GeoArabia, 2015, v. 20, no. 1, p.

191-210
Gulf PetroLink, Bahrain

Depositional environment of Late Cretaceous to Eocene

organic-rich marls from Jordan

Mohammad Ali Hussein, Mohammad Alqudah,

Myrna Blessenohl, Olaf G. Podlaha and Jörg Mutterlose

Abstract

Oil-shale beds formed under anoxic conditions that were controlled by various
local, regional and global factors. The Jordanian oil shales, which were deposited
during the Late Cretaceous to Eocene, are considered as an example for the
interplay of these factors. Two cores of organic-rich marls were investigated and
analyzed with respect to their lithology, ichnofabrics and carbonate microfacies.
The first core (OS-01, 183.3 m; South Jordan) is of Late Cretaceous age, the second
one (OS-23, 256.3 m; Central Jordan) is of Eocene age. Our studies revealed that the
Upper Cretaceous oil shales were deposited in a shallow-water carbonate shelf.
Oyster bioherms acted as physical barriers that reduced the water circulation
with the open shelf, thereby causing anoxic conditions. The Eocene oil shales
also accumulated on a shallow-water carbonate shelf. In this case, however,
synsedimentary tectonics caused subsiding grabens and half grabens, which in
turn gave way to anoxic conditions. Both deposition and richness of the Jordanian
oil shales were affected by regional sea-level fluctuations and global climatic
changes.

Introduction

Cretaceous to Paleogene rocks are of great importance for the economy of Jordan because they
comprise significant natural resources. These resources include widely distributed Maastrichtian
to Eocene organic-rich marls known as “oil shales”. Extensive geological investigations of the oil
shales were carried out by the Natural Resources Authority (NRA) of Jordan (Hamarneh, 2006). Other
studies focused on the origin, depositional environment, quality, and commercial development of the
Jordanian oil shales (Abed, 1982; Hufnagel, 1985; Abed et al., 2005; El-Hasan, 2008; Jaber et al., 2008).
Most of these studies are based on material from outcrops and boreholes in the areas of oil-shale
occurrences in Jordan. Little is known about these oil shales from other localities, especially when it
comes to the deep oil shales in Central and South Jordan.

As a part of an integrated research project that includes the sedimentology, biostratigraphy and
geochemistry of the Jordanian oil shales, the current study investigates the lithofacies, ichnofabrics
and sedimentary petrography of these oil shales. The significance of this study is that it analyzes the
deeply buried oil shales of Maastrichtian–Paleocene age occurring in South Jordan, and compares
them to Eocene oil shales located in Central Jordan (Figure 1). In this paper, a core from South
Jordan (OS-01, 183.3 m) of Maastrichtian to Paleocene age has been investigated and compared to
a previously described core from Central Jordan (OS-23, 256.3 m) of Eocene age (Ali Hussein et al.,
2014a, b; Alqudah et al., 2014). These studies aim at understanding the changes in the character and
origin of the Jordanian oil shales through time and space (Figure 1).

GeologIC Setting

During the Late Cretaceous and Early Paleocene the region of Jordan was situated on a shallow-
marine carbonate platform adjacent to the Neo-Tethys Ocean in the northwestern part of the Arabian
Plate (Figure 2a; Barjous and Mikbel, 1990; Ziegler, 2001; Sharland et al., 2001; Powell and Moh’d,
2011). The Eocene strata in the northwest part of Arabia are mainly composed of transgressive
carbonate cycles. Pelagic chalks containing radiolarians and foraminifera interfinger with shallow-
marine, nummulitic limestones that were deposited on a broad, shallow shelf at the northern edge of
the Arabian Plate (Figure 2b).

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Ali Hussein et al.

a 35ºE 36º 37º 38º 39º

33ºN 33º
SYRIA
IRAQ

32º 32º

AMMAN

Alluvium and
OS-23 alluvial mudflats
Pleistocene
sediments
31º 31º
Wadi Shallala
Chalk Formation
OS-01 (Late Eocene)
Umm Rijam Chert-
Limestone Formation
(Early to Middle Eocene)

JORDAN Muwaqqar Chalk

SAUDI ARABIA Marl Formation
30º 30º (Late Maastrichtian-
Early Paleocene)
Fault, tick shows
downthrown side
N Synclinal axis
0 80 Anticlinal axis
km Dip and strike, more ticks
steeper dip
29º 29º
35º 36º 37º 38º 39º Road

b c 30º28’
3 30º32’
36º20’ 36º25’

N
31º45’ N 31º45’ 0 4
0 4
km
km
30º48’ 30º48’

31º40’ 31º40’
Ra
ha
Fa
ult

30º44’ 30º44’

31º35’ 2

Z a rqa Ma’i
n
Fa
ult
36º20’ 36º25’ 30º28’ 30º32’

Figure 1: (a) Map of Jordan showing the locations of the studied cores (OS-01 and OS-23),
(b) Geological map of the study area of core OS-23 (compiled and modified after Al Hunjul, 1999;
Smadi, 1999), (c) Geological map of the study area of core OS-01 (compiled and modified after Abu
Lihie, 1985; Kherfan, 1986; Gharaibeh, 2010).
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 Late Cretaceous–Eocene oil shales, Jordan

a 35ºE 40º 45º 50º 55º 60º

TURKEY Caspian
Sea

Med. Sea
35ºN LEBANON N 35º
0 500
SYRIA
km
Syrian
IRAN
Arc

IRAQ
30º JORDAN 30º

KUWAIT

BAHRAIN
25º QATAR Gulf of 25º
Oman

Arabian UAE
Shield
Red

SAUDI ARABIA OMAN

Sea

20º 20º

pre-Aruma
erosional edge

Continental, coastal,
evaporites, deltaic
Arabian deposit
Sea 15º
15º Shallow-marine
YEMEN carbonate platform
Open-marine
carbonate shelf
Deep-marine clastics
Gulf of Aden Fault
35º 40º 45º 50º 55º Collisional border

b 1100 1150 1200 1250

Figure 2: (a) Paleofacies of the Late
Cretaceous to Early Paleocene of the
00

Arabian Plate (modified after Ziegler,

-1,6
-2

1300 1300
,00

2001), (b) A paleo-bathymetric map for

0

-800 the Middle-Late Eocene showing the

Mediterranean 0
,20
0

Sea
-1,80

00

-1 0 different parts of the carbonate ramp.

,0

-20
-1

1250 1250
Iso-bathymetric lines in meters, the
datum is the Eocene mean sea level.
The coordinates are in Palestine Grid
(modified after Segev et al., 2011).
0

0
-60

-40

0
-20
1200 1200
0
-10

1150 1150
00
-1,8

-1,600
OS-23
-1,4
00
0

1100 1100
-40

Continental
Proximal (shelf)
0
,20 Dead Sea Distal (deep-water
-1 0
-800

40 continental slope)
-60

-
00

Basinal (Flat)
,0

1100 1150 1200 1250

-1

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Ali Hussein et al.

The Syrian Arc influenced the paleotopography by forming a series of anticlines and synclines
(Figure 2a). The crests of the anticlines formed a cluster of small islands, whereas the synclines formed
small basins in which chert, phosphate and organic-rich sequences accumulated. The major tectonic
features of the two study areas include the Zarqa-Ma’in Fault and Raha Fault (Figures 1b, c). The
strata have a general 2–5° dip to the N and NE (Abu Lihie, 1985).

The two cores from South and Central Jordan (OS-01, OS-23, Figure 1) that are investigated here
represent intervals from three formations, each consisting of a set of three units (Figure 3).

(1) The Upper Maastrichtian–Lower Paleocene Muwaqqar Chalk Marl (MCM) is represented in
Core OS-01 (Figure 3a). The formation has a wide distribution in southern Jordan, but less so in
Central Jordan (Bender, 1975; Powell, 1989; Andrews, 1992). It consists of chalks and marls, with
concretions of chalky or microcrystalline limestone ranging in thickness from 20 cm to 1 m (Abu
Lihie, 1985). Thin layers of fibrous gypsum are present within the marls. Macrofossils include
bivalves, gastropods and shark teeth.
(2) The Lower to Middle Eocene Umm Rijam Chert Formation (URC) is represented in Core OS-23
(Figure 3b). It has the widest occurrence in both study areas. It commonly rests unconformably
on the MCM. This formation consists of chalks and chalky limestones, thin-bedded chert layers
interbedded with chalks and succeeded by limestones with abundant limestone concretions that
are interbedded with chalk (Gharaibeh, 2010).
(3) The overlying Upper Eocene Wadi Shallala Chalk Formation (WSC) is also represented in Core
OS-23 (Figure 3b). It covers local parts of the study area. The formation is up to 100 m thick
(Gharaibeh, 2010) and consists of white chalks, marls, chalky limestones, barite concretions and
glauconite in the lower part. The upper part is composed of micritic limestone interbedded with
chert and chert concretions. Macrofossils include bivalves and shark teeth.

Methods

Lithological characterization with visual logging of cored wells is considered to be the first step in
any exploration campaign. This gives an initial overview of the vertical changes of the studied rocks.
Sedimentary-petrographic studies are a second important approach for characterizing sediments.
In the case of carbonate sediments this approach is useful since carbonate grains are normally
produced in close proximity (from less than a meter to hundreds of meters) to the site of their ultimate
deposition. In addition, carbonate grains are produced mainly by organisms, and thus the grains
provide ecological data about the environment of formation as well as stratigraphic information
of the age of the deposit (e.g. Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle, 2003). Petrographic studies enhance our
knowledge about the microscopic characteristics of the investigated rocks such as texture, type of
cement, compaction, porosity and preservation of the grains. This in turn helps finding the best
method for developing the investigated resources. Studying the ichnofabrics of the rocks has been
widely used in facies interpretations. It also sheds light on the consistency of the sediments and the
dynamics of the depositional environment (e.g. Ekdale et al., 2012).

Data

Core OS-01 drilled in South Jordan has a thickness of 183.3 m and was logged visually using a logging
sheet designed to collect the different parameters, with an original logging scale 1:50 (Ali Hussein
et al., 2014a). Logged parameters include main lithology, texture, sedimentary structures, grain
size, macrofossil content, ichnofabrics, foraminifera content, visual porosity, fractures, hydrocarbon
shows, color, and key stratal surfaces.

The bioturbation index (BI) was utilized to estimate the grade of bioturbation. This index was
introduced by Reineck (1963) and revitalized later by Taylor and Goldring (1993). The BI relates the
degree of bioturbation to the preservation of primary sedimentary features (Knaust, 2012). In this
index, each grade of bioturbation is assigned to a numerical value that clearly defines the burrow
density, the amount of burrow overlap, and the sharpness of the original sedimentary fabric (Taylor
et al., 2003).

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 Late Cretaceous–Eocene oil shales, Jordan

A total of 20 thin sections were studied using the checklist of Wilson (1975) and Flügel (1982). The
classification of limestones follows Dunham (1962) and Folk (1962). Microfacies types (MF types)
were assigned to each thin section according to the standard microfacies types (SMF) model of Wilson
(1975) and Flügel (1982, 2010). The data of core OS-01 were compared to previously published data of
core OS-23 from Central Jordan (Ali Hussein et al., 2014a, b).

Results

Lithofacies

From bottom to top core OS-01 can be divided into three main lithological units (Figure 3). Unit A
(183.3–117.0 m) consists of thick chert interval at the bottom, followed by intercalations of bituminous
marls, chalky marls and limestones. The overlying unit B (117.0–81.0 m) comprises intercalations
of chalky marls and limestone with silicified marls near the top. This unit is characterized by the
presence of four beds of limestones and bituminous marls that are rich in oysters. Unit C (81–0 m)
consists of intercalations of bituminous marls and limestones.

Three lithological units (Ali Hussein et al., 2014a) can also be distinguished in core OS-23 (Figure 3).
Unit A (256.3–187.1 m) comprises intercalations of bituminous marls, chalky marls and phosphate
layers. Thin bands and concretions of chert and limestone appear at the top of this unit. The overlying
unit B (187.1–51.7 m) consists of mudstones to wackestones of homogeneous bituminous marls and
chalky marls with a few horizons of limestone concretions. Unit C (51.7–0 m) comprises intercalations
of bituminous marls, chalky marls, cherts, limestones and chalky limestones. It also contains a
distinctive horizon of intense bioturbation.

Ichnofabrics

Bioturbation
The bioturbated intervals in core OS-01 occur in two different patterns (Figure 4). Most common are
the discrete and closely spaced bioturbated intervals, which are found throughout the entire core. The
second pattern describes discrete and widely spaced intervals, which appear in the middle of unit A
and at the top of unit B.

The bioturbated intervals in core OS-23 show three patterns (Figure 4; Ali Hussein et al., 2014a). The
first one is marked by discrete and widely spaced intervals that appear in the lower part of unit A
and at the top of unit B. The second pattern shows discrete and closely spaced intervals at the top of
unit A and at the bottom of unit B. The third pattern includes the thick, highly bioturbated intervals
(BI ranges between 5 and 6), which occur in two distinctive horizons of this core. The first horizon is
around 25 m thick, which can be found in the middle of unit B. The second thick highly bioturbated
horizon is 10 m thick that has been observed in unit C. The BI in this core ranges from 1 to 6.

Ichnogenera
Cores OS-01 and OS-23 yield four ichnogenera: Thalassinoides, Teichichnus, Chondrites, and Zoophycos (in
descending abundance; Figure 4). Each ichnogenus has different distributions and abundances in the
two cores. The occurrences and typical features of the four ichnogenera are summarized in Table 1.

Petrographic Characterization

A total of 20 (core OS-01) and 53 thin sections (core OS-23), were studied using polarized microscopy.
The results of this study are summarized in Figures 5 and 6.

Skeletal and Non-skeletal Grains

A variety of skeletal grains was found in the studied thin sections, with benthic and planktonic
foraminifera being the dominant component. Other skeletal grains include bivalves (represented by
the shell fragments in Figures 5 and 6) and bone fragments. The benthic foraminifera become more
dominant in the shallow parts of both cores, while the planktonic foraminifera follow no trend. There

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Chrono- Core OS-01 Chrono- Core OS-23

strat. strat.

Lithologic

Lithologic
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
biozones

biozones
Adjusted

Adjusted
Nannos.

Nannos.
Lithology (simplified) Lithology (simplified)

Cycles

Cycles
Epoch

Epoch
Stage

Stage
units

units
MW PG F MW P
0 0
NP 4 ? ? ?
Paleocene

Danian

NP 3
20
NP 2

Unit C
NP 1 20
UC m
20B 40

m NP
16
Unit C

40
60
m
m II
m

80
60 m
II m

m
Upper Cretaceous

Lutetian
Eocene 100
m
Maastrichtian

UC m
20A 80

Unit B
120

NP
Unit B

100 15 140

UC 160
19
120

I
180
UC
18
140
200
Unit A

NP14
Undetermined

Lower Eocene

Unit A

220
160
Ypresian

NP
12–
NP 240
14

180 ? ? ?
Legend Marl, phosphatic Thalassinoides Gastropods Shallowing
Limestone Phosphate, silicified Teichichnus Shark teeth, fragmented upwards
Limestone, marly Marl, silicified Chondrites Molds of bivalves
Deepening
Limestone, chalky Chert concretions Zoophycos Bones, fragmented upwards
Limestone, silicified Limestone concretions Shells, fragmented (abundant) Fossil wood
Marl m Bioturbation color mottling Shells, fragmented (rare) Foraminifera
Marl, chalky Bioturbated Shells, concaved up M,W,P,G, F = Mudstone, Wackestone, Packstone,
Grainstone, Floatstone

Figure 3: Simplified lithological log of cores OS-01 and OS-23. The lithology and cycles of core OS-23 are
modified after Ali Hussein et al. (2014b). Biostratigraphic data after Alqudah et al. (2014), biozones are
calibrated to the geologic time scale (Gradstein et al., 2004). Nannos biozones = calcareous nannofossils zones,
zonation UC following Burnett (1998), zonation NP following Martini (1970).
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 Late Cretaceous–Eocene oil shales, Jordan

Ichno- Ichno-

Adjusted Depth (m)

Adjusted Depth (m)

genera genera
Core OS-01 Core OS-23
Lithologic units

Lithologic units
Bioturbation Bioturbation

Undistiguishable

Undistiguishable
Thalassinoides

Thalassinoides
Index Index

Teichichnus
Cycles

Cycles

Teichichnus
Zoophycos
Chondrites

Chondrites
Lithology Lithology
(simplified) (simplified)
MW PG F MW P
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0
? ?

20

Unit C
20

40
Unit C

40
60
II

80
60
II

100

80
Unit B

120
Unit B

100 140

160

120

I
180

140
200
Unit A

Unit A

220
160

240

180
? ?
Figure 4: Simplified lithological log of the studied cores illustrating the vertical distribution of different
ichnogenera and the bioturbation index. The data of core OS-23 are from Ali Hussein et al. (2014 a, b). See
Figure 3 for legend.
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Table 1: Occurrences and characteristics of different ichnogenera

encountered in the studied cores
Ichnogenera Occurrence Characteristics

Thalassinoides Dominant throughout Large burrow compared to the other ichnogenera described in this study.
both cores. This The morphology of these burrows have a wide variety, from elliptical,
ichnogenus appears cylindrical to semi-circular. In some cases they crosscut the core as a wide
in many horizons. It is burrow with a diameter ranging from 1 to 3 cm. Thalassinoides shows a
associated with other structureless fill, differentiating itself from the surrounding sediment.
taxa found in this study.

Teichichnus Limited to 10 Appears as a vertical series of tightly packed concave-up, crescentric

bioturbation intervals laminae. The laminae have a width from 1 to 2 cm. They are passively filled
in core OS-01 and 2 with material derived from the surrounding sediment.
intervals in core OS-23.

Chondrites Found in the upper unit A root-like burrow system that appears in the cores as an assemblage of
C of both cores. tiny elliptical dots and strings. Vertical slices through the core truncate the
numerous branching tunnels (Pemberton et al., 2001). The burrows have a
size that ranges from 1 to 3 mm, while the longitudinal sections reach 2 cm.
Chondrites burrows are filled by material from the surrounding sediment.

Zoophycos Present only in the Appears in core sections as a thin, semi-horizontal to horizontal spreiten
upper highly bioturbated burrow. Individual burrows mostly have a width less than 1 cm. The filling
interval of unit C in core material of these burrows are derived from the surrounding sediment.
OS-23.

are four distinctive beds in unit B of core OS-01, where bivalves represent the major components.
These beds are represented by three samples 6, 8 and 11 (core OS-01). In core OS-23 the bivalves are
minor components in samples 11, 14–17, 23, 26, 29 and 38. The bone fragments are common in the
lower part of both cores, where they are common in samples 1 to 3 (core OS-01) and samples 13 and
16 (core OS-23) (Figures 5 and 6). Most of the samples contain moderate- to well-preserved skeletal
grains with sharp edges.

The non-skeletal grains observed in the studied samples of both cores are represented by peloids and
lithoclasts (Figures 5 and 6). Samples 1 to 4, 11, 16, 19 and 20 (core OS-01), and samples 7, 8, 10, 11,
13, 16, 23 and 49 (core OS-23) contain abundant peloids (> 10%). The lithoclasts are larger than the
peloids, they represent an overall minor component in the thin sections. In core OS-01 the lithoclasts
are more common than in core OS-23, where they become abundant in samples 1 and 7 (core OS-01).

Types of Cements and Diagenetic Features

Three types of cements were encountered in the studied thin sections, being granular calcite, isopachous
rims around the grains and drusy calcite (Figures 5 and 6). Granular calcite represents the major
cement type in both cores. It is common in most of the studied samples. This cement commonly fills
the foraminiferal chambers and the inter-particles void spaces. Isopachous rim cement surrounding
the grains is less common in the studied cores. Generally it is associated with the peloidal facies,
where it was observed in samples 1 to 4, 11 and 19 (core OS-01), and in samples 1, 8, 9, 40 and 49 (core
OS-23). This cement is characterized by a single rim of microcrystalline crystals growing with equal
thickness around grains such as the peloids and lithoclasts (Ali Hussein et al., 2014b). Drusy calcite
cement is associated with fractures. It was not encountered in core OS-01 but it exists in samples 11,
12 and 51 (core OS-23). This cement is characterized by pore-filling calcite crystals increasing in size
toward the center of the voids. Other distinctive diagenetic features are the cone-in cone structures.
They occur in different depth intervals of core OS-01, samples 5 and 13, and in core OS-23, sample 35.

Microfacies Types (MF Types)

Microfacies types were assigned to each sample utilizing the grains types and their characteristics,
following the standard microfacies model of Wilson (1975) and Flügel (1982, 2010) (Figure 7). The
studied thin sections exhibit eight MF types, where MF types 1 to 6 are described by Ali Hussein et al.
(2014a). Table 2 summarizes these MF types and describes their distribution in both cores.

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 Late Cretaceous–Eocene oil shales, Jordan

Cement

Planktic foraminifera
Benthic foraminifera
Adjusted Depth (m)
type
Core OS-01

Bone fragments

Shell fragments
Lithologic units

Granular calcite
Isopachous rim
Drusy calcite
Sample no.

Lithoclasts
Ostracods
Cycles
Total

Dolomite
Lithology
Micrite %

Peloids
(simplified) grains %
MW PG F
0 40 80 0 40 80
0 20
?

19
20
18

17

16
15
Unit C

40

14

13
60
II

12

80
11
10
9
8
Unit B

100

120
5
I
4

140
3
Unit A

160

1-5% 11-25% Skeletal % Micrite %

6-10% 26-50% Non-skeletal % Dolomite %
180
? 1
Figure 5: Simplified lithological log of core OS-01 illustrating the distribution of different grains and
cement types in the studied thin sections. See Figure 3 for legend.

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Ali Hussein et al.

Cement type

Sample number
Core OS-23

foraminifera
foraminifera
Lithologic

Isopachous
Lithoclasts
Ostracods
Depth (m)

fragments

fragments
Total
Adjusted

Dolomite

Granular
Micrite %

Planktic
Benthic

Peloids
grains %

calcite

calcite
units

Shells

Drusy
Lithology

Bone
Cycles

rim
(simplified) 0 20 40 60 0 20 60 100

? 53
52
51
20
50
Unit C

49
48
40 47
46

45

44
60
II 43

42
80

41

100

40
39
Unit B

120 38

37

140 36
35
I

160 34
33
32

31
180 30
29
28
2726
25
24
200 2223
2021
19
18
1716
15
14
13
Unit A

220 12
11
10
9
8

240
7
6
5
34
?? 12
1-5% 11-25% Skeletal % Micrite %
MW P 6-10% 26-50% Non-skeletal % Dolomite %

Figure 6: Simplified lithological log of core OS-23 illustrating the distribution of different grains and
cement types in the studied thin sections. The data are modified after Ali Hussein et al. (2014b). See
Figure 3 for legend.
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 Late Cretaceous–Eocene oil shales, Jordan

Table 2: Occurrences and characteristics of different MF types observed in the studied cores.
MF type Occurrence Characteristics Cretaceous−Eocene Facies
MF-1: The dominant type in both cores. Consists of 7–20% carbonate grains, mainly benthic MF-1: PPL
Bioclastic 39 thin sections are falling into and planktonic foraminifera, with rare other skeletal
wackestone/ this class. Stratigraphically it has grains. The grains are generally well preserved.
mudstone no preferred range in core Non-skeletal grains (i.e. peloids and lithoclasts) are
OS-01, while it is common in the rare in this MF type (< 3%). This MF type exhibits
middle part of core OS-23. furthermore a homogeneous and sometimes dark
micritic matrix, with the latter reflecting impregnation
by organic matter.

1.5 mm

MF-2: This MF-2 type has a limited dis-
Burrowed tribution. It has been encountered
bioclastic in 7 samples throughout the two
wackestone cores, especially in the upper unit
C of core OS-01 and the lower unit
A of core OS-23.
Characterized by the presence of invertebrate MF-2: PPL
burrows, it consists of 15–35% of carbonate grains.
Other skeletal grains such as bone fragments are
more common than in MF-1. The preservation of
skeletal grains is poorer than for MF-1. Non-skeletal
grains are more common in the MF-2 than in the
MF-1, their abundance ranging from 5–10%. The
matrix shows the same dark micritic textures as in
MF-1.
3 mm

MF-3: Very rare in the studied cores.
Bioclastic Only 5 thin sections from the top
packstone and bottom parts of the two cores
can be assigned to this MF type.
Consists of 40–50% carbonate grains. Skeletal MF-3: PPL
grains are the common grain type with 30–35%,
including foraminifera, bone fragments and bivalves
shells. The rims of these grains are ragged and
generally their preservation is very low. Non-skeletal
grains, including peloids and lithoclasts, are more
common than in MF-1 and in MF-2, they range from
15–20%. The micritic matrix is getting sparitic in parts
and is lighter colored than in the earlier mentioned
MF types. 1.5 mm

MF-4: Nine thin sections in both cores Consists of 30–55% carbonate grains. Skeletal grain MF-4: PPL
Peloidal belong to this MF type. Most of content is 10–15%, these are mainly benthic and
grainstone/ them are in the bottom part of the planktonic foraminifera, rarely bone fragments. These
packstone cores. grains show poor preservation. The non-skeletal
grains are more common in this MF type, where it is
dominated by peloids with average absolute
abundances of 40%. The matrix in MF-4 is
inhomogeneous ranging from micritic to sparitic.

1 mm

MF-5: Observed only in core OS-23. It is Consists of 40–55 % carbonate grains mainly benthic MF-5: PPL
Foraminiferal assigned to 4 samples in units A foraminifera. The average absolute contents of 1 mm

grainstone and B of this core. benthic foraminifera in the samples reaches 45%.
The foraminifera are well preserved with sharp rims.
The non-skeletal grains are very rare in this MF type
with an average percentage of < 5%. This MF type
has a homogeneous micritic matrix that has a
variable color from dark to light.

3 mm

MF-6: It is only present in core OS-23. Characterized by the scarcity of carbonate grains MF-6: PPL
Non-fossilifer- Five thin sections from units A (< 2%) and the dominance of the dark matrix. The
ous mudstone and C exhibit this MF type. carbonate grains consist of a few fragments of
foraminifera and lithoclasts. The matrix in this MF
type is homogeneous and micritic.

1.5 mm

MF-7: It exists only in 2 thin sections Consist of 60–80% carbonate grains, being mainly MF-7: PPL
Lag deposits from unit A of core OS-01. lithoclasts and peloids. Skeletal grains are scarce
(< 5%) and represented by bone and shell fragments.
The matrix is inhomogeneous and ranging from
micritic to sparitic.

2.5 mm

MF-8: Three samples from unit B of Consist of 50–60% carbonate grains, with concentra- MF-8: PPL
Bivalves core OS-01 exhibit this MF type. tion of bivalves shells. Other skeletal grains consist
floatstone/ of foraminifera and bone fragments. Non-skeletal
rudstone grains include peloids and lithoclasts with average
percentage of 5–20%. This MF type exhibit the same
matrix as MF-7.

1 mm

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Ali Hussein et al.

Sample no.

Sample no.
MF types MF types

Depth (m)

Depth (m)
Core OS-01 Core OS-23
Adjusted

Adjusted
MF-1
MF-2
MF-3
MF-4
MF-7
MF-8

MF-1
MF-2
MF-3
MF-4
MF-5
MF-6
Lithology Lithology
(simplified) Cycles (simplified) Cycles
0 v ?
20 ?? 53
52
51
20
19 50
20 49
18
48
40 47
17
46
16 45
15
40 44
60
14 II 43

42
13 80
60
II
41

100
12

80 40
11 39
120 38
10
9
8 37

100 140 36
35
7 I

6 160 34
33
120 32
5
I 31
180 30
4
29
28
2726
25
140 24
3 200 2223
2021
19
18
1716
15
2 14
13
220 12
160 11
10
9
8

240
7
6
5
34
180
? 1 ?? 12

MW PG F MW P
Figure 7: Simplified lithological log of the studied cores illustrating the distribution of different
MF types encountered in the studied thin sections. The data of core OS-23 are modified after Ali
Hussein et al. (2014b). See Figure 3 for legend.

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 Late Cretaceous–Eocene oil shales, Jordan

Discussion

The investigations of the two cores OS-01 (Maastrichtian–lower Paleocene) and OS-23 (Eocene)
revealed differences in lithology, ichnofabrics and microfacies between the two cores. These variations
reflect a change in the depositional environment of the Jordanian oil shales.

Lithological Changes Through Time

The lithological logs of both cores show the same rock types (Figure 3): bituminous marls are the
dominant lithology, intercalated with chalky marls, limestones, chalky limestones and cherts. The
major lithological difference exists in the middle part of the two cores. Core OS-01 exhibits four beds
(each 1–2 m thick) of bivalve-rich limestone and marls, which do not exist in core OS-23. These beds
indicate the presence of oyster bioherms during the Maastrichtian time.

The middle part of core OS-23, represented by unit B (187.1–51.7 m), consists of homogeneous
bituminous marls and chalky marls with a few horizons of limestone concretions. This homogeneity
over a thick section reflects stability in the depositional environment in terms of energy and chemistry.
This long-lived homogeneity does not exist throughout core OS-01 due to the dynamic changes in
the depositional system during the Maastrichtian. These changes are represented by the frequent
variations in lithologies of core OS-01.

A higher supply of reworked carbonate grains (skeletal and non-skeletal) from shallower areas
signifies phases of depositional progradation, while a lower supply of these grains represents phases
of depositional retrogradation. Three third-order stratigraphic cycles have been recognized in each
core (Figures 3 to 7).

In core OS-01, the first progradation phase is characterized by the presence of MF-7 that contains
60–80% carbonate grains (Figure 7). This phase is followed by a retrogradation phase dominated by
MF-1 and MF-3 with 7–50% carbonate grains. The second progradation phase is characterized by the
occurrence of MF-1 and MF-8 with carbonate grains up to 60%, followed by the second retrogradation
phase that is dominated by the presence of MF-1 with carbonate grains 7–20% and few intervals of
MF-8 contains 60–80% carbonate grains. The final progradation phase consists of MF-1 and MF-4
with carbonate grains up to 50%, followed by the final retrogradation phase that is dominated by the
MF-2 with 15–35% carbonate grains.

In core OS-23, the first progradation phase is characterized by the presence of MF-4 and MF-6 with
carbonate grains up to 55% (Figure 7). This phase is followed by a retrogradation phase dominated
by MF-1 that contains 7–20% carbonate grains. The second progradation phase is characterized by
the occurrence of MF-5 with 40–55% carbonate grains, followed by the second retrogradation phase
that is dominated by the presence of MF-1 with carbonate grains 7–20%. The final progradation phase
consists of MF-1 and MF-4 with carbonate grains up to 50%, followed by the final retrogradation
phase that is dominated by the MF-1 and MF-6 with < 20% carbonate grains.

Ichnofabrics Changes Through Time

The ichnofabrics describe all aspects of the texture and internal structure of sediments that result from
bioturbation at all scales (Bromley and Ekdale, 1986). It includes ichnodiversity and the abundance
together with the relationship of particular ichnotaxa and the amount of bioturbation. The ichnotaxa
assemblage present in both cores are dominated by Thalassinoides; Teichichnus occurs in some intervals
(Figure 4). These two ichnotaxa indicate a well-oxygenated, shallow-water setting ranging from a
lower shoreface (distal position) to still, shallow upper-offshore environments slowly transitioning
into the inner shelf (Pemberton et al., 2012).

The ichnodiversity and the amount of bioturbation in the sediments reflect the degree of bottom-
water oxygenation, since oxygen is needed by the trace-making organisms. There is a significant
difference in the distribution patterns of the bioturbated intervals throughout the two cores

203
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Ali Hussein et al.

(Figure 4). In core OS-01 the bioturbation was found only in discrete intervals (each 1–2 m thick).
These intervals are either closely or widely spaced, whereas core OS-23 exhibits continuous highly
bioturbated intervals (> 10 m thick). These patterns of bioturbation reflect two different regimes (Ali
Hussein et al., 2014a). The first one is characterized by a rapid onset of the bioturbation representing
opportunistic colonization, lasting only for a short period of time. This regime is represented by the
discrete bioturbated intervals in both cores. The second one, in contrast, is characterized by gradually
increasing burrowing intensity over a long time of deposition, which indicates slow oxygenation of
the bottom water. This regime is represented by the continuous highly bioturbated intervals in core
OS-23.

These differences of the oxygenation regimes between the two cores, indicates a change in the
mechanisms behind this oxygenation. In core OS-01 the only mechanism that played a major role
in supplying the oxygen to the bottom waters were sudden events such as storm events. These
enhanced the circulation of the water body and enriched bottom waters with oxygen. In addition
to the aforementioned mechanism, the oxygenation of bottom waters in core OS-23 resulted from
the opening of the sedimentary basin and mixing of its water with well-oxygenated marine waters.
The opening of the sedimentary basin could be a result of local tectonics (Ali Hussein et al., 2014a;
Alqudah et al., 2014).

Microfacies Changes Through Time

Cores OS-01 and OS-23 exhibit eight microfacies types (MF) having the numbers MF-1 to MF-8
(Figure 7). These microfacies can be correlated to eight standard microfacies (SMF), which are SMF-8,
SMF-9, SMF-10, SMF-16, SMF-18, SMF-23, SMF-14, SMF-12, respectively. According to the models of
Wilson (1975) and Flügel (1982, 2010) for the rimmed carbonate platform facies, these eight SMF types
are found within the carbonate platform margin and interior. They are distributed between two facies
zones: (1) FZ-7 that represents the open-marine zone within the platform interior, and (2) FZ-8 found
in the restricted part of the platform interior (Figure 8).

Core OS-01 shows MF-1 to MF-4, MF-7 and MF-8, while core OS-23 has MF types from 1–6. This
indicates that there were oyster reefs or bioherms during the deposition of the Maastrichtian oil
shales represented by MF-8 (bivalve floatstone/rudstone). This MF-type was not found in core OS-23
(Figure 8 and Table 2).

Oil Shale Deposition

Oil-shale beds are formed in anoxic environments, where the oxygen demand in the water column
exceeds the supply (e.g. Demaison and Moor, 1980; Hay, 1995). The total organic carbon content
(TOC) of thermally immature sediments is always a function of three main factors: (1) organic-
matter input (productivity); (2) organic-matter preservation; and (3) dilution by mineral sediment
components (e.g. Tyson, 2005). In seas with a positive fresh-water balance (i.e. precipitation plus
runoff exceeds evaporation) that have isolated depressions extending below the mixed surface layer,
density stratification can develop between lighter, less saline surface waters and denser, more saline
subsurface waters. The density stratification can restrict vertical mixing and result in anoxia of the
entire subsurface water column if the organic-particle flux from the surface waters remains high as
a result of nutrient input from rivers and upward mixing of the subsurface waters (Demaison and
Moor, 1980; Hay, 1995).

The restricted-circulation conditions under which the Jordanian oil shales were deposited changed
through time. During the Maastrichtian, a series of physical barriers developed as oyster bioherms
that enhanced the restricted conditions. These bioherms are well documented for the Upper
Cretaceous rocks in Jordan (e.g. Abed and Sadaqah, 1998; Powell and Moh’d, 2011). By comparing
the presence of these bioherms in the middle unit B of core OS-01 with the TOC curve, it was found
that the richest oil-shale interval correlates to these bioherms (Figure 9a). The Eocene oil shales of
Jordan were deposited under different conditions, where the local tectonic activities played a key
role. These tectonic activities are evidenced by the reworking of nannofossils of different ages present
throughout core OS-23 (Figure 9b). The middle part of the core (depth interval 120–190 m) represents

204
204
 Late Cretaceous–Eocene oil shales, Jordan

(a)
Southeast Northwest
EOCENE (CORE OS-23)
Platform Interior Platform-

Facies Zone
Meteori- Platform- Deep sea or
margin Toe of Deep
cally Evaporitic Open margin Slope cratonic deep-

(FZ)
sand slope shelf
affected or brackish Restricted marine reefs water basin
shoals
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
4, 5, 6 1, 2, 3 MF Type

Fair-weather wave base

Organic-rich
sediments
Storm wave base

(b)
Southeast Northwest
CRETACEOUS (CORE OS- 01)
Platform Interior Platform-

Facies Zone
Meteori- Platform- Deep sea or
margin Toe of Deep
cally Evaporitic Open margin Slope cratonic deep-

(FZ)
sand slope shelf
affected or brackish Restricted marine reefs water basin
shoals
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
4 1, 2, 3, 7, 8 MF Type

Fair-weather wave base

Oyster
Organic-rich Bioherms Storm wave base
sediments

Figure 8: (a) Schematic diagram showing the distribution of the different MF types within the
rimmed carbonate shelf model during deposition of the Eocene oil shales in Core OS-23.
Synsedimentary tectonics caused subsiding grabens and half grabens that reduced circulation and
enhanced restricted conditions. Nannofossils are largely reworked and allochthonous.
(b) Schematic diagram showing the distribution of different MF types within the rimmed
carbonate shelf model during deposition of the Cretaceous oil shales in Core OS-01. Rapid onset
of bioturbation suggests opportunistic colonization during storm events. Shallower water
conditions prevailed during the Cretaceous. Taxa are largely autochthonous. Bioherms enhanced
the restricted conditions (FZ diagram redrawn from Flügel, 2010).

the richest oil shales, which corresponds to the maximum reworking of Cretaceous, Paleocene, and
Lower Eocene nannofossil taxa that are allochthonous in the Middle Eocene oil shales autochthonous
taxa (Alqudah et al., 2014).

Regional sea-level fluctuations played a key role in the deposition of the Jordan oil shales
(Figure 10). Most of the shallowing intervals that appear in the stratigraphic cycles of cores OS-01
and OS-23 correspond to sea-level lows present also in the sea-level curve of the Arabian platform
(Haq and Al-Qahtani, 2005). The middle shallowing interval in core OS-23 cannot be seen on the sea-
level curve, indicating that local factors (depositional and tectonic) represent a major player in the
deposition of the Jordanian oil shales. On the other hand, the sea-level curve represents an overall
shallower period during the deposition of core OS-01 than core OS-23, which explains the frequent
changes in lithology and oil-shale richness in core OS-01 (Figure 10).

During the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum event (MECO) massive quantities of atmospheric
CO2 were produced (Figure 9). These caused global warming and disturbed the overall CO2 balance
leading to increased burial of organic carbon in return (Bohaty and Zachos, 2003). The top organic-
rich horizon in core OS-23 (depth interval 30–50 m) corresponds to this climatic event (Ali Hussein et
al., 2014b), which is evidenced as well from correlating the δ18Ocarb curve of this core with the global
curve of Zachos et al. (2008).

205
205
 (a) (b) Core OS-23 Nannofossil
species abundances (%)
Chrono- Core OS-01 Chrono- Core OS-23
strat. strat. Core OS-23 Global
TOC (wt%) TOC (wt%)
δ18Ocarb (‰) δ18Ocarb (‰)
Lithology Lithology
(simplified) (simplified)

Eocene
(in situ)
Eocene
(reworked)
Paleocene
Cretaceous

Stage
Nannos. biozones
Lithologic units
Epoch
Stage
Nannos. biozones
Lithologic units
M W PG F 4 8 12 16 MWP 3 6 9 12 15 50 100 50 100 50 100 50 100 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 0.6 1.0 1.4

Adjusted Depth (m)

Adjusted Depth (m)
Ali Hussein et al.

NP 4 0 0

NP 3
20

Danian
NP 2

Paleocene Epoch
NP 1 20

Unit C
UC
20B 40
NP
16 MECO
40
60

Unit C
80
60

100 100
UC

Eocene
Lutetian
20A 80
120

Maastrichtian

206
206
Unit B

Late Cretaceous
NP
100 15 140

Unit B
Oyster-rich beds
UC 160
19 120

180
UC
18
140
200 200
NP
14

Unit A
220
Undetermined 160 ?

Unit A
NP
12–
240 MECO = Middle

E. Eocene
Ypresian
NP
14 Eocene Climatic
Optimum
180

Figure 9: The richness of the oil shale represented by the TOC curves; (a) correlation of the oyster-rich beds with the TOC curve of core OS-01. (b) Correlation of
the lithology and TOC curve of core OS-23 with abundances of calcareous nannofossils of different ages (from Alqudah et al., 2014) and the δ18Ocarb (Ali Hussein
et al., 2014b). Global δ18Ocarb profile redrawn and simplified after Zachos et al. (2008), the biostratigraphic data after Alqudah et al. (2014), bio-zones and global
δ18Ocarb profile are calibrated to the geologic time scale (Gradstein et al., 2004). TOC data were provided by the Jordanian Oil Shale Company (JOSCO).
 Late Cretaceous–Eocene oil shales, Jordan

Chrono-strat. Core OS-23

Lithologic

Depth (m)
biozones

Adjusted
Nannos.

Cycles
Arabian platform regional

Epoch
Lithology (simplified)

Stage
biozones

units
Stage

Nannos.
sea-level changes (m) MWP
Age 0 ?
(Ma)
+200 +100
20

Unit C
Bartonain
NP 17
40
NP
16
40
60
II

NP 16
80

Eocene

Lutetian
Core OS-23

100
Lutetian

Unit B
NP 15 120
45
NP
15 140
I

160

NP 14
180

200
50 NP 13 NP14

Unit A
220
E. Eocene

NP
Ypresian
Ypresian

NP 12 12–
NP 240
14
NP 11 ?

Chrono-strat. Lithologic

Depth (m)
Core OS-01
biozones

Cycles
Adjusted
NP 10
Nannos.
Paleocene Epoch

Stage

Lithology (simplified)
units

55 MW P G F
NP 4 0 ?
NP 9
Danian

NP 3
Thanetian

NP 2
Short term NP 1 20
NP 8 curve UC
NP 7 20B

NP 6
Unit C

40
Long term
Selandian

60 NP 5 curve

60
II
Late Cretaceous

NP 4
Maastrichtian

UC
20A 80
Danian

NP 3
Unit B

65 NP 2 100
NP 1
Hiatus UC
19
Core OS-01

120
Maastrichtian

UC 20b I

UC
18
UC 20a 140
UC 19
Unit A

UC 18
Undetermined

70
160

180 ?

Figure 10: A correlation between the Arabian platform regional sea-level changes (Haq and
Al-Qahtani, 2005) and the stratigraphic cycles of the two cores OS-01 and OS-23. Biotratigraphy is
after Alqudah et al. (2014). Lithology and cycles of core OS-23 are modified after Ali Hussein et al.
(2014b).

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Ali Hussein et al.

In synthesis, the interaction between local geological setting and regional sea-level fluctuation together
with the global climatic changes, controlled the depositional conditions in which the Jordanian oil
shales were deposited during the Maastrichtian–Eocene.

Conclusions

The investigated cores (Maastrichtian–Eocene) revealed a change in the paleodepositional environment

of the Jordanian oil shales. These changes can be seen in the lithology, bioturbated intervals and
the microfacies types. Upper Cretaceous oil shales from South Jordan were deposited in a shallow
carbonate shelf system. Oyster bioherms acted as physical barriers that reduced the water circulation
and enhanced the anoxic conditions within the water column. The Eocene oil shales from Central
Jordan were deposited on a shallow carbonate shelf but relatively deeper than the Maastrichtian one.
During the Eocene, local tectonic activities controlled the opening and closing of the sedimentary basin
that affected the deposition and richness of the oil shales. Throughout the period from Maastrichtian
to Eocene, three key factors affected the deposition and richness of the Jordanian oil shales; namely:
local geological setting, regional sea-level fluctuation and the global climatic changes.

AcknowledgmentS

The authors would like to thank Royal Dutch Shell plc for sponsoring the project. Our thanks are
extended to Susan Sawaqed and Ibrahim Al-Najjar from JOSCO for preparing and providing the
sample material as well as the TOC data. GeoArabia’s Assistant Editor Kathy Breining is thanked for
proofreading the manuscript, and GeoArabia’s Production Co-manager, Nestor “Nino” Buhay IV, for
designing the paper for press.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Mohammad A. Ali Hussein is a Geologist and Sedimentologist and

obtained his MSc in Applied Geology in 2005 from The Hashemite
University, Jordan. He started his professional career as a Research and
Teaching Assistant in the Hashemite University. After that he worked as
a Field Geologist for 7 years in the Geological Mapping Division at the
Natural Resources Authority of Jordan. Mohammad recieved his PhD in
2014 from the Institute for Geology, Mineralogy and Geophysics at the
Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany, where he studied the sedimentology of
the Jordanian oil shales. Mohammad’s research interests include geological
mapping, sedimentology, ichnology, microfacies of carbonate rocks and
interpretation of paleodepositional environments working on both outcrop
and cored material.
mohammad.alihussein@rub.de

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Ali Hussein et al.

Mohammad A. Alqudah is a Geologist and Paleontologist. He awarded

his PhD in 2014 from the Ruhr University Bochum, Germany, where he
studied the biostratigraphy of the Jordanian oil shales. He obtained his MSc
in Geology in 2007 from the Yarmouk University, Jordan. Mohammad
has over three years of experience in research and services in the field of
exploration and production of hydrocarbons. He has worked in Schlumberger
Company, Geoservices branch as Mudlogger with many clients including
Saudi Aramco, TOTAL and Ras Gas. Recent research interests focus on
calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy and paleoceanography of the source
rocks.
mohammad.alqudah@ruhr-uni-bochum.de

Myrna Blessenohl holds a BSc degree in Geology and recieved her MSc
in 2014 from the Ruhr University Bochum, Germany. Her master’s thesis
discusses lithology and depositional conditions of an oil shale core from
Jordan. Myrna’s research interests include sedimentology and microfacies
of carbonate rocks and interpretation of paleodepositional environments
working on cored material.
myrna.blessenohl@rub.de

Olaf G. Podlaha completed his PhD on isotope stratigraphy and

numerical modeling at Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany in 1995. He
then spent two years as a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow of the German
Science Foundation at Indiana University, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution and Ottawa University. From 1997 onwards Olaf has worked
for Shell International, first in Exploration and Production and currently as
both Principal Geochemist and Team Lead for basin analysis and inversion
R&D in Global Solutions. He was appointed Shell’s global subject matter
expert for isotope geochemistry, kinetics and then numerical geochemistry.
Since 1998 Olaf is an unpaid lecturer at the Ruhr-University Bochum. His
current lectures are in petroleum geology.
olaf.podlaha@shell.com

Jörg Mutterlose is a Professor in Paleontology and was awarded his PhD

in Geology and Paleontology in 1982 from the University of Hannover,
Germany. He started his professional career as a Visiting Scientist in Jordan
and the USA. He then participated in international research programs
including ODP legs as a Micropaleontologist. He acted as a Consultant
(ostracods, foraminifera, calcareous nannofossils) for various oil companies,
conducting micro-sample dating, log interpretations and biostratigraphic
studies. Since 1993 he is acting as the head of the paleontology group with
a C3-Professor title at the Ruhr-University Bochum. He is on the editorial
board of various scientific journals. Jörg’s main research interests are to
use the micropaleontology and fossil record data in reconstructing the
paleoceanography and paleoclimate.
joerg.mutterlose@rub.de

Manuscript submitted December 24, 2013

Revised August 19, 2014

Accepted August 26, 2014

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