DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF

AIR-CUSHION VEHICLE

Senior Project
by

Mohammad Y. Oneissi & Maarouf Azzam

School of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Lebanese International University - LIU
2008-2009
2
Design and Construction
of Air Cushion Vehicle

Mohammad Y. Oneissi
Mechanical Engineering Senior Student
Lebanese International University-LIU
Saida Campus-Lebanon
ID# 30630305
Tel.03045097

Maarouf M. Azzam
Mechanical Engineering Senior Student
Lebanese International University-LIU
Saida Campus-Lebanon
Tel. 70956170

A SENIOR PROJECT
Submitted to the School of Engineering
Through Mechanical Engineering Program
In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for
The Degree of Bachelor Science in Engineering at the
Lebanese International University
Saida, South Lebanon
2008-2009

3
Approved By:

Dr. Hisham El-Hajj (Faculty Member), Mechanical Engineering Department

Dr. Ali Al Shaer (Faculty Member) Mechanical Engineering Department

Professor Dr. Farid Khalil (Supervisor) Mechanical Engineering Department

4
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that we are the sole authors, designers and planners of this document and project,
with external researches and books as a references. We authorize the Lebanese International University-
LIU to lend this document to other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research.

We further authorize the Lebanese International University-LIU to reproduce the document by

photocopying or by other means, in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or individuals for
the purpose of scholarly research.

We also declare that no one can benefit from this document for commercial uses, before being authorized
from the Lebanese International University-LIU, Mechanical Engineering Department.

Mohammad Oneissi and Maarouf Azzam

5
 Abstract
Our nature in Lebanon is severe. You can find the shore next to the hills penetrated by rivers. So, it is too
difficult for a vehicle to adapt with these complex terrains especially when rescuing people around the
shore, rivers, muddy or hydro-terrains. This lead us to develop a new hydro-solid vehicle that, with being
flexible, can adapt to all situations for rescuing people without causing any damages to the surrounding. As
a result, we decided in our senior project to work on the design and construction of the hovercraft vehicle,
since it is more efficient, smoother to ride, safer around swimmers and needs no docks.

The abovementioned facts proved that understanding and appreciating the fundamentals laws of air cushion
are tremendously significant to Industrial and Mechanical Engineers. Consequently, the objectives of this
project are to comprehend thoroughly the classification of air cushion platforms, namely, ACVs and SESs,
furthermore, to perform analysis and design of a hovercraft that shows the concept of air cushion.

Some difficulties that we faced during our work are due to uncontrollable factors. One of the main ones is
the unavailability of the materials and parts needed to accomplish our work. Consequently, we had to order
many of them from abroad, or to manufacture some others by ourselves. Other difficulties were practical
like transportation and communication.

Throughout designing our vehicle, the horsepower needed for our craft to fly on a 21.25 centimeters high
air cushion platform was about 10 hp engine that drives an 8 bladed lift fan shipped from the United States
of America with a radius of 22 inches. Also, we used a separate lift and thrust engine system since the
integrated system limits the controlling of the craft, then lifting capabilities are totally related to thrust one.
The craft is designed to move at a theoretical speed of 60 km/hr with a maximum load of 100 kg powered
by a thrust motor of 10 hp driving an 11 bladed thrust fan that delivers about 200 N of thrust and directly
shipped from France.

Mohammad Oneissi and Maarouf Azzam

6
 Acknowledgements

Special thanks goes to Professor Dr. Farid Khalil, Dr. Hisham El- Hajj and Dr. Ali Al Shaer for their
continuous support.
We wish to thank all the following organizations who have assisted in the preparation of this senior project
by funding, manufacturing, supplying data and illustrations:

 Dr. Osama Saad Foundation Lebanon-Saida

 Lebanese International University-LIU Lebanon-Saida
 Yehya Corporation-Heavy Metals Workshop Lebanon-Saida
 Tfayli Corporation for Solar Energy Lebanon-Deir Zahrani
 Traboulsi Corporation for Industrial Refrigerators Lebanon-Deir Zahrani
 Hardware International Corporation Lebanon-Hadath
 Jaber Industrial Corporation Lebanon-Nabatieh
 U.C.S-Net Shopper Lebanon-Achrafieh/USA-New York
 Reef Corporation for Carpentry and Wood Manufacturing Lebanon-Kakaeyat al Jesser
 Mshaymesh Corporation for Fabrics and Skirts Lebanon-Kafarseer
 Hover Hawk Corporation U.S.A

Sincere thanks goes to the Lebanese Navy, that help us in testing the constructed vehicle in Sour-
NAVY Base under their supervision, and many persons too numerous to name individually.

Finally, the staff at Tfayli Co. have given tremendous support to see the task through. Many thanks for
their unending patience!

Thank you all sincerely!

Contents
7
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………….................. 6
Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………… 7
Contents…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………………………… 10
List of Symbols………………………………………………………………………………............ 14

1. Literature Review
1.1 Hovercraft history …………………………………………………………………….. 20
1.2 Applications for ACV ………………………………………………………………… 23
1.3 The future ……………………………………………………………………………... 30

2. Parameters for predicting air cushion performance - Lifting

2.0 Generals………………………………………………………………………………… 31
2.1 Discharge coefficient………………………………………………………………….. 36
2.2 Bernoulli’s equation…………………………………………………………………… 37
2.3 Volume flow rate……………………………………………………………………… 38
2.4 Cushion pressure and buoyancy force ………………………………………………… 39
2.5 Orifice……...………………………………………………………………………….. 40
2.6 Pressure drop………………………………………………………………………….. 41
2.7 Motor power…………………………………………………………………………… 47
2.8 Affinity law……………………………………………………………………………. 47
2.9 Lifting performance calculations………………………………………………………. 48
2.10 Lift-fan description……………………………………………………………………. 56
2.11 Fan and motor power………………………………………………………………….. 57
2.12 Affinity Law …………………………………………………………………………... 58
2.13 Software Comparison ………………………………………………………………... 59

3. Steady Drag Forces

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 61
3.2 Classification of drag components ……………………………………………………. 61
3.3 Air cushion wave-making drag ……………………………………………………….. 62
3.4 Aerodynamic profile drag …………………………………………………………….. 65
3.5 Aerodynamic momentum drag ……………………………………………………….. 67
3.6 Differential air momentum drag ……………………………………………………… 69
3.7 Skirt drag ……………………………………………………………………………… 71
3.8 Total ACV drag over water and land………………………………………………….. 75

4. Practical Formulae for Thrust

4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………. 77
4.2 Thrust formulae ……………………………………………………………………….. 77
8
 4.3 Static and dynamic thrust……………………………………………………………… 79
4.4 Motor power available…………………………………………………………………. 80
4.5 Thrust-fan description…………………………………………………………………. 81
4.6 Thrust vs. Drag………………………………………………………………………… 82

5. Maneuverability
5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………. 84
5.2 Control surfaces & sources……………………………………………………………………. 85
5.3 Controlling system ……………………………………………………………………. 91
5.4 Rudders drag force ……………………………………………………………………. 94
5.5 Moment analysis ………………………………………………………………………. 97

6. Prototyping the LIU-ACV

6.1 Design and Planning: 2D-3D

6.1.1 Plenum Chamber ……………………………………………………………… 100
6.1.2 Podium ………………………………………………………………………... 102
6.1.3 Skirt …………………………………………………………………………… 102

6.2 Construction and Hardware

6.2.1 Plenum Chamber and Podium……………………………………………...... 104
6.2.2 Skirt ………………………………………………………………………….. 104
6.2.3 Fans ………………………………………………………………………….. 105
6.2.4 Controlling System ………………………………………………………….. 105
6.2.5 Final Prototype .......………………………………………………………….. 106

7. Conclusion and Future Recommendations

7.1 Conclusion …………………..……………………………………………...... 107

7.2 Future Recommendation .…………………………………………………….. 107

References ………………………………………………………………………………………… 108

Appendix A………………………………………………………………………………………… 109
Appendix B ………………………………………………………………………………............... 110
Appendix C ………………………………………………………………………………............... 111
Appendix D ………………………………………………………………………………............... 111
Appendix E ………………………………………………………………………………............... 112
Appendix F ………………………………………………………………………………………... 113

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.1.1 Classification of high speed marine vehicle types.

Fig.1.2 Classification of hovercraft.

Fig.1.3 Amphibious Hovercraft – ACV.

Fig.1.4 Sidewall Hovercraft – SES.

Fig.1. 5 Rescuing people using the ACV.

Fig.1.6-a European concept high speed ACV.

Fig.1.6-b High-Performance concept high speed ACV.

Fig.1.7 ACV used as a passenger ferry.

Fig.1.8 Oil exploration ACV platform.

Fig.1.8 load transporter ACV platform.

Fig.1.8 Arctic transporter used as ice breaker using ACV platform.

Fig.1.8 LCAC amphibious assault ACV.

Fig.1.9 Sormovich Aist large amphibious assault ACV.

Fig.1.10 Successfully launched guided missile on US SES-100B at speed of 60 knots.

Fig.1.11 ACV technology used in future transportation-cushion through a groove.

Fig.2.1 Shows the bag skirt type.

Fig.2.2 Shows the Juppe skirt type.

Fig.2.3 Shows the Finger skirt type.

Fig.2.4 Shows the 3 main causes of skirt failure.

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Fig.2.5 Discharge Coefficient – μ vs. Inclination angle of the skirt – θ [ using maple-12 ].

Fig.2.6 Cross-sectional cut for the ACV showing the division of phases in Bernoulli’s equation.

Fig.2.7 Discharge Coefficient – μ vs. Inclination angle of the plenum chamber - θ [ using maple-12 ].

Fig.2.8 The Moody chart for pipe friction with smooth and rough walls.

Fig.2.9 Sudden expansion and contraction losses.

Fig.2.10 Plan design (Bottom view) of the cushion hull showing the cushion area with red boundaries.

Fig.2.11 Viscosity and Density of Air at 1 atmosphere.

Fig.2.12 Viscosity of Air at 1 atmosphere.

Fig.2.13 Reynolds number – Re vs. Air velocity in the plenum chamber – V [ using maple-12 ].

Fig.2.14 Recommended Roughness Values for Commercial Ducts.

Fig.2.15 The Moody chart for pipe friction at f = ʄ (4.2×106, 5.7×10-6).

Fig.2.16 Q vs. V plenum chamber – V [ using maple-12 ].

Fig.2.17 Sudden expansion analysis.

Fig.2.18 The admired Hovercraft Lift Fan.

Fig.3.1 The wave-making drag force on our ACV.

Fig.3.2 Fraud number against the craft velocity [ using maple-12 ].

Fig.3.3 Wave-making drag coefficient against Frauds for a specific l c /B c .

Fig.3.4 Properties of Common Liquids at 1 atm and 20°C (68°F).

Fig.3.5 The aerodynamic drag force on our ACV.

Fig.3.6 The aerodynamic profile drag coefficient Ca for various craft (models).

Fig.3.8 Shows the variation of the aerodynamic.

Fig.3.7 Frontal projecting area of the hull above the water profile drag against the craft velocity [ using maple-12 ]

Fig.3.8 Shows the aerodynamic momentum drag force on our ACV.

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Fig.3.9 Shows tha variation of the aerodynamic momentum drag vs. craft velocity[ using maple-12 ]

Fig.3.10 Shows the air momentum drag force on our ACV.

Fig.3.11 Shows the air momentum drag vs. craft velocity [ using maple-12 ].

Fig.3.12 Deflection of flexible skirts contacting water surface.

Fig.3.13 Variation of skirt wave-making drag coefficient Csk2 with cushion length/beam ratio pc/l c

Fig.3.14 The main types of the skirt drag forces that uses approximation and experimental methods.

Fig.3.15 The three experimental methods used in calculating and approximating the skirt drag forces.

Fig.3.16 The total drag forces that acts on an ACV.

Fig.4.1 The momentum exchange principle diagram.

Fig.4.2 Shows the drag forces acting on our ACV moving on land vs. craft velocity [ using maple-12 ]

Fig.4.3Shows the velocity of the craft on Land with 200 N of thrust [ using maple-12 ]

Fig.4.4 Shows the drag forces acting on our ACV moving on land vs. craft velocity [ using maple-12 ]

Fig.4.5Shows the velocity of the craft on water with 200 N of thrust [ using maple-12 ]

Fig.5.1 Shows the 3 controlling sources for an ACV

Fig.5.2 Shows the Air rudder and fixed vertical stabilizer fin.

Fig.5.3 Shows the two sets of ducted air propellers

Fig.5.4 Shows a sectional view of swiveling pylons with an integrated lift fan and air propeller system.

Fig.5.5 Shows the two control modes.

Fig. 5.6 Air cushion platform that uses the controllable pitch air propellers.

Fig. 5.7 A diagrammatic sketch of the thruster.

Fig. 5.8 The control surfaces of British ACV model AP.1 -88.1

Fig. 5.9 How a puff port mechanism works.

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Fig. 5.10 Skirt lifting installation: (a) action of lifting bag; (b) action of lifting fingers.

Fig. 5.11 Rudder holding mechanism [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig. 5.12 Input controlling System [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig. 5.13 Input controlling System [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig. 5.14 E-quintet Mechanism .

Fig. 5.15 E-quintet Mechanism linkage numbering using Gruebler and Paradox criterions.

Fig. 5.16 3-D Input controlling System [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig. 5.17 3-D output maneuvering System [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig. 5.18 Top view for our craft showing the center of gravity of our vehicle [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig. 5.19 Drag forces and moment analysis sketch diagram.

Fig. 5.20 Rudder drag force vs. the deviation angle of the rudders [ using maple-12 ]

Fig. 5.21 Moment variation against the deviation angle of the rudders [ using maple-12 ]

Fig. 5.22 Moment variation against the deviation angle of the rudders from -60 ο/+60ο[ using maple-12 ]

Fig.6.1 2-Dimentional design of the plenum chamber in our unique ACV design [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig.6.2 3-Dimentional design of the plenum chamber [ using Auto CAD 2004 / 4 port-views ]

Fig.6.3 Isometric design of the plenum chamber [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig.6.4 Cross sectional dimensions of the plenum chamber [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig.6.5 2-Dimentional design of the Finger Skirt [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig.6.6 3-Dimentional design of the Finger Skirt [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig.6.7 Prototype of the plenum chamber with the podium.

Fig.6.8 Shows the prototype of the ACV and the skirt.

Fig.6.9 Shows the Thrust Fan and the Lift Fan.

Fig.6.10 Shows the Maneuverability System and the Controlling System.

Fig.6.11 Shows the final prototype of our vehicle at the Lebanese International University in Saida Campus.
13
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

A e :Escape area of the flow from the clearance distance, in m2

AR: Lateral area of the rudder

As :Lateral area submerged in fluid ( for our case only ), in m2

B c :Cushion beam

C a :Aerodynamic profile drag coefficient

CD: Drag coefficient for rudder

C.G: Center of gravity

C sk1:Coefficient for hydrodynamic drag

C sk2:Coefficient due to wave-making drag of the skirt

C w :Wave-making drag coefficient due to the air cushion travelling on a waterway with infinite depth

DH :Hydraulic-mean diameter, in meters (m)

D m : Momentum drag of thrust, in N

DOF: Degree of freedom for a mechanism

d CG-F: Perpendicular distance from the center of gravity to the force

E 1 : Energy at point 1

E 2 : Energy at point 2

E g : Gravitational potential energy

E k : Kinetic energy

14
f :Friction coefficient

F D: Drag force created from each rudder

FG : Fan shaft gear

Fr :Frauds number

Fr w :Water friction coefficient

φ :Discharge coefficient of air leakage

g :Gravitational acceleration = 9.18 m/sec2

GG : Gearbox shaft gear

h :Average clearance for air leakage

h 1›2 : Losses from point 1 to 2

h 2 : Height of point 2

h b :ow air leakage clearance, in m

h s :Stern air leakage clearance, in m

J1: Number of full joints in a mechanism

J2: Number of half joints in a mechanism

k e :Expansion loss coefficient

k θ :Bending loss coefficient as a function of θ

L :Overall length that the flow will pas through for total exiting

L n: Number of Links in the mechanism

l c :Cushion length

l j :Total peripheral length of the skirts

15
M:Mobility for a mechanism

Mc: Moment created by rudders

m :Mass of the body, in Kg

μ :Fluid viscosity, in N.s/m2

μ c :Flow-rate coefficient

NF :Designed number of fan rotations

NR :Number of rotation needed reaching the fan

N1 :Initial supply number of rotations, in rpm

N2 :Needed number of rotations, in rpm

N.M: Newton meter

η g :Efficiency of gear box

η c :Efficiency of clutch gear

η b :Efficiency of belts

Ω :Angular velocity of the shaft

P :Pressure to density ratio

Pc :Cushion pressure under the hull

Ps :Static pressure of the supply lift-fan, in Pascal (pa)

Pp :Pressure inside the plenum chamber

ΔP B:Total pressure drop due to bending

ΔP E:Pressure drop due to sudden expansion

ΔP fr :Pressure drop due to friction with the side wall of the plenum chamber

ΔP i :The pressure loss due to loss factors

ΔP o:Pressure drop due to orifice

16
ΔPT :The total pressure loss from the supply to the cushion

ΔP θ:Pressure drop due to bending at a specific angle

Q d : Volume flow rate at the discharge

Q p:Volume flow rate in the plenum chamber

Q :Volume inflow rate

Q e :Volume flow rate escaping under the skirt

Qs :Volume flow rate of the supply

q w :Hydrodynamic head due to craft speed

R :Radius of the gear

R a :Aero-dynamic profile drag

R a’’ :Differential air momentum drag

R acv :ACV total drag forces

R d :Reynolds number for jet air

R m :Aero-dynamic momentum drag

R sf :Skirt water friction, in N

R si :Skirt inertia drag, in N

R sk :Total skirt drag, in N

R sk1 :Wet drag of the skirt

R sk2 :Wave-making drag due to the skirt

R sp :Skirt pressure drag, in N

R ss :Skirt spray drag, in N

RT ACV LAND: Total ACV drag on land

R w :Wave-making drag
17
ρ air :Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3

ρ f :Density of the fluid, in Kg / m3

ρ w :Density of water

S a :Frontal projecting area of the hull above the water (m2).

Sc :Cushion area

S j :Area of leakage under the skirts

σ t :Surface tension of water

t :Thickness of the jet from the stern

T g : Gross thrust(exclusive of drag or losses), in N

V : Velocity

Vv :Velocity of the vehicle

V d : Discharge velocity (Efflux velocity)

V e :Escape velocity of the flow from the clearance distance, in m/sec

Vex: The expected velocity of the craft

V f :Velocity of the fluid from the supply fan to the plenum chamber

V FG :Velocity of the fan shaft gear

V GG :Velocity of the gearbox shaft gear

V o : Free stream velocity

V p:Velocity of the fluid inside the plenum chamber, in m/sec

VR: Velocity of the fluid (air) stream reaching the rudder

V θ:Velocity of the fluid in the plenum at the bend

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Web :Weber number

WF :Designed fan power

WR :Power reaching fan

W req :Power required

Wt :Weight of the body = m. g , in Newton (N)

W1:Supply power, in KW or HP

W2:Available power, in KW or HP

19
 Chapter 1
Literature Review

1.1 HOVERCRAFT HISTORY

Hovercraft was invented in 1956 by British engineer, Christopher Cockerel. The hovercraft is a vehicle
that literally floats on a cushion of air. Powered by a fan mounted on its body, it is supported by this
cushion as it moves and enables the hovercraft to move effortlessly between land and sea. [1]
Transport is driven by speed. Since the 1970s, with the price of fuel becoming an important component of
operating costs, transport efficiency has become a significant factor guiding concept development. During
the last century, the service speed of many transport concepts has dramatically increased, taking advantage
of the rapid development of internal combustion engines. Aero-plane flying speed has increased by a factor
of 10, and the automobile by a factor of three. In contrast, the highest commercial ship speeds have
increased by less than a factor of two, to a service speed of about 40 knots. Some aircraft and fast naval
vessels reached this speed in the 1920s. They were able to do this because payload was not a key
requirement, so that most of the carrying capacity could be devoted to power plant and fuel. Hydrodynamic
resistance was the prime factor limiting their performance. A displacement ship moving at high speed
through the water causes wave-making drag in proportion to the square of its speed. This limits the
maximum speed for which a ship may be designed, due to practical limitations for installed power. It is
possible, however, to design ship forms using the surface plane principle to reduce wave-making at higher
speeds. Many plane boat designs have been built, though the power required for high speed has limited
their size. Their application has mostly been for fast pleasure and racing craft, and for military vessels such
as fast patrol boats.
Plane vessels demonstrated the potential for increased speed, but slamming caused by wave encounter in a
seaway still created problems for crews, pasengers and the vessels themselves, due to high vertical
accelerations. Two possibilities to avoid slamming are either to isolate the hull from contact with the water
surface, or submerge it as completely as possible under the water to reduce surface wave induced drag.
Hydrofoils, air lubricated craft, amphibious hovercraft (ACV), surface effect ships (SES) and wing in
ground effect machines (WIG and PARWIG) arose from the first idea, while the latter concept produced
the small water-plane thin hull vessel (SWATH) and, more recently, thin water plane area high speed
catamarans. [2]

Fig. 1.1 shows a classification of high speed marine vehicle types.[3]

Fig. 1.2 shows the classification of hovercraft. [3]

20
Fig. 1.1 Classification of high-performance marine vehicles

Fig. 1.2 Classification of hovercraft

21
Amphibious Hovercraft (ACV)

The amphibious hovercraft is supported totally by its air cushion, with an air curtain or a flexible skirt system around
its periphery to seal the cushion air. These craft possess a shallow draft (or a negative draft of the hull structure itself)
and amphibious characteristics. They are either pasive (being towed by other equipment) or active, propelled by air
propellers or fans as our project.

Fig. 1.3 Amphibious Hovercraft Sketch - ACV

Sidewall Hovercraft (SES)

This concept, the surface effect ships, reduces the flexible skirt to a seal at the bow and stern of a marine (non-
amphibious) craft, using walls or hulls like a catamaran at the sides. The walls or hulls at both sides of the craft, and
the bow/stern seal installation, are designed to minimize the lift power. Due to the lack of air leakage at the craft
sides, lift power can be reduced significantly compared with an ACV. Also, it is possible to install conventional water
propellers or water-jet propulsion, with rather smaller machinery space requirements compared to that for air
propellers or fans used on ACVs.

Fig. 1.4 Sidewall Hovercraft - SES

22
1.2 ACV APPLICATIONS

Why did we choose an ACV?

Our nature in Lebanon is sever, you can find the shore next to the hills penetrated by rivers. So it is too
difficult for a vehicle to adapt with these complex terrains especially when rescuing people around the
shore, rivers, muddy or hydro-terrains.
This Leads us to develop a new hydro-solid vehicle that can be adapt in all situations for rescuing people
without causing any damages to the surrounding, and must be flexible.
As a result, we decided in our senior project to develop the design and construction of the hovercraft
vehicle, here in the Lebanese International University-LIU, since ACV is more efficient, smoother to ride,
safe around swimmers and needs no docks.
ACV Applications can vary from a simple civil to high-tech military applications for launching missiles or
auto-pilot planes. Some of these applications are: [3]

A. Work Boats And Other Special Applications - RESCUE

The ACV can be used as a utility work craft, as a multipurpose craft for the purpose of rescue, ferry,
security, border defense, hunting, flood and mud survey, etc. The main market for this type of craft is in the
payload range between 500 kg and 5 tones.
These crafts play a main role in rescuing people in muddy terrains, flood, environmental disasters and at
shores, due to the maneuverability and flexibility that causes no damages for both people and
environmental surrounding. Figure 1.5 below, shows a person being rescued from a frozen lake in the United States.

Fig. 1. 5 Rescuing people using the ACV

23
 B. Speed

The air cushion is a device to reduce surface friction or over water drag. ACVs have lower installed total
power than other transport concepts for service speeds in excess of 40 knots (sport uses as an example
[Fig.1.6-a,b]
). This creates the prospect of lower operating costs for high speed designs. These characteristics
suggest that ACV craft may be most effectively applied where there are special requirements which cannot
be fulfilled by any other vehicle.

Fig. 1.6-a European concept high speed ACV Fig. 1.6-b High-Performance concept high speed ACV

C. Civil Ferry And Utility Applications

ACV can be used as pasenger ferries, logistics vehicles or pleasure craft, operating on shallow water,
beaches, swamps and other regions which conventional ships find it difficult to have access to. Craft with
pay loads up to the equivalent of 100 pasengers have matured in the 1990s. Utility operations prove to
some extent to be niche applications, since the requirement often cannot be fulfilled by any other vehicle
accept for the ACV due to its comfort ability. (Figure 1.7)

Fig. 1.7 ACV used as a pasenger ferry.

24
 D. Oil Field Applications
Moving and shipping oil field drillers into oceans is not an easy task, due to swampy grounded shores and
coastal regions. So it is most convenient to use ACV as air cushion platforms in onshore and coastal
regions, particularly where the ground is swampy or sensitive tundra. These platforms can be useful for
carrying the drilling heavy loads directly from the shore to oceans. On beach areas, the ACV can be used as
work boat, communication vessel and exploration survey craft, and even as air cushion oil exploration
platform. Figure 1.8 shows an oil exploration ACV platform.

Fig. 1.8 Oil exploration ACV platform.

25
 E. Load Transporters

Heavy load equipments or structure used in civil or structural engineering are difficult to transport
especially in water, rivers, canals and sea. For example, carrying a suspended bridge columns to the middle
of a sea could be impossible without the air-cushion technology. So air cushion technology can be applied
to carrying modules, heavy equipment and components in warehouses and workshops. To achieve this, an
external source of compressed or blown air is fed to an air cushion pallet or collection of pallets linked
together under the load. Such equipment can be designed to lift loads between 1 and 10 tones. Water
cushion pallets using the same principles can be used for movement of much heavier loads. Figure 1.9
shows a load transporter using the air-cushion technology.

Fig. 1.8 load transporter ACV platform.

26
 F. Arctic Transport

Some regions in the world are difficult to transport trough or communicate by, the best solution was the air
cushion vehicles or ACVs. The ACV air cushion platforms can be used on ice as transport and
communication vehicles. They can also be used as ice breakers at high or low speed using different
mechanisms for breaking the ice. Figure 1.10 shows an arctic transporter using the air-cushion technology.

Fig. 1.8 Arctic transporter using aircushion plate form.

27
 G. Military Applications

The most important role that an ACV can play is in the high-tech military applications. Armies around the
globe seek to get the best technological and convenient assaults that is characterized by the power, load,
payload capacity, efficiency, simplicity of maintenance and the huge ability to revise surface without any
obstacle. The ACV can be used effectively as an amphibious assault craft, across the shore landing craft,
guided missile craft, mine sweeper, mine layer or amphibious coastal patrol craft.
(Fig.1.9-Fig.1.10)

Also, some marine weapons systems, such as ship-to-ship guided missiles, ship-to-air guided missiles,
helicopters and antisubmarine weapons may be distributed into an Integrated Sea Action Group (ISAG)
using a number of smaller fast vessels, rather than a single large unit such as present aircraft carriers. This
could lead to a revision of the surface fleet into a larger number of smaller units. [3]

Fig. 1.8 LCAC amphibious assault ACV.

28
 Fig. 1.9 Sormovich Aist large amphibious assault ACV.

Fig. 1.10 Successfully launched guided missile on US SES-100B at speed of 60 knots.

29
1.3 FUTURE APPLICATION

The advent of the hovercraft has led to the creation of a new branch of technology, involving the marriage
of hydrodynamic and aerodynamic design and production principles. Despite the rapid pace of
development, hovercraft are still in their infancy, especially for the larger vehicles, and much still has to be
learned. Progress has been encouraging, particularly in the field of skirt engineering, and more recently
with less expensive structures and more efficient power units. Apart from marine hovercraft, equally
exciting developments are taking place in the application of the air cushion principle in the industrial field.
Already air cushion transporters are in commercial use, facilitating the carriage of extremely heavy loads
(up to 200 tons) over weak bridges and road surfaces and smaller loads (up to 9 tons) over farmland and
open country. Figure 1.11 shows the A-17 vehicle flying in a groove.

Fig. 1.11 ACV technology used in future transportation-cushion through a groove.

30
 Chapter 2

Parameters for predicting air cushion performance - Lifting

GENERALS

The theory of air cushion was used on early ACVs with rigid jet nozzles over ground for determining the
air cushion performance. It assumes that:

 The air flow jetted from nozzles is incompressible.

 The air flow jetted from nozzles is non-viscous.
 The air flow jetted from nozzles will not combine with media around the air jet.
 The cushion is supported on a rigid surface.

This chapter will discuss the following topics and formulae:

 Discharge coefficient
 Bernoulli’s equation
 Flow rate
 Buoyancy force
 Orifice
 Pressure drop
 Hydraulic diameter
 Motor power
 Power reaching fan
 Affinity law

2.1 Skirt
31
Early in the development of ACVs, before the flexible skirt had been thought necessary, powerful
lift engines were used to obtain a hovering gap of 50-150 mm under the hull hard structure. High-
pressure peripheral air jets were used at that time to provide this vertical obstacle clearance over
land and water.
This type had sufficient amphibious capability and vertical obstacle clearance to prove the air
cushion concept, but they often encountered terrain with variation in surface elevation larger than
100 mm (for example hollows in the ground, rocks and stones, tall grass). The craft hard structure
then collided with the ground. For this reason, they could only operate on fairly smooth or prepared
terrain, or smooth water.
The advantages of flexible skirts can be outlined as follows: [3]

1. Significant reduction of lift power

2. Practical obstacle clearance
3. True amphibious capabilities
4. Decreased calm water resistance, particularly at hump speed
5. Improved maneuverability by use of skirt lifting and shifting
6.Improved maintainability of ACVs and SES, since flexible skirts can be easily
detached/ attached and replaced

Skirt Types

As far as Hovercrafts go, there are four types of skirts to be concerned with:
Bag Skirts, Wall Skirts, Juppe Skirts and Finger Skirts.

1. BAG SKIRT (Not like the ones on a racing or recreation hovercraft, but for one on a cheap homemade one):
A bag skirt is like an inter-tube with a piece of plywood on top, holes feeding into the middle,
and an air supply. When it inflates its the same principle as simply sitting on a O-shaped
balloon, since that's essentially what it is. Air goes into the bag, inflating it so it is about two
inches high. The air inflating it goes out the holes located towards the center, making the air
also build up pressure in a chamber between
the ground, the plywood, and the inflated ring
of the bag skirt (plenum chamber). The
pressure eventually builds up enough so that
it and the bag skirt is lifting the plywood, and
the air slides out underneath the bag, creating
a nearly frictionless environment. Figure 2.1
shows the bag skirt type. Fig.2.1 Shows the
bag skirt type

2. WALL SKIRT: (not generally used on high performance hovercrafts because disadvantages in repair capabilities
and terrain handling capabilities)

32
 Wall skirts hang down from the edge of your hovercraft. The skirt inflates and pushes outwards,
so the hovercraft rides on a cushion of air. It's like an electric inflating mattress, if the bottom
was cut out of it, and a piece of plywood placed on top of it, the mattress would still inflate, but
when it was fully inflated some air would pick it up still a centimeter more so it could slide out
from underneath. A good bag skirt is like a wall skirt that uses an inflated wall to contain the air.
This type of skirts is used in most homemade hovercrafts due to the feasibility in making it.

3. JUPPE SKIRT:

In this type of skirts air flows through the skirt bag and exits through the cells located at the
bottom of the bag. This type is not used wildly by hovercraft manufacturers due to the difficulty
in making it. In addition, it is used in the semi-tracked hovercraft since total lifting is not
needed. Figure 2.2 shows the Juppe skirt type.

Fig.2.2 Shows the Juppe skirt type

33
4. FINGER SKIRT:

Finger skirts are used on professional hovercrafts. A finger skirt has tons of little segments that
each individually inflate that conform to the ground so the hovercraft can go over all terrain.
Professional finger skirts are generally made out of very strong rubber material. The fingers are
actually a bunch of separated "little skirts" that inflate independently. To build a finger skirt, you
need a large hull with a built in plenum chamber and that takes a lot of work. However, this type
of skirts is the most professional one, due the separation of exiting sectors used. It is much
efficient on rough ground (presence of stones, sand, grass and muddy terrains).
Accordingly, we decided to use this type of skirt. Figure 2.3 shows the design of figure skirt.

Fig.2.3 Shows the Finger skirt type

34
Skirt Failure Causes

Failure of skirt can be affected by many factors, the main factors are the delamination, abrasion and
tearing.

Delamination: Is the separation or splitting into distinct layers.

Abrasion: Rubbing or wearing away.

Figure 2.4 shows the three main causes of failure.

Fig.2.4 Shows the 3 main causes of skirt failure

So, choosing a skirt material must be strong and elastic enough to hold all these factors that can
cause the failure of the skirt thus, the failure of the ACV mission.

So we have chosen the Polyester 1100 D-Tex

 Total weight : 700 g/m2

 Tear strength : 300 N
 Tensile strength: 2200 / 5 cm
 Adhesion: 80 N / 5 cm
35
  Temperature range: -30 °C to +70 °C

2.1 DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT - μ

According to the exponential theory, the theory of A. A. West, plenum theory and MARIC theory; the
discharge coefficient μ of the air cushion flow rate exiting under the skirt can be written as: [3]

μ c = 0.5 + 0.4×10-3 θ + 0.109×10-4 θ 2 – 0.494×10-7 θ 3 + 0.345×10-9 θ 4

(1)

or, this formula can be approximated by:

μ c ≈ 0.5 + 0.05 ( π/2 - θ ) 2 (2)

where θ is the inclination angle of the skirt finger.

The second equation …(2) , is represented by the following graph [Fig. 2.5] using the maple math program.

Fig. 2.5 Discharge Coefficient – μ vs. Inclination angle of the skirt – θ [ using maple-12 ]

36
Taking θ = 45ο , μ c ≈ 0.53

2.2 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

The mechanical energy [E1] at a point is equal to the mechanical energy [E2] of another in addition to the
head losses [h 1›2 ]due to friction, bends, fittings, valves, strainers, sudden enlargement and contraction.

Fig. 2.6 Cross-sectional cut for the ACV showing the division of phases in Bernoulli’s equation

E1 = E2 + h 1›2

Generally, the mechanical energy is a combination of kinetic energy [E k ] and gravitational potential
energy [E g].

Kinetic energy [E k ] = V2/2g Joules

Gravitational potential energy [E g] = ρ×g×h Joules

For a hovercraft, the gravitational potential energy is neglected, since the height is at the ground level.

» V12/2g + Eg1 + h1 = V22/2g + Eg2 + h2 + h 1›2

V12/2g ≈ 0 (V inside is negligible)

Eg1, Eg2 = 0 ( on datum)

h2 = 0 ( P atm. /γ = 0)

h 1›2 = 0 ( Losses are negligible, 0 for simplicity in calculations)

» h1 = P cushion /γ =V22/2g

» V2 = V e =[ 2g ×P cushion /γ]1/2 = [ 2P cushion / ρ]1/2 m/sec

where:
37
 E 1 : Energy at point 1

E 2 : Energy at point 2

2.3 VOLUME FLOW RATE - Ǫ

The volume flow rate - Q , is the volume propelled during a unit of time. Western unit for the volume flow
rate is the cubic feet per minute or the c.f.m., while eastern unit used is cubic meter per second or m3/sec.

The supply volume flow rate – Q s , is a factor of the cross-sectional area [S] and the normal velocity of the
fluid [V] ,while A in square meter and V in meter per second.

Qs = S × V m3/sec

The exiting volume flow rate – Q e , is a factor of the exiting peripheral area [A], the normal velocity at the
exit of the fluid [V e] , and the flow-rate coefficient [μ c], while A in square meter and V in meter per
second.

Q e = A e × V e × μ c m3/sec

where:

Q e : Volume flow rate escaping the clearance distance

A e : Escape area of the flow from the clearance distance, in m2
V e : Escape velocity of the flow from the clearance distance, in m/sec
μ c : Flow-rate coefficient

38
2.4 CUSHION PRESSURE AND BUOYANCY FORCE

Cushion pressure is the pressure needed to lift the ACV, it’s simple formula can be written as:

Pc = Wt / Ac
where: Pc is cushion pressure, Wt is the total weight of the craft and Ac is the cushion area.

Buoyancy is the ability of a body to float submerged in a specific fluid, it is a factor of the volume of the
body submerged in the fluid and the fluid characteristics such as the density of the fluid itself. Principles
used to compute hydrostatic forces on surfaces can be applied to the net pressure forces on a completely
submerged or floating body. The result are the two laws of buoyancy discovered by Archimedes in the third
century B.C.:

1. A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it
displaces.
2. A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which it floats.

» F B = F V (2) – F V (1)

F B = (fluid weight above the bottom of the body) – (fluid weight above the top of the same submerged body)

» F B = weight of fluid equivalent to body volume

F B = ∫body (p 2 – p 1) d AH = -γ ∫body (z 2 – z 1) d AH = (γ)(Volume Body Submerged) [6]

» F B = ρ × g × Vs

F B = (γ)(Volume Body Submerged) = floating-body weight

» Wt = ρ × g × Vs

» h s = Wt / ρ × g × A s

» h s = m / ρ × As

where:

Wt : Weight of the body = m. g , in Newton (N)

m : Mass of the body, in Kg

39
 ρ : Density of the fluid, in Kg / m3

g : Gravitational acceleration = 9.18 m/sec2

As: Lateral area submerged in fluid ( for our case only ), in m2

2.5 ORIFICE

Orifice is a term describing the flow of a fluid from a reservoir through a hole with no gradual but a sudden
decrease. The flow of a fluid through this orifice causes a sudden drop in the fluid pressure. This gives a
relation among the flow rate of the orifice Q o, the discharge coefficient μ c, the area of the orifice A o, the
pressure drop ΔP o and the fluid density ρ, which can be written as:

» Q o = μ c× A o × [2 ΔP o /ρ] ½

In our project, we need to determine the diameter of the side-wall holes of the plenum chamber. The
appropriate way is by using the orifice formula.

A o = Q o / [μ c[2 ΔP o /ρ] ½]

» d o = 2[ Q o / [π × μ c[2 ΔP o /ρ] ½]]½

where:

d o: Diameter of the orifice

ΔP o: Pressure drop due to orifice

The discharge coefficient μ, can be determined by observing figure 2.7

40
 Fig. 2.7 Discharge Coefficient – μ vs. Inclination angle of the plenum chamber - θ [ using maple-12 ]

For θ = 20ο , μ c ≈ 0.576

2.6 PRESSURE DROP

Pressure drop is the decrease of pressure for a specific fluid due to many factors such as valves, gates,
orifice, bends, sudden enlargement or contraction, friction and many other things. This drop must be taken
in consideration, since if we planning and designing on the cushion pressure that is minimally needed to
take-off the ACV from the ground taken from the supply or lift fan, this will surely not be enough for the
air cushion. So, the supply pressure have to be more enough to recover the losses in pressure due to many
factors affecting the performance.

Factors affecting pressure we have to discus in our ACV project are:

1. Friction Loss
2. Bending Loss
3. Sudden Enlargement Loss
4. Orifice Loss

The total pressure drop ΔPT is the summation of all sub-pressure drops ΔP i .

ΔPT = Σ ΔP i

1. Friction Loss

Friction with the side walls in the inner side of the plenum chamber can severely affect on the
pressure transmission from the supply to the cushion. So, this loss must be taken into consideration.
The head loss caused by friction varies among laminar, transition or turbulent flow due to Reynolds
number Re.
Reynolds number is also affected specially by the velocity of the fluid flow in the duct.

Re = ρ × V p × DH / μ

where:

ρ : Density of the fluid, in Kg / m3

V p: Velocity of the fluid inside the plenum chamber, in m/sec

DH: Hydraulic-mean diameter, in meters (m)

μ: Fluid viscosity, in N.s/m2

ΔPT: The total pressure loss from the supply to the cushion
41
 ΔP i : The pressure loss due to loss factors

If Re< 2300 the flow is Laminar :

f = 64/ Re

If Re > 3200 the flow is Turbulent :

f = ʄ (Re, ε/D)

f -½ = -2 log [((ε/D)/3.7) +(2.51/(Re×f½))] …(2.1)

…[6]

If 2300 <Re< 3200 the flow is in the Transition region.

[6]
f can be specified from Moody chart below:

Fig.2.8 The Moody chart for pipe friction with smooth and rough walls.

42
 This chart is identical to Eq. (2.1) for turbulent flow.

After specifying the type of flow we are facing, the pressure drop due to friction can be now calculated by
the following formulae:

h fr = [f×L×V2] / 2gDH and h fr = ΔP/ γ and γ = ρ × g

Q=A×V and V(Dimensional)= 4Q/π×DH2

» ΔP fr = [8 × f × L × ρ × Q p 2]/ [π2 × DH5]

» ΔP fr ≈ [0.81 × f × L × ρ × Q p 2]/ DH5

where:

ΔP fr : Pressure drop due to friction with the side wall of the plenum chamber

f : Friction coefficient from Moody chart

ρ : Density of the fluid, in Kg / m3

L: Overall length that the flow will pas through for total exiting

Q p: Volume flow rate in the plenum chamber

g : Gravitational acceleration = 9.18 m/sec2

DH: Hydraulic-mean diameter, in meters (m)

Hydraulic-mean diameter: When facing non-circular ducts or pipes, the normal diameter of a
circular duct would not be valid so far. It is replaced by the hydraulic-mean diameter- DH.
DH is a function of the cross-sectional area-A and the wetted perimeter-P by the following relation:

[6]

43
 2. Bend Losses

The fluid flow in the plenum chamber of the ACV will pases through a path that consists multi
angled bends of 30ο and 45ο, thus causing a pressure drop inside the plenum. This drop in pressure
can be formulated in the following relation:

The total pressure drop due to bends ΔPB is the summation of all bending-pressure drops ΔP θ .

ΔPB = Σ ΔP θ

ΔP θ = [ k θ × V θ2 × ρ ]/ 2

where:

ΔP B: Total pressure drop due to bending

ΔP θ: Pressure drop due to bending at a specific angle

k θ : Bending loss coefficient as a function of θ

V θ: Velocity of the fluid in the plenum at the bend

ρ : Density of the fluid, in Kg / m3

k is a function of the radius of curvature, diameter of the duct and the angle of bending. In our case, k can be
determined from the Frank M. White-Fluid Mechanics, sixth edition, page 387,figure 6.20.

44
 3. Sudden Enlargement Losses

Fluid flow from the fan duct, which has a relatively small diameter with respect to the plenum
chamber diameter, to the plenum. This sudden change in diameters (sudden contraction), will cause
a pressure drop between the supply fan and the hull. So, this drop have to be taken into
consideration.
Calculating this drop can be done using the following formulae:

ΔP E = [ k e × Vf2 × ρ ]/ 2

where:

ΔP E: Pressure drop due to sudden expansion

k e : Expansion loss coefficient as a function of D1 and D2

V f: Velocity of the fluid from the supply fan to the plenum chamber

ρ : Density of the fluid, in Kg / m3

[6]
k e can be specified from figure 2.9 below:

Fig. 2.9 Sudden expansion and contraction losses.

45
 4. Orifice Pressure Drop

As we mentioned before in the orifice wide title, the flow of a fluid through a hole causes a sudden
drop in the fluid pressure. The given relation for this pressure drop ΔP o and the fluid density ρ,
which can be written as:

» Q o = μ × A o × [2ΔP o/ρ] ½

This relation is mainly used to determine the diameter of the orifice, so we can use another one that
allows us to predict this loss as following:

ΔP o = Pp – Pc

where:

ΔP o: Pressure drop due to orifice

Pp : Pressure inside the plenum chamber

Pc : Cushion pressure under the hull

Orifice diameter is designed by us in order to get a specific and standard pressure loss

46
2.7 MOTOR POWER

Motor power is a main factor that influences the air-cushion performance. The main problem facing us, is
the availability of needed power, especially here in Lebanon. Powerful engines(135 h. p. min.), are not
available at all, thus providing a serious problem in selecting our motor.

Power required is the product of the volume flow rate of the supply lift-fan multiplied by the static
pressure supplied by the fan divided by the efficiency of both, the fan and motor.

W req = [ Qs × Ps ] / [ 1000 × η g × η c × η b ] ..in KW

where:

W req: Motor power required to drive the fan

Qs: Volume flow rate of the supply
Ps : Static pressure of the supply lift-fan, in Pacal (pa)
η g: Efficiency of gear box
η c: Efficiency of clutch gear
η b: Efficiency of belts

2.8 AFFINITY LAW

Power and number if rotations per unit of time are directly proportional. So, according to Affinity Law, the
factor of division of the initial number of rotations with the needed one is equal to the cubic root of that of
the power; thus giving us the following formula:
N2 / N1 = [W2/W1] ⅓

» N2 = N1 × [W2/W1] ⅓

where:

W1: Supply power, in KW or HP

W2: Available power, in KW or HP
N1 : Initial supply number of rotations, in rpm
N2 : Needed number of rotations, in rpm

47
2.9 LIFTING PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS

After presenting and explaining all formulae needed in our senior project performance calculations, it’s the
time to start doing these calculations depending on previous illustrations.

We are working at an average temperature = 20οC and atmospheric pressure = 1 atm

The primary need in these calculations are the estimated-loaded weight of the craft-Wt and the estimated
cushion area- Ac.

Area can be calculated from the geometrical shape of the hull in figure-2.10

 The max. loaded estimated mass of the craft is about ≈ 275 Kg.
» Wt ≈ 2700 N

 The min. cushion area under the hull is about ≈ 3.45 m2

» Ac ≈ 3.45 m2

Fig. 2.10 Plan design (Bottom view) of the cushion hull showing the cushion area with red boundaries.
[Auto-CAD drawing, bottom view]

48
Maximum pressure needed for cushion:

Pc = Wt / Ac
Pc = 2700 / 3.45

» Pc ≈ 800 pa

Using Bernoulli’s equation to find the escape velocity:

P1 v 21 P v22
  z1  2   z2
1 2g  2 2g

V e = [ 2P cushion / ρ air]1/2 m/sec

From figure 2.11, ρ air at 20οC = 1.2 kg/m3

» V e = [ 1600 / 1.2]1/2

» V e ≈ 36.5 m/sec

Fig. 2.11 Viscosity and Density of Air at 1 atmosphere

49
Volume flow rate escaping under the skirt: Q e = A e × V e × μ c m3/sec

μ c ≈ 0.53

A e = Perimeter of the hull × clearance distance(h)

Perimeter of the hull ≈ 7.4 m

Average clearance distance(h) ≈ 1.25 cm as an almost standard

A e ≈ 7.4 × 0.0125 = 0.0925 m2

» Q e = 0.0925 × 36.5 × 0.53

» Q e = 1.789 ≈ 1.8 m3/sec

Knowing that we are not taking into consideration for the :

 Turbulent flow

 Variation in air densities

 Leakage (between fingers, in the plenum)

Increase the flow by 20% to overcome the simplicity of the calculations » take Q=2 m3/s

» Q s ≈ 2 m3/sec

where:

Qs: Volume flow rate of the supply

Q e: Volume flow rate escaping under the skirt
A e : Escape area of the flow from the clearance distance, in m2
V e: Escape velocity of the flow from the clearance distance, in m/sec
μ c : Flow-rate coefficient

50
PRESSURE DROP
1. Friction Loss
 Re = ρ × V p × DH / μ
» μ = 0.00002 N.s/m2 (From figure 2.12)
» Re = 6×104 × V p average × DH average
f is a function of Reynolds number and the ratio of roughness to the hydraulic diameter.
f = ʄ (Re, ε /D)
We must find an optimum hydraulic diameter that gives us, by referring to figure 2.8 in the friction
loss section(from Moody chart), the smallest ratio of ε/D and the greatest Reynolds number.
This diameter can be obtained by applying the volume flow-rate formula: Q i =Ai × Vi

where:
Q i : Volume flow-rate at a distance
(i) from the supply fan

Ai : Cross-sectional area of the

plenum duct at the distance (i)

Ai : Velocity of fluid in the plenum

duct at the distance (i)

V p average : The average velocity in

the plenum chamber

DH average : The average hydraulic

diameter of the plenum

The average optimum hydraulic

diameter is found to be equal to 35 cm
with taking into consideration the
dimensional characteristics of our ACV.

» DH average = 0.35 m

» Re = 21×103 × V p average
Q plenum average =A average × V p average
» V p average= Q plenum average /A average
» V p average= 1.8 /0.0885
Fig. 2.12 Viscosity of Air at 1
atmosphere

» V p average ≈ 20 m/sec

» Re ≈ 420,000

This answer is assured by figure 2.13, that represents Reynolds number versus air velocity in the
plenum chamber.

51
 Fig. 2.13 Reynolds number – Re vs. Air velocity in the plenum chamber – V [ using maple-12 ]

The second dimensional factor that affect the friction coefficient-f is roughness-ε, we are using in our
plenum stainless steel sheets. So, referring to figure 2.14 the roughness-ε can be obtained. [6]

Fig.2.14 Recommended Roughness Values for Commercial Ducts

ε = 0.000002 m = 2 ×10-6
ε = 0.000002 m = 2 ×10-6 » ε / DH average = 0.0000057
f = ʄ (Re, ε /D) » f = ʄ (4.2×106, 5.7×10-6)
Using figure 2.15 below, we can obtain the friction coefficient factor-f :
52
 Fig.2.15 The Moody chart for pipe friction at f = ʄ (4.2×106, 5.7×10-6) » f ≈ 0.0135

for f ≈ 0.0135 the pressure drop due to friction loss is given by:

ΔP fr ≈ [0.81 × f × L × ρ × Q p 2]/ DH5

In our case, the pressure drop will varies

as the distance covered by the flow
increases due to the increase in the
number of the orifice holes in the plenum.
This is represented by figure 2.16 that
shows the decrease in volume flow rate
with the increase of length, and the
formula can be written as :
ΔP fr ≈ [ 0.81×f×ρ]×{(li/DHi5)Q2i(12+22+32+42+…+322)}

ΔP fr ≈ 2860 × [Q2o] ≈ 2860 × [0.031252]

Fi
g. 2.16 Q vs. V plenum chamber – V [ using maple-12 ]
» ΔP fr ≈ 3 pa

2. Bending Loss

ΔP θ = [ k θ × V θ2 × ρ ]/ 2

k is a function of the radius of curvature, diameter of the duct and the angle of bending. In our case, k can be
determined from the Frank M. White-Fluid Mechanics, sixth edition, page 387,figure 6.20. [6]

53
k θ = ʄ (θ, R/ DH average)
k 30=0.2
k 45=0.25
Thus, giving:
ΔP 30 = [ k 30 × V 302 × ρ ]/ 2
V 30= Q 30/ A 30
A 30=0.0885 m2
Q 30≈1.95 m3/sec
» V 30 ≈ 22 m/sec
ΔP 30 ≈ [ 0.2 × 222 × 1.2 ]/ 2
ΔP 30 ≈ 57 pa

ΔP 45 = [ k 45 × V 452 × ρ ]/ 2
V 45= Q 45/ A 45
A 45=0.0885 m2
Q 45≈0.7 m3/sec
» V 45 ≈ 8 m/sec
ΔP 45 ≈ [ 0.25 × 82 × 1.2 ]/ 2
ΔP 45 ≈ 9.6 pa ≈ 10 pa

ΔPB = Σ ΔP θ
ΔPB = 57 + 10 = 67 pa

3. Sudden Enlargement Loss

ΔP E = [ k e × Vf2 × ρ ]/ 2

54
The diameter (d) of the supply-fan is
55 cm

Where the plenum receiving one (D) is

about 80 cm

d/D ≈ 0.7

By observing figure 2.17

» k e ≈ 0.25

V f ≈ 10 m/sec

» ΔP E = [ 0.25× 102 × 1.2 ]/ 2

» ΔP E ≈ 15 pa

Fig. 2.17 Sudden expansion analysis.

4. Orifice Loss

Orifice diameter is designed by us in order to get a specific and standard pressure loss.
This pressure loss was planned to be equal to 100 pa.

» ΔP O ≈ 100 pa

Total Pressure Losses From Supply-Fan to Cushion

ΔPT = Σ ΔP i

» ΔPT = Σ (ΔP fr + ΔPB + ΔP E + ΔP O)

» ΔPT ≈ Σ (3 + 67+ 15 + 100)

» ΔPT ≈ 185 pa

2.10 LIFT-FAN DESCRIPTION

Total Pressure needed from the supply-fan to give the desired air-cushion lifting performance is
the summation of the cushion pressure and the pressure drop.

55
 Ps = Pc + ΔPT

where:
Ps: Supply pressure
Pc: Cushion pressure
ΔPT: The total pressure loss from the supply to the cushion

» Ps = 800 + 185 = 985 pa … (minimum)

» Ps ≈ 1000 pa
with a volume flow rate of 2 m3/sec as minimum.

Fan admired descriptions:

 Ps ≈ 1000 pa
 Qs ≈ 2 m3/sec

Our ACV Fan from Hover-hawk Corporation in the United-States of America:

22" Hovercraft Lift Fan (type 3) with 8 blades--fiberglass-reinforced

polyamide blades are resistant to water and UV rays.

 Engine shaft diameter = 2.5 cm

 Keyway width = 0.5 cm
 Direction of rotation: clock-wise
 Blade pitch is not adjustable
 Fan fits directly on engine PTO shaft or other keyed drive shaft
 Fits up to 1 1/8" diameter shaft
 Weight= 4 lbs ≈ 2kg.
 Performance: at 3600 rpm produces:

7,440 cfm ≈ 4 m3/sec air flow at a static pressure of

1100 pa.

Requiring 8.5 hp @ 30 degrees blade pitch

in AMCA style A duct. Fig. 2.18 The admired Hovercraft Lift Fan

2.11 FAN AND MOTOR POWER

Power required is the product of the volume flow rate of the supply lift-fan multiplied by the static
pressure supplied by the fan divided by the efficiency of both, the fan and motor.
In our case the motor power available to us is 10.5 hp. which is the output one that can be delivered by
the motor.
» The required power is:

56
 W req = [ Qs × Ps ] / [ 1000 × η g × η c × η b ] ..in KW

where:

W req: Motor power required to drive the fan

Qs: Volume flow rate of the supply ≈ 3m3/sec at 3000 rpm
Ps : Static pressure of the supply lift-fan ≈ 1100 Pacal (pa)
η g: Efficiency of gear box ≈ 90 %
η c: Efficiency of clutch gear ≈ 85 %
η b: Efficiency of belts ≈ 90 %
These efficiencies are taken from the manufacturer tables.
» W req = [ 3 × 1100] / [ 1000 × 0.65 × 0.85 × 0.9 ]

» W req ≈ 6.5 KW = 8.5 hp.

The available power (10 hp) is totally enough to our needs (8.5 hp). So, we will use the

GX-180 Honda motor , which has the following characteristics:

 Power delivered = 10 hp
 Maximum number of rotations = 3000 rpm
 Shaft diameter = 2.5 cm
 Direction of rotation : counter clock-wise
 Type of fuel : Diesel combustion
 Working hours : 6 hrs as maximum
 Cooling system : air cooling by fins
 Directly shipped from Japan

Power reaching fan = 10.5 × η g × η c × η b ≈ 10.5 × 0.65 × 0.85 × 0.9 = 5.22 hp.

Clutch Gear is used to transmit power at 1000 rpm as minimum speed, using the centrifugal force.

Gearbox is used to transfer the rotational motion of the motor from the horizontal axis to vertical one.

2.12 AFFINITY LAW

According to Affinity Law, the ratio of the initial speed to the required rotational speed is equal to the cubic
root of that of the power; using the following formula:
NR / NF = [WR/WF] ⅓

» NR = NF × [WR/WF] ⅓

57
 The motor maximum rotational speed is 3000 rpm at 10.5 hp. While the fan is designed for 3600 rpm with
8.5 hp. Thus, the new rotational speed is given by: NR = NF × [WR/WF] ⅓
» NR = 3600 × [5.22/8.5] ⅓
» NR ≈ 3060 rpm
Gear reduction:

V GG = V FG , where : V = Ω × R

» Ω GG × RGG = Ω FG × RFG

» 3000 × 0.1 = 3060 × RFG

» RFG = 0.09804 m = 9.804 cm

Manufacturing such gear or pulley is not available to us, also finding such precise radius is somewhat impossible. So,
taking the ratio of 1 (one) is acceptable in our case due to the sufficient amount of volume flow rate supplied from our fan.

» RFG = 0.1 m = 10 cm

And the final fan of rotating speed will be 3000 rpm with required power of 5.2 HP.

where:
WF: Designed fan power ≈ 8.5 HP

WR: Power reaching fan ≈ 5.22 HP

NF : Designed number of fan rotations ≈ 3600 rpm

NR: Number of rotation needed reaching the fan ≈ 3060 rpm

V : Velocity

Ω : Angular velocity of the shaft

R : Radius of the gear

FG : Fan shaft gear

GG : Gearbox shaft gear

2.13 SOFTWARE COMPARISON

58
 Hovercraft Lift Calculator [9]

Enter the required data in the following fields, use the metric or imperial boxes, not both.
When done, press the "Calculate" button. The answers will appear below. Press the "Clear
Input" button before starting a new calculation.

2.4998 8.2017

Enter hull length in meters: or feet:

1.3798 4.5272

Enter hull width in meters: or feet:

1.2471 0.0491

Enter Amount of air gap required in mm (i.e. 13): or inches (i.e. 0.5):
274.99 606.27

Enter max. gross weight of craft in kg: pounds:

Clear Input

or .

Results below are computed from the Input Data above and
are to be considered approximate values only.

Approximate lift 7.759537 25.4578

(m) (ft)
perimeter
Total hover gap area (m^2) 0.09677 (sq. ft.) 1.04064

Total cushion area (m^2) 3.449556 (sq. ft.) 37.13073

Cushion pressure (N/m^2 = Pa) 781.7888 (lbs/sq. ft, PSF) 16.32798

(mm of water @ 79.72240 (inches of water @ 73.80

Cushion pressure
4degC) 60degF)
Expected actual air 34.980 115.490
(m/sec) (ft/sec)
velocity
Lift air volume (m^3/sec) 1.4998 (CFS) 52.972

Estimated lift engine 2.6154 3.3990

(kW) (HP)
power
Estimated fan diameter (m) 4.01538 (inches) 6 5/64

BACK

This page is copy pated from internet website: http://www.hoverhawk.com/lcalc.html

59
 Parameter Manual Calculation Online Calculation %Error

Approximate lift perimeter 7.5 m 7.76 m 3.35%

Total hover gap area 0.0925 m2 0.097 m2 4.64%

Total cushion area 3.45 m2 3.45 m2 0%

Cushion pressure 800 Pa 782 Pa 2.25%

Expected actual air velocity 36.5 m/sec 35 m/sec 4.11%

Lift air volume 2 m3/sec 1.5 m3/sec 25%

Estimated lift engine power 5.2 hp 3.4 hp 32.7%

Estimated fan diameter 55 cm 45 cm 18.18%

This table shows the manual calculation relative to software one with the error percentage.

The relatively small errors (0 to 5%), are due to the non rectangular shape of our vehicle since the software used is
designed for rectangular shapes only.

While large error percentages (18-25-33%) are due to some factors involved acting on the hovercraft, in which the
software cannot include due to the wide number of factors.

Some of these factors are: friction loss, type of material used, shape of the vehicle, pressure drop due to bends,
leakage and the usage of gears and belts which affect the efficiency of the motor.

As we can observe, the manual calculations done by us takes a safety factor greater than the software does.

60
 Chapter 3
Steady Drag Forces

3.1 INTRODUCTION

ACVs create drag forces as they move over the water surface. The most important drag components are
those due to friction with immersed components such as skirt, and wave-making drag from the moving
cushion pressure field and sidewalls. In addition to that, momentum drag due to acceleration of the air used
for the supporting air cushion, and aerodynamic profile drag of the ACV become important components at
higher speeds.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DRAG COMPONENTS

In general, the total drag of craft can be written as follows: [3]

R acv = R w + R a + R m + R sk + R a’’

where:

R acv: ACV total drag forces

R w : Wave-making drag
R a : Aero-dynamic profile drag
R m : Aero-dynamic momentum drag
R sk : Total skirt drag
R a’’ : Differential air momentum drag

61
3.3 AIR-CUSHION WAVE-MAKING DRAG (R w)

Wave-making drag generated by a pressure distribution is a classical theme of hydrodynamics. It is the

force in the opposite direction of motion, due to wave making. Figure 3.1 shows the wave-making drag
force on our ACV.

Fig.3.1 The wave-making drag force on our ACV

The equivalent problem for a hovercraft was addressed by Newman and Poole [3], who derived a
calculation method for predicting the wave-making drag. They simplified the air cushion to an equivalent
rectangular surface with a uniform pressure distribution and calculated the wave-making drag as:

R w = C w [(P c2. B c)/( ρ w. g)] ...(1)

Scientists found by experimental modeling that this formula can be reduced into easy items and terms as
following:
R w /W= C w [(P c2. B c)/( ρ w. g. W)]

R w /W= C w [ P c /( ρ w. g. l c)]

» R w = W.C w [ P c /( ρ w. g. l c)] …(2)

62
where:

R w : Wave-making drag
C w : Wave-making drag coefficient due to the air cushion travelling on a waterway with infinite
depth C w = ʄ (Fr , l c /B c)Fig. 3.2 shows the wave-making drag coefficient against Frauds for a specific l c /B c
P c : Cushion pressure
B c :Cushion beam
l c : Cushion length
ρ w : Density of water

g : Gravitational acceleration = 9.18 m/sec2

Fr: Frauds number

W t: Weight of the craft

For our acv:

B c = 140 cm

l c = 280 cm » l c /Bc =2

Our ACV is designed to move with an average speed of 18 km/hr = 5 m/sec, » we can deduce by
observing figure 3.2 below that Fraud number ≈ 1.2

Fig. 3.2 Fraud number against the craft velocity [ using maple-12 ]

63
 [3]
Fig. 3.3 Wave-making drag coefficient against Frauds for a specific l c /B c

C w = ʄ (Fr , l c /B c) = ʄ (1.2 , 2)

» C w ≈ 0.27

Using equation (2) :

R w = W c .C w . P c / ( ρ w. g. l c)
ο
Using figure 3.4 to the right we can deduce the average density of water at 20 C
ρ w ≈ 1000 kg/m3

g = 9.81 m/sec2

P c= 800 pa

l c = 2.8 m

W t: Weight of the craft ≈ 2700 N

[6]
Fig. 3.4 Properties of Common Liquids at 1 atm and 20°C (68°F)

» R w = 2700 ×C w × 800 / ( 0.1045× 9.81× 2.8)

» R w ≈ 78.64× C w » R w ≈ 22 N

This wave-making drag is not fixed, it is totally dependent to fraud number that is in its whole dependent to the
craft velocity. But here, we are taking the average designed velocity.

64
3.4 AERDYNAMIC PROFILE DRAG (R a)

Aero-dynamic profile drag generated by the motion through a specific fluid, air in our case. It is the force
in the opposite direction of motion, due to aerodynamic frontal shape of the craft. Figure 3.5 shows the
aerodynamic profile drag force on our ACV.

Fig. 3.5 The aerodynamic drag force on our ACV

[3]
Formula representing the aerodynamic profile drag is:

R a = Ca × ρair × Sa × V2 / 2
where:

R a : Aerodynamic profile drag

C a : Aerodynamic profile drag coefficient
S a : Frontal projecting area of the hull above the water (m2).
ρ air : Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3
V : Velocity of the craft
Ca is highly sensitive to the aerodynamic profile of the craft's hull, inclusive of the inflated skirt. Its value
is generally obtained from wind tunnel tests for detailed design. We take the average aerodynamic profile
coefficient found in the 10 most important ACVs in the world, which is totally greater than ours since of
the aero dynamical shape of our ACV.
C a(average) ≈ 0.41 that can be observed from figure 3.6 below:

65
 [3]
Fig.3.6 The aerodynamic profile drag coefficient Ca for various craft (models)
Sa can be obtained from figure 3.7 below:

Sa ≈ 1 m2 as maximum

» R a = 0.41 × 1.2 × 1 × V2 / 2

» R a = 0.246 × V2

Figure 3. 8 below shows the variation of the aerodynamic profile drag as velocity of craft changes

for V = 5 m/sec » » » » » » » » R a ≈ 6 N

Fig. 3.8 Shows the variation of the aerodynamic Fig. 3.7 Frontal projecting area of the hull above the water

profile drag against the craft velocity [ using maple-12 ]

66
3.5 AERODYNAMIC MOMENTUM DRAG (R m)

Pressurized air has to be blown into the air cushion to replace air leakage out from the cushion under the
skirt or seals in order to maintain the ACV travelling on cushion. Thus, this mass of pressurized air
contained in the cushion will be accelerated to the speed of the craft. The drag due to the momentum
change of this air mass is called the aerodynamic momentum drag. Figure 3.8 shows the aerodynamic
momentum drag force on our ACV.

Fig.3.8 Shows the aerodynamic momentum drag force on our ACV

This drag can be calculated by the following formula:

R m = Q × ρ air × V

where:

R m : Aerodynamic momentum drag

Q : Volume inflow rate of air ≈ 3 m3/sec

ρ air : Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3

V : Velocity of the craft suggested 5 m/sec

67
 » R m = 3.6 × V

For V = 5 m/sec » R m = 18 N

Figure 3.9 below shows tha variation of the aerodynamic momentum drag against the craft velocity.

Fig.3.9 Shows tha variation of the aerodynamic momentum drag vs. craft velocity [ using maple-12 ]

68
3.6 DIFFERENTIAL AIR MOMENTUM DRAG

Air momentum drag is the drag caused from the differential leakage under the skirt. Figure 3.10 below
shows the air momentum drag force on our ACV.

Fig.3.10 Shows the air momentum drag force on our ACV

[20]
According to momentum theory this drag can be written as:

R a’’ = ρ air ( φ . h b . B c . P - φ . h s . B c . P ) P
where:

R a’’ : Air momentum drag

[3]
φ : Discharge coefficient of air leakage (in general we take φ = 0.5-0.6)

ρ air : Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3

h b : Bow air leakage clearance, in m

h s : Stern air leakage clearance, in m

P c : Cushion pressure
P : √(2P c / ρ air )
B c :Cushion beam
P = √(2P c / ρ air ) = √(2×800/ 1.2 ) ≈ 36.5
B c = 1.4 m

» R a’’ = 1.2 ( 0.5 × h b × 1.4 × 36.5 – 0.5 × h s × 1.4 × 36.5 ) 36.5

69
For maximum drag, let:
h s = 0.001 m

h b = 0.02 m

» R a’’ = 1.2 ( 0.5 × 0.02 × 1.4 × 36.5 – 0.5 × 0.001 × 1.4 × 36.5 ) 36.5

» R a’’ ≈ 20 N

As we notice, the air momentum drag is independent from the velocity of the craft. Figure 3.11 below
shows the air momentum drag force against craft velocity:

Fig.3.11 Shows the air momentum drag vs. craft velocity [ using maple-12 ]

3.7 SKIRT DRAG

70
With respect to an ACV, skirt friction with the water surface is a large component of total drag, owing to
the high density of water, 800 times larger than that of air. Most of the skirt makes only slight contact with
the water, while at the stern and the two stern corners of a skirt, segmented or fingered skirts may cause a
large amount of scooping drag at lower speeds. This can cause a particular problem for transiting hump
speed if the skirt geometry is unfavorable.

The skirt drag is a composite of sub-skirt drags, the composition of skirt drag can be written as:
[3]
R sk = R sf + R sp + R ss + R si

where:

R sk : Total skirt drag, in N

R sf : Skirt water friction, in N

R sp : Skirt pressure drag, in N

R ss : Skirt spray drag, in N

R si : Skirt inertia drag, in N

1. Skirt water friction drag (R sf)

We can take the bag-finger type bow skirt as an example to analyze the force exerted on the skirts and
assume that the skirt fabric is perfectly flexible. That means the skirt fabric will be flattened and in close
proximity to the water surface as the skirts make contact with the water surface as shown in Fig. 3.12:

Fig.3.12 Deflection of flexible skirts

contacting water surface.

R sf = ʄ (Rd , Q , Web , F r,w , d /P c , …)

where:

71
 R sf : Skirt water friction, in N

R d : Reynolds number for jet air

Q : Volume flow rate

Web: Weber number = ρ w × V2 × t / σ t

t: Thickness of the jet from the stern

σ t: Surface tension of water

Fr, w: Water friction coefficient

2. Skirt pressure drag (R sp)

This may be written as the following: [3]

R sp = (Pc – Po)d = Pc × d

The various components of skirt drag, such as friction drag in two-phase flow, the inertia drag of the
skirt due to the flutter of the skirt fabric and spray drag of skirts at both sides of the craft, are so difficult
to calculate. For this reason, the total skirt drag is best estimated by experience-based formulae, done by
scientists and engineers in specialized laboratories as follows: [3]

R sk : R sk1 + R sk2

R sk1: C sk1 × 10-6 (h/l j)-0.34 l j .S½ c. q w

R sk2: C sk2 .R w

C sk2: {[2.8167 (pc/l c)-0.259] – 1 }

where:

R sk : Total skirt drag, in N

72
R sk1 : Wet drag of the skirt

R sk2 : Wave-making drag due to the skirt

h : Average clearance for air leakage

h = S j/l j in static hovering mode

S j: Area of leakage under the skirts

l j: Total peripheral length of the skirts

R w: Wave-making drag due to the air cushion

Sc : Cushion area

q w : Hydrodynamic head due to craft speed, q w = ρairV2/2

C sk1: Coefficient for hydrodynamic drag, C sk1 = 2.5-3.5 or [1.35 + 0.112 pc/l c]

C sk2: Coefficient due to wave-making drag of the skirt, obtained from Fig. 3.13

Fig.3.13 Variation of skirt wave-making drag coefficient Csk2 with cushion length/beam ratio pc/l c

pc/l c = 800/2.8 = 285 » C sk2≈0.1

Note that all these equations were obtained from model experimental data.

73
 Fig.3.14 The main types of the skirt drag forces that uses approximation and experimental methods.

R sk = R sk1 + R sk2 = [ C sk1 × 10-6 (h/l j)-0.34 l j .S½ c. q w ] + [ C sk2 .R w]

C sk1 ≈ 3

q w = ρairV2/2

for V ≈5m/sec » q w ≈ 30

» R sk ≈ 5 N

Net ACV Drag Force: R acv = R w + R a + R m + R sk + R a’’

R acv ≈ 78.64C w + 0.246V2 + 3.6V + 5 + 20 (N)

For our craft velocity = 5 m/sec »

R w ≈ 22 N

R a≈ 6 N

R m = 18 N

R a’’ ≈ 20 N

R sk ≈ 5 N

» R acv ≈ 22+6+18+20+5 ≈ 70N

» R acv ≈ 70N

74
3.8 TOTAL ACV DRAG OVER WATER AND LAND

Different methodologies to calculate the total drag of ACV have been established to make the skirt drag
easier to calculate. Three methods for ACVs may be recommended, as summarized below: [3]

 Method 1 can be used at design estimate or initial design stage. Since many factors cannot be taken
into account at this stage, the method is approximate, taking a wide range of coefficients for
residual drag.

 Method 2, it is suggested using this at detail design or the final period in preliminary design,
because the dimensions in detail and the design of subsystems as well as the experimental results in
the towing tank and wind tunnel should have been obtained.

 Method 3 is also still approximate, although more accurate than method 1. For this reason it can be
applied at preliminary design stage.

The three methods are shown in figure 3.14 below. Engineering companies and bureaus mostly use
method-3 for its simplicity in calculations and accuracy.

Fig.3.15 The three experimental methods used in calculating and approximating the skirt drag forces.

75
 Fig.3.16 The total drag forces that acts on an ACV

» RT = K’T( R w + R a + R m + R sk + R a’’ ) where K’T ≈ 1.2

» R T ≈ 94.37C w + 0.3V2 + 4.32V + 25 ...(N)

» RT ≈ 1.2( 22+6+18+20+5)

» RT ≈ 85 N

76
 Chapter 4
Practical Formulae and Calculations for
Thrust

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Thrust, force exerted upon or against an object to move it in a desired direction. It is the force applied by
the volume (mass flow) of air pased at the discharge of the fan. In most modern lightweight hovercrafts,
the thrust required for generating forward motion comes from the use of either a propeller, hovercraft-
thrust fan or a commercially available one.

4.2 THRUST FORMULAE

4.2.1.Gross Thrust

The basic equation for Gross thrust is given by: [ 7 ]

T g = Q d × V d × ρ air

where:

T g : Gross thrust(exclusive of drag or losses), in N

Q d : Volume flow rate at the discharge

V d : Discharge velocity (Efflux velocity)

ρ air : Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3

77
4.2.2.Momentum Drag of Thrust

A thrust fan works by taking still air from in front of it and using the fan blades to increase its pressure and
velocity. If the air at the inlet already has some momentum, the fan is unable to increase its velocity by the
same amount, this difference is referred to as “momentum drag of thrust”. The basic equation for the
momentum drag of thrust is given by: [7]

D m = Q d × V o × ρ air

where:

D m : Momentum drag of thrust, in N

Q d : Volume flow rate at the discharge

V o : Free stream velocity

ρ air : Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3

4.2.3.Fan Thrust

The fan thrust (T f) is the gross thrust less the momentum drag of thrust (D m). Therefore fan thrust is given
by:

T f = ( Q d × V d × ρ air ) – ( Q d × V o × ρ air )

Which can be written as:

T f = Q d × ρ air (V d - V o)

The quantity of air Q d can be given by the fan area × the discharge velocity (A f × V d). Therefore gross
equation can be modified to give T g = A × V d × V d × ρ air

» T g = A f × V d 2× ρ air N

This leads to:

T f = V d × A f × ρ air (V d - V o) N

78
4.3 STATIC AND DYNAMIC THRUST

Static thrust is the measured thrust with the craft stationary and is equal to the gross thrust. To form any
useful references it must be measured in still air conditions, i.e. with the free stream velocity = zero.

For dynamic thrust, the losses must be taken into the equation.

Assuming a still day, the air some distance in front of the fan will have a zero velocity, (Free stream
velocity). From the momentum drag of thrust equation, the drag will be zero. So the static thrust figure will
not alter (except from the effect of losses due to any additional obstructions).

If the free stream velocity is greater than 10m/sec the losses must be calculated and subtracted from the
static thrust.

In our ACV, it is designed to move at an average velocity of 5 m/sec or 18-20 Km/hr, so we can take the
static thrust only in our calculations.

Fig.4.1 The momentum exchange principle diagram

4.4 MOTOR POWER AVAILABLE

79
In our ACV, we are not concerned in the speed of our craft. The primary goal of our prototype is the lifting
system of the vehicle, where as the thrust system plays a secondary role. The craft speed-thrust system is a
matter of motor power, bring a powerful motor (more than 135 hp. in most weightless hovercrafts) and you
will get more speed. Our demanded velocity is about 5 m/sec in order to show the hovercraft performance.

The thrust motor available for us is the same of lifting one, the GX-180 Honda motor , which has the
following characteristics:

 Power delivered = 10 hp
 Maximum number of rotations = 3000 rpm
 Shaft diameter = 2.5 cm
 Direction of rotation : counter clock-wise
 Type of fuel : Diesel combustion
 Working hours : 6 hrs as maximum
 Cooling system : air cooling by fins
 Directly shipped from Japan

Power reaching fan = 10.5 × η c × η b ≈ 10.5 × 0.85 × 0.9 ≈ 8 hp.

Clutch Gear is used to transmit functional rotation at 1000 rpm as minimum, using the centrifugal force.

where:

η c: Efficiency of clutch gear ≈ 85 %

η b: Efficiency of belts ≈ 90 %

4.5 THRUST FAN DESCRIPTION

80
 In our ACV, the net thrust is the gross thrust less the total drag forces. Thus, giving the following
formula:

T n = T g – R acv (N)

An appropriate thrust fan for the 8 hp driving power available, would be a 5 bladed 26’’ (≈65 cm),
type 4 fan with adjustable pitch. This fan can provide about 200 N of thrust. *

This page will be updated when the thrust fan be received by us from the United States of America.

*[This statement was sent by email from the hover-hawk corporation located in the United States of America]

4.6 THRUST VS. DRAG

81
If ACV is moving on land at an average speed of 18 km/hr:

The available thrust is about 200 N, thus giving the following equation:

» 200 = 0.3V2 + 4.32V + 22 (N)

Therefore solving this second order equation dives us the theoretical expected velocity of the craft of
18 m/sec or 64.8km/hr

» Vex ≈ 65 km/hr

Figure 4.2 and 4.3 shows the drag forces acting on our ACV moving on land, and velocity of the craft
moving on land.

Fig.4.2Shows the drag forces acting on our ACV moving on Fig.4.3Shows the velocity of the craft on Land with 200 N

land vs. craft velocity [ using maple-12 ] of thrust

where:

Vex: The expected velocity of the craft

If ACV is moving on water at an average speed of 18 km/hr, the total ACV drag is about 85 N.

The available thrust is about 200 N, thus giving the following equation:
82
 » 200 = 0.3V2 + 4.32V + 22 + 25 (N)

Therefore solving this second order equation dives us the theoretical expected velocity of the craft of
16.3 m/sec or 59km/hr

» Vex ≈ 59 km/hr

Figure 4.4 and 4.5 shows the drag forces acting on our ACV moving on water and velocity of the craft
moving on water.

Fig.4.4 Shows the drag forces acting on our ACV moving

Fig.4.5Shows the velocity of the craft on water with 200 N of

on water vs. craft velocity [ using maple-12 ] thrust [ using maple-12 ]

Chapter 5
Maneuverability
83
 5.1 INTRODUCTION

Maneuverability is the concept of controlling the directional movement of a vehicle. It is the ability of the
craft to turn right, left or spin. Also, it plays the most important role in the new design of military vehicles
and aircrafts.
The maneuverability of amphibious ACVs has some characteristics of each of conventional ships, wheeled
vehicles and aero-planes, as follows:

1. During turning (or holding a straight course in beam winds), the craft needs to maintain a yawed attitude,
pointing into the centre of the turning circle or into the wind in order to maintain the intended track. This
is because an ACV has very little contact with the water surface and so the drifting drag of the ACV is
very small. The low righting moments at small angles of an ACV hovering over water result in heeling,
pitching, yawing, drifting and surging motions all being significant.

2. The maneuverability of an ACV is different from that of wheeled vehicles. During turning of wheeled
vehicles, there is large sideways friction of wheels against the ground and large centripetal force acting on
CG in the case of banked ground surface at the turn. These forces stop wheeled vehicles slipping
sideways. In the case of an ACV turning, the craft will slip considerably unless special measures are taken
by the driver. The desired craft trim is a bank into the turn. Some SES have canted rudders which create a
rolling moment to achieve this effect. Amphibious ACVs may be fitted with skirt lift or skirt shifting
systems which move the cushion centre of pressure relative to the CG to roll the craft. Smaller craft may
have elevators installed to achieve a similar effect.

3. ACV maneuverability is also different from aero-planes. When in flight, pilots can use the air rudder and
wing elevators in co-ordination to make an inward banked turn and create a centripetal force in order to
reduce the turning diameter and slipping distance. In addition, the aero-plane has less space restriction on
its maneuvering should significant side-slip occur. An ACV on the other hand may be required to travel
on narrow rivers, canals, under bridge spans, or to land in enclosed docks of landing ships, all of which
represent limiting space for maneuvers.

Thus it can be seen that the maneuverability of an ACV is rather different from conventional ships,
vehicles and aero-planes and so needs special features to provide adequate maneuvering power. The
essentials are: the ACV is bound to flat surface; little drag in all horizontal directions; direct generation of
control forces needed to provide centripetal forces to maneuver the craft around corners.

5.2 CONTROLLING SURFACES AND SOURCES

There are a lot of possible control surfaces that can be mounted on an ACV. They can be divided into three
groups, rudder equipment, air propulsion systems and the control surfaces affecting the cushion force.
Figure 5.1 shows the 3 controlling sources for an ACV. [3]

84
 Fig.5.1 Shows the 3 controlling sources for an ACV

Rudders

Vertical rudder
Due to the high position of a vertical air rudder over the CG, its action not only creates turning moments
but also a drifting force and rolling moment, which leads to the craft performing an outward banked turn.
Thus when the ACV is turning over water by means of an air rudder.

Vertical fins for course stability

Vertical fins are used for improving course stability and efficiency of an air rudder. We will not use it in our
design since their primary use is at high speed. Figure 5.2 shows the Air rudder and fixed vertical stabilizer
fin.

Fig.5.2 Shows the Air rudder and fixed vertical stabilizer fin.

Air Propellers

Steering by differential thrust from air propellers

The difference of rpm of two or more than two air propellers on both sides can be applied to ACVs to
present a turning moment to make the ACV turn about the CG of the craft. This method is especially
suitable for ACVs at low speed. Figures 5.3 shows two sets of ducted air propellers at the stern. Owing to

85
the high efficiency of ducted propellers, the effectiveness of this method for improving the maneuverability
of ACVs at low speed is very satisfactory.

Fig.5.3 Shows the two sets of ducted air propellers

Swiveling pylons

Figure 5.4 shows a sectional view of swiveling

pylons with an integrated lift fan and air propeller
system. It can be seen that the swiveling pylon can
be rotated by means of a pair of hydraulic actuators.
This apparatus can provide side forces as well as a
turning moment, therefore various handling modes
can be exploited with the aid of several swiveling
pylons and their various force couples (moment).
Also figure 5.5 shows the maneuverability of an
ACV using the swiveling pylons.

Fig.5.4 Shows a sectional view of swiveling pylons with an

integrated lift fan and air propeller system.
1: propeller
2: pylon
3: lift fan
4: actuator for pylon
5: actuator for rudder

Fig.5.5 Shows the two control modes: (a) yoke control -

pylons swivel together;
(b) rudder bar control – pylons swivel in opposition.
1: pylons; 2: rudders.

Controllable pitch air propellers (or ducted propellers)

Variable forward and reverse thrust and rotating moment (in the case of two or four air propellers) can be
provided by means of controllable pitch air propellers. The available maneuvering forces from differential
thrust are high, therefore pilots like it very much. These pieces of equipment are complicated and
expensive, and therefore are usually only installed on medium and large ACVs.
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Fig. 5.6 Ground wheels for the guidance of air cushion platform that uses the controllable pitch air propellers.

Rotating ducted thrusters

These are also called rotating jet nozzles. A diagrammatic sketch of this apparatus is shown in figure 5.7.
Using the pressurized air from centrifugal fans and ejected from a rotating nozzle, the ACV can obtain the
jetted thrust. Fine maneuverability of an ACV at low and high speed as well as in beam wind conditions
can be obtained by means of coordinated operation of bow thrusters and stern rudders as well as stern air
propeller pitch. Figure 5.8 shows the use of this thruster in the ACV.

Fig. 5.7 A diagrammatic sketch of the thruster

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 [3]
Fig. 5.8 The control surfaces of British ACV model AP.1 -88.1: vertical rudder; 2: propeller duct; 3: bow thruster.

Puff ports

The working principle of this installation is the same as

that of rotating thrusters, except that thrust is simply
directed to port or starboard of the bow, so it is normally
only used for increased rate of turn at low speed. The
merit of puff ports is simplicity of structure and low
cost. There are no separate fans for this installation. The
lift fans have to be upgraded to account for the
additional air flow.
The disadvantage of this installation is that a part of the
cushion air will be consumed for this system, leading to
a reduction of the cushion pressure at the side of the
cushion on which the puff ports are in action. Thus the
craft heels to one side and causes the air leakage at the
other, which is a black point recorded for the puff ports.
Figure 5.9 shows how a puff port works.

Fig. 5.9 How a puff port mechanism works

Cushion Air Forces

Since the cushion force is equal to craft weight, it is very effective to use this force to control the craft for
static and dynamic adjustments. The best method using the air cushion forces is the skirt lift apparatus.

Skirt lift apparatus

Skirt lifting apparatus works by the lifting of one side of the skirt, fingers or bag. The action of both causes
lift to the skirt at one side of the craft, thus making this side heel down and presents not only a heeling
moment but also a transverse force, which is useful in a turning maneuver.

The effectiveness of lifting skirt fingers will be better than lifting skirt bags, because it may cause the
change of jet direction and increase the transverse momentum of cross-flow. [3]

88
Figure 5.10 shows a diagrammatic sketch of a skirt lift apparatus: (a) shows the action of this apparatus to
lift skirt bags, and (b) shows the action of this apparatus lifting the skirt fingers.

Fig. 5.10 Skirt lifting installation: (a) action of lifting bag; (b) action of lifting fingers.

In our ACV, and due to the lack of funding, time and equipments, we decided to use the simplest
technique in controlling our craft. So, we selected the rudders one, since its efficient, less costly and
easy to design.

The three rudders will be located at the back of our craft behind the thrust fan duct. They are fixed with a
semi circular truss that is directly connected to the craft podium. Figure 5.11 shows the rudder holding
mechanism that we design to use in our ACV maneuverability controlling system.

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 Fig. 5.11 Rudder holding mechanism [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

5.3 CONTROLLING SYSTEM

The controlling system designed must consist of some characteristics, it must be feasible and practical. In
order to achieve that many possibilities was under study, but one won. Our controlling system merge
between modern technology of aircrafts and traditional behavior.

The main parts used in our controlling system are:

A. Input Controlling System

90
 1. Joystick
2. Wiring System
3. C-quintet Mechanism (parallelogram form)

B. Output Maneuvering System

1. Wiring System
2. Motion Transformation Linkage Mechanism
3. E-quintet Mechanism

A. Input Controlling System

The joystick is used in steering and lifting control of our vehicles. First, the red button is wire
connected to the lift-fan motor speed regulator. Second, the joystick is free to move in the side way
direction that is wire connected by a
side and side c-quintet mechanism that
moves the rudders in the direction we
want. The last mechanism used in the
controlling system is the front and back
c-quintet mechanism that is also
connected by the wire system that is in
its turn is connected to the thrust-fan
motor speed regulator.
This leads to a simple and technological
control of our hovercraft, without
making any physical effort and mental
mess. Figure 5.12 shows the design of
our control system.
DOF (mobility) for the c-quintet =1 by
using Gruebler’s equation thus leading
to a parallel oscillating output motion.

Fig. 5.12 Input controlling System [ using Auto

CAD 2004 ]

B. Output Maneuvering System

After taking the input mechanical data from the input controlling system, the output system will
respond due to the direct wire connections among the input and motor speed controllers or
regulators. Also, the maneuvering system shown in figure 5.13 below will respond to the slight
variation in the control of direction by joystick. This maneuvering system works by using the
e-quintet mechanism, that is actuated by the motion transformation linkages that transform the
motion from semi-rotational motion into translational one.

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 Fig. 5.13 Input controlling System [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

E-quintet mechanism: This mechanism is used to transform symmetrical, rotation or oscillation, motion
from one link to another. The mobility of such mechanism is equal to 0 (zero) b using Gruebler’s equation:
[8]

DOF or M = 3(L - 1) – 2J1 – J2

where:

DOF: Degree of freedom for a mechanism

M: Mobility for a mechanism
L: Number of Links in the mechanism
J1: Number of full joints in a mechanism
J2: Number of half joints in a mechanism
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 Fig. 5.14 E-quintet Mechanism

Fig. 5.15 E-quintet Mechanism linkage numbering using Gruebler and Paradox criterions

Using the Paradox criterion (Gruebler’s criterion gives a zero DOF thus a structure, which is not the case):

where:

L: 6 , J1: 6 , J2: 0
» M = 3(6 - 1) – 26 – 0

M=1 » One output type of motion (semi-rotational)

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 Fig. 5.16 3-D Input controlling System [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig. 5.17 3-D output maneuvering System [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

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 5.4 RUDDERS DRAG FORCE

Drag force created from each rudder is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid (air) stream
reaching the rudder, the lateral area of the rudder and the angle of deviation of the rudder which affect the
drag coefficient.

Drag force created from each rudder: [6]

F D = ρ air × VR2 × CD × AR /2g

where:

F D: Drag force created from each rudder

VR: Velocity of the fluid (air) stream reaching the rudder
CD: Drag coefficient for rudder
AR: Lateral area of the rudder
ρ air : Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3
g : Gravitational acceleration = 9.18 m/sec2

Lateral area of the rudders, AR = 2 (0.2 × 0.4) + (0.2 × 0.5) = 0.26 m2

Drag coefficient, CD is related to the lateral area of the rudder which is a plate one, that is also related to
the angle of deviation of the rudder.

Velocity of the fluid (air) stream reaching the rudder, VR ≈ 35m/sec.

» F D = 1.2 × (35sinθ)2 × CD × 0.26 /19.62

» F D ≈ 19.5× CD × sin2θ (N)

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 [6]
Fig. 5.18 Drag coefficient of some most used body shapes

» CD = 2

» F D ≈ 19.5× 2 × sin2θ ≈ 39sin2θ N

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 5.5 MOMENT ANALYSIS

Drag force of the three rudders acting at a distance (x) from the center of gravity of the craft, will create a moment
acting around the C.G.

Fig. 5.18 Top view for our craft showing the center of gravity of our vehicle [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

The distance (b) from the center of gravity to the rudder is approximately equal to 140 cm ≈ 1.4 m.

The drag forces are located approximately at the middle of the rudders, the rudders are 20 cm apart (s/2 = 0.2 m).

Figure 5.19 shows a schematic diagram of the drag forces acting on the rudders of the craft, showing the moment
analysis around the center of gravity if the vehicle.

Fig. 5.19 Drag forces and moment

analysis sketch diagram.

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Moment is the product of the force by the perpendicular distance from the center of gravity of a
body to the force acting on the same body, it can be given by:

Mc = F D × d CG-F

» Mc = 39sin2θ × 1.5cosθ (N.M)

» Mc = 58.5 sin2θcosθ N.M

where:

Mc: Moment created by rudders

F D: Drag force created by rudders
d CG-F: Perpendicular distance from the center of gravity to the force
N.M: Newton meter
θ: Angle of deviation of the rudders, max θ = 60ο

Figure 5.20 shows the variation of the rudder drag force against the deviation angle of the rudder.
Figure 5.21 shows the moment variation around the center of gravity of the vehicle against the deviation
angle of the rudders.

Fig. 5.20 Rudder drag force vs. the deviation angle of the rudders [ using maple-12 ]

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 Fig. 5.21 Moment variation around the center of gravity of the vehicle against the deviation angle of the rudders [ using maple-12 ]

The turning moment varies with deviation of the angle of attack with the air stream, reaching a maximum
value of 22 N.M, with a deviation angle of 60ο.

Fig. 5.21 Moment variation around the center of gravity of the vehicle against the deviation angle of the rudders
from -60 ο to +60ο , the angle is given in radians[ using maple-12 ]

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 Chapter 6
Prototyping the LIU-ACV

6.1 DESIGN AND PLANNING

6.1.1 Plenum Chamber

Fig.6.1 Shows the 2-Dimentional design of the 7 main parts of plenum chamber in our unique ACV design [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

where:

1: Upper part of the frontal basic receiving part of the plenum

2: Bottom part of the frontal basic receiving part of the plenum
3: Central-right part of the plenum chamber
4: Central-left part of the plenum chamber
5: Rear-right part of the plenum chamber
6: Rear-left part of the plenum chamber
7: Rear part of the plenum chamber

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Fig.6.2 Shows the 3-Dimentional design of the plenum chamber [ using Auto CAD 2004 / 4 port-views ]

Fig.6.3 Shows the isometric design of the plenum chamber [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

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 Fig.6.4 Shows cross sectional dimensions of the plenum chamber [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

6.1.2 Podium

The podium (pedestal or base) of our ACV is formed of two main parts, chassis and holding plates.

The chassis is a cast iron metallic box that is located inside the hull of the plenum. Its role is to hold
and fix the lower and upper holding plates without causing any stresses on the plenum duct.

While the holding plates are a bottom ply-wood plate that holds the plenum chamber on, and other
light-weight wood plate that is located on the upper part of the chassis, which plays a main role in
fixing all components and equipments to.

6.1.3 Skirt Design

The skirt is used to trap the air that will be used in cushion. It is made from the polyester 1100 D-Tex, that
can hold high pressure and abrasion life. The skirt is designed in order to decrease the volume flow rate
escaping under the skirt. It is also designed for minimum aerodynamic profile drag, that is totally dependent
on the shape of the object. In addition to that the skirt is made finger by finger, the attached by each others,
to get a no-leakage skirt. The design of the finger is shown in figures below:

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Fig.6.5 Shows the 2-Dimentional design of the Finger Skirt [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

Fig.6.6 Shows the 3-Dimentional design of the Finger Skirt [ using Auto CAD 2004 ]

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6.2 CONSTRUCTION AND HARDWARE

6.2.1 Plenum Chamber and Podium

Fig.6.7 Shows the prototype of the plenum chamber with the podium

6.2.2 Skirt

Fig.6.8 Shows the prototype of the ACV and the skirt

6.2.3 Fans
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 Fig.6.9 Shows the Thrust Fan (to the left) and the Lift Fan (to the right)

6.2.4 Controlling System

Fig.6.10 Shows the Maneuverability System (to the left) and the Controlling System (to the right)

105
6.2.5 Final Prototype

Fig.6.11 Shows the final prototype of our vehicle at the Lebanese International University in Saida Campus

Mohd. Oneissi (to the left), Dr. Ali Al Shaer, Dr. Farid Khalil, Dr. Farouk Hachem, Dr Jihad and Maarouf Azzam

106
 Chapter 7
Conclusion and Future Recommendations

7.1 CONCLUSION

This project presented the kinds of aerostatic vehicles and described briefly the Air-Cushion Vehicle.
Furthermore, the report included a case study where theoretical notions were employed in order to design a
hovercraft and, hence, fan and motor selection criteria.

In conclusion, the literature review revealed that Air-Cushion Vehicles are used in all domains from luxury
purposes to large cargoes transfer. While the design and construction criteria revealed the basic parameters
that one must be use in order to design or construct an ACV. Furthermore, analyses have shown the
following important conclusions:

1. The required volume flow rate of air was approximately two cubic meter per second.
2. Cushion air was delivered from a lift fan that supplies a 1100 Pa air flow.
3. The selection of motors was based on the assumption of six hours operation.
4. The plenum chamber was designed to give a turbulent flow of fluid inside with maximum hydraulic
diameter to decrease the friction coefficient-f.
5. The orifice holes diameter was based on the drop of pressure from plenum to cushion and above the
buoyancy limits.
6. Our ACV is designed to move on land and calm water only.

7.2 Recommendations

It is highly recommended to analyse and design the followings:

a. ACV moving on water waves.

b. Analysis of minimizing the weight of the craft.

107
REFERENCES

[1] Spedding SG. , History of Hovercraft [online]-2009

Available at: http://www.hovercraft.org.uk [Accessed on March-15-2009]

[2] Hayward L. , The History of Air Cushion Vehicles

Kalerghi – McLaren Publication, 1963

[3] L. Yun and A. Bliault, Theory and Design of Air Cushion Craft

Arnold Publication, 2000

[4] A. Bliault, Design of Hovercrafts [online]-2009

Available at: http://www.wikipedia.com [Accessed on March-21-2009]

[5] M. Roger, Hovercraft [compact disk]

CD: Encarta Encyclopedia -2004 [Accessed on March-26-2009]

[6] Franck M. White, Fluid Mechanics 6th Edition

Mac Graw Hill, 2004

[7] P. FitzPatrick, Hovercraft Club of Great Britain (S.E. Branch)

Arnold Publication, 2003

[8] Gruebler, Design of Machinery 5th Edition

Norton, 2004

[9] Hover Hawk, Lift Fan Calculator [online]-2009

Available at: http://www.hoverhawk.com/lcalc.html [Accessed on April-6-2009]

108
Appendix A

Table - A.1 Recommended Roughness Values for Commercial Ducts [ fluid book page 365 ]

Table A.2 Viscosity and density of water at 1 atm

109
Appendix B

Fig. A.3 Absolute viscosity of common fluids at 1 atm.

110
Appendix C

Table A.4 Viscosity and Density of Air at 1 atmosphere

Appendix D

Table A.5 Properties of Common Liquids at 1 atm and 20°C (68°F)

111
Appendix E

Table A.6 Drag coefficient of some used shapes

112
Appendix F

113
114
115