BUNDS

Bunds are among the most common techniques used in

agriculture to collect surface run-off, increase water infiltration and
prevent soil erosion. Their principle is comparably simple: by
building bunds along the contour lines, water runoff is slowed
down, which leads to increased water infiltration and enhanced
soil moisture. Using different designs, bunds are applicable to
even and uneven grounds (with a gentle slope of up to 5 per
cent). Bunds are usually constructed either with soil or stones.

ADVANTAGES OF BUNDS

>>Effectively store surface run-off (increases the green water pool

of the soil) and prevent erosion.
>>Comparably simple and cheap implementation
Simple maintenance.
DISADVANTAGE OF BUNDS

>>For stone bunds, shortage of stones can lead to higher

implementation costs.
>>Contour bunds need an even ground (between two contour
bund or within a semi-circular bund), otherwise, water will collect
in lower spots (ANSCHUETZ et al. 2003) which can cause
mosquito breeding.
>>Semi-circular bunds cannot be made mechanically and are
therefore time consuming in their construction.

TYPES OF BUNDS

(1) CONTOUR BUNDS.

(2) GRADED BUNDS.
 CONTOUR BUNDS

These are bunds constructed along the contour lines. They are
usually made of stones or soil (sometimes in variation with crop
remains). They are constructed along a contour in order to best
slow the water flowing down the slope, which increases the green
water pool of the soil and prevents erosion.
It consists of building earthen embankments across the slope of
the land, following the contour as closely as possible. A series of
such bunds divide the area into strips and act as barriers to t5he
flow of water, thus reducing the amount and velocity of the runoff.
Contour Bunding are carried out in many parts of India- notably in
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh.
>>DESIGN AND SURPLUSING ARRANGEMENTS

1. Spacing of Contour bund:

Bund spacing is expressed as the vertical or the horizontal distance
between corresponding points on two adjacent bunds. Although the
horizontal spacing is useful in determining the row arrangement. Vertical
distance is commonly known as the vertical interval or V. I.

Bund spacing should not be so wide as to cause excessive soil erosion

between adjacent bunds. Spacing may be increased or decreased 10 to
20% to suit local conditions.

2. Bund Grade:
Since the contour bunds are laid along the contours, they are
level bunds.

3. Bund length:
In general, 400 to 500m is the maximum length of bund. The bund
retains the runoff and carries it over the distance equal to bund
length in one direction. The length of bund should be such that
the velocity of water flowing between bunds should be non-
erosive.

4. Bund cross section:

The height of bund should provide sufficient storage above the
bund to handle the expected runoff. In normal practice sufficient
practice is provided to take care of runoff from rains expected in
10 year recurrence interval. The cross section area of of the
storage space required can be calculated by the following formula

Cross section area of storage space = [Runoff, cm] X [Bund

horizontal interval in m] / 100

The height of bund should permit frees board of about 20% as

design depth [after allowing settlement of the ridge.] Specific at
bund cross section are given in table

The following factors are to be considered

while developing design criteria for contour
bunds.
1. Allowable submergence of land:
The amount of land submerged due to pending and duration of
pending will affect crops. Therefore the level of waste weir and
the amount of land to be submerged should be decided by the
cropping practice to be followed and the infiltration rate for the
soil.

2. Moisture Conservation:
For paddy lands it is desirable to store all the rain water for the
use of the plants. Therefore the bunds should be of such
dimensions as to permit no runoff. For other crops, the capacity of
the bund should be decided by the average consumptive use of
the crop proposed and the maximum length of dry period in
growing season. The heights of waste weirs should be such that
the bunds store just sufficient water to meet requirement of crop.

3. Economy in Construction:
The cost of Bunding includes two main atoms which vary
according to the spacing of the bunds.
i. Expenses of the earthwork
ii. Value of land lost permanently due to construction of bunds.
The sum of these two should be minimum

4. Critical Length:
Another approach in fixing the spacing of bunds by determining
the critical length of land between adjacent bunds. Increase in
drainage area increases both velocity and amount of runoff
gathering in narred channel. But the critical length approach, the
attempt is to space bunds in such a way that the velocity remains
within non-erosive limit.

5. Seepage consideration:
While designing the bund cross- section, the seepage through
bunds due to accumulation of water behind it should be taken into
account. The seepage rate is affected mainly by the head of water
impounded, the side slopes of the bound and the permeability of
the soil.

6. Location of contour bund:

Moderate slopes (5–10%) with light or medium soil texture and
less than 700 mm of rain per year.

Purpose of contour bund:

- To reduce soil erosion.
- To increase the amount of water the soil can hold.

Advantages of contour bund:

- Simple to build.
- Bunds conserve topsoil and improve productivity.
- They keep water in the soil, allowing chemical fertilizers to be
used effectively.
- They can be used both on cultivated and uncultivated land.
- Farmers can build contour bunds themselves without outside
help.

Limitations of contour bund:

- The bunds take some land away from cultivation (though some
types of crops can be grown on the bunds to stabilize them). -
May create temporary waterlogging problems in heavy soil.
- May interfere with the farm operations if the bunds are too close
together.
- A lot of labour is needed to maintain and repair the bunds.

NUMERICAL ON DESIGNING OF CONTOUR

BUNDING
>>Example:
On a 3 per cent land slope calculate the horizontal spacing of
bunds in medium rainfall zone and the length of bunds per
hectare.
>>Solution:
[1] V.I=30s/3+60=90cm=0.9m
[2] Horizontal spacing=0.9*100/3=30meters
[3] Length of bund per hectare=10000/30=333m.
 GRADED BUNDS

Graded bunds or graded terraces or channel terraces are the

bunds or terraces laid along a pre-determined longitudinal grade
very near the contour but not exactly along contour”. Suitability:
The graded bunds, commonly used in India are comparable to the
narrow base terraces.
The graded bunds, commonly used in India are comparable
to the narrow base terraces. They are used for the safe,
disposal of excess runoff high rainfall areas and rigious
where the [Clay] soil is relatively impervious. Farming
operations are not done on bunds or bund channels.

Function:

1. These terraces act primarily as drainage channel to regulate

and conduct runoff at non erosive velocity.
2. To make the runoff water to trickle rather than to rush out.
DESIGN AND SURPLUSSING ARRANGEMENTS OF
GRADED BUNDS

Graded bund is designed based on 1h rainfall intensity for desired

recurrence interval. In general, a grade of 0.2 to 0.3% is provided
in graded channel. In graded bund free board of 15 to 20% of
desired depth is provided.

Recommended Dimension

Height of bund ≤ 45 cm

Top width = 30 to 90 cm

Velocity of runoff should be less than critical velocity.

Table 24.1 Recommended side slope for graded bund

 Table 24.2 Recommended seepage line slope for graded
bund

(1) Calculation of Vertical Interval (VI) and Horizontal Interval

(HI)

For medium to high rainfall areas:

Where,

V.I = Vertical interval, m

H.I = Horizontal interval, m

s = Original land slope, %

(2) Calculation of Peak Runoff Rate:

Where,

QP = Peak runoff rate (m3/s)

C = Runoff coefficient

I = Rainfall intensity (mm/h) for duration equal to time of

concentration.

Where,

tc = Time of concentration (min)

L =Length of water flow = (length of bund + distance between two

bunds) in (m)

S = H/L = gradient or slope causing water flow

H = Elevation difference causing water flow

= (elevation difference causing length of bund + elevation

difference of land)

= ( L Χ g + HI Χ s ) (m)

g = grade of channel (%)

A= Drainage area (ha)

 = ( L Χ HI )

(3) Calculation of Discharge Capacity of Graded Bund

Design layout of graded bund.

From the design layout of contour bund

Where,

d = depth of water stored behind the bund (m)

 n:1(H:V) = side slope of the graded bund

5:1 (H: V) = Seepage line slope of the bund for sandy loam
soil

(4) Calculation of Bund Dimension

(5) Calculation of Earth Work due to Bunding

NUMERICALS ON GRADED BUND
 TERRACES
In agriculture, a terrace is a piece of sloped plane that has been
cut into a series of successively receding flat surfaces or platforms,
which resemble steps, for the purposes of more effective farming.
This type of landscaping is therefore called terracing. Graduated
terrace steps are commonly used to farm on hilly or mountainous
terrain. Terraced fields decrease both erosion and surface runoff,
and may be used to support growing crops that require irrigation,
such as rice. The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordillerashave
been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site because of
the significance of this technique.

Terraced paddy fields are used widely in rice, wheat and barley
farming in east, south, and southeast Asia, as well as the
Mediterranean, Africa, and South America. Drier-climate terrace
farming is common throughout the Mediterranean Basin, where
they are used for vineyards, olive trees, cork oak, etc.

In the South American Andes, farmers have used terraces, known

as andenes, for over a thousand years to farm potatoes, maize,
and other native crops. Terraced farming was developed by the
Wari culture and other peoples of the south-central Andes before
1000 AD, centuries before they were used by the Inca, who
adopted them. The terraces were built to make the most efficient
use of shallow soil and to enable irrigation of crops by allowing
runoff to occur through the outlet.
TYPES OF TERRACES

(1) LEVEL AND GRADED BROAD BASE TERRACES

(2)BENCH TERRACES

>> LEVEL AND GRADED BROAD BASE TERRACES

A broad base terrace has a ridge 25 to 50cm high and s to 9am

wide with gently slopping sides and a dish stopped channel along
the upper side constructed to control erosion by diverting runoff at
anon –erosive velocity.
It may be level or have a grade towards one or both ends .based
on greed; it is divided or classified as:

a] Graded Terrace
b] Level Terrace

A grads terrace has a constant or variable grade along its

lengthened used to convey excess runoff at safe velocity into a
vegetated waterway or channel.

A level terrace follows the contour line, in control to a graded

terrace and recommended in areas having permeable soil.

>>BENCH TERRACES

Bench terracing is one of the oldest mechanical methods of

erosion control having been used for manly centuries in many
countries .bench terrace, though not very scientifically designed
have been extensively used in India in the mountainous regions of
Kerla of H.P and Assam.

Bench terracing consists of transforming relatively steep land into

a series of levee or nearly level strips or steps running across the
slope .the strips are separated by almost vertical risers. The risers
if sloping may be of earth construction .steep risers are supported
by masonry [stones ].bench terracing is adopted only on slopes
steeper then 15%[for more then 8%]and where soil condition are
favorable .the use of bench traces retards erosion losses and
makes cropping operations on these slopes possible and safe.
TYPES OF BENCH TERRACE

A] Classification based on slope

1] Table top bench terrace:

Table top bench terrace are suitable for areas receiving medium
rainfall which is evenly distributed and which have highly
permeable and deep soils .in paddy fields it may be used for
slopes as mild as 1% and used where irrigation facilities are
available

2] Sloping outwards bench terrace:

In heavy rainfall areas, bench terraces of sloping inwards type are

more effective. It prevents inponding of water and useful for crops
susceptible to water logging.

3] Sloping outwards bench terrace:

Bench terraces sloping outwards are effective only in low rainfall

areas whit a permeable soil of medium depth at lower ends
graded channels are provided for safe disposal of runoff

4] Puertorican Type:

In this type of terrace, the soil is excavated little during every

ploughing and gradually developing bench by pushing the soil
downhill against a mechanical of vegetative barrier. Mechanical or
vegetative barrier is established across the land at suitable
interval and the terrace is developed gradually over the years ,by
pushing soil downhill and subsequent natural leveling.

B] Classification based on use:

Depending upon the purpose for which they are used ,bench
terraces are classified as follows:

1. Hill type Bench Terraces:

It is used for hilly areas whit a reverse grad towards the hill.

2. Irrigated Bench Terraces:

Level benches are adopted under irrigated conditions. The level

table top terraces are referred to as irrigated bench Terries.

3. Orchard Bench Terraces:

Narrow width terraces [about 1 mm] for individual trees are

prepared in this type. These are also referred as intermittent
terraces and step terraces. The conversion of land into bench
terraces over a period of time is referred as gradual bench
terracing.
PLANNING,DESIGN AND LAYOUT PROCEDURE OF BENCH
TERRACES

For the design of the bench terraces for particular area, the
average rainfall, the soil type, soil depth, slope and farming
practices of the area should be known. The design consists in
determining the

1. Type of the bench terrace.

2. Terrace spacing or the depth of the cut.
3. terraces width and
4. Terrace cross section.

Step I Selection of the type of bench terrace depends upon the

rainfall and soil, condition.

Step II Terrace Spacing: It is normally expressed in terms of the

vertical interval between two terraces. It depends upon soil, slope,
surface condition, grade and agriculture use. The vertical interval
is dependant upon the depth of cut. Since the depth of cut and fill
are to be balanced, V.I. is equal to double the depth of cut. The
depth of cut should not be too high as to exposed bed rock

Consideration:

1. Find Out the maximum depth of productive soil,

2. maximum admissible cutting depth—D/2 or d
3. Given land slope, [S]
 4. From this, The width of the terraces [W] can be computed for
a given slope [S]

By formula
200d
W = ----------------
S
Depth of Cut:

Case a:

When terrace cuts are vertical by similar triangles

WS
D = -----------------
100
Case b:

When batter slope is 1:1

D/2 S WS
--------------- = --------------- D = ------------------ = V. I.
W/2+D/2 100 [100-S]

Case C:

D/2 S 2 WS
------------------- =---------------- D = ---------------- = V. I.
W/2+D/4 100 200-S
Step III: Terrace cross section:

Design of terrace cross consists of deciding

1] The battler slope
2] Dimensions of shoulder bund
3] Inward slope of then terrace and the dimensions of the
drainage channel in case of terrace sloping inward, and
4] Outward slope in case of terraces sloping outward.

The height of the embankment [bound] should be increased

sufficiently to provide for shrinkage of soils, so that the ultimate
slope, as per design can be obtained after compaction.

Step IV: The cross- section of shoulder bund along outer edge of
terrace should also be designed suitably to make the bund stable
against slipping and overt to piping.

Figure 1BENCH TERRACING

 CONTOUR STONEWALL

The low soil quality combined with the limited soil moisture conditions of the
harsh Sahelian climate leads to a low efficiency of fertilizers. Conversely,
the beneficial effect of soil & water conservation (SWC) measures such as
stone bunds is limited under continuous non-fertilized cereal cropping. In
addition, the lack of economic motivation has been one major constraint to
increased use of plant nutrient sources in the sub-region.
Laying stone bunds in fields is a well known technique to check runoff and
to control erosion and is the most widely practiced technique by farmers in
sub-Saharan West Africa. As a result, various government and non-
government programmes are promoting the large-scale introduction of the
technique and providing technical and logistical backup for collecting and
transporting stones.
Contour stone bunds are built with quarry rock or stones along the natural
contour of the land to a height of 20-30 cm from the ground and spaced 20
to 50 m apart depending on the inclination of the terrain.
The stone bunds form a barrier that slows down water runoff, allowing
rainwater to seep into the soil and spread more evenly over the land. This
slowing down of water runoff helps with building-up a layer of fine soil and
manure particles, rich in nutrients.
From the perspective of climate change adaptation, contour stone bunds
protect the land from heavy rain in years with high rainfall. In drought years,
they improve rainwater harvesting, retention and infiltration into the soil,
increasing the amount of water available to plants and guaranteeing the
harvest. If a good vegetation cover is developed on the stone bunds, they
also lower soil temperature, provide protection against wind erosion and
help to conserve biodiversity. However, interactions of SWC measures with
fertilization optimizes water and nutrient use efficiency, boosting crop
production and inducing economic benefits for poor resource farmers
Objectives:
 A minimum amount of labour on upkeep is required
 Stone bunds need to be usually implemented by the community, with
development projects supporting the technical, material and logistics
aspects.
Results:
 Under water limiting conditions, the stone bunds are efficient measures
to improving soil water content through runoff control, which can reach
59% in plots with barriers alone, and even 84% in plots with barriers +
organic matter.
 When rainfall is erratic, the stone bunds contribute to conserving more
moisture in the soil for longer, which helps to alleviate water stress
during dry spells.
 Crops in plots with stones bunds could yield two to three times more than
crops in control plots. The increase in sorghum yields varies between
33% and 55% in Burkina Faso’s Central Plateau area while grain yields
increase by more than 40% for millet up to 15 years after the bunds were
established in Niger

STONE BUNDING IMAGE

 CONTOUR TRENCHING
Contour trenching is an agricultural technique that can be easily applied
in arid sub-Sahara areas to allow for water, and soil conservation, and to
increase agricultural production.

Between two trenches crops can benefit during the growing season (when
there is less rain) from the subsoil water reserve gathered during the rainy
season.

Advantages

Immediate advantages are the following:

 The rain water does not immediately run off the hill,
 Water does not evaporate uselessly
 The water balance is enhanced
 Crops do not suffer later on from water shortage,
 Fertile soil particles are not lost by water and wind erosion.
 When the sun shines on the water, light and heat are reflected onto
plants on the northern shore of the trench, this effect and the
increased humidity create micro climates in the area. These micro
climates can support plants from different hardiness zones.

Technique

Trenches can be artificially dug along the contour lines. Water flowing down
the hill is retained by the trench, and is infiltrating the soil below.

Implementation

Depending on the slope of the hill, the parallel trenches can be closer or
further from one another.

Manually dug trenches are smaller. Machine dug trenches can be deeper.
The dimensions, and the format of the trench should correspond to the
local climate and soil conditions. The trench should be big enough to keep
all the water; no water should spoil over the downhill border. The upside of
the trench should be protected against erosion, by means of e.g. grass,
shrubs, or fabric.
Depending on the slope of the hill, the parallel trenches can be closer or
further from one another.
CONTOUR TRENCHING IN MAHARASHTRA

A CONTOUR TRENCH LINE IN INDIA