1.

0CLASSIFICATION
1.0 CLASSIFICATION BY
BYPROPERTIES
PROPERTIES

Thermosetting Polymer

Structure

Structure of Thermosetting Polymer

 A pre-polymer, or backbone, resin is reacted with a crosslinking agent

under heat and pressure to form a crosslinked network. Thermoset
network formation can also be achieved without heat and pressure by
Formation
using radiation or room temperature initiators / promoters.
Process
 When processed, a thermoset material undergoes a chemical change;
that is, a chemical reaction occurs as the crosslinking agent chemically
bonds to the polymer backbone resin.

 Material cannot be melted, reprocessed, or re-formed. The presence of

Properties a chemically bonded network imparts very desirable properties
 Have cross linked nature

 Stronger than thermoplastic materials due to the crosslinked network

 Higher in modulus, or stiffness, and have unique deformation
responses when subjected to mechanical loading
 Superior temperature stability due to cross linked
 Higher loading of additives
Advantages  Cost effective
 Low-viscosity and easy to work with because they exist in liquid form
at room temperature
 Carry a lower health hazard than thermoplastics, as no potentially
toxic fumes such as styrene are released during the molding process.

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Disadvantage  Thermoset plastics can’t be recycled
 More difficult to surface finish
s  Can’t be remolded or reshaped

 Poxy
 Silicone
Examples
 Polyurethane
 Phenolic

 Used in chemical / corrosive service environments

Applications  Widely used in the chemical, energy / mining, and wastewater
industries.

Thermoplastic
Structure

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 Structure of Thermoplastic Polymer

 Thermoplastic materials are melt processable, that is they are formed

when they are in a melted or viscous phase. They are heated, formed,

Formation then cooled in their final shape.

 The most common methods of processing thermoplastics are
Process
injection molding, extrusion, and thermoforming.
 The thermoplastic curing process after been heated is 100%
reversible as no chemical bonding takes place.

 High strength, shrink-resistance and easy bendability. Depending

upon their chemistry they can be very much like rubber, or as strong
Properties
as aluminum
 Easy to mold & shape when they are hot

 Have high strength

 Lightweight and have relatively low processing costs. Sometimes
engineers use thermoplastics instead of metals because of their much
Advantages
lighter weight.
 Easy to manufacture thermoplastic components quickly in high
volumes with high precision
 Excellent thermal and heat insulator

Disadvantage
 Have poor resistance to organic solvents, hydrocarbons and highly
polar solvents
 Some types of thermoplastics fracture instead of becoming deformed
when exposed to high levels of stress
 Some types of low-quality thermoplastics melt when they're exposed

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 to ultraviolet light for extended times.

 Polyvinyl chloride, or PVC

 Polyester resin
Examples  Polymethyl methacrylate
 Nylon

 Commonly used for pipes, bottles and plastic container

Applications  Used for car bodies and garden furniture
 Lenses and windows

2.0 CLASSIFICATION BY FUNCTION

2.1 Fibers

A portion of cellulose fiber

Structure

A portion of one of the many possible structures of lignin

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 Microscopic view of dacron polyester fibers.

 Natural fibres are the fibres generated in natural conditions. With

origin determining their chemical composition they are further
classified into vegetable and animal fibres.
Example: Plant fibers are composed of cellulose, ligni , (or
similar compounds) ,Animal fibres, wool and silk, are made up of
Formation
Process protein (carotene).
 Artificial fibres are fibres produced by the chemical processing of
natural polymers.
 Synthetic fibres are fibres formed from synthetic polymers
(polyamides, polyesters, polyacrylonitrile, polyolefins, polyvinyl
chloride, polyvinyl alcohol, etc.).

 Long strands of molecules interwoven to form a linear, string-like

structure.
 Can be classified into natural, artificial and synthetic fibers
Propeties  Synthetic fibres, are characterised by their high strength, high
relative elongation, elasticity, rapid recovery and low residual
strain after unloading, resistance to repeated and alternating loads.

Advantages
 Synthetic fiber are longer and long lasting
 Relatively high molecular weight
 High length to diameter ratio
 High Flexibility and tenacity

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  Good Spinning Quality
 High Abrasion Resistance

 Fibers are usually only strong in one direction, lengthwise

Disadvantages  Tend to be weak if pulled otherwise, width-wise
 Synthetic fiber are poor absorbent of moisture and catch fire
easily

 Natural Fibers (Cotton, Wool)

Examples
 Synthetic Fibers ( Rayon, Nylon, Polyester, Acrylic)

 Packaging Product: Bags , sacks, wool packs

 Medical: biodegradable micro tube for repair of blood vessels,

teeth reconstructions
Applications
 Household textile: carpet, area rugs, pile fabrics, curtain

 Apparel Product : Clothes, Jacket, Raincoat, swimming wear,

dresses, skirts

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2.2 Miscellaneous

Coating

Structure

Mechanism of Polymer Coating

 Polymeric coatings are coatings or paint made with polymers that

provide superior adherence and protection from corrosion.
 The polymeric coating process applies an elastomer or other polymeric
Formation
material onto a supporting substrate
Process
 Polymeric coatings made from polymeric materials can be applied on a
variety of substrates using a number of different techniques such as
extrusion/dispersion coating and solution application.

Properties  Polymeric coatings designed for corrosion protection are usually

tougher
 Formation of thin layers of polymer on either flat substrates or irregular
objects.
 Applied to protect the item from the environment, which may produce
corrosive reactions and improve the items’ appearance and electrical

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 insulation.
 Use of a polymer coating depends on the operating temperature, wear
and tear of environment and type of corrosion

 Inexpensive
 Concrete Protection
 Improve wear resistance and wettability
Advantages
 Polymeric coating cools down buildings
 Spin coating can be done at atmospheric pressure and is very cheap

 Life cycle costing

Disadvantage  Repair of poor substrate conditions
s  Less products for the same amount of surface preparation
 For spin coating, the whole substrate is coated , patterning must be done
separately

 Nylon 11
Examples  Polyurethane
 Acrylics and alkyds

 Automotive: conveyor equipment, aircraft, radomes, tugboats, road-

building machinery, and motorcycle parts.
 Functional : Adhesives, photographic films
 Protective: anticorrosion
Application
 Decorative: Paint
 Surface Modification: paper coating, hydrophobic coatings
 Medical: Coatings for orthopaedic materials, cardiovascular stents,
antibacterial surfaces, drug delivery, tissue engineering and biosensors

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 Films

Structure

Layer structure of Film Polymer

Blown Film Extrusion

Formation
Process The polymer material starts in a pellet form, which are successively compacted
and melted to form a continuous, viscous liquid. This molten plastic is then
extruded through an annular die. Air is injected through a hole in the center of
the die, and the pressure causes the extruded melt to expand into a bubble. The
air entering the bubble replaces air leaving it, so that even and constant pressure
is maintained to ensure uniform thickness of the film. The bubble is pulled
continually upwards from the die and a cooling ring blows air onto the film.
After solidification, the film moves into a set of nip rollers which collapse the
bubble and flatten it into two flat film layers. The film will wound into rolls by
the winder roller.

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  Having thickness between 0.025mm and 0.125mm
 Low density
Properties  High degree of flexibility
 High tensile and tear strength

 Resistance to attack by moisture and other chemicals

 Permeability to some gases (especially water vapour)
 Less susceptible to contamination
Advantages  Lightweight
 Recyclable
 Low production costs

 Non-renewable resource
 Not biodegradable
Disadvantages  Produces toxic fumes when being burned
 Low melting point

 Polyethylene naphthalate
 Polystyrene
 Polypropylene
Examples  High Density Polyethylene
 Low Density Polyethylene
 Polyethylene terephthalate
 Polycarbonate
 Packaging : Plastic Bag, Food Packaging, Plastic Book Wrapper, Plastic
Bottle
Applications  Medical: garbage and hazardous material bags, I.V. bags, sterile wrap
 Construction: vapor barriers in walls, moisture barriers under concrete,
paint drop cloths ,drapes

Adhesives

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Structure

Structure of Adhesive Joint

Formation  In the formation of an adhesive bond, a transitional zone arises in the

Process
interface between adherent and adhesive. In this zone, called
the interphase, the chemical and physical properties of the adhesive may
be considerably different from those in the noncontact portions. It is
generally believed that the interphase composition controls the durability
and strength of an adhesive joint and is primarily responsible for the
transference of stress from one adherent to another. The interphase region
is frequently the site of environmental attack, leading to joint failure.

 Chemical bonding involves intermolecular forces between the adhesive

and adherend, which forces may be covalent and van de Waals.

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  Mechanical bonding involves actual penetration of the adhesive into
surface pores and crevices.

 Can classified as pressure sensitive and non-pressure sensitive

 Uniform thickness throughout the joint
 Die-cut into complex shapes to facilitate bonding of complex parts or
parts with narrow bonding surfaces.
Properties  The choice of adhesive depend on: the required adhesive properties; the
materials to be bonded and their porosities; maximum and minimum
exposure temperature; and processing conditions
 Used to bond together the surface of two solid materials

 Light in weight
 Ability to join dissimilar materials and thin components
 Better fatigue resistance
Advantages
 Distribute stress more efficiently across the joint
 Lower manufacturing costs
 No effect on the weight of material

 Maintain their mechanical integrity only at relatively low temperatures

 Strength decreases with increasing temperature
 Relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface
Disadvantages
area
 relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface
area
 greater difficulty in separating objects during testing.

 Natural Adhesive (Starch, casein, Rosin, animal glue)

Examples  Natural Rubber Based Adhesive
 Synthetic Adhesives (Styrene butadiene rubber, Btyl rubber,
Polychloroprene rubber, nitrile rubber, silicon rubber)

Applications
 Construction: floor tile and continuous flooring installation, ceramic tile
installation, carpet adhesives, flooring underlayment adhesives cements,
drywall lamination adhesives
 Consumer adhesives: model and hobby supplies, decorative films,
school and stationery products.

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  Packaging: carton-side seam and closures, composite bonding of
disposable products, bags, labels, cups, cigarette and filter manufacture,
speciality packages (cosmetics, toiletries), composite containers and
tubes.
 Tapes: packaging, industrial, surgical, masking, and consumer tapes.
 Transportation: auto, truck and bus assemblies, weatherstrip and gasket
bonding, aircraft and aerospace structural assemblies.

Foams

Structure

Closed Cell Foam Open Cell Foam

Formation
Process  Carried out by incorporating into the batch of material a blowing
agent that, upon heating, decomposes with the liberation of a gas.
Gas bubbles are generated throughout the now-fluid mass, which
remain in the solid upon cooling and give rise to a spongelike
structure.

 The same effect is produced by dissolving an inert gas into a

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 molten polymer under high pressure. When the pressure is rapidly
reduced, the gas comes out of solution and forms bubbles and
pores that remain in the solid as it cools.

 In liquid or solidified form, formed from polymers.

 Contain relatively high volume percentage of small pores and
trapped gas bubbles.
Properties  In solid closed-cell foam, the gas forms discrete pockets, each
completely surrounded by the solid material. In solid open-cell
foam, gas pockets connect to each other.

 Low density so they are light-weight materials.

 Some polymer foams have low heat or sound transfer, making
Advantages them optimal insulators.
 Many are flexible and soft, meaning they provide more comfort
as cushion.

 Inferior mechanical strength

 Low thermal and dimensional stability
Disadvantages  The most widely used chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) blowing agents
have been found to cause ozone depletion in the upper
atmosphere and banned by 2010 according to Montreal Protocol

 Polyurethane (PU)
 Polystyrene (PS)
 Polyethylene (PE)
 Polypropylene (PP)
Examples  Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA)
 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
 Nitrile rubber (NBR)

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  Packaging: Food Container, Egg Cartons, Polystyrene Cups
 Thermal Insulation: Insulation for refrigerators, freezers,
Applications
insulated buildings, water heaters
 Automotive: Car seats, armrests, acoustic insulation, headrests

2.3 Advanced Polymer

Ultra-High-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)

Structure

Morphological Structure of UHMWPE

 Synthesized from its monomer ethylene, which is bonded together

Formation
to form the base polyethylene product.
Process
 UHMWPW is processed variously by compression moulding, ram
extrusion, gel spinning, and sintering.

Properties
 In fiber form, UHMWPE is highly aligned and has trade name
Spectra
 Linear polyethylene that has an extremely high molecular weight
 Made up of extremely long chains of polyethylene, which all

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 align in the same direction
 Odorless, tasteless, non-toxic

 An extremely high impact resistance

 Outstanding resistance to wear and abrasion
 A very low coefficient of friction
 A self-lubricating and non-stick surface
Advantages
 Very good chemical resistance to normally encountered solvents
 Excellent low temperature properties
 Outstanding sound damping and energy absorption characteristics
 Electrically insulating and excellent dielectric properties

 Relatively low melting temperature, its mechanical properties

Disadvantages
deteriorate rapidly with increasing temperature

Examples  Extremely long chains of polyethylene

 Body Armor: Bulletproof vests, composite military helmets,

 Sports Equipment: fishing line, ski-bottom surfaces, golf-ball

cores, bowling alley, ice-skating rink surface, Bow String
Applications
 Manufacturing: bulk material equipment, bushings, pump
impellers, valve gaskets

 Medical Device: biomedical prostheses, blood filters, Surgical

suture

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 Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP)

Structure

Main Chain of LCP Side Chain of LCP

Formation Liquid crystallinity in polymers can existing in :

Process

Lyotropic Behaviour by dissolving a polymer in a solvent. Lyotropic liquid-

crystal polymers is dependent on the solvents, where solvent concentration
affects aggregation and liquid crystal behaviour. At very low amphiphile
concentration, the molecules will be dispersed randomly without any ordering.
At higher concentration, the assemblies will become ordered, which result in

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 crystalline phase.

Th er
mo tr
opi c
Be ha
viour by heating a polymer above its glass or melting transition point. The
formation of thermotropic liquid-crystal polymers is temperature dependent,
where different phases will exist in a certain temperature range. If the
temperature rise is too high, thermal motion will destroy the delicate
cooperative ordering of the LC phase, pushing the material into a conventional
isotropic liquid phase. At too low temperature, most LC materials will form a
conventional crystal.

 Cross - linked network structure composed of extended, rod-shaped,

and rigid molecules
 Presented in liquid or solid form
Properties

 Consist of repeated monomer units but which are linked to form

extended chain-like molecules

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  Excellent thermal stability

 High impact strength

Advantage  Chemically inert

 Inherent flame resistance and combustion products that are relatively

nontoxic

 Low Melt Viscosity

 Moldability
 Form weak weld lines
 High anistropic properties
Disadvantage
 Drying required before processing
 Poor Solubility
 Kelvar
 Vectran
Examples
 Ticona
 Sterrox

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): Television, Digital Watch, Computer Monitor

Medical devices: Dental Tools, Sterilizable Trays

Application Electronics: Interconnect Device, Relay, Capacitor Housing, Electronic

Bracket, Fiber Optic Cable

Body Armor: Bulletproof Vest, Combat Helmet

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 Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPEs)

Structure

Structure of TPEs

Formation Generally, thermoplastic elastomers can be re-melted and shaped again by

Process
extrusion and injection moulding, which are the most common processing
methods used by thermoplastics.

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 Injection Moulding
The thermoplastic (in a powdered or granular form) will enter through a
hopper. A screw thread turns forcing the plastic material through a heater,
which caused the plastic to melt. When all the materials has melted the
screw thread then acts as a ram and forces the plastic into mould, where it
cools and solidifies.

Extrusion
The extrusion process is similar to injection moulding. Plastic granules are
heated in a hopper and a screw thread forces the material through a die.
The material is then cooled. Extrusion can only be used for simple shapes
and the end product generally has a poor quality finish.

Feature  Copolymers of a plastic and a rubber which possessed the

properties of both thermoplastics and elastomers.

 Consists of block segments of hard and rigid thermoplastic that

alternative with block segment of a soft and flexible elastic
material.

 Hard segments are located at chain ends while soft segments are
located at central region

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  Simplified processing - no mixing or vulcanization involved

 Lower part costs through lower density and thinner wall sections

 TPEs are colorable

 Recyclable scraps and parts

 Long-lasting

Advantages
 Excellent weather resistance, slip resistance and ozone resistance

 Shock absorption

 Flexibility

 Soft texture

 Benefit of being co-extruded

 Melt easily upon heating

 Limited number of modulus compounds

 Melt at elevated temperatures

Disadvantages  relatively high cost of raw materials

 inability to load them with low cost fillers

 high compression set and low thermal stability

 Thermoplastic Polyolefins (TPE-O)
 Styrenic Block Copolymers (TPE-S)
 Thermoplastic Vulcanisates (TPE-V)
Examples  Thermoplastic Polyurethanes (TPE-U)
 Thermoplastic Copolyesters (TPE-E)
 Thermoplastic Polyether Block Amides (TPE-A)

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  Automotive: Windshield Seal (TPE-S), Cable (TPE-S), Fibre
Reinforced Soft Touch Surface for Interior (TPE-O), Gaskets
(TPE-V), Spoiler (TPE-S)

 Medical devices: Syringe (TPE-V), Medical Tubing (TPE-O),

Medical Wrapping and Packaging (TPE-U)
Application
 Mobile electronics: Earplugs (TPE-V), Cell phone (TPE-V).

 Household appliance sector: Sporting Goods (TPE-U), Footwear

Soles (TPE-S), Toys (TPE-S)

 Construction: Gaskets (TPE-S)

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