercises 19.1, 649
19.2 Case Study: Computer Vision 650
Introduction, 650
19.2.1 The Digital Image, 652
19.2.2 The Low-Level Module, 655
19.2.3 An Example of Low-Level Processing, 658
19.2.4 High-Level Module, 664
Exercises 19.2, 666
APPENDIXES 669
A-l Common Functions in stdio.h File 670
A-2 Common Functions in math.h File 671
A-3 Common Functions in ctype.h File 672
A-4 Common Functions in stdlib.h File 673
A-5 Common Functions in string.h File 674
B. Escape Sequences 675
С Keywords in С 676
D. С Operators: Precedence and Associativity 681
E. ASCII / EBCDIC Character Codes 682
F. Derivation of Simpson's Rule 690
ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 693
PHOTO CREDITS 727
INDEX 729