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Copyright © 1999 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, Febuary 1999 - www.epemag.com - XXX
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc
Copyright  1999, Wimborne Publishing Ltd
and Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc.,
PO Box 857, Madison, Alabama 35758, USA
All rights reserved.
:$51,1*
The materials and works contained within EPE Online — which are made available
by Wimborne Publishing Ltd and Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc — are
copyrighted. You are permitted to download locally these materials and works and to
make one (1) hard copy of such materials and works for your personal use. International
copyright laws, however, prohibit any further copying or reproduction of such materials
and works, or any republication of any kind.
Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc and Wimborne Publishing Ltd have used their
best efforts in preparing these materials and works. However, Maxfield & Montrose
Interactive Inc and Wimborne Publishing Ltd make no warranties of any kind, expressed
or implied, with regard to the documentation or data contained herein, and specifically
disclaim, without limitation, any implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a
particular purpose. Because of possible variances in the quality and condition of
materials and workmanship used by readers, EPE Online, its publishers and agents
disclaim any responsibility for the safe and proper functioning of reader-constructed
projects based on or from information published in these materials and works.
In no event shall Maxfield & Montrose Interactive Inc or Wimborne Publishing Ltd be
responsible or liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including
but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or any other damages in connection
with or arising out of furnishing, performance, or use of these materials and works.
Copyright © 1999 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, January 2000 - www.epemag.com - 1
PROJECTS AND CIRCUITS
FLASHING SNOWMAN - by Robert Penfold 5
Add a “sparkle” to your festive decorations with this fun Starter project!
VERSATILE BURGLAR ALARM - by Ian March 11

Simple, extendable. and easy-to-use indoor security monitoring.
SCRATCH BLANKER - by Robert Penfold 17

Spin-doctoring for better sound bite!
INGENUITY UNLIMITED - hosted by Alan Winstanley 28

Low Cost AA t0 PP3 Converter; Electric Garage Door Status Indicator.
VEHICLE FROST BOX - by Steve Dellow 31

Helps to predict the presence of black ice.
SERIES AND FEATURES

NEW TECHNOLOGY UPDATE - by Ian Poole
New SAW devices act as chemical detectors.
38
NET WORK - THE INTERNET PAGE surfed by Alan Winstanley 40

Half a Decade On; Effective Suggestions; Pet hates; The End is Nigh
TEACH-IN 2000 - Part 3. Potentiometers, Sensor Resistors, 42

Ohm’s Law - by John Becker
Essential info for the electronics novice, with breadboard experiments
and interactive computer simulations.
TINA PRO REVIEW - by Mike Tooley BA 57

Examining an excellent CD-ROM based electronics teaching, design and analysis tool
PRACTICALLY SPEAKING by Robert Penfold 64

A novice’s guide to mains power projects
CIRCUIT SURGERY - by Alan Winstanley & Ian Bell 68

Teach-In Amplifiers; More on Opamps - Electrical Ratings
REGULARS AND SERVICES

EDITORIAL 3
NEWS - Barry Fox highlights technology’s leading edge. Plus everyday 74
news from the world of electronics.
READOUT - John Becker addresses general points arising. 78

SHOPTALK - with David Barrington 72
The essential guide to component buying for EPE Online projects.
BYGONE MILLENNIUM
As you may have noticed from the advertisements now appearing on the EPE Online web
site, we have recently taken over publication of Radio Bygones magazine. This has introduced
us to the fascinating world of early (sometimes very early and very primitive in technology
terms) radio equipment. What has impressed us most about these old “wireless” sets is the
quality of workmanship that went into them. This not only applies to the chassis and cabinet
construction, but also to the construction of individual items like coils and tuning capacitors. I
wonder if our descendants will look back on equipment made in the 90s (the 1990s we mean!)
and marvel at the quality of our workmanship?
Of course, many early receivers were constructed as one-offs by experimenters and
hobbyists, and in the early 1900s there were a number of kits available for constructors. It's
fascinating to look back at the roots of our hobby and we will be doing this over an extended
period in our forthcoming millennium feature. Starting next month, this is currently titled The
Millennium Before The One We're In Now, although we might change that if we can dream up
something equally quirky but less cumbersome.
WE’VE COME A LONG WAY

This feature brings out some fascinating points about when developments took place. For
instance, it is possible that the first rudimentary calculator was dreamed up by Leonardo da
Vinci before the pencil had been invented. But obviously most of what is interesting to us
electronics folks is what took place from around the turn of the century onwards, with the pace
increasing rapidly as the century wore on. It continues to do so, of course, and is presently
doubling in speed of development every decade – where will it all end?
We have come a long way from valves and plug-in coils to microprocessors and surface
mount devices in a relatively short period, and our hobby has changed along with technology.
Though it is of course still possible to build, and get a great deal of pleasure from, a single valve
receiver to a 1920s design. we doubt it will be possible to build any of our PIC projects in 20
years time, let alone 80 years time, but that's progress we guess.
MILLENNIUM GREETINGS
And finally, the season's greetings to you all, and may we wish you all the very best for the
new millennium. As you know, EPE Online has only been around for just over one year, but
we’re hoping to be good for the next 1000 so as to see the dawn of the next millennium!
Copyright © 1999 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online,

EPE January
Online, 2000
January - www.epemag.com
2000 - XXX
- www.epemag.com -3
PIC CONTROLLED VIDEO CLEANER
Macrovision, the VCR to VCR copy-prevention system used on many commercial videotapes, can lead to
picture brightness variation when played through some TV sets. This PIC controlled project overcomes the
problem.
Using a PIC16F83 and a handful of other components, this self-contained unit is automatic in operation;
just plug in the SCART leads and away you go.
TECHNOLOGY TIMELINES
All about how technology developed in the Millennium before the one we’ll be in soon. Or as the authors
would have it – Boldly going behind the beyond, behind which no-one has boldly gone behind, beyond, before!
The 20th Century saw phenomenal technological progress (along with corresponding impacts on our cul-
ture). In many respects we’ve gone from close to nothing (technology-wise) to where we are today in the last
100 years, and many observers feel that our current accomplishments represent only the “tip of the iceberg”.
Thus, as we enter the 21st Century we are poised on the brink of unimaginable possibilities and potentialities.
The purpose of this new series is to review how we got where we are today (and where we look like ending
up tomorrow). We shall first cast our gaze into the depths of time to consider the state of the art as the world
was poised to enter the 20th Century. Then, over the coming months, we will take a retrospective view of the
technological developments of the last millennium as we investigate the key people and events in three are-
nas: Physics and Electronics, Communications, and Computers.
During our discussions we shall discover the way in which everything is interrelated, such that inventions
in disparate fields can be combined in ways their originators never dreamt of, catapulting us into a future none
of us can conceive in our wildest dreams.
Knowing how rapidly things have changed over the last few decades, only a fool would dare to predict the
future with any level of confidence. Thus, we shall leave such pontifications to the final installment, where we
shall consider emerging new technologies and peer into our crystal balls to cast some predictions for techno-
logical advancements over the next 100 years.
THE EASY-TYPIST
This little project was devised to speed the task of typing text into a computer, though it will probably find
plenty of other uses. It plays recorded speech a few words at a time, waiting for a prompt before continuing.
This allows people who cannot type without looking at the screen or keyboard to type rapidly and continuously
since it removes the need to refer frequently to the text being typed, which, in the case of handwriting, can be
extremely tedious.
VOLTAGE MONITOR
This simple device has two LED indicators that switch on if the monitored supply voltage falls below sepa-
rate threshold levels. The obvious application is in battery operated equipment where erroneous results could
be obtained if the battery potential falls below a critical level. The twin threshold levels are then useful, as one
can be set slightly above the critical voltage, and it will then give a warning if the battery will soon need re-
placement. The circuit can also be used with mains powered equipment to monitor the DC supply voltage, and
it will then give a warning if the supply voltage drops to an inadequate level due to a malfunction. It can be set
at any potentials from 3 5V to 30V.
¬
A selection of ELECTRONIC Books
for Hobbyist and Students
The Great Logo Adventure More details are

A cartoon-illustrated, family activity book for
exploring animation, graphics, math, geometry, available on the
... Ideal for teaching programming concepts to
young people of all ages. EPE Online web site
FREE CD-ROM (for PCs and Macs) contains
Logo software plus lots of other stuff.
Controlling the Forrest Mims

World With Your PC Engineer's
Connect your MS-DOS/Win- Notebook
dows PC to the real world with This revised edition
this best-selling book! includes hundreds of
Comes with all software useful circuits de-
(executable files plus C, Basic, signed and built by
and Pascal Forrest using com-
monly available inte-
grated circuits and
other components.
Bebop to the Bebop BYTES Back

Boolean Boogie (An Unconventional
(An Unconventional Guide to Computers)
Guide to Electronics)
This in-depth, highly readable, This follow-on to Bebop to the Boolean
up to the minute guide shows Boogie is a multimedia extravaganza of
you how electronic devices information about how computers work.
work and how they're made -- FREE CD ROM contains the
the only electronics book Beboputer Computer Simulator, along
where you can learn about mu- with over 200 megabytes of mega-cool
sical socks and the best time multimedia.
of the day to eat smoked fish!
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Copyright © 1999 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, January 2000 - www.epemag.com
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Add a “sparkle” to your festive decorations with this CIRCUIT OPERATION
fun starter project. In order to operate the
flashing LEDs out of phase a
If you wish to make an elec-
low frequency oscillator is re-
tronic project popular you give it
quired, but it must be capable of
some flashing LEDs (light-
handling fairly high output cur-
emitting diodes), or you do if you
rents. The full circuit diagram
believe the in-joke that was popu-
for the Flashing Snowman pro-
lar in the electronic magazine 4!
4( 4) ject appears in Fig.2.
publishing business some years
ago. This joke came about be- 4" 4#
Starting with the LEDs that
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cause one of the magazines now 4!! 4& 4!" are lit continuously (D8 to D12),
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incorporated into EPE published 4' these are simply fed from the
a project that was basically just a 9V supply via resistor R7. This
soap dish fitted with some LEDs resistor limits the current to a
that flashed. Apart from looking suitable level.
pretty it did not actually do any- Ideally each LED would
Fig.1. Suggested layout for
thing, but that did not stop it from have its own series resistor, as
being by far the most popular pro- the LED “face” display. this would guarantee virtually
ject ever published by that maga- could use a different character, the same drive current to each
zine! This project is very much in such as Father Christmas, as one. In practice there seems to
the flashing soap dish tradition, the basis of the project, and he be no problem if the LEDs are
and it is just a polystyrene ceiling could be made to wink for ex- simply wired in parallel and sup-
tile fitted with some LEDs that ample. plied with current via a common
flash. It is a simple but amusing resistor.
Christmas decoration that should
This will only work properly
raise a smile or two. ON THE FACE OF IT if they are all of the same type.
There are eleven LEDs (D2 Using LEDs of various shapes,
MR SNOWMAN to D12) in the suggested config- colors and sizes would almost
uration, but it is easy to modify certainly result in one or two op-
The tile is fashioned and the unit to suit alternative ar- erating at high brightness and
painted to look like a Snowman rangements. The LEDs are others failing to glow visibly.
(or Snowperson?), and it has used in the configuration shown
LEDs to form the eyes, nose, and in Fig.1. Light emitting diodes
mouth. The LEDs for the eyes D8 and D9 form the eyes, and RELAXATION
and nose are lit continuously, but D10 is the nose. Together with The oscillator is based on
there are three sets of LEDs to D11 and D12, these LEDs are lit operational amplifier IC1 and
form the mouth. Some are lit con- continuously. uses a standard configuration.
tinuously, while the other two sets IC1 is actually connected as a
are operated in anti-phase (when To produce the smiling
face, LEDs D2, D3, and D4 are simple trigger circuit, which is
one set is switched on the other then used in a form of relax-
set is switched off). The idea is to switched on, while D5, D6, and
D7 are switched off. To produce ation oscillator.
arrange the LEDs so that the
Snowman’s expression alternates the unhappy face D2 to D4 are Resistors R1 and R2 bias
between an internet style smile switched off, and D5 to D7 are the non-inverting input (pin 3) to
and frown. This is just a sugges- switched on. half the supply voltage, and nor-
tion, and there is plenty of scope mally the output, at pin 6, would
for doing your own thing. You go low if the inverting input (pin
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Fig.2. Complete circuit diagram for the Flashing Snowman.
R4 until the upper threshold is be no problems with the specified

2) was taken above this poten- exceeded, and so on. timing component values, but if a
tial. Taking the inverting input much lower frequency is used it
The circuit oscillates contin-
below this bias level would send would be best to use a tantalum
uously at a rate that is governed
the output high. In this case capacitor for C2.
by the values of various compo-
there is positive feedback from
nents, but primarily by the tim- An output current of about
the output to the non-inverting
ing resistor R4 and capacitor 5mA per LED is required in order
input via resistor R3.
C2. The specified values set the to produce reasonable brightness.
This feedback takes the operating frequency at a little Six LEDs are driven from the out-
bias level higher when output of under 1Hz, which means that put of the unit, but only three are
IC1 is high, and lower when it is the flashing LEDs are switched switched on at any one time. The
low. Consequently, there are on for about half a second or so, maximum output current is there-
actually two threshold levels. and then off for about the same fore 15mA, but could be about
Taking the inverting input below period of time. 25mA to 30mA if the unit is used
the lower threshold sends the to drive more LEDs.
output high, and taking it above
IN A FLASH This is more than opamp IC1
the higher threshold sends the
can reliably supply, and a simple
output low. The flash rate is easily emitter follower output stage
Adding a C/R timing circuit changed by altering the value of (transistors TR1 and TR2) has
(R4 and C2) between the output C2 and/or R4. The on/off time is therefore been added at the out-
of IC1 and its inverting input proportional to the value of both put. The output stage is a sort of
produces oscillation. At switch- timing components, so extend- simplified version of a class-B
on capacitor C2 is fully dis- ing this time to (say) one sec- audio output stage.
charged and the inverting input ond could be achieved by dou-
bling the value of either compo- Transistor TR1 acts as the
is at the lower potential, which
nent. emitter follower output stage
sends the output high. Capacitor
when the output of IC1 is high
C2 then charges, via resistor In practice it is necessary to and LEDs D5 to D7 are switched
R4, until the charge potential compromise slightly and use the on. TR2 acts as the output stage
exceeds the upper threshold nearest preferred value, which when the output of IC1 is low and
level of the trigger circuit. is 4 7uF for capacitor C2 or
¬
LEDs D2 to D4 are switched on.
The output of IC1 now goes 1 5M for resistor R4. Note that
¬ R5 and R6 are the current limiter
low and C2 discharges through C2 must be a good quality com- resistors for the two sets of LEDs.
R4 and the output circuit of IC1 ponent or the operating fre- When the output of the circuit
until the potential goes below quency will be much lower than is low, the output voltage is still
the trigger circuit’s lower thresh- expected, if the circuit manages high enough to produce a slight
old level. The output of IC1 then to oscillate at all. There should glow from LEDs D5 to D7. Recti-
goes high again, C2 charges via
The components fit onto
this PCB with few difficulties,
because the board was de-
signed to take this oscillator
configuration and output stage.
Even so, the usual warning has
to be given as follows: Unlike a
normal custom printed circuit
board, the multi-project board
has numerous holes that are
unused. This makes it a little
trickier to get all the compo-
nents in the right place, and it is
essential to take a little more
Component layout on the completed multi-project care than usual when fitting the
circuit board. components on the PCB, and to
double-check the finished board
fier diode D1 is used to effec- If you decide to use such an for errors.
tively reduce the minimum out- adapter, make sure it is con- In all other respects con-
put voltage by about 0 6V, so
¬ nected to the unit with the right struction of the board is per-
that D5 to D7 fully switch off polarity. Most adapters are
marked with diagrams showing
when IC1’s output is low.
the polarity of the supply lead, COMPONENTS
and the polarity might be switch- Resistors
STABLE SUPPLY able. R1, R2 39k (2 off)
R3 68k
The current consumption of Non-stabilized adapters are R4 820k
the main circuit is about 20mA, not recommended for use with R5,R6 330 ohms (2 off)
but the consumption of the non- this circuit. Units of this type have R7 220 ohms
flashing LEDs adds about 25 output voltages that vary greatly All 0.25W 5% carbon film
milliamps to this. The circuit can with changes in the output cur- Capacitors
be powered from a reasonably rent, and the actual output volt- C1 100u radial electrolytic, 10V
high capacity battery, such as C2 2u2 radial electrolytic, 50V
age is often very much higher
six HP7 size cells in a holder, than the stated output potential. Semiconductors
but NOT a small type such as a IC1 TL071CP bi-FET opamp
PP3. TR1 BC337 silicon npn transistor
Alternatively, the circuit

A BRIGHT NUMBER TR2 BC327 silicon pnp transistor
D1 1N4002 rectifier diode
seems to work well when pow- The number of fixed state D2 to D12 5mm red LED (11 off)
ered from a stabilized mains and flashing LEDs can be altered Miscellaneous
adapter that will provide 9V at to suit alternative designs, but the S1 s.p.s.t. miniature toggle switch
around 50mA or more. This is value of the series resistor (R5, B1 9V battery pack (6 x HP7
R6, or R7) should be changed to cells in holder)
the more practical option if the
unit will be used for long peri- suit the number of LEDs wired in Multi-project circuit board available
ods. parallel. This will keep the bright- from the EPE Online Store , code
ness of the LEDs reasonably uni- 7000932 (www.epemag.com);
Table 1. LED series resistor form. Table 1 shows suitable val- small plastic case, size to suit;
ues for one to six LEDs. battery connector (PP3 type); 8-pin
values. DIL socket; multistrand connecting
wire; single-sided solder pins;
No. Resistor Values CONSTRUCTION solder; polystyrene ceiling tile, etc.
LEDs (R5/R6/R7)
This “easy” starter project is See also the
1 1k SHOP TALK Page!
based on the EPE multi-project
2 470 ohms
3 330 ohms
printed circuit board (PCB). This
board is available from the EPE Approx. Cost
4
5
270 ohms
220 ohms Online Store (code 7000932) at Guidance Only $11
6 180 ohms www.epemag.com (Excl. batts, case, & tile)
4$ 4"
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6BA or metric M2·5 bolts, with
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short spacers included between
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the board and the case. On/Off
switch S1 is mounted on the lid of
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DB! F5 case sides to take the three twin-
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SHAPING UP
The body of the Snowman (or
other character) does not have to
be made from a polystyrene ceil-
ing tile, but this material has the
advantage of being easy to cut
into awkward shapes. It is a bit
brittle, but with care the expanded
polystyrene can be cut using scis-
sors, or a sharp modeling knife is
also suitable.
Fig.3. Snowman multi-project PCB component layout,
interwiring, and (approximately) full-size copper foil mas-
ter. Take care, not all holes/pads are used.
fectly straightforward and should follow along the normal
lines, starting with the resistors, capacitors, diode and, finally,
the two transistors. The component layout is shown in Fig.3,
together with the actual size copper foil pattern and interwiring
details. Fit single-sided solder pins to the board at the points
where it will connect to the battery, on/off switch S1, and the
LED display.
The TL071CP opamp used for IC1 is not a static sensitive
component, but it is still a good idea to mount it on the board
via an IC holder. Be careful to fit diode D1, transistors
TR1/TR2, opamp IC1 and the two electrolytic capacitors the
correct way round on the PCB.
CASING UP
Virtually any small plastic or metal box should accommo-
date this project, but if the unit is battery powered be careful
to select a case that is large enough to take the rather chunky
battery pack. Incidentally, the connections to the battery Wiring to the LED display and to the
holder are made using an ordinary PP3 battery clip. PCB mounted inside the small box.
The printed circuit board is mounted on the case using Allow space for the battery pack.
necting wire. Wire up the three
sets of LEDs one set at a time,
following the wiring pattern
shown in Fig.3. The easiest way
of tackling this job is to use a
single wire to connect each set
of anodes and cathodes. This
means making some connec-
tions along the length of the
wire and not just at the ends.
This is much easier using non-
insulated wire, but pieces of
sleeving must then be added
onto the wires to ensure that
The two faces of Mr. Snowman – a “snowfall” accidental short circuits are
and a “thaw”! avoided.
An easier alternative is to
use ordinary connecting wire,
with wire strippers being used to
A more substantial material WIRING UP cut through the insulation at the
such as plywood or MDF is points where connections will be
equally suitable or perhaps Wiring up the LEDs is much made. The insulation can then
even better than expanded easier if you give them a uni- be opened out slightly, so that
polystyrene, but a jig-saw is form orientation, such as having the exposed wire can be
needed to cut these tougher all the cathode (k) terminals to- “tinned” with solder. With the
materials to shape. There is no wards the bottom. This helps to ends of the leadout wires
need to get too clever when keep the wiring neat and you “tinned” with solder as well, the
making the body of the unit, and can tell at a glance which lead wire should readily connect to
with this type of thing something is which. the leadouts.
simple and basic often works The LEDs will almost cer-
best. tainly be supplied with quite
When using plywood or long leads, and they will have to FINAL TOUCH
MDF the LEDs are mounted in be trimmed back to a length of The case containing the
5mm diameter holes, and they about 10mm. The polarity is electronics must be mounted on
are glued in place using any usually indicated by the cathode the rear of the “body”, and
good quality general-purpose lead being slightly shorter than double-sided adhesive pads are
adhesive. With expanded the anode lead, and it is advis- probably the best way of doing
polystyrene the best approach is able to keep this disparity. Also, this. The traditional hat, scarf,
to make small holes and then the cathode is often indicated eyebrows, and buttons must be
gently push the LEDs into posi- by a “flat” on that side of the painted onto the Snowman.
tion. body, but this is something less Artists’ acrylic paints are good
than universal. for this, but fibre-tip pens pro-
The natural sponginess of
There is some advantage in vide a good low cost alternative.
the material holds the LEDs in
place quite well, but they can using LEDs that are red when To complete the unit the
still be glued if preferred. How- switched on, but clear when leads from the circuit board are
ever, many adhesives attack switched off. These blend into trimmed to length and con-
polystyrene, and the hot glue the background better when nected to the display, being
from glue guns tends to melt the switched off, and give a slightly careful to connect them with the
polystyrene. A quickset epoxy more convincing effect. right polarity. A double-sided
adhesive is probably the best The wiring is completed us- adhesive pad is probably the
type to use. ing ordinary multistrand con- best way of doing this.
The unit is then ready for If one set of LEDs fails to faulty or connected with the
testing, and if all is well some of operate there is probably a short wrong polarity.
the LEDs should light up at circuit at the connections to one
switch-on, followed by the sim- of the LEDs in that set. Alterna-
ple animation effect. If there is tively, the LEDs could be con-
any sign of a fault switch off at nected to the circuit board with
once and recheck the wiring. the wrong polarity. If one LED in
a set fails to work, that LED is
A selection of ELECTRONIC CD-ROMS
Computer Desktop Encyclopedia
The award-winning source of computer terms, concepts, important products and
interesting stuff!! An invaluable reference and an unmatched resource for anyone
interested in computers. ($14.99 Special Offer! -- While Stocks Last!)
The PhizzyB Computer Simulator

The PhizzyB Simulator provides an accurate representation of the real PhizzyB,
including the ability to step and run through programs. Comes equipped with an
assembler and other tools, plus user manuals (as PDF files on the CD ROM).
PICtutor by John Becker

This CD-ROM, together with the PICtutor development board (as described when
you click on "more info"), will teach you how to use PIC microcontrollers. The
board also acts as a development test bed and programmer for future projects.
Electronic Circuits & Components

This CD provides an introduction to the principles and application of the most com-
mon types of electronic components, and shows how they are used to form cir-
cuits. The CD also includes the "Parts Gallery".
Digital Electronics (Mike Tooley)

This CD builds on the knowledge of logic gates covered on the Electronic Circuits
and Components CD (described above), and takes users through the subject of
digital electronics up to the operation and architecture of microprocessors
Analog Electronics (Mike Tooley)

This is a complete learning resource for the most difficult branch of electronics.
The CD includes a host of virtual laboratories, animations, diagrams, photos, and
text, as well as a SPICE electronic circuit simulator with over
Modular Circuit Design

This "web on a CD"-based educational software package contains essential infor-
mation for anyone undertaking high school-level electronics or technology courses,
and for hobbyists who want to get to grips with project design..
Visit the EPE Online Store at

www.epemag.com and place your order today!
9(56$7,/( %85*/$5 $/$50
E\ ,$1 0$5&+
An easy-to-construct and install “closed-loop” alarm that is readily extendable.
Ideal as a secondary back-up system.
A burglar alarm system can “lock picking” attack on the front into each alarmed doorframe,
be as complicated or as simple as door has failed, would most as near floor level as
you wish. The need was for one likely be made at the rear of the practicable. Then an operating
that would offer a good degree of property. At the side and rear, magnet was let into the edge of
protection, without being PIR-operated floodlights provide the door, closing the switch
horrendously awkward to install or some deterrence, although, of when the door is shut.
operate. course, they will not see off the A further consideration was
determined professional that two cats should have the
It was decided, therefore, that housebreaker, or have any
no attempt would be made to run of the house downstairs,
effect during daylight hours and also the stairs and landing,
detect an initial entry, since this when most burglaries are
would entail a switch on every but not any of the upstairs
carried out. rooms. So the switches were
outside door and window frame,
and glass break detectors on fitted to all the doors opening
panes of glass. Instead, sundry SYSTEM FACILITIES onto the landing – namely the
internal doors would be alarmed. bedrooms and the bathroom.
The preferred system
This has the advantage of not finished up using a simple However, if pets do not
requiring a delayed arming series-loop of door switches. A feature in your household, some
system, to cover exit after setting small “Form A” n.o. (normally or all of the downstairs internal
the alarm, or a delayed actuation, open) reed relay was recessed doors can be included in the
to allow the returning owner to loop. But upstairs switches only
disarm the system.
If the owner has followed
police guidelines and fitted a
mortice lock to the front door, any
attempt at entry, once the usual
Features . . .
Does not require front door to be
alarmed.
No need to exit in so many seconds after
activating.
No need to rush to switch off when
returning.
Meets local (UK) authority bylaws –
automatic switch-off after less than 20
minutes.
Extendable if and when desired – addi-
tional door and/or window switches; PIR
sensor; glass-break detectors, etc.
Includes Test facility to check system is Component layout on the completed prototype circuit
operational. board. The final layout may differ slightly from this.
are probably adequate, as a supply, are shown in Fig.1 and This self-canceling action is a
burglar invariably makes for the Fig.2. (Note that this power requirement of most local
main bedroom where, supply is designed for use authority bylaws. In the event of
traditionally, any valuables are with the UK’s mains supply – the owner returning to find the
kept. (But be aware that readers in other countries will alarm sounding, it can be
valuables in unprotected rooms have to modify it accordingly, cancelled immediately by setting
could be removed or rooms in which case it is switch S1 to Off (Reset).
ransacked before the alarm is recommended that you Operation with switch S2 in
triggered.) consult a qualified the Test position is the same,
This conveniently confined electrician). Assuming all the apart from two crucial
all wiring to the first floor, door sensor switches are differences. First, S2 enables the
concealed under the edge of the closed, switch S1 is set to On control unit’s internal buzzer
fitted carpet on the landing. The (open circuit), and S2 is at WD1, rather than the klaxon, etc.
control box containing all the Normal (Fig.1), circuit operation Second, with the oscillator timing
electronics is neatly tucked is as follows. capacitor reduced to 180pF (C3),
away out of sight under the rear If any of the alarmed doors the Q14 output terminates the
of a chest of drawers on the are opened, resistor R1 applies sounding period after some three
landing. a positive-going edge, via R2, seconds.
Two switches are provided C1, D2 and R8, to the base (b)
on the Control Box. The On/Off of transistor TR1. This operates COMPONENTS
(Reset) switch enables or the relay RLA, which in turn
disables the alarm, and also maintains the transistor in A full list of components is
resets it if the alarm has been conduction, via self-hold contact given, but many readers will, no
activated. The alarm itself can RLA1. Relay contact RLA2 doubt, have most of the smaller
consist of an internal high power applies 12V DC power to the components in stock. For
klaxon, an external bell, and/or internal klaxon, and outside bell example, the mains transformer
a flashing strobe light. and strobe – see Fig.2. used in the prototype was a 20VA
unit, with two 6 3V AC
¬
All three were fitted in the The positive-going edge is

secondaries, salvaged from an
author’s system, with the klaxon also applied via R3 to the Reset
old valve job.
at ceiling level in the hall, by the of IC1, pin12, setting all the
front door. Outside, a counter stages to logic 0. The The larger components, such
translucent weatherproof box positive edge then dies away, as the klaxon, bell, and strobe will
above the porch in an obvious as capacitor C1 charges up. probably have to be bought in,
“easy-to-see” position to act as Output Q14 at pin 3 of IC1 but can be added piecemeal at a
a deterrent, houses the bell and having been set to logic 0, the later date, after the system has
strobe. device’s internal oscillator starts been constructed, installed and
to run, as it is no longer tested. Obviously, it will pay to
The other switch provides use only good quality
Normal and Test positions. In disabled via diode D3. On
reaching the count of 213, pin 3 components, to minimize the
the Normal position, when the possibility of embarrassing false
alarm is activated, it operates of IC1 returns to the high level,
inhibiting the oscillator section alarms!
for some 15 minutes (or until
Reset). In the Test position, if of the device.
an alarmed door is opened This positive-going edge at CONSTRUCTION
while the system is On, a IC1 pin 3 turns on transistor
TR2, and via C4, R14 and D5 The average constructor may
buzzer in the control box
momentarily turns off TR1, well have a suitable enclosure in
sounds instead, for a brief three
causing the relay to drop out stock, perhaps left over from
seconds, showing that all
and removing the self-hold some previous project. Bizarre as
systems are GO!
action of RLA1. Thus the it may seem, the prototype was
klaxon, bell and strobe cease to constructed in the wooden case
CIRCUIT OPERATION operate; having been energized of an old home-made transistor
(with the component values portable radio, about 230mm
The circuit diagrams that
shown) for a period of not more wide, by 152mm by 152mm, with
make up the Versatile Burglar
than 20 minutes. the original On/Off switch used as
Alarm, together with the power

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Fig. 2. Circuit diagram for the alarm system power supply and the alarm sirens.
S1. Switch S2 was mounted on From the outside, it still looks Two 5-pin DIN connectors
the side of the cabinet, and the like its former self! Otherwise, were used for sockets SK1 and
two sockets and mains lead at any box of about the stated SK2 as these happened to be in
the rear. dimensions will prove suitable. stock. Any 2-pin connector will
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Fig.3. Stripboard component layout and details of breaks required in the underside copper
strips. Wiring to the mains transformer, switches and sockets will depend on types used.
Capacitors C2, C7, and C8 are wired directly to off-board components.
do for SK1, but SK2 must be a
non-reversible type, to ensure COMPONENTS
that the 12V DC is applied to Resistors Miscellaneous
the klaxon, bell and strobe in R1 3k3 S1 s.p.s.t. toggle switch
the correct polarity. R2, R7, R14, R17 1k (4 off) S2 d.p.d.t. toggle switch
R3 10k SK1/PL1 5-pin 240 o DIN socket
The circuit was built up on R4, R6, R9, R11, R12, R15, and plug
0 1in. matrix copper stripboard,
¬ R16 100k (7 off) SK2/PL2 5-pin 180 o DIN socket
as it was developed. The layout R5 1M See also the and plug
R8 18k SHOP TALK RLA 1A 12V coil 2-pole miniature
of the prototype is therefore not
R10 680 ohms Page! changeover relay
the tidiest, but the circuit is not R13 47k T1 20VA mains transformer,
critical in this respect. The All 0.25W 5% metal film 12V secondary
topside component layout and WD1 12V piezoelectric buzzer
Capacitors
details of breaks required in the C1 330n polyester Case for control unit, approx. size
underside copper tracks are C2 47n polyester 230mm x 152mm x 152mm;
shown in Fig.3. C3 180p ceramic stripboard, 0.1in matrix, size 53
C4 1u polyester holes x 40 copper strips; 14-pin
All the components, except C5, C6 4700u axial electrolytic, DIL socket; 16-pin DIL socket;
the mains transformer, 25V (2 off) fused (3A) mains plug and lead;
switches, sockets, and buzzer, C7, C8 25u axial electrolytic, multistrand connecting wire;
were mounted on the stripboard, 25V (2 off) solder pins, solder, etc.
with the following further Semiconductors
exceptions. Capacitor C2 was D1 to D5 1N4148 signal Alarm Devices
mounted directly on switch S2, diodes (5 off) WD2 12V piezo siren
REC1 50V 1A bridge rectifier WD3 9V to 15V alarm bell
C7 between S2 and a common TR1, TR2 BC184B npn LP1 12V DC xenon beacon
earth point on the stripboard transistors (2 off)
and C8 directly across the IC1 4060 14-stage counter- Bell enclosure; miniature reed relay
buzzer terminals. Counter IC1 oscillator with operating magnet (one of each
was fitted in a 16-pin IC socket, IC2 7812 1A 12V voltage regulator required per alarmed door)
the relay in a 14-pin IC socket, Approx. Cost
and IC2 was provided with a Guidance Only
(Excluding alarm devices) $45
TO220 twisted-vane heatsink.
Note that the TO92 plastic Having double-checked all unit is basically working.
transistors TR1 and TR2 are the your wiring and tested with a Disconnect the mains, and
variety where the center lead is multimeter for any possible wait 20 seconds for resistor R17
the base (b) connection, shorts across the +12V rail, to discharge the supply
BC184B; NOT BC184L where connect a “test” toggle switch, capacitors. Now temporarily
the center lead is the collector. set to On, temporarily across short the Normal and Test
DIN plug PL1, in place of the terminals of S2a and leave
sensor loop switches. Set switch switch S2 in the Normal
TESTING S2 to Test and S1 to Off/ position, so that capacitor C2 is
Testing is straightforward, (Reset). now in circuit. Reconnect the
but is most conveniently carried Connect up to the mains, short circuit (switch on test
out on the workbench, rather switch on and check that the switch) at PL1, set S1 to Off
than in situ. However, as a raw supply voltage across and reconnect the mains. Now
mains supply is involved, capacitor C5 is in the range set S1 to On and then switch off
great care is necessary. Make +15V to +18V, depending upon the toggle switch at PL1. This
sure that all mains the particular mains transformer time, the buzzer should sound
connections, including the used. Check that the stabilized for about 15 minutes.
primary terminals of mains +12V rail is present and correct. Repeat the above test,
transformer T1 are well Now set S1 to On and then checking after a minute or so
insulated, and always switch off the “test” toggle that setting S1 to Off terminates
disconnect the mains lead switch temporarily attached to the alarm. This completes the
from the supply before plug PL1. The buzzer should testing, so the short at S2 can
working on or touching any sound for approximately 3 be removed and the unit boxed
part of the unit. seconds. This shows that the up and installed.
It only remains to check It is a good idea to set S2 to Another possibility is the
that, with all the alarmed doors Test occasionally, and check addition of a 12V backup
shut and S1 at On, opening any that the system is working by battery, to maintain operability
of the doors triggers the alarm. opening any of the alarmed in the event of temporary mains
This can be done initially with doors. This should be done on a failure. This has not been
S2 at Test, but must of course regular basis. You can leave S2 included in the present system,
be repeated with S2 at Normal, in the Test position except when since mains failures are
to check that the klaxon and bell going out, as a matter of nowadays virtually unheard-of
really do sound, and that the course, if you want. If all the in the UK. But some readers
strobe light (if fitted) does flash. alarmed doors are normally living in sensitive areas may
As soon as this has been shown kept closed, the system will be wish to add a float-charged
to be OK, S1 can be set to Off, tested every time one is battery to the system.
mercifully terminating the opened, as indicated by a
racket! discreet 3 seconds buzz.
USING THE ALARM FURTHER

Using the Versatile Burglar FACILITIES
Alarm is very simple, no dash The “closed-circuit loop”
from the front door to turn it off may be extended at any time, to
again when you come home. additional door and/or window
When leaving, close all the switches, including the front
alarmed doors, check that the door. It would also be possible
unit is plugged in and the mains to link the unit to a PIR (passive
is on, and set switch S1 to On. infrared) sensor fitted, say, in
Now, opening any alarmed door the hall.
will trigger the alarm.
This can be problematic in a
Before leaving the house, household including pets,
make sure that switch S2 is at especially large dogs. However,
Normal. On your return, with cats a sensitivity setting
remember to set S1 to Off, can usually be found which will
before opening any of the ignore them, but detect
alarmed doors. If you forget, humans. Other sensors, such as
and activate the alarm, setting an IR beam across the hall at
S1 to Off will silence it waist height, can be used where
immediately. necessary.
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A high-class “spin-doctor” for your aging collection signals at frequencies well into
of classic vinyl discs. the middle audio range, and
simple filtering is not a viable
It seems that reports of the priced, digital signal processing option. Filtering that would
death of vinyl discs have been unit yet available that will take a greatly reduce the noise spikes
somewhat exaggerated. While it signal from a vinyl recording would also remove most of the
is true that new vinyl records are and process it to give “click” and main signal!
not made in significant numbers “hiss” free reproduction. At the Analog signal processing
any more, there is a thriving moment the only practical can be used to significantly
second-hand market. In fact method of combating “clicks” reduce the larger “pops” and
many types of record are now and “pops” is to use analog “cracks” using blanking or
hotly collected, including some signal processing.
that were manufactured quite <8 <?G >?9C5 <?G@1CC 334 <?G@1CC 8?<4 5AE1<9C1D9?> <8
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recently.
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drawbacks that resulted in
compact discs taking over have 49665B5>D91<
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and handling this can be

minimized Fig.1. Full block diagram for the Scratch Blanker.
Physical damage to this very Minor surface noise can be switch-around techniques. With
vulnerable form of recording is greatly reduced by using simple the switch-around technique the
probably the main problem, and top cut filtering, although this output signal is normally
there is no easy solution to this inevitably removes some of the delayed by a few milliseconds.
one. Most new vinyl recordings high frequency content in the When a click is detected,
were supplied complete with a recording as well. Larger the circuit waits for the noise
few “clicks” and “pops”, and even scratches produce strong pulses to end on the non-
when handled with due care they
tend to gain some more over the
years.
SCRATCHING
AROUND
Digital signal processing
continues to progress, and some
“golden oldie” recordings of the
1940s and earlier have been
given remarkable “clean-ups”
using this technology.
Unfortunately, as far as we are
aware, there is no, reasonably
delayed signal. A changeover is but with this system a delay of DESIGN
then made so that the listener under a milli-second is
hears the non-delayed signal, adequate. This minute delay is CONSIDERATIONS
avoiding the “click” which by needed to give the unit time to This Scratch Blanker project
then has completely passed. detect the click before it starts is designed to be fed direct from
to appear at the output. a magnetic pickup, and its output
After a delay of perhaps a
hundred milli-seconds or so, the When a click is detected the feeds into a high level input of the
unit switches back to the audio signal is switched off, and power amplifier such as a Tape,
original set-up with the listener it is held off for slightly longer Tuner, or Aux input. With many
hearing the delayed signal. Of than the duration of the noise hi-fi amplifiers it is possible to
course, by this time the click caused by a bad scratch. In extract the output signal from the
has also passed on the delayed other words, the click and the RIAA preamplifier, process it in
signal. What is actually signal immediately either side of some way, and then feed the
happening here is that the it is replaced by silence. signal into the power amplifier.
signal is being shortened Although one might This offers what is
slightly, with the section around reasonably expect the gap in undoubtedly a more simple
the click being removed. the signal would be clearly approach, but there are definite
To make up for this missing audible, provided the blanking advantages to having the
signal, a few milliseconds are period is no more than about 10 preamplifier built into the Scratch
repeated when the unit switches milliseconds it will not be Blanker. One of these is simply
back to its normal state. This perceived as a gap in the that the system is not reliant on
system works well, but there is a signal. It may be heard as a the existing audio equipment
danger of two slight glitches slight glitch, or it might be having some form of preamplifier
being audible as it switches “invisible” to the listener. output and power amplifier input
around the click. This all depends on the arrangement. This Scratch
nature of the signal and the Blanker should work with any
relative signal voltages at the power amplifier that has a spare
SCRATCH BLANKER beginning and end of the high level input.
The more simple method blanking period. Even if a slight Another advantage of this
adopted here is a glitch can be perceived, it will approach is that it helps to reduce
straightforward blanking be nothing like as disconcerting the noise and distortion produced
approach. The listener again as the noise pulses it replaces. through the delay-line. Noise is
hears what is actually a slightly not a major problem as only a
delayed version of the signal, short delay is required, and the
Fig.2. Ideally the blanking pulse would last for

one cycle (top), but in practice this will not Fig.3. The initial part of the waveform shows
normally happen. the effect of the blanking process.
delay-line chip provides good frequency signals. a negative pulse is applied to
performance under these the control input, and the output
conditions. Its distortion voltage is then held at its
performance is also quite good. TIME DELAY current level until the control
However, it could still A CCD (charge-coupled pulse ends. The hold circuit
significantly degrade the device) Delay-Line is used, and then acts as a simple buffer
performance of the system. In this operates by sampling the stage again, and a normal
order to provide a flat overall input at regular intervals and output signal is produced.
frequency response a RIAA feeding the sampled voltages Ideally the blanking period
preamplifier must provide a 6dB along a chain of capacitors. would last for exactly one cycle,
per octave roll-off above Eventually the signal reaches the as in the top waveform of Fig.2.
2120Hz, and a 6dB per octave end of the chain and the output of This avoids any sudden change
boost from 500Hz to 50Hz. By the delay-line. in level at the end of the
placing the equalization stage at The time it takes to go blanking period, and should
the output of the blanker the through the system, and the delay avoid any audible glitch.
high frequency roll-off helps to obtained, depends on the number In practice things will not
counteract noise and distortion of stages and the clock usually be quite as convenient
through the delay-line, and also frequency. The device used in as this, and there will be some
helps to minimize any slight this design has 512 stages, and jump in level, as in the middle
switching glitches produced by can produce delays of several waveform of Fig.2. Under worse
the blanking process itself. milliseconds, but in this case a case conditions there could be a
delay of only around half a much larger jump, as in the
millisecond is adequate, and a bottom waveform of Fig.2. The
SYSTEM OPERATION high clock frequency is therefore equalization attenuates the high
The block diagram of Fig.1 used. frequencies generated by any
shows a slightly simplified As with any sampling system, sudden changes in the signal
version of the arrangement the output from the delay-line is level and keeps the switching
used in this Scratch Blanker. stepped, and it is effectively glitches as unobtrusive as
Each stereo channel is modulated with the clock signal. possible.
processed by an identical series Another low-pass filter at the
of stages, so here we will only The oscillograph of Fig.3
output filters out the clock signal shows the effect of the blanking
consider one channel. to give a normal audio output process. The scratch pulses
The output level from a signal. Like the low-pass filter at should be in the initial part of
magnetic cartridge is quite low, the input of the delay-line, it does the trace. Instead, the signal
and is typically just a few not produce significant losses at has been blanked and this part
millivolts RMS. A Low Noise audio frequencies. of the trace is flat.
Preamplifier at the input boosts
the signal to a level that gives Depending on the circuit
better noise performance from ON HOLD values used, the unit can also
the delay-line. blank the signal by holding the
The next stage in the main
signal at the central bias level
It is important that high signal path is a Hold Circuit,
during the blanking period.
frequency signals are not which provides the signal
Again this ensures that there
allowed to enter the delay-line blanking. It would be easy to
are no major glitches introduced
as they could react with the design a scratch blanker that put
by the blanking process itself.
clock signal to produce audible in a larger noise pulse than the
heterodynes on the output. In one it removed. To work well a Returning to Fig.1, the final
theory there will be no input blanking circuit must smooth over stage in the main signal path is
signals at these frequencies the gap in the signal in such a the Equalization Amplifier
anyway, but in practice there way that the gap is as stage. As pointed out
can be problems with stray pick- unobtrusive as possible. previously, by having this stage
up of radio signals in the input at the output of the unit it
The hold circuit is normally
wiring. A low-pass filter is effectively gives noise reduction
fed with a high control voltage,
therefore used ahead of the over the entire circuit, including
and it then acts as a simple buffer
delay-line to remove any high the delay-line.
stage. When a “click” is detected,
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Next the signal is amplified [
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to a level that enables it to 5
trigger a monostable. A Fig.6. Scratch Blanker power supply circuit diagram.
Sensitivity control enables the
trigger level to be set high CIRCUIT OPERATION load impedance of 100k.
enough to give reliable The low-pass filter ahead of
The main circuit diagram for
triggering of the monostable, the delay-line is a conventional
the Scratch Blanker, showing
but low enough to prevent large three stage (18dB per octave)
the signal processing stages,
parts of the main signal from type based on IC1b. Its cut-off
appears in Fig.4. The circuits for
being obliterated. The frequency is at approximately
the “click” detection and mains
monostable produces an output 20kHz.
power supply unit appear
pulse of about 3 5 milliseconds
¬
separately in Fig.5 and Fig.6.
in duration, which should be
sufficient to blank any scratch. Starting with circuit Fig.4 DELAY-LINE
and the left-hand channel (the The charge-coupled delay-
The hold circuits require low right channel is identical), the
output pulses, but the output of line IC2, is a MN3004 512-stage
input stage uses operational device. In common with other
the monostable is normally low amplifier IC1 as a non-inverting
and pulses high. An Inverter CCD delay-line chips it makes
circuit having its closed-loop available the outputs of the last
stage is therefore used to voltage gain set at 45 by
process the output of the two stages. The point of this is
resistors R5 and R6. The input that it is not possible for a stage
monostable and produce a impedance is set at about 50k
suitable control signal for the to simultaneously receive a
(kilohms) by resistor R1, which fresh sample and provide an
hold circuits. A LED indicator is is the optimum figure for most
also driven from the inverter output at the previous sample
magnetic cartridges. Increase voltage.
stage, and this flashes each the value of R1 and R25 to
time the unit is triggered. 120k for types that require a A simple solution to this
problem is to mix the output
This is not the case here,
because the input stage
provides most of the
amplification, and only a
modest amount of gain is
required from the equalization
stage. In fact, a degree of
attenuation is required at high
frequencies.
This stage is, therefore,
based on an inverting mode
circuit rather than the more
usual non-inverting type, and
the value of resistor R20 has
been made quite high so that
the voltage gain is kept in
check. With some power
amplifiers and cartridges the
signals from the last two stages. than enough time for the “click” output level might be
One or other of the stages will detector to activate the hold inadequate. Reducing the value
always have its output switched circuit. The latter uses one of of resistors R20 and R42 to
on and will supply a valid the four analog switches in a about 10k (kilohms) will
sample voltage. CMOS 4016BE or 4066BE increase the gain of the
Resistors R10 and R11 are (IC5a). The 4016BE is the equalization circuit and cure this
load resistors for the last two device normally recommended problem.
stages of the delay-line, with for audio applications, but The circuit has only a
R12 and R13 acting with IC4 as several samples of the 4066BE limited amount of “headroom’”,
a conventional summing mode were tried in this circuit and so this modification should only
mixer to combine the two output worked equally well. One of the be made if it is really necessary.
signals. other switches in IC5 (d) is used Otherwise at high volume levels
in the right-hand channel, but the signal may be clipped.
Capacitor C10 provides a the other two are left unused.
6dB per octave roll-off above
With the specified values
the audio range and provides
for resistor R19 and capacitor CLICK DETECTOR
the initial low-pass filtering to
remove the stepping on the C11 the hold circuit produces an In the Click Detector circuit
output signal. The equalization output at a central bias level (see Fig.5) opamp IC11 is used
amplifier provides most of this during the blanking periods. as a conventional differential
filtering though. Using values of 330 ohms and amplifier at the input. An active
10 nanofarads provides a true three-stage (18dB per octave)
hold action, with the final signal high-pass filter based on IC12a
CLOCKING ON voltage being held until the end follows this. The filtered output
The delay-line requires a of the blanking period. Results signal from IC12a is amplified
two-phase clock signal and a seem to sound much the same by IC12b, which operates as an
bias voltage, both of which are either way. IC6a is the buffer inverting amplifier having a
provided by matching support amplifier for the hold circuit. voltage gain of about 12. The
chip IC3. Most components are boosted signal from IC12b is
fed, via capacitor C37, to
duplicated in the right-hand EQUAL MEASURE Sensitivity control VR1, and this
channel, but this stage provides
the clock and bias signals for The other section of IC6 (b) is connected as a volume
both channels. is used in the equalization control style variable attenuator.
amplifier. Normally a stage of The monostable stage has
The clock frequency is this type would be required to
about 300kHz, which gives a low power timer IC13 connected
produce large amounts of as a standard 555 monostable.
delay of just under one amplification at middle and low
millisecond. This gives more It is not advisable to use an
audio frequencies.
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Fig.7. PCB topside component layout and (approximately) full size underside copper foil
master for the Scratch Blanker. The interwiring between the PCB and off-board
components is shown in Fig.8.
ordinary 555 timer for IC13 as Resistor R62 and capacitor conditions, resistors R61 and
the standard 555 chip tends to C39 are the timing components R63 bias pin 2 just above this
“crowbar” the power supply on and they set the nominal output level, but strong negative half
output transitions. This would pulse duration at 3 63 ¬ cycles from control VR1 will
tend to introduce noise spikes milliseconds. The trigger input take the input below the
into the signal paths, reducing at pin 2 of IC13 must be taken threshold voltage and trigger
the effectiveness of the unit. below one third of the supply the monostable.
Low power 555 timers such as potential in order to trigger the Transistor TR1 is a simple
the TS555CN are free from this circuit. Under quiescent common emitter switching stage
defect.
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Fig.8. Interwiring details from the PCB to off-board components. Note you must use
screened leads from the PCB to the input and output sockets (SK1-SK4).
that inverts the output signal supply at a maximum current of transformer T1 provides
from IC13 and also drives LED no more than about 60mA or so. isolation from the mains and the
indicator D2. This LED will flash A suggested mains driven required voltage step-down.
briefly each time the unit is Power Supply circuit diagram is Rectifier diodes D3 and D4
triggered. given in Fig.6. (Note that this provide full-wave rectification
Switch S1 provides in/out power supply is designed for and capacitor C41 the
switching. The unit functions use with a 240V 50Hz mains smoothing. The unregulated
normally when S1 is open, but supply. If your mains supply supply is fed, via fuse FS1, to a
closing this switch holds TR1 in is different you will need to 15V monolithic voltage
the off state, and inhibits the modify this circuit regulator (IC14) that produces a
blanking action. accordingly, in which case well-stabilized output and also
it is recommended that you contributes further smoothing.
consult a qualified A 78L15 (100mA) regulator
POWER SUPPLY electrician).
The power supply must Mains
provide a well smoothed 15V
Completed circuit board ready for mounting Prototype model showing, in close up, posi-
inside the metal case. tioning and wiring to the mains transformer.
COMPONENTS
Resistors Capacitors Semiconductors (cont.)
R1, R10, R11, R20, R25, R34, C1, C17 100u radial electrolytic, IC2, IC8 MN3004 512-stage
R35, R42 56k (8 off) 16V (2 off) delay-line (2 off)
R2, R26, R58, R59 22k (4 off) C2, C9, C16, C18, C24 10u IC3 MN3101 clock generator
R3, R4, R27, R28 1M (4 off) radial electrolytic, 25V (7 off) IC4, IC9 LF351N bi-FET opamp (2 off)
R5, R29, R61 15k (3 off) C3, C19 47n polyester (2 off) IC5 4066BE or 4016BE quad
R6, R30 330 ohms (2 off) C4, C13, C20, C28 47u radial CMOS switch
R7, R8, R9, R31, R32, R33, electrolytic, 25V (4 off) IC6, IC10 LF353N dual bi-FET
R52 4k7 (7 off) C5, C21 3n3 polyester (2 off) opamp (2 off)
R12, R13, R18, R36, R37, C6, C22 6n8 polyester (2 off) IC11 TL071CN bi-FET opamp
R40 47k (6 off) C7, C23 330p ceramic plate (2 off) IC12 TL072CN dual bi-FET opamp
R14, R15 39k (2 off) C8 22p ceramic plate IC13 TS555CN low-power timer
R16, R17, R23, R38, R39, R45, C10, C25 82p ceramic plate (2 off) IC14 7815 15V 1A positive regulator
R60 100k (7 off) C11, C26 4u7 radial electrolytic,
R19, R41, R47, R48, R51, 50V (2 off)
Miscellaneous
S1 s.p.s.t. miniature toggle
R67 3k3 (6 off) C12, C27 470n polyester (2 off)
S2 rotary mains dual-pole on/off switch
R21, R22, R43, R44 33k (4 off) C14, C29 33n polyester (2 off)
SK1 to SK4 chassis-mounting
R24, R46 7k5 (2 off) C15, C30, C39 10n polyester (3 off)
phono sockets (4 off)
R49, R50, R66 6k8 (3 off) C32 to C34 2n2 polyester (3 off)
FS1 100mA 20mm quickblow fuse
R53 2k7 C36 2u2 radial electrolytic, 50V
T1 standard mains transformer, with
R54, R63 10k (2 off) C37, C38 22n polyester (2 off)
15V-0V-15V 100mA secondary
R55, R56 68k (2 off) C40, C42, C43 100n ceramic (3 off)
R57, R65 8k2 (2 off) C41 1000u radial electrolytic, 25V
Printed circuit board available
R62 330k
from the EPE Online Store , code
R64 3k9
7000250 (www.epemag.com);
All 0.25W 5% carbon film Semiconductors medium to large instrument case, see
Potentiometer D1 1N4148 silicon signal diode text; 8-pin DIL socket (10 off); 14-pin
VR1 10k carbon rotary linear D2, D5 5mm red panel LED (2 off) DIL socket (3 off); 20mm chassis-
D3, D4 1N4002 100V 1A rectifier mounting fuse holder; control knob
See also the diodes (2 off) (2 off); mains lead and plug; screened
SHOP TALK Page! TR1 BC549 silicon npn transistor cable; connecting wire; solder pins,
IC1, IC7 NE5532N dual opamp (2 off) solder, etc.
Approx. Cost
Guidance Only $86
(Excluding case and mains lead/plug)
Front panel arrangement of

the completed
Scratch Blanker.
Layout of components inside

the case of the finished
Scratch Blanker. Note the
PCB and mains transformer
should be kept as far apart
as possible.
can handle the currents ordinary 20mm chassis rear panel of the case. The
involved here, but might mounting fuseholder that is controls and the two LEDs are
overheat due to the power bolted to the circuit board. The mounted on the front panel, the
levels involved. Hence, a 7815 board is connected to the tags exact layout is not too
(1A) regulator is specified for of the fuseholder by way of two important.
IC14. Diode D5 is the power solder pins fitted on the board. However, On/Off switch S2
indicator LED, and R67 is its With the tags of the holder in an should be positioned well
current limiter resistor. almost horizontal position it towards the right-hand end of
should be quite easy to solder
CONSTRUCTION them to the pins.
the panel close to T1, with the
other controls reasonably well
As this project is mains
separated from it. A solder tag
powered and is fairly complex it
CASING UP bolted to the base panel
is not really suitable for
provides a connection point for
beginners. The use of a custom Readymade hi-fi style cases the mains Earth lead.
printed circuit board (PCB) are “a bit thin on the ground”
does, however, help to keep these days, so it is a choice
things reasonably between the do-it-yourself INTERWIRING
straightforward. approach and settling for an Details of the hard wiring to
The component overlay for instrument case. Either way the the PCB and off-board
the circuit board appears in case must be about 250mm components are provided in
Fig.7, together with the wide and 150mm deep in order Fig.7 and Fig.8. This is largely
(approximately) full size copper to accommodate everything straightforward, but as some of
foil master pattern. This board is comfortably. the wiring carries the mains
available from the EPE Online As this project is mains supply it is essential to take
Store (code 7000250) at powered it must have a case extra care and to double-check
www.epemag.com that is made from METAL, the entire wiring once it has
The only static-sensitive and the case must be reliably been completed. The input
components are IC2, IC3, IC5, EARTHED to the mains’ Earth wiring is very sensitive to stray
and IC8, and the normal lead. It is also essential to use a pick-up of mains “hum”, and
handling precautions should be case that has a screw fitting lid, screened cable MUST,
observed when dealing with and not a clip-on type that therefore, be used for the
these devices. It is advisable to would permit easy access to the connections from phono sockets
use holders for all the other DIL dangerous mains wiring. The SK1 and SK3 to the circuit
integrated circuits as well. mains lead can be wired direct board.
Voltage regulator IC14 might to the unit, but the safer option Indicator LEDs D2 and D5
become quite warm in use, but is to mount an IEC mains inlet will not work properly unless
it should not be necessary to fit on the rear panel of the case they are connected the right
it with a heatsink. and use a standard IEC mains way round. The polarity of LEDs
Construction of the board lead. is normally indicated by the
largely follows conventional The circuit board is cathode (k) lead being shorter
lines. A few link-wires (9 off) are mounted on the left-hand than the anode (a) lead. It is
required, and these are made section of the base panel using advisable to use high brightness
from 22s.w.g. or 24s.w.g. tinned 6BA or metric M3 screws (see LEDs, particularly for D2, which
copper wire. They are photographs), plus the usual receives only very brief pulses
reasonably well spaced out so it spacers to keep the underside of current.
is not essential to insulate them of the board clear of the metal A mains transformer having
with pieces of sleeving. case. Mains transformer T1 is a 15V-0V-15V secondary
The capacitors must be mounted on the extreme right- winding is required for T1, but
miniature PCB mounting types hand section of the base panel modern mains transformers
in order to fit into this layout so that it is as far away from the almost invariably have twin
properly. The polyester circuit board as possible. secondary windings. These can
capacitors should have a lead The input and output effectively produce the required
spacing of 5mm (0·2 inches). connectors are phono sockets, type of secondary winding if
and they are mounted on the they are connected in the
Fuse FS1 fits into an
manner shown in Fig.8. to the power amplifier using Sensitivity control VR1 fully
normal screened phono leads. advanced in a clockwise
Note that some mains
The record deck will probably direction the “clicks” should be
transformers also have twin
have an earth lead, and results blanked, but it is likely that
primary windings. For use on
will probably be best with this sections of the recording at high
the 230V UK mains supply the
connected to the earth terminal modulation levels will also be
two primary windings must be
of the power amplifier. If this removed.
connected in series. Use
gives problems with “hum” Control VR1 should be
pieces of sleeving to insulate
loops try adding a suitable adjusted for the highest
any connections that carry
connector to the case of the sensitivity that does not result in
the mains supply. Scratch Blanker so that the significant blanking of the
deck can be earthed here wanted signal. Since modulation
TESTING instead. levels vary slightly from one
In use the record deck Using a suitably “click” record to another, the optimum
connects to input sockets SK1 infested test recording, it should setting for VR1 will also be
and SK3, and the output soon be obvious whether or not slightly different for each record.
sockets (SK2 and SK4) connect the unit is functioning. With
,QWHUHVWHG LQ SURJUDPPLQJ 3,& PLFURFRQWUROOHUV"
/HDUQ ZLWK PICtutor E\ -RKQ %HFNHU
This interactive presentation uses the specially
developed Virtual PIC simulator to show exactly
what is happening as you run, or step through,
a program. In this way, the CD brings the EPE
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subject.
Nearly 40 tutorials cover almost every aspect

of PIC programming in an easy-to-follow
sequence.
HARDWARE: Whilst the CD-ROM can be used on its own, the

physical demonstration provided by the PICtutor development Kit,
plus the ability to program and test your own PIC16x84s, really
reinforces the lessons learned. The hardware will also be an in- Deluxe PICtutor Hardware
valuable development and programming tool for future work once
you have mastered PIC software writing.
Two levels of PICtutor hardware are available -- Standard and Deluxe. The Standard
unit comes with a battery holder, a reduced number of switches, and no displays. This
version will allow you to complete 25 of the 39 tutorials -- it can be upgraded to
Deluxe at a later date, by adding components, if required.
The Deluxe development kit also has a battery holder (so it can be used around the world), all
switches for both PIC ports, plus LCD and 4-digit 7-segment LED displays. It allows you to
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All hardware is supplied fully built and tested and includes a PIC16F84 electrically erasable
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PRICING: CD-ROM (Hobbyist/Student): $70 US Dollars (plus S&H)

Standard PICtutor Development Kit: $75 US Dollars (plus S&H)
Deluxe PICtutor Development Kit: $160 US Dollars (plus S&H)
Visit the EPE Online store now to BUY!

MINIMUM SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS: PC with 486/33MHz or higher, VGA+256 colors or better, CD-
ROM drive, 8MB RAM, 8MB free space on hard disk. Windows 3.1/95/98/NT, mouse.
Copyright © 1999 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, February 1999 - www.epemag.com - 239
ROLL-UP, ROLL-UP! Win a Pico PC-Based Oscilloscope
Ingenuity is our regular round-up of readers' own • 50MSPS Dual Channel Storage
circuits. We pay between $16 and $80 for all material Oscilloscope
published, depending on length and technical merit. • 25MHz Spectrum Analyzer
We're looking for novel applications and circuit tips, not
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for publication elsewhere. The circuits shown have • Signal Generator
NOT been proven by us. Ingenuity Unlimited is open to
ALL abilities, but items for consideration in this column If you have a novel circuit idea which
should preferably be typed or word-processed, with a would be of use to other readers, then a Pico
brief circuit description (between 100 and 500 words Technology PC based oscilloscope could be
maximum) and full circuit diagram showing all relevant yours.
component values. Please draw all circuit schematics Every six months, Pico Technology will be
as clearly as possible. awarding an ADC200-50 digital storage oscil-
loscope for the best IU submission. In addi-
Send your circuit ideas to: Alan Winstanley,
tion, two single channel ADC-40s will be pre-
Ingenuity Unlimited, Wimborne Publishing Ltd., Allen
sented to the runners up.
House, East Borough, Wimborne, Dorset BH21 1PF.
They could earn you some real cash and a prize!
load it remains stable and can teresis ensures clean switching

Low Cost AA to PP3 be adjusted with preset VR1, and preset VR1 adjusts the out-
Converter – Service Call but as loading increases it put voltage. Diode D1 prevents
There are a variety of inte- drops. negative pulses being routed
grated devices available which In applications exhibiting via transistor TR3 and affecting
perform single cell DC conver- variable loading, regulation is the Schmitt trigger; it must be a
sion. However, for some appli- necessary. The circuit shown in Schottky diode otherwise TR3
cations these may be limited in Fig.1b uses a pulse skipping will not switch TR4. The recom-
output voltage or be relatively technique i.e., occasionally in- mended ZTX650 transistor used
expensive. The circuit diagrams hibiting oscillation to maintain for the oscillator is a high per-
shown in Fig.1 perform the constant output. Transistors formance device with a very low
same service for a very low cost TR1 and TR2 form a simple VCE(SAT). This is necessary
and at a reasonable efficiency. Schmitt trigger comparator. Al- because there is little headroom
though both collector loads are at 1·0V.
The simplest, Fig.1a is
suited to applications that pre- identical, a switching differential As switching occurs at a
sent a constant load. Transistor is maintained because TR2 is very high frequency, T1 is ex-
TR1, transformer T1, resistor directly coupled to TR1; its base tremely small. A micro-toroid
R1, and preset potentiometer current contributes to the volt- center tapped transformer is
VR1 form a current-controlled age across resistor R3. constructed using an anti-
switching oscillator. Each time The Schmitt threshold con- parasitic bead 6mm by 4mm in
TR1 turns off the collapsing sists of TR1 VBE and the volt- diameter with a 2mm hole. Fold
magnetic field in T1 generates a age across resistor R3. As the 90cm of 38s.w.g. enameled
high voltage positive pulse at monitored voltage rises above copper wire in half, press the
TR1’s collector. This, in series this, TR1 turns on, TR2 turns off crease tightly together and then
with the supply, is fed via diode and TR3 turns on which dis- thread the folded wire repeat-
D1 to capacitor C2. Under no- ables transistor TR4. When it edly through the bead hole until
load it contains 30V. At constant drops the reverse occurs. Hys- 20 turns are wound. Trim pro-
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regulated version.
truding wires to 25mm. the tap (ct). If the circuit fails to charge characteristic will mini-
The bead now contains two oscillate, check the tap is cor- mize supply drift.
sets of 20 turns with two starts rectly formed; otherwise, it is
most likely a shorted turn. Z. Kaparnik
at one extremity and two ends Swindon, Wilts, UK
at the other. Join an appropriate Using a NiCad or NiMH bat-
start and end together to form tery with its virtually flat dis-
Electric Garage Door 5H9CD9>7

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Fig.2. Circuit diagram for the Electric Garage Door Status
Indicator.
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control was mislaid. tor LED. vides a much lower holding cur-
The extra switch S2 and To minimize the current rent for the relay to reduce the
dual color LED D3 are placed in drain from the door control unit current consumption. Diode D1
parallel with the existing operat- and prevent the door inadver- provides reverse polarity protec-
ing switch. The supply to D3 is tently opening or closing, it is tion and resistors R2 and R3
reversed when the relay RLA is important that the relay has a provide some protection for
on, turning the green LED low current coil. An IMO/ Omron TR1 against short circuits to the
(closed) off and the red LED EA2-12NU was used, whose supply connections. All the
(open) on. coil is fed via resistor R4 and usual precautions should be ob-
capacitor C1 to reduce the hold- served when operating electric
A standard alarm reed prox- garage doors, making sure vehi-
imity switch, S1, is mounted on ing current as follows:
cles, children and others are
the garage door frame with the When the relay is off C1 kept well clear.
accompanying magnet fitted to charges up to the supply volt-
the door. When the door is age, approximately 17V and Keith Wevill
closed the reed switch is closed acts as a reservoir. When TR1 Ratby, Leics, UK
which turns transistor TR1 and turns on, the capacitor supplies
the relay off by shunting the most of the pull-in current re-
base (b) current to 0V. When quired by the relay to operate it.
the door is open, TR1 drives the When capacitor C1 has dis-
relay, which changes the indica- charged, the resistor R4 pro-
9(+,&/( )5267 %2; E\ 67(9( '(//2:
Black ice on the road can be a killer. This design thermometers, and
helps predict when it might occur. thermocouples to mention but a
few – all are used in
Vehicle manufacturers strive down at road level. The Vehicle environment monitoring, but
to make our driving experience Frost Box gets us right there! most are outside the budget (or
ever more comfortable. Such practicality) of the average
items as ride control, power home constructor. We are
DESIGN BASIS therefore looking for an
steering, electronic engine
management, and air- The Vehicle Frost Box is approach that’s cheap, reliable,
conditioning now appear as powered from the vehicle linear, and has low thermal
standard fit on many vehicles. As ignition supply, and uses a mass, thereby allowing a quick
a result we become more and remote temperature sensor that response to variation in air
more detached from the outside can be mounted close to the temperature.
environment. road surface. The display is a The chosen technique here
single tri-color light emitting is to make use of the physical
One of the most important
diode (LED) element mounted characteristics of a silicon
considerations would seem to be
within the driver’s compartment, semiconductor junction, in the
the quality of the contact between
and some simple circuitry drives shape of a diode. The voltage
tires and road surface, a factor
it in three modes to indicate the drop across these devices when
that directly affects our style of
variation of external forward biased is related to a
driving. We generally notice if the
temperature. number of factors, but the two
road is wet, muddy or covered in
leaves and take appropriate Above 4C, the LED shows we are interested in (and have
precautions, but we can’t see a steady green, indicating that control over) are current and
black ice. For this we need an the likelihood of ice is low, and temperature.
external temperature sensor, reassures us that the Frost Box
warning us when the likely is operational. As soon as the
conditions for ice on the road are sensor detects the temperature 5(68/7$17 &855(17
developing. dropping below the 4C )/2: P$
A cheap solution is the liquid threshold, the LED turns a
crystal strip attached to the steady red, warning that things

driver’s wing mirror, but despite are deteriorating outside – time )25:$5'
%,$6
looking very pretty (especially if to start driving with black ice in

you have heated mirrors . . .), it mind!

tells us nothing about conditions Finally, when the
temperature falls below freezing

(0C), the LED flashes
92/7$*( $33/,(' $&5266

alternately red and green to
',2'( 92/76
indicate that maximum care
should be taken.

OPTIONS
There are a number of Fig.1. Voltage/current (V/I)

temperature sensing methods characteristics of a forward
available to us – thermistors, biased silicon diode.
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Fig.2. Complete circuit diagram for the Vehicle Frost Box.
COOL GRAPH CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION ground to make both inputs

become equal.
The graph in Fig.1 shows The Frost Box is based
the voltage/current (V/I) around a type 324 integrated In other words, it tries to
characteristics for a silicon make the voltage at the top of
circuit, which contains four
diode and we can see that the opamp blocks. The complete R3 the same as that at the
forward voltage varies in a circuit diagram is illustrated in junction of R1 and R2. If it
distinctly non-linear fashion in Fig.2. achieves this, then the voltage
relation to current – not at the top of R3 is always the
Each opamp block is used same (about 2 5V) and the
desirable for our measuring in a different way to process the
¬
device. current through the diode will

sensor signal. The first, IC1a, always be constant (about
However, if we can keep creates a constant current
2 5mA) even when the voltage
¬
the current through the diode through the sensor diode, D1.
across the diode is varying with
constant, we can make use of IC1b amplifies the diode voltage
temperature. The outcome of all
the other variable that affects variations. IC1c is used as a
this is that the voltage at the
the forward voltage – comparator and IC1d is
output of IC1a is directly related
temperature – and under configured as an oscillator.
to the temperature of the diode
constant current conditions, the To create the constant – a good start!
forward voltage drop across a current, a fixed voltage is
silicon junction falls by 2 5mV ¬
applied to the non-inverting
for every 1C rise. We therefore input of IC1a, this being set at AMPLIFICATION
have a sensor that suits our half supply level by resistors R1 Although we now have a
requirements, especially if we and R2. With the sensor diode voltage related to temperature,
use a small signal diode such as in the feedback loop to the the variations are very small
the 1N4148 – exceedingly inverting input, and with R3 and they need amplifying for us
cheap and very cheerful. connected to ground, the to be able to make any use of
voltage output of the opamp them. The second opamp, IC1b,
moves in the appropriate is configured as a voltage
direction towards supply or amplifier, and to make things
simpler in the later stages, the
inverting mode is used so that

we create a voltage that rises
$ $
with temperature. % %
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The amplification factor is ' '
controlled by the ratio of 9 D
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resistors R7 and R4, and the 9

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values shown give a DC gain of 5 5
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an output that varies by +0 25V/ D N ' N

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To make sure that the ' 5a

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amplified voltage is at a *a
H 6
sensible level (i.e. nicely 7 7
8 8
between the supply rails!), 9 9
preset potentiometer VR1 is : :
used to adjust the voltage at the

non-inverting input. When
setting up the unit this is used to
: :
calibrate the threshold for 0C. 9 9
8 8
Finally, capacitor C1 7 7
reduces the AC gain of the 6 6
5 5
stage at frequencies above 4 4
3 3
about 100Hz to prevent any HF 2 2
(high frequency) problems. 1 1
0 0
At the output of IC1b there / /
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is now a voltage that is of a - -
sensible magnitude, and , ,
+ +
moving in the right direction. It * *
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recognize the three temperature ' '
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$ $

TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT Fig.3. Component layout and track cuts on the
stripboard assembly.
Since the voltage output
from IC1b is directly
proportional to the temperature
of the sensor, it can be
compared to the desired
thresholds at 0C and 4C by
the use of a simple resistive
ladder.
The third opamp, IC1c, is
used to control the red/green
LED (D4) switchover at 4C. It is
wired as a simple voltage
comparator, i.e. when the input
voltage at the non-inverting
input (pin 9) is above the
inverting input (pin 10), the
output is driven high (towards
the +5V supply rail). This
indicates that the temperature is
above 4C.
When the input voltage falls
below that at pin 10, the output
swings low (towards 0V), to
indicate that the temperature is
now below the upper
temperature threshold.
FLASHING CLEVER!
Now for the clever bit!
When the voltage falls further
and reaches freezing point, we
want to enable an oscillator that
will flash the LED at a controlled
rate. This is achieved by the
components around the fourth
op-amp, IC1d. Fundamentally,
the comparator function is
present again here, but used to
much greater effect!
The oscillator function is
created by setting a voltage
threshold at the non-inverting
input (pin 12) which varies when
the output of the opamp
changes state – this is basically
referred to as a Schmitt trigger
action.
The use of feedback related
to the output state (high or low)
controls the threshold at which
the comparator switches. This
configuration sees most use as
an input circuit buffer to “clean-
up” slowly varying signals and
create a sharp switching point.
By linking a C/R (capacitor/
resistor) network to the inverting
input (pin 13) the circuit can be
made to oscillate in a controlled
fashion.
When the output of this
opamp is high, capacitor C2 will
charge up through resistor R11,
but when the output switches
low, it starts to discharge along
the same route.
Since the junction of R11
and C2 is connected to pin 13 of
COMPONENTS
Resistors &25( 29(5$//
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R1, R2 4k7 (2 off) 6&5((1('
R3, R4, R14 1k (3 off) 5('
R5 6k8
R6 12k
%/8(
R7, R11 100k (2 off)
R8 2k
R9 820 ohms
R10 2k2 6&5((1 &87
R12 30k %$&.
R13, R17 10k (2 off) Fig.4. Temperature sensor

R15, R16 470 ohms (2 off)
All resistors 0.25W 5%, or better diode wiring (before
Potentiometer
encapsulation).
VR1 1k miniature preset, 15-turn,
vertical adjustment package.
Capacitors FLASH RATE Above 4C, the output from
C1 10n ceramic, 0.2in spacing opamp IC1c is high (towards
C2 22u electrolytic radial, 16V
The oscillation frequency is
related to the values of R11 and about 5V) and this provides
C3 100n ceramic, 0.2in spacing
C2, and to the voltage at the base current to transistor TR1
Semiconductors via current limiting resistor R13,
D1 to D3 1N4148 signal diodes non-inverting input (controlled
(3 off) mainly by R12). But how do we causing it to switch on.
D4 tricolor LED, 3mm control when the oscillator is Current now flows through
D5 1N4001 rectifier diode switched on? This is where the green element of the LED
TR1, TR2 BC109C npn transistor
diode D2 comes into play. The informing us that the circuit and
IC1 324 quad opamp
IC2 78L05 +5V 100mA regulator temperature-related voltage outside temperature are
from pin 7 of IC1b is fed via this healthy. The voltage drop
Miscellaneous diode to the inverting input pin
Stripboard, 0.1in matrix, 35 holes x across an illuminated LED is
23 strips; 14-pin DIL socket; PCB 13 of the oscillator opamp IC1c. typically about 2V and this is
supporting pillars (4 off); screened While the temperature is used to turn on TR2 and inhibit
cable, stereo, length to suit vehicle; the red element of the LED by
cable ties; self-adhesive cable ties;
above freezing, the voltage
through D2 keeps the output in shunting its current through the
electrical "bullet" connector (see
text); plastic case to suit; terminal a low state by preventing the transistor.
pins, 1mm; connecting wire, vehicle input from falling below the When the temperature falls
grade, for power supply, length to threshold voltage at the non-
suit vehicle; heat-shrink sleeving,
below 4C, the output from IC1c
solder. etc.
inverting input. Basically, it switches low, and TR1 is
stops the capacitor from switched off. The green LED
See also the discharging enough to flip the element is therefore turned off
SHOP TALK Page! output state. As the temperature and, with TR2 now also
falls, there is a point where the disabled, the red LED lights up,
Approx. Cost voltage threshold is reached, signaling that the temperature is
Guidance Only $19 and the inhibition is removed,
allowing the circuit to oscillate
falling.
(Excl. connectors/cables) Opamp IC1d has no effect
away!
the opamp, the voltage on the at this point as its output is held
capacitor will influence what low by the action of D2, but as
state the output is in, and LED CONTROL soon as freezing point is
therefore whether it is charging reached, it bursts into
A tricolor LED is used to
or discharging. Consequently, oscillation!
convey the temperature
current flows backwards and information to the driver. These When the oscillator’s output
forwards through R11 as the devices have separate green is high, it overrides IC1c’s
output switches high and low. In and red junctions, and allow us control of TR1 and forces it to
other words we have an to create all the warning signals turn on the green LED. Then,
oscillator! we require within one discrete when the output goes low the
red LED comes back on, thus
giving us an LED that flashes resistors, capacitors, meter and apply 12V to the
alternately red and green. The semiconductors and terminal circuit.
current through the LED is pins. Use the meter to check that
controlled by resistors R15 and Make sure that the copper IC1 is receiving a 5V supply
R16, and is set quite high tracks are bright and clean across its power pins (11 and 4).
(about 20mA) to give a good before beginning to solder – a Short wire extensions to the
bright output. rub with a piece of emery cloth meter probes are useful to get
or a PCB cleaning stick would into the IC socket holes. The
do the job. Keeping the LED should be glowing red at
POWER SUPPLY soldering iron tip in a similar this time. If things are looking
Power for the circuit is good condition also helps good, remove the power and
taken from the vehicle ignition enormously! The result of a little install IC1 in its socket, not
supply, and series diode D5 care and attention here will be forgetting to take care over
prevents any catastrophes if the quick soldering, tidier joints, not orientation and pins not being
supply is wired the wrong way to mention a more reliable bent underneath!
round! construction.
Since some constant
voltage references are needed
CHILLY FUN!
to keep the temperature
CHECK IT! Now for some fun and
measurements accurate, a 5V When you have completed games with the circuit! Get
voltage regulator (IC2) is used the assembly of your board, a some ice out of the fridge or
to provide stability and isolate few careful minutes should be freezer and put it in a small
the circuit from variations in the spent rechecking the board beaker with some tap water.
vehicle supply. To prevent the layout: the component positions, After a few minutes, this should
switching currents from the wire links, all the track breaks settle at 0C and create the
LEDs affecting this stabilized and, most importantly, a close freezing point reference. Use a
voltage, their supply is taken examination of the copper side thermometer to check this if you
before the regulator. for any dry joints, solder wish.
splashes, and “bridges” between
Apply power to the circuit,
tracks.
CONSTRUCTION and dip the sensor diode in the
Time spent here can save water (keeping the sensor away
The component layout hours later on. Once you have from the ice). Use a small
shown in Fig.3 is constructed on confidence in your efforts, the screwdriver or trim tool to adjust
a piece of 0 1 inch stripboard,
¬ board can be temporarily fitted the preset pot (VR1) until the
size 35 holes by 23 strips. in the chosen box using stand- LED is just into the flashing
These dimensions permit a tidy off pillars as necessary. Off- mode, i.e. flashing red/green.
layout and allow room for some board connections to the circuit The pot is a multi-turn device,
mounting holes. Having cut your can also be added, these being so it may take a few turns to
board to the desired size, the the tricolor LED (D4), find the right spot.
track breaks should be made as temperature sensing diode (D1)
If everything’s looking good,
indicated, either by using the on a pair of flying leads, and
remove the sensor diode from
appropriate spot face cutter, or power. This will allow you to
the water, and allow it to warm
a sharp drill bit. make a basic bench test of the
up. The LED should stop
Before commencing circuit and do a rough
flashing and turn to a steady
component assembly, the board calibration.
red, and then to green. Finally,
mounting holes should be drilled Before inserting IC1, a put the sensor back in the water
where shown on the layout couple of final checks are and make sure it goes back
diagram, with adjacent track advisable. Measure the “down” to the flashing state.
breaks to prevent electrical resistance across the power
With the preliminary testing
shorts if metal mounting leads, and also between the
finished it’s time to think about
hardware is used. +5V and 0V lines on the circuit
fitting the Frost Box to the car!
It is recommended that the board to see if there are any
following assembly sequence is shorts that haven’t been
followed: IC socket, wire links, spotted. If all’s well, remove the L.E.D. MOUNTING
Decide where you want to identified, measure the length of to the circuit (taking care to get
mount things in the vehicle. If cable required to get you back the polarity right), and go
everything is going on the to the circuit board, and cut a through the calibration routine
dashboard, the LED can be suitable piece of twin core once again. Only a fine
mounted on the box itself. But, screened cable. The cable adjustment of preset VR1
if a remote mounting solution is screen reduces any pick-up of should be needed.
preferred with the box under the unwanted signals from the
dash, the LED could be ignition system, and adds a bit
mounted in another small box, of physical strength. INSTALLATION
or in an unused vehicle switch Remember that the cable Having sorted out your
location through a hole drilled in route chosen must avoid fan preferred positions on the
its blanking panel. blades, exhaust pipes, battery vehicle, it’s time to start on the
The positioning of the LED acid, etc. permanent installation. Before
should be such that it is readily making any connections to the
visible to the driver, and electrical system, it’s sensible to
although the type specified is a WEATHER-PROOF disconnect the battery. To be
high brightness device, care Since the diode will be really safe, add a 1A fuse in line
should be taken to avoid the exposed to the elements, it’s a with the supply to the unit,
upper dash areas where good idea to provide it with a bit which should ideally be from an
sunlight may cause “wash-out”. of protection. The method ignition-switched circuit.
All wiring should be adopted was to fit the diode Feed the sensor through to
undertaken with care as there inside an electrical “bullet” the chosen mounting position,
are various approaches to connector and surrounded by an securing it along the way with
tricolor LED leg/terminal epoxy resin. The author has tie-wraps if available. The
identification by different found this to be a very reliable circuit works best if the sensor
manufacturers (ask your method. A sample has survived tip is mounted proud of any
component supplier to state for well over five years in a surface using, for example, a
which leg is which if it’s not wheel arch using this approach! self-adhesive tie-wrap base, as
obvious from his catalog). Prepare the cable by cutting seen in the close-up
Sleeving should be added back the external insulation and photograph.
around all wire connections to screen to expose just over a
prevent short circuits, and to centimeter of the two signal
add physical strength. wires. Take the sensor diode
and trim the wires to leave
about 3mm at each end, then
SENSOR connect the signal wires as
Remove the temporary shown in Fig.4.
sensor diode (D1) from the IN USE
Give the assembly a quick
board, and set about spray of conformal coating or The author has found the
constructing the temperature lacquer. While this is drying, Frost Box to be a most useful
sensor. prepare a small amount of addition to his car.
First you must decide where epoxy resin and fill the bullet The sensor assembly is
you’re going to fit it and the connector. Make sure it’s filled very responsive, being able to
general aim is to get close to properly with no air trapped, quickly pick out cold “hollows”
the surface of the road. A good then push the sensor carefully on the road where cooler air
position would be behind the inside. Wipe off any excess collects. The application of the
front number plate or bumper, epoxy and leave to harden in a circuit is by no means limited to
because it is essential that the warm place overnight. vehicles, and could be easily
sensor is mounted in a To finish off, add a piece of adapted to use as a general-
sheltered position to reduce any heat-shrink sleeving to give purpose temperature warning
wind-chill error to a minimum. some extra strain relief, and unit, such as a reminder to turn
Another good spot is the make it look like a professional on a greenhouse heater.
front wall of a wheel arch. When job!
a suitable site has been Finally, wire up the sensor
SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE DEVICES HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED TO ACT AS
CHEMICAL DETECTORS. IAN POOLE REPORTS.
Surface acoustic wave resonant element in oscillators transducers is critical to the

devices are not everyday to give very stable signals or in operation of the device as a
devices for the electronic filters to give high degrees of filter. Their length varies, but
designer. They are normally selectivity. they are connected alternately
seen as being for use in a small The principle is also used in to signal and ground. The signal
number of specialist surface acoustic wave devices. is delayed by an amount
applications, particularly as Here the device consists of a determined by the spacing
filters. polished piezoelectric substrate between the input and output
that acts as a propagation path transducers. The actual
However, it is likely that response of the filter is
they will achieve widespread for the mechanical signals or
vibrations. There is an input determined by the electrode
use in a role as chemical spacing. As the signal arrives at
detectors in the future because, transducer that converts the
incoming signal to a mechanical the output it creates an
in a new development, they are oscillating impulse. The filter
able to provide an extremely vibration and an output
transducer that picks up the will give maximum output when
compact detector. the time for one cycle of the
incoming signals and converts
them back in to electrical signal is the same as the time
WHAT ARE SAW signals. It is worth noting that for the signal to travel from one
the signal has a defined delay of the signal fingers to the next.
DEVICES? across the device and this fact
A surface acoustic wave is applied when the device is
(SAW) device uses a
NEW APPLICATIONS
used as a chemical detector.
piezoelectric material as its Whilst SAW devices have
A basic diagram of a SAW chiefly found uses as filters in
base. Piezoelectric materials
filter is shown in Fig. 1. When a the past, a whole new area of
have the unique and very useful
signal is applied to the input applications is appearing.
property that an electric
transducer it creates a Developments have been
potential applied across the
mechanical vibration that undertaken at the USA’s Sandia
crystal lattice will cause it to
propagates outwards from the National Laboratories that use
deform. The inverse is also
electrodes along the surface of surface acoustic wave principles
true, such that when the
the material. The vibration to enable traces of dangerous
material is stressed or deformed
passing away from the output chemicals to be detected.
then an electric potential
transducer has to be absorbed
appears across it. This These detectors are being
otherwise it would reflect off the
phenomenon is used in a developed to detect a wide
back surface of the material
variety of devices. range of chemicals. This can be
causing an echo, and an
Piezoelectric transducers absorber is used for this. achieved because the devices
are quite common. They can be based on SAWs form an
When the signal extremely sensitive gravimetric
used as the basis of a cheap
propagating towards the output detector that can be coated with
microphone, and many of the
transducer reaches it the a thin film to enable it to collect
old pick-up heads used in vinyl
vibration is converted back into specific types of chemical.
disc record players used this
an electrical form. Again the These devices are surprisingly
principle. Now the technology is
signal that might pass beyond sensitive and have been shown
used for transducers found in
the transducer has to be to be capable of detecting
vibration equipment and for
absorbed otherwise it would traces as low as a few parts per
sensing other forms of
cause an echo off the other million, and in some cases they
movement or vibration. The
surface. are expressed in terms of parts
principle is also used for quartz
crystals that can provide the The design of the per billion.
1HZ WHFKQRORJ\ 8SGDWHV
With the ability of these suit both of the technologies as may still take some more time
devices to detect chemicals with they could have conflicting to perfect, units like these will
such low levels it opens an requirements. undoubtedly be extremely
enormous number of The development team useful in many applications.
possibilities. They are expected addressed this possible problem
to be used in a wide range of from the outset. They were able
applications including to design the surface acoustic
monitoring the state of the wave device so that it would
environment and other health use traditional integrated circuit
aspects. fabrication techniques. Once
Normally transducers for this had been achieved the task
this type of application are became much simpler and
made using a quartz substrate. neither area of the development
However, those in this was compromised. Naturally,
development were fabricated the advantages of being able to
using gallium arsenide as the integrate both electronics and
substrate because this detector onto the same
semiconducting material also substrate are enormous in terms
exhibits the piezoelectric effect. of convenience and overall
performance.
The use of gallium arsenide
means that not only is the One problem did need to be
chemical sensing transducer overcome. To ensure high
integrated onto the substrate, degrees of reliability integrated
but so are the associated circuits are normally sealed and
electronics. This enables the not exposed to the atmosphere.
whole assembly to be contained However, the sensor obviously
on a single piece of gallium needs to be exposed. This was
arsenide little larger than a overcome by using a “lid” that
button and enabling the whole was attached directly onto the
testers to be made very small gallium arsenide surface.
and easy to carry. Several channels were
machined into this to allow the
The transducer itself is
gas to flow over the sensor
made by fabricating the surface
whilst still protecting the
acoustic wave device. A thin
remaining parts of the circuit
selectively absorbing polymer
from contaminants that might
layer is then applied into the
degrade the performance of the
piezoelectric surface. It is found
electronics over time.
that when specific chemicals
are absorbed, the surface
acoustic waves travel more COMPLETE UNIT
slowly across the device. By
analyzing very closely the With the ability to have the
delays on the signals the sensor and electronics on one
chemicals can be detected and chip, the possibilities for having
analyzed. a small yet advanced detector
are enormous. The ultimate aim
One of the chief concerns is to produce a handheld
of the development team was chemical detection system.
that the integration of the
transducer and the electronics This would not only
onto the same chip would incorporate the sensors with
degrade the performance of one their associated electronics, but
or both of the functions. This also a computer to enable much
might occur because the of the advanced processing to
fabrication techniques would not be undertaken. Although this
SURFING THE INTERNET
By Alan Winstanley
HALF A DECADE ON Suddenly, overseas readers users could download them

were able to obtain codes in- straight into their local systems
How time has flown: it’s stantly instead of waiting two or and accurately fabricate the
hard to think that 1995 was the three weeks for a floppy disk to board that way. The problem is
year in which work started on arrive from the UK. You were the wide variety of software
the development of a web site overjoyed! packages used by our contribu-
for EPE Magazine. In the ab- tors. We need “camera ready”
sence of any precedents, I de- The web service proper
launched in September 1996, artwork to input into our own
cided early on that the best graphics software, so it is diffi-
place to find out what potential followed by secure on-line or-
dering of subscriptions and back cult to standardize on, say, ger-
users really wanted would be to ber output or whatever. Another
listen in on Usenet (using my issues. The EPE Chat Zone was
added later on, and this asyn- suggestion is to publish EPE on
DOS-based newsreader). Read- CD ROM. Well we’re nearly
ing the now defunct newsgroup chronous message service has
now been extended to our sister there, with our International ver-
sci.electronics (where, inciden- sion available from
magazine Radio Bygones,
tally, I met Clive Maxfield, who www.epemag.com and any-
which has been given its own
now is the co-editor/co-publisher thing is possible in the future.
“Message Board”
of EPE Online in the USA), it
became apparent that the mi- (www.epemag.wimborne.co.u At this stage we can also
crocontroller was here to stay k/radiobygones/wwwboard). say that a complete overhaul
and that it would probably form and redesign of the EPE web
the basis of all but the very sim- site is very much on the cards
EFFECTIVE (this is the site for the hard-copy
plest logic circuits in the future.
SUGGESTIONS edition of EPE at
You said that hobbyists and www.epemag.wimborne.co.u
constructors wanted the source Occasionally I receive read-
ers’ suggestions for future de- k, not our site for EPE Online at
codes for microcontrollers to be www.epemag.com, Ed) but
given away for free. After all, velopments. Some ideas come
under the heading of “Nice but when all our resources are fo-
you argued, without the source cussed at getting the printed
code we may as well not publish not really feasible”, such as
posting older magazine indexes magazine out on time every
a circuit diagram or the PCB foil month – writing this column at
either: simply solder the chip onto the web, or trying to pub-
lish old magazine articles: the midnight to meet tomorrow’s
into place along with the other deadline is more important than
parts and away you go. Hardly difficulties here are that some
parts become obsolete, or the posting the 1999 Index! – we
likely to be very satisfying for hope you can be patient. One
the average electronics con- design becomes so long in the
tooth that it is increasingly less thing’s for sure, the Year 2000
structor though, especially if will be an exciting one at EPE
they want to learn from the ex- rewarding to build that circuit,
and trying to support readers and EPE Online. Tell us what
perience or wish to tweak the
who may be struggling with an- you would like to see.
source code for their own appli-
cations. cient designs becomes very
challenging indeed for the Edi- PET HATES
At a very early stage we de-
torial team. There may be
cided to provide the source According to a Webpedia
scope for publishing basic
codes for transfer by anony- poll (www.webpedia.com)
“starter” projects from old issues
mous FTP. No matter where published for the benefit of web
though.
readers lived, provided that they designers, the average web site
had Internet access they could I concurred with one
visitor may be sufficiently irri-
obtain nearly all our source reader’s suggestion in that it
tated by the following factors to
codes for our PIC and Atmel would be nice to publish the
cause them to give up and go
project files, completely free. project PCB CAD files so that
look elsewhere. The users’
1HW :RUN
biggest complaint, said the poll, THE END IS NIGH any events, including PIMs,
related to long loading times, email, or accounting software.
caused mainly by bloated and In the early days of the Net Also keep a wary eye for the
superfluous graphics. Using im- Work column, I wrote about this February 29 Leap Year rollover
ages to display words without strange thing called “Y2K”. At as well. I wonder what H.G.
also offering an alternative text- that time all talk about the Year Wells would have made of Y2K
only navigation aid is bad form. 2000 Bug was strictly the do- when he wrote The War of the
main of the professional, man- Worlds 101 years ago, when a
Next came the much-hated
agerial and technical sectors, bug of a different sort actually
“File Not Found” (404) error
certainly not of the UK public, a saved the Earth from near
messages, a sort of cyber-slap
minority of whom were too busy oblivion.
in the face for navigating
trying to surf the net at
around the site only to eventu- To all Net Work readers ev-
14.4Kbps on a dodgy connec-
ally hit a brick wall. The third erywhere – compliments of the
tion. An increasing amount of
most common cause for com- season and I wish you a Happy
public uncertainty about Y2K
plaint was the way in which New Year.
caused people to fret about sim-
some links, banner adverts etc.
ple electrical appliances failing
entice users to click on them but
and airplanes falling out of the
actually misled users. Badly de-
sky at midnight, December 31st
scribed links of this nature came
1999.
in for some criticism.
If you have a 486-based PC
Moving down the scale of
or earlier, there is every chance
annoyances, respondents high-
that it may be affected by the
lighted complicated-looking
Year 2000 date and leap year
navigation aids followed by
rollover bug. You can apply a
unappealing-looking pages as
simple patch that will fool the
culprits. Last of all, long pages
computer’s clock into thinking
that need scrolling to view their
that 2000 has arrived, and this
content, came in as a feature
is available free for personal
which was least likely to force
use from EPE Online at
users to go elsewhere.
www.epemag.com. Enter the
At the end of the day, peo- main Library, then click on the
ple look at web sites for infor- “Code Files” link to find the
mation. My sister-in-law year2000.zip file.
checked the web site for a par-
Our Y2K patch is kindly pro-
ticular product, but couldn’t see
vided by Tom Becker (no rela-
the local distributors listed any-
tion to our Tech Ed!) of RighT-
where and therefore considered
ime Inc. in Miami, USA
her search a total waste of time.
A site’s visual appeal came very (www.RighTime.com). The
near the bottom of the list of pet program year2000.com is a
hates and there is now a trend small resident program for
toward the use of simple, solid DOS, OS/2 and Windows that
color (which loads fast in stan- fixes the year 1999 to 2000 date
dard HTML) instead of bloated change flaw of the CMOS RTC
graphical images. (Real Time Clock) in AT-class
PCs and PS/2s, 286 through
Apart from that, the Webpe- Pentium and its clones. I use it
dia survey would seem to con- on an old 486, and it’s free for
firm the future trend for fast, personal, non-business use (a
blippy web pages which I guess licensed business version is
reflects the likely nanosecond available separately).
attention spans of tomorrow’s
Internet generation. Even if your hardware is
Y2K proof, you should check
any software which timestamps
3$57 7KUHH 3RWHQWLRPHWHUV
6HQVRU 5HVLVWRUV 2KP·V /DZ

E\ -RKQ %HFNHU
What we are doing during this 10-part Through these simple steps we hope to prove
Teach-In 2000 series is to lead you through the to you that using electronic components need
fascinating maze of what electronics is all not be a complex task and that, providing you
about! We are assuming that you know nothing think about each stage of what you are trying
about the subject, and are taking individual to create, you can actually design and build
components and concepts in simple steps and something that works!
showing you, with lots of examples, what you Last month we introduced color codes and
can achieve, and without it taxing your brain resistors. We now look at capacitors and show
too much! you some of the things they can achieve when
used with resistors.
Concluding the Experimental modify your Fig.2.14 board

portion of last month’s article, we layout to that in Fig.3.1. Also
change the value of resistor R1
left you with the suggestion that
you should try getting the :
to 1k . There is slot at the top
oscillator to run at an exact of the preset, which can be
frequency of your choosing. rotated back and forth using a
small screwdriver. Now you’ll
What must have become
find it much easier to change
apparent to you, though, is that
the circuit’s frequency!
resistors and capacitors of fixed
values needed to be used in - With hands on experience
multiples to achieve specific Photo 3.1. A selection of po- of this newly introduced device,
timing values – not a convenient tentiometers: single and dual let’s examine the realm of
matter. But hopefully you found it controls with shaft, plus four variable components in general.
interesting to play around with miniature preset types suited
various combinations. to printed circuit board VARIABLE
Doing so will have helped to mounting.
reinforce your understanding of
RESISTORS
calculating RC relationships with and resistor R1 (Vin). This Irrespective of the material
resistors and capacitors in series component has various names, used to make them,
or parallel. Excellent – but now which we state presently. For conventionally, “ordinary”
we are going to demonstrate a the moment just call it a preset. resistors are regarded as
method of frequency control that belonging to one of two physical
Delving into your bag of
does not require that amount of types: fixed resistors and
components, and referring to
brain power! variable resistors, the latter
Photo 3.1 (see the first small
In Fig.3.1 is a modified more commonly known as
item at the left) choose a preset
breadboard layout to that shown potentiometers. There are also
that has the value 100k printed
last month in Fig.2.14. The sensor resistors, whose value is
on it (or a coded value of 104,
modification is the inclusion of also variable; they will be
which means 10 plus four
component VR1 in the feedback
path between IC1 pin 6 (Vout3)
zeroes = 100000 = 100k ).: discussed later in this Tutorial.
First, let’s examine
Using this preset as VR1,
7($&+,1
mounted.
This type of potentiometer is
intended where frequent
correction of its wiper position is
required, such as when it is used
F 9> as a volume control, for example.
4$
The symbol for this type of
4" Q [ potentiometer has a small arrow
F?<DC
[ Q on the middle line representing its
wiper (Fig.3.2a).
B B B
FB3
The other type is commonly
93!
! # %
F FB!
3?=
B54 known both as a preset
potentiometer (or just preset) and
2<;
3! B" as a trimmer potentiometer. A
4! B$ preset is normally a much smaller
[ Q 4# component than a control
Q [ potentiometer and is usually
F?ED#
mounted on a printed circuit
board. As you have just found, it

has a slot by which it can be
21DD5BI
adjusted using a small
&F screwdriver or similar tool.
Presets are usually intended
Fig.3.1. The oscillator of Fig.2.14 (Part 2) modified to include a to be adjusted to set an exact
preset potentiometer for variable control. resistance or voltage value, which
may seldom need to be adjusted
potentiometers, which are Fig.3.2b). As with a fixed again. The symbol for a preset
resistors with a sliding contact resistor, there are two does not use an arrow on its
that allows us to set an exact connections at either end of the wiper, but a short line shown in
value of resistance at that point resistance material, which is parallel to the track outline
and, by implication, to set not commonly known as the track. (Fig.3.2b).
only precise current flow values, The third (middle) connection is
but also precise voltage levels. made to a conducting slider, CALLING THE POT
This family of components commonly known as the wiper,
makes life so much easier when which is in contact with the track It’s worth noting that the use
fine-tuning a circuit to your and can be slid along it from of the term potentiometer (often
needs – as you’ve just found! one end to the other. abbreviated just to pot) may in
many circumstances actually be
Circuit diagram symbols for The current or voltage
an incorrect use of the term. In
potentiometers are shown in available at the wiper is related
strict definition, the correct term
Fig.3.2. As with resistors, there to the position that it has along
is really as we first named it,
are two standards in common the track. It should be noted,
variable resistor, even though its
use, zig-zags and boxes. Other however, that the basic
actual resistance along the full
differences between the resistance of the component
length of the track does not
symbols will become apparent. itself does not vary, it is only the
change.
As we said in Part 1, EPE and relative resistance between the
EPE Online have standardized wiper and each end terminal Strictly speaking, the term
on zig-zags. that can be varied. potentiometer applies only when
the variable resistor is used as a
Physically, potentiometers
potential divider whose output
POTENTIOMETERS fall into two main types: first,
potential (voltage) at the wiper
there are the control
A basic potentiometer has can be varied, a situation in which
potentiometers, those that have
three connections or terminals all three terminals of the device
a shaft or tab which usually
(as you will see from the have to be used. (You met the
protrudes through the panel of
symbols in Fig.3.2a and concept of a potential divider
the case in which the circuit is
7($&+,1
1 2
Dual rotary types have two minimum track-to-wiper
tracks and wipers mounted in resistance change with their
separate enclosures, secured shaft rotated fully anti-clockwise
3?>DB?< @B5C5D one behind the other, and are (to the “left”). Anti-log types
@?D5>D9?=5D5BC available in two versions. (rarely available from retail
The dual tandem type has a sources) behave in the opposite
single shaft, which controls both direction. Slider pots (not
3 4
wipers at the same time. The illustrated) are not made as
dual concentric type (which is anti-log versions – just turn log
not commonly available) has types round the other way!
3?>DB?< @B5C5D two shafts, one within the other, Some rotary pots and
which allows each wiper to be presets are available as multi-
F1B912<5 B5C9CD?BC
controlled separately. turn varieties; the adjustment
Fig.3.2. Typical potentiome- shaft is geared so that the wiper
Dual slider pots have a
ter and variable resistor rotation is less than the shaft
single tab, which controls both
symbols. wipers simultaneously. rotation. These pots are only
available in single, linear forms.
when resistors in series were An example of a multi-turn
examined in Part 1.) LINEAR AND preset is shown in Photo 3.1,
There are many instances, LOGARITHMIC
though, when the voltage is not PANEL 3.1 – POTENTIOME-
All control
the condition that needs to be potentiometers have a TER TYPES
varied, but rather the choice of track o) Panel mounting, rotary with shaft.
resistance. In this case only the resistance type:
wiper and one other terminal sub types: single, dual tandem, dual con-
linear, logarithmic, or centric, linear, log, anti-log, multi-turn lin-
need to be connected, and the anti-logarithmic, terms
true description of variable ear.
which are commonly
resistor is the one which should abbreviated to lin, log o) Panel mounting, slider with tab.
be used rather than and anti-log. sub types: single, dual tandem, linear, log.
potentiometer. There are
specific symbols that are Linear tracks have
the same change of o) Printed circuit board (PCB) mounting, ro-
commonly used in this situation, tary with shaft.
as shown in Fig.3.2c and resistance per track
length along the whole sub types: single, dual tandem, dual con-
Fig.3.2d. centric, linear, log, anti-log, multi-turn lin-
of the track; in other
Even though only two words, the output at ear.
terminals need to be used, it is their wiper changes
usually desirable to connect the o) PCB mounting, slider with tab.
linearly with linear
third terminal of a variable movements along the sub types: single, dual tandem, linear, log.
resistor to the wiper. This track. With
ensures that a minimum circuit o) PCB mounting, preset rotary with adjust-
logarithmic tracks, the ment slot.
resistance still exists even if the resistance per track
wiper comes away from the sub-types: vertical or horizontal mounting,
length step changes
track in a fault condition. open (skeleton) or enclosed tracks. All
along the track, by a
tracks are single, linear.
Control potentiometers are small amount at one
available as rotary shaft and end, progressing o) PCB mounting, preset slider with screw
slider types, both of which are logarithmically to a adjustment.
manufactured in single and dual larger amount at the sub-types: vertical or horizontal mounting,
configurations. Photo 3.1 shows other; in other words, single turn or multi-turn. All are enclosed
standard single and dual rotary their output varies and all tracks are single, linear.
types (top left and right in the logarithmically with
photo) – see a major linear movements All pots are available in a variety of body and
component supplier’s catalog along the track. shaft or tab sizes. Anti-log and dual concen-
for illustrations of the other tric types are only available through special-
Logarithmic rotary ist suppliers.
types. types have the
7($&+,1
approxima As we mentioned earlier, the
tely 270 . arrow pointing to its central
This is the position represents the wiper.
typical To the right of the symbol are
angle two resistors in series. These
through represent the equivalent
which an resistances between the wiper
average and the two outer terminals.
pot’s track The twin-resistors are
is repeated below each pot arc
effective. and there you will see that the
Note that resistance values for each
there are section of the pot are
slight numerically shown in ohms.
differences Additionally, the voltage at their
of junction (the wiper) is also
Photo 3.2. Linear and logarithmic control maximum given, and is identical to that in
potentiometers illustrated on the interactive angle between the illustrations above them.
computer screen. pots from
As you change the rotation
different
see the small “square” device angle, its numerical value in
manufacturers. Some pots may
(other types exist). degrees is shown top right of
also have a greater physical
the screen.
angle of wiper travel than their
track. Within the graph area, three
POTENTIOMETE R movable lines are shown. The
PROGRAM You will have noticed a lot
white vertical line represents the
of screen activity occurring
We have set up a software position of the wiper, with a
when you pressed the <+> and
program that illustrates the simple Min, Mid and Max
<–> keys. The first point of
difference in response between notation along the bottom edge
interest is that the voltage
linear and logarithmic of the boxed outline.
shown at the line connecting
potentiometers. From the main vertically to the wipers changes The green and yellow
menu in the Teach-In 2000 according to the rotation angle. horizontal lines represent the
software (which is available for It is also relative to the voltage percentage rotation of the
free download from the EPE between the left and right hand wipers, lin and log respectively.
Online Library at ends of the track, which at The position where these lines
www.epemag.com) select present is shown as 10V. cross the movable vertical line
option Potentiometers. See and the graph line of the same
You also will have seen that
Photo 3.2. color is the relative co-ordinate
the wiper voltages of the two
At the top left of the screen for the wiper.
pots are significantly different
are two nearly-circular yellow for most positions around the The graph illustration is
arcs. These represent the track. The progressions are, of really only for interest and has
resistive tracks of a rotary course, linear and logarithmic little practical application. It’s
potentiometer. The wiper of respectively. The two graphs at the voltage and resistance
each pot is represented by the the right of the screen illustrate numerical values that are of
white line angled from the how the wiper voltages change greatest significance.
centre of the arc to its left-hand with their positions along the
end. This line’s angle can be tracks.
changed by using the <+> (plus)
PROGRAM
and <–> (minus) keys for angle VARIABLES
steps of 1, or <*> (multiply) and EQUIVALENT
The potentiometers are
</> (divide) for steps of 10. Try
them.
RESISTANCES each of the same value, 100k :
Looking to the right of the as shown. This can be changed
The angle between the start pot arcs, the symbol for a by using the up or down arrow
and end of each pot’s track is control potentiometer is shown. keys to highlight VR1 on the
7($&+,1
right-hand side. PANEL 3.2 – TRACK TYPES
Potentiometers are normally
o) Carbon film. General purpose.
only available in values of three
steps per decade: 1, 2 2 and 4 7.
¬ ¬
o) Cermet (ceramic-metal). Precision (cermet tracks have a less
Some manufacturers use steps coarse nature than carbon, resulting in a smoother change of re-
sistance when rotated).
of 1, 2 5 (or even 2) and 5.
¬
Normally, it doesn’t matter o) Conductive plastic. Precision – smoother wiping.

which group you use – 2 2 can ¬ o) Wire-wound. Higher wattage rating.
be used in place of 2 5, and 4 7
¬ ¬
o) Wire-wound, very heavy duty, lengthwise with slider, as some-
can be used in place of 5 (and times used for stage lighting control and often known as a rheo-
vice versa). stat – not really an electronics component.
Potentiometer VR1 values
Not all track types are available in all physical forms – see major
can be changed using the
supplier’s catalogs.
arithmetic keys (with the same
steps as for the angle). The Apart from the mechanical and physical specifications listed
:
range is from 100 to 10M : above and in Panel 3.1, the other principal parameters for a poten-
(2M2 is generally the maximum tiometer are the same as for fixed resistors:
value available to buy). o) Value of the resistance track, which may be expressed in ohms
The voltage across the pots : : :
( ), thousands of ohms (kilohms, k , or K ) or millions of
can also be changed when :
ohms (megohms or M ). Standard values are 1, 2 2 (or 2 or 2 5),
¬ ¬
VOLTS at the screen right is and 4 7 (or 5) in decade multiples of 100, 1000 (1k), 10000 (10k),
¬
highlighted. Use the up/down 100000 (100k) and 1000000 (1M up to 2M2).
keys to access it, and the
o) Power rating in watts (W).
arithmetic keys to change it. As
with our other software menu o) Resistance tolerance, expressed as a percentage of its set value.
options, the voltage steps are in o) Temperature coefficient, expressed as the amount by which the
1V, from 1V to 10V. set value will change with temperature, variously expressed as
There are no self-test parts per million (ppm) or percentage change per degree Celsius
exercises for this display, which (%/ C).
is purely for informative As we implied earlier, most pots are incapable of being rotated
demonstration.
through a full circle. About 270 is an average maximum wiper rota-
tion around the track, at which point the track ends and there is usu-
NOTATIONS ally a tab to prevent further shaftrotation.
However, at a price, pots with a track rotation angle approaching

In circuit diagrams and
constructional charts, a 360 can be found from specialist suppliers, those dealing with
potentiometer’s numerical robotics and other automation supplies, for example.
identity may be prefixed by “VR” Shaft rotation angles may sometimes be greater than track an-
(Variable Resistor), e.g. VR1 as
we used earlier, and in the

gles, and some shafts may rotate through 360 even though the track
does not. Good catalogs normally quote rotation factors.
computer display, or “RV”
(Resistor Variable) or “P” drawing errors, of course). There is a wide variety of
(Potentiometer) or even “PR” general and specific information
Potentiometer identities are
(Preset Resistor). on potentiometers in Panels 1 to
usually printed on them in text
Logarithmic pots are and numbers, although some 3, and it would be a good idea
normally notated as such on presets may be color-coded in to read through these now.
circuit diagrams. Linear pots are resistor fashion. As you may
not always notated accordingly; have discovered, presets may
if the pot is shown without a lin
SENSOR RESISTORS
also have a coded value of the
or log notation, it is a linear type form 104, where 4 states the We shall now tell you a bit
unless an associated number of zeroes following the about some other groups of
components list states 10; in this instance the preset’s components that come into the
otherwise (barring circuit value is 100000 ohms (100k ). : resistor category – sensor
7($&+,1
PANEL 3.3 – SHAFTED! Let’s examine the three

sensor types in turn (and put
Rotary control potentiometers are generally supplied with a shaft one of them to use in the
that is considerably longer than usually required. The shafts may be Experimental portion of this
metal or plastic and require cutting to length, an action that can be article – an LDR).
hazardous to the pot’s track if not done carefully.
Don’t hold the body of the pot in a vice and then cut the shaft
with a hacksaw – the sawing action and consequent movement of the LIGHT DEPENDENT
wiper against the track can damage both. At the very least resulting RESISTORS (LDRs)
in uneven contact of the wiper with its track and consequent poor As the name implies, a light
electrical results when turning the pot. dependent resistor (LDR) is a
Instead, put the shaft in the vice to clamp it, then saw through it, device whose resistance
gently holding the body end to stop it falling when the cut is com- changes in response to the
plete. Carefully file down any burrs on the shaft, to allow a knob to amount of light falling on it. An
slide on easily. LDR’s resistance value in the
presence of strong light is just a
resistors. that might be encountered for few ohms, but in the absence of
Environment-sensitive these components are shown in light the value can be many
resistors known as varistors Fig.3.3. The symbols are similar tens of megohms (millions of
(VDRs), thermistors, and light but have specific identifying ohms).
dependent resistors (LDRs) are features: the dot or notation
A typical resistance/
a special class of resistor whose beside the thermistor signifies
illumination graph is shown in
resistance changes in response its temperature sensing nature;
Fig.3.4. Note how non-linear is
to changes in voltage, the arrows pointing at the LDR
the LDR’s response. The base
temperature, and light, signify light falling on it; the
material from which LDRs are
respectively. Unlike the VDR is without any additional
made is cadmium sulfide or
potentiometer, which is often feature beyond the angled line
lead sulfide.
called a variable resistor, even with a “kink” at the top through
the resistance symbol to The LDR you will be most
though the actual resistance
indicate inherent variability, likely to use is the ORP12 (or
between its ends is fixed, these
although an operational voltage the equivalent NORP12), and is
three component types have a
may sometimes be quoted one of the components we
resistance that literally changes
alongside the symbol. All three recommended that you bought
according to ambient
types of sensor resistor are not for this Teach-In. There are
(surrounding) conditions.
polarized and may be other types available, but less
Circuit diagram symbols connected either way round. commonly. A really nice
example of a miniature type is
the VT935G used in our Musical
Sundial project of June '99.
An important characteristic
specified for LDR types is the
1 2 spectral sensitivity (sensitivity to
different colors of light and
expressed in nanometers – nm)
which indicates how the
resistance varies depending on
the wavelength of light reaching
the device. Types are available
d d d d ^dS `dS
which respond to infrared and
3 >D3 @D3 >D3 @D3 >D3 @D3 ultraviolet wavelengths as well
?<4 CI=2?<C as “visible” light.
Fig.3.3. Typical Sensor resistor symbols: (a) voltage depen- The value of LDRs is
dent (VDR); (b) light dependent (LDR); (c) temperature depen- usually quoted in relation to
dent (thermistor). (Symbols may be circled.) their resistance at a particular
wavelength and intensity. Since
7($&+,1
B
The main characteristic of a corrective elements in
thermistor is that its resistance measurement and control
changes according to its systems. However, since the
temperature – a reduction in advent of sophisticated
resistance with increases in integrated circuits, which have
temperature for an NTC type, linear temperature sensing
and vice versa for a PTC type. characteristics, the use of
It is the NTC type that we thermistors as separate entities
recommended that you bought has become less common in
for this Teach-In. A typical many applications. They still
graph for a PTC type is shown find favor, though, where low
in Fig.3.5; an NTC graph costs or simplicity are
F important. Diodes can also be
41B; <978D smoothly descends with a
similar degree of curvature (as used in some temperature
Fig.3.4. Typical response in Fig.3.4, for example). You sensing applications.
graph for an LDR. will notice that thermistors also Until you know more about
have a non-linear response. electronics generally, it is
LDRs are purely ohmic
(resistive), they can be used in Thermistors are available in probably best if you only use the
both AC and DC circuits. metal, glass, ceramic, and types of thermistor you see
plastic cases. Their body specified for particular
It is worth noting that LDRs shapes include discs, studs, constructional projects.
are fairly slow in their response probes, rods, and beads. Types
to changing light levels, In circuit diagrams and
are available which can sense
consequently circuits which temperatures between –80 C constructional charts, a
thermistor’s numerical identity
require a high speed response,
such as in optical

and 400 C, though the ranges may be prefixed by “R”, or
communications systems, use for which they are specifically perhaps with “TH”. In
photodiodes or phototransistors designed are narrower than component catalogs, they are
(discussed in a future part). these extremes. likely to be listed under
Resistance values for “Sensors”.
In circuit diagrams and
constructional charts, a light thermistors are quoted in
dependent resistor’s numerical relation to that which exists at a VARISTORS (VDRs)
specific ambient temperature,
identity may be prefixed by “R”
or “LDR”. In component
e.g. 10k (ohms) at 25 C. The abbreviation VDR is
often used in place of the term
Tolerance factors are also

catalogs, LDRs may be listed varistor and more accurately
under “Optoelectronics” rather quoted, such as 0.2 C between
than under “Sensors” or
0 C and 70 C, for example.
defines its function as a Voltage
Dependent Resistor. VDR.s are
“Resistors”. Thermistors are likely to be devices that you will seldom
found as circuit protection encounter in normal hobbyist
THERMISTORS elements, and as sensing and projects, but we include mention
: of them so that you know they
The term thermistor could, B
exist!
perhaps, be abbreviated to TDR
(Temperature Dependent When VDRs have a voltage
Resistor) to more accurately connected across them, their
describe its function, although B
this is not common practice. F
There are two basic types of @D3
thermistor, one of which is @B?D53D54

F4B 45F935
described as having a positive
temperature coefficient (PTC)
and the other as having a F
negative temperature D 3
Fig 3.6. Use of a varistor to
coefficient (NTC). Fig.3.5. Typical response protect a component or cir-
graph for a PTC thermistor. cuit from excess voltage.
7($&+,1
resistance depends on the value

of that voltage. At a low voltage,
the resistance is high, but as the
voltage rises so the resistance
decreases accordingly, but non-
linearly (similar to Fig.3.4).
With this property, VDRs
are often used to protect
components that are sensitive
to excessive voltage. In this
application, they might typically
be preceded by a normal fixed
resistor such that the two
components behave as a
variable potential divider, as
shown in Fig.3.6. If used without
the additional resistor, changes
in voltage level across the VDR
would simply result in a change
in the current flowing through it.
Photo 3.3. Ohm's Law and its relationships as illustrated via
the interactive computer program screen.
VDRs are typically made
from a metal oxide material. its effects. We gave his dates in international agreement, I for
They are available in many Part 1. He proved that there current is what we’re stuck with!
values for specific voltage was a precise relationship As anyone who’s been to (or
ranges. There are other types of between voltage, resistance and is still at) school should know,
voltage suppression current, which can be expressed from a simple formula like this,
components made as silicon- as: two others can be derived:
based semiconducting devices.
Diodes can also be used in Volts = Current x I = V / R and R = V / I
some voltage suppression Resistance
applications. As we shall see, a total of
which is usually abbreviated to: 11 other relationships can be
In circuit diagrams and traced back to the basic formula
constructional charts, a V=IxR
of V = I x R, but for the moment
varistor’s numerical identity may where: do try to memorize at least one
be prefixed “VDR” (Voltage of the first three, because they
Dependent Resistor) or just by V = voltage in volts
are invaluable!
“R” (Resistor). In component I = current in amps
catalogs, varistors may be listed R = resistance in ohms
under “Suppression” CURRENT RECALL
components rather than under Letters V and R in the
formula are obvious, Volts and On your computer go back
“Sensors” or “Resistors”.
Resistance. You will recall from to the Teach-In 2000 software’s
Part 1 that current is measured menu option Resistors in Series
OHM’S LAW in amps (amperes), symbol “A”, and Parallel. Underneath each
but symbol “I” for current in Mr of the three simple circuit
Having now covered the
Ohm’s formula – why on earth? diagrams it shows not only the
basic resistive components that
Well, we are addressing you in total resistance offered by the
you are likely to come across,
English and quite naturally you particular combinations of
we feel we ought to tell you
might expect A for Amps to be resistor values, but it also shows
more about Mr. Ohm and what
used in the formula. In fact, “I” the current that will flow through
he achieved for electronics with
stands for Intensity and derives the total resistance relative to a
his famous Law.
from a similar word in another specified voltage across it.
George Ohm was one of the European language (Italian we Take the case where all
great researchers into the think – would anyone care to three resistors each have a
phenomenon of electricity and clarify this?). Anyway, by
7($&+,1
:
value of 10k , and the voltage Resistors in Series and Parallel two columns show the six
supplied is 10V. The current is and check that your calculations formulae that can be derived
stated to be 500mA, 2mA, and of the currents tally with those from the previous two columns.
3mA in order of the shown on the screen. At present, you should see
combinations. Now turn the questions that Ohm’s Law V = I × R is
For the two resistors in around and ask yourself, for highlighted. This highlight can be
series, which have a total example: moved to any of the other
:
resistance of 20k , the Ohm’s
:
If R = 4k and I = 2mA
formulae using the arrow keys.
Try them and then return to V = I
Law variant applied is:
then what is V? × R.
I=V/R and:
In other words If I = 3·2A and V = 8V then OHM’S LAW
I = 10V / 20k : what is R? TRIANGLE
The answers to both these You can’t help but notice how
However, we cannot questions can be provided via other things change on the screen
establish a proper answer as the program display with as well when you press the
this stands, because the values suitable selection of R and V arrows. Let’s take the upper-most
are expressed in different values (after you’ve done your of the two triangles first. It shows
decade multiples. We need to best to solve them, of course!) a very easy way of visualizing
convert them to the common Ohm’s Law.
standard specified by the Invent some other situations
formula – V in volts, R in ohms, that test your ability to Observe how the letters V, I,
and I in amps. V can stay as it compensate for units not and R are arranged, and how V is
is since it’s already in volts, but expressed in the value form shown on a red background. This
we must convert 20k back to : required. Include values
expressed in V, mV, mV, , :
illustrates the formula V = I x R,
notice that I and R are alongside
: : : P
its base value of 20,000 ohms.
k , M , G , A, mA, A and each other.
This now gives us:
pA (picoamps). Press the down arrow once to
I = 10V / 20000 : = 0¬0005A select I = V / R. See how it is now
I that has the red background,
If we want, we are now free OHM’S LAW and how V is shown over R?
to express the current in PROGRAM Another press of the down arrow
milliamps and microamps by shows the triangle arrangement
multiplying by 1000 and When you’ve tested
for R = V / I, with R now having
1,000,000 respectively: yourself with that last
the red background, and V is
suggestion, and realised that,
0 5mA and 500 A
¬ P simple as the formulae are, they
shown over I.
take a bit of thinking with your The coloring is unimportant,
the latter being the value as calculator, have a look at menu but the position of the three
expressed on the display option Ohm’s Law and letters within the triangle is
screen. Relationships (see Photo 3.3). extremely useful to remember.
For the two resistors in There is a lot of information Press the down arrow again
parallel: offered through this screen’s to make the highlight enter the
I = 10V / 5000 : = 0 002A = options. It will be of enormous Power column, with P = I x R
P
¬
value to you in the future if you selected. The second triangle has
2mA = 2000 A want the computer to provide now come into play. Again the
answers via the 12 formulae order of the letters and the way
and for the three resistors in
shown. they are positioned illustrates the
parallel:
highlighted formula. Press the
:
In the main box, you will
I = 10V / 3333 333 = down arrow for the other two
see the three formulae for
P
¬
power formulae.
0 003A = 3mA = 3000 A
¬ Ohm’s Law itself. The next
column shows three very There are no visual aids for
Set up other resistance similar-looking formulae to do remembering the Relationships
values through the program with power calculation. The next formulae (what a shame!).
7($&+,1
Again return the highlight to electrons are said to flow. They and I = 0 001A, and the
¬
V = I x R, then look at the are concepts perceived by the computer states that, because
simple circuit diagram shown, in original researchers into of this, V = 4 7V.
¬
which a battery is connected to electrical phenomena in earlier

a resistor. centuries who, for reasons best The value of 4 7V is shown
¬
known to themselves, decided in the circuit diagram, and also

Three values are shown, as the answer in the Example
the resistor value in ohms that this was The Way Things
Are! In everyday situations box above the formulae.
(where the capital R is used in
:
place of the symbol), i.e. you’re going to find yourselves Change the values for I and R,
: in, forget the concepts! It makes and observe the results.

4700 , a battery voltage of Experiment by selecting other
life far easier if you just think of
4 7V across the resistor, and the
¬
electricity (or power, or current formulae.
current flowing through this if you wish) as flowing from +ve You can change the way in
closed circuit, 0 001A (note that
¬
to –ve (where –ve is often just which values are shown by
the program drops any leading expressed as 0V or Ground). using <X>, the scaling key. This
zeroes in a number). allows, for example, V to be
Which is all we’re going to
say on that! expressed in volts, millivolts or
microvolts.
SEE HOW IT FLOWS!
All the function keys you
Before discussing the circuit IT’S VALUABLE can use are stated on the
values, let’s show you
Back to the values shown in screen.
something that’s a bit of fun
the circuit diagram. If you look
(but, at the end of the day, of no
at the box at the top left of the
great consequence)! Press
screen, you will see the values IT’S TESTING TIME
<C>.
for I and for R as shown in the AGAIN
A smidgeon of simple circuit. Either of these can be
animation shows a moving You’ve spotted the Self-test
changed from your keyboard.
yellow arrow that illustrates the option haven’t you? OK, select
Since I is highlighted, it’s the
direction in which current is said it!
one immediately available to be
to flow from a battery (or other changed. Again the arithmetic Knowing how good your
DC power source), through a keys are the ones to do it, with memory is, we’ve cleared the
circuit (in this case just a the same step multiples that formulae, put some random
resistor) and back to the battery we’ve used in other program values in the Preset Values box
– from +ve to –ve. Press <C> options. and now ask you to calculate an
again if you wish. answer to the question posed
To select R instead of I,
Now press <E>. This time, where the Examples used to be.
press <R>. The resistance
a red blob flows from the Do as the question requires.
values can now be changed as
battery’s –ve terminal, through before. Pressing the keys for It was too complicated to
the resistor and back into +ve. any of the letters shown (V, I, R, set up a points awarding
This represents the way in P) highlights that letter. When scheme via the computer, so
which electrons are said to flow the letter and value have a hash calculate your answer and then
through a circuit, in the opposite symbol (#) to the left, that value press <A> for the computer’s
direction to current flow. can be changed. If a hash is not answer to be shown. Hopefully,
Electrons are those present, the value is not your answer will tally. If not,
mysterious electrical charges changeable from the keyboard. think about what you may have
that revolve at high speed done wrong. The full formulae
The values available for
around atoms, sometimes are re-displayed each time you
changing vary depending on
breaking loose to provide the press <A>.
which formula is highlighted. At
energy we call electricity. And present it is V = I x R that is To try another question,
that’s almost as far as we go selected. In other words, we press <S> again. Once more
with this subject! want the computer to calculate the question is randomly
However, we must the value for V when I and R selected by the computer.
comment (very briefly) on the have values we have given However, although the formula
directions in which current and them. In this case, R = 4700 : you are being tested on is fixed,
you can cheat a bit if you like,
7($&+,1
TEACH-IN 2000 – EXPERIMENTAL 3

OHM’S LAW AND RESISTANCES
by changing the values shown. what happens. You will soon APPLYING OHM’S
It’s not often that you see this discover what relationship of
option in exams! potentiometer to resistor values LAW
When you’ve had enough, can be appropriate in different Something else to keep you
press <M> to return to the main circumstances. amused (and reinforce your
menu. Now we suggest that you knowledge) is to experiment
move on to this month’s with Ohm’s Law. This will also
PRACTICING POTS introduce you to using your
accompanying Experimental
article. You can also try using two multimeter for measuring
or more pots in series and/or current.
parallel and see what effect the First, check your
NEXT MONTH configuration might have. You multimeter’s manual to see
In Part 4, we shall look may find, for example, that a which sockets you need to use
more closely at frequency and high value of pot is useful for for current measurement. One
it’s different waveforms. We setting a rough voltage or is likely to be different from that
shall also start looking at ways current setting, and then a low used for voltage and resistance
in which your computer can be value of pot used with it can set measurements.
used to monitor frequency and a more finely tuned value. The
presets can be just plugged in Now for a further caution
some of the waveforms. (yes, they will keep cropping up
and out of the board and
connection wires added. from time to time). Whenever
Are you keen to have a go you use a multimeter to
Some suggested measure an unknown current,
at some more experiments? configurations are shown as
Great, but the author’s going to always set it to the highest
circuit diagrams in Fig.3.7. The range (e.g. 10 amps – 10A)
leave you on your own while he equivalent breadboard
goes back (he says) to before connecting it into the
arrangement for Fig.3.7a is the circuit. If a low range were to be
contemplating the answer to the one you used at the beginning if
Universal Theory of Everything selected when in fact a large
this month’s Tutorial, Fig.3.1. current is going to flow through
– as fans of the Hitch Hiker’s The basic circuit diagram, if you
Guide to the Galaxy already the meter, you could seriously
care to draw it out, will be found damage the meter.
know, rumor has it that it’s 42, to be identical to Fig.2.15 in
but it needs checking! Before he Part 2, with the potentiometer(s) This is especially true with
goes, though, here’s what he inserted in the feedback path analog meters (which sooner or
suggests you do: between IC1 pin 6 and resistor later you’ll probably find
Refer back to Part 2 and R1. yourself using). They have a
revisit the circuits and moving pointer that rotates
Also try using not only the across a scale. If too low a
experiments you did there, 74HC14 Schmitt trigger inverter
including the oscillator. This range is set, the pointer could
that you ended up using for last slam hard up against the end-
time, though, (as you did with month’s oscillator, but also the
Fig.3.1) add a potentiometer in stop, possibly causing
original 74HC04. mechanical damage, and
series with the timing resistor
and find out how easy it can be A further suggestion is to perhaps even electrical damage
now to readily provide different gain experience of rotary linear to the rest of the meter.
values of resistance without and logarithmic control Always play it safe with
using calculators and hordes of potentiometers. Use crocodile- meter ranges – select a higher
resistors. clipped leads to make the one than you think you need,
connections. Fig.3.8 shows an then you can work downwards
You were recommended to example of where the control
buy a selection of preset once the connections are made
pot can be connected (note that and you discover what range is
potentiometer values, so the preset has been removed in
choose various values as you best suited to the reading being
this example). taken.
wish, and just generally see
7($&+,1
F5 ?B 93!S @9>&
>2 9> 1 6E<< 39B3E9D D85 E>EC54
C945 ?6 1 @?D5>D9?=5D5B G?E<4 93!Q - '$83 $ ?B '$83!$
25 3?>>53D54 D? D85 G9@5B C55 D5HD
FB"
F5 ?B 93!S @9>& F5 ?B 93!S @9>& F5 ?B 93!S @9>& F5 ?B 93!S @9>&
FB! FB! FB!
FB! FB!
B! B! B! B! B!

! " ! " ! " ! " ! "
BH

3! 3! 3! 3! 3!
F F F F F
1 2 3 4 5
Fig.3.7. Some suggested configurations of pots for use in the breadboard

experiments in Fig.3.1 and Fig.3.8.
B54
calculation, you should make

1=@C sure of your facts!
FB!
F?ED#
One fact you did not check
1
F9>
3?= B
first was the exact voltage that
2<;
! exists across the resistor. The
other fact is that you did not
F?<DC measure the resistor’s precise
F B3
B
!
value.
F
3?=
B54
However, you do not need
2<;
to measure both resistance and
3!
4!
21DD5BI voltage in order to make sense
&F
[ Q of the current reading. You only
need one fact to be established
beyond a shadow of reasonable
F5

21DD5BI
&F
Fig.3.8. Using a control pot Fig.3.9. Measuring current 21DD5BI B!

in place of a preset in the flow through a resistor. B5C9CD1>35
breadboard experiments.
simple circuit. Does it
correspond with the current F ?ED
CURRENT AFFAIRS value you calculate using

Ohm’s Law? It should if the
So, with your meter set to
the highest DC amps range it
resistor is truly a 10k : B"
component and the battery is

has, start making some current truly supplying exactly 6V.
measurements along the
following lines: Chances are, of course, that
Take a 10k resistor, and : neither is true, so your
calculated result will be Fig.3.10. Since a battery has
F
using the breadboard inaccurate. So what have you

arrangement shown in Fig.3.9,
internal resistance, its output
discovered? You have voltage depends on the load
connect it to the power supply discovered that before you take
via your meter. Read off the a reading of one factor and
(R2) it is powering.
current flowing through this relate it to others in a
7($&+,1
doubt, either the voltage, or the of the battery’s voltage. Now
resistance. Knowing one or the you’re getting somewhere!
other, and the current reading Knowing the current reading
shown by your meter, you can you made previously, you can
calculate what the other relate it to the voltage reading B
(unknown) value will be. just taken, and from them both !
Here and now, let’s assume discover the exact resistance of
the resistance value is the simple circuit.
unknown, and establish the true Why not just measure the
voltage value. Disconnect your resistor on the meter’s
meter and set it to a suitable resistance range? Yes, we B B
voltage range. Now you can " #
could, in this particular case.
measure the voltage supplied But suppose that you have a
by the battery, or can you? In complex circuit with all sorts of
fact the answer is … No, not at components, both active and
the moment! passive, and you want to know
the total resistance of that
21DD5BI
BATTERY circuit? &F
RESISTANCE You may not be able to

directly measure the resistance
What you are likely to be itself, either because you simply
unaware of right now is that the cannot get your meter probes Fig.3.11. Breadboard layout
battery itself has an internal into the right place, or because for a slightly tricky exercise!
resistance. Because of this some of the components will
resistance, the voltage actually have different resistance values
available for use from the depending on whether the ANOTHER
battery depends on the power is turned on or off.
resistance across which the
SUGGESTION
It is, of course, not possible
battery is connected. Ask a friend to select two
(or permissible) to connect a
It’s like having two resistors resistors at random (without you
multimeter set on a resistance
in series with a known voltage seeing them), cover their color
range across a circuit that has
across them. The voltage at the codes with opaque sticky tape
power on it. Severe disruption
resistor junction will be less than (black insulating tape, for
could occur to both the meter
that across them both. example). Then you can plug
and the circuit should you do so.
them into the breadboard as a
So too with the battery, it is You certainly won’t get a
series across the power supply
one of the resistors in the chain meaningful resistance value
(battery). Your task is to find out
(the one nearest to the positive reading in this way!
the value of each resistor,
supply – R1 in Fig.3.10) whilst But, won’t the meter’s own without measuring it on the
the circuit itself is the second resistance affect the battery meter’s resistance ranges!
resistor (R2). voltage when placed in the F5
Consequently, if you circuit to take current
measure the voltage on the measurements? A very good 59D85B
battery you will find a higher point! Yes, it will, but the
B!
voltage present when the resistance is so very, very small
B#
battery is not connected to a that it can be ignored in this
circuit than you will if it is instance (unlike when voltages
supplying power to one. at more significantly resistive
B"
junctions are being measured, ?B
Elementary My Dear
when the meter’s resistance can
Watson, once you know the
affect the reading – as we
facts.
discussed last month).
What you need to do now, F
As you can see, we’ve
is to connect the battery to the Fig.3.12. Circuit alternatives
learned quite a lot from that
resistor, and then take a reading for another exercise.
single resistor, haven’t we?
7($&+,1
Knowing Ohm’s Law and same in whichever order you
the rule that applies to the have a series of resistors. Nor
voltage at the junction of two does it matter which way round
resistors in series, you should the LDR’s pins are connected;
have no difficulty in figuring out as with “ordinary” resistors, it is
the answers! (You may a non-polarized device.
disconnect anything in order to
insert the meter for current
:
Make R1 about 10k . The
74HC14 Schmitt Trigger should
measurements, but do not
be used as the inverter for this
change the basic order of the
experiment.
components.)
Photo 3.4. A handful of In a fairly well-lit room,
Now for a slightly trickier ORP12 light-dependent connect power to the oscillator.
problem. Ask your friend to pass
resistors (LDRs) The LEDs should flash at a
you three resistors selected at
fairly high, but still discernable,
random and with their color them. As a hint, it’s the resistors rate. If the rate is too fast,
codes taped over. Place them in series and in parallel rules amend the value of the
(in any order) into your that are needed, plus Ohm’s capacitor.
breadboard as shown in Law.
Fig.3.11, R1 and R2 in series, Now pass your hand slowly,
with R3 in parallel with R2. Now Now, before we move on to very slowly, across the board so
find out all three values, without this month’s final that a shadow begins to cover
cheating or rearranging the enlightenment, how much the LDR. The rate at which the
circuit! (Again you may insert power is being used by R1 and LEDs flash should progressively
the meter wherever you wish, R2, both separately, and in decrease, and then speed up
but don’t use the Ohm’s range.) total? again as the shadow moves
The calculations needed for away.
Next, suppose your meter’s
current and resistance ranges all the above problems can be What you are
have packed up for some done using the relevant sections demonstrating is how the LDR’s
obscure reason. You know the of the computer program, resistance value changes
voltage of the power supply, although the basic concept of depending on the amount of
and you need to know the how you set about finding the light that reaches it. If you
current flowing through two answers is up to you to figure actually cover the LDR with a
unknown resistors in series (R1 out! finger, you might even stop the
and R2 again, but of different oscillator.
values to the last experiment) SPEED OF LIGHT
across the power supply.
Finally (for this time), have MORE LDR TESTS
Indeed, once more let your
a bit of light entertainment while Also, come back to the
friend be the one who selects
you’re pining for next month’s timing circuit in Part 2 in which
those obscured value resistors
Teach-In. we first suggested using a light-
and you place them in the
circuit. We spoke of LDRs (light emitting diode (LED) with an
dependent resistors) in this inverter gate (Fig.2.11). Place
You now have the whole the LDR in series with R1 in that
month’s Tutorial. As we
range of your stock of resistors circuit, and alternately connect
mentioned, one such type is the
available, with their value codes up to the +ve and –ve
ORP12 (and NORP12), see
in full view. Using any value of connections on the battery.
Photo 3.4. Whichever of the two
your choice, connect that Note the rate at which the LED
was supplied to you in your bag
resistor (call it R3) to the turns on or off, as appropriate,
of parts – connect it into the
junction of R1/R2. depending on the amount of
oscillator circuit of Fig.3.1 in
By connecting the other end series with resistor R1, in place light falling on the LDR.
of the resistor to either power of VR1. Point the LDR’s face You could also take the
line of your choice (see upwards from the board. LDR on its own and measure
Fig.3.12), find out the values of the resistance it has under
In fact, it does not matter
the two unknown resistors, and different light levels, from near
which side of R1 you place the
the total current flowing through full darkness (just enough light
LDR, the total resistance is the
7($&+,1
to read your meter) to full Strips of opaque insulating tape circuits? We shall return to look
blazing sunlight. placed on the LDR face will help at some ideas another time.
For any fixed level of light in this. You should be able to Be with you again in a
at a given distance from the get at least four readings. month – till then Millennial
LDR, see if you can plot a graph Do your observations Greetings!
of the resistance according to suggest any possible
the amount of the LDR’s face applications to which you could
that is obscured from the light. put such timing and oscillating
TINA PRO REVIEW
Mike Tooley BA
DesignSoft’s TINA PRO is the latest version of two extremely popular programs; TINA for Win-
dows and TINA Plus for Windows. Founded in 1992, DesignSoft is based in Budapest, Hungary, and
the company’s stated mission is to develop high-tech engineering and educational software includ-
ing electronics, physics, architectural design, multimedia, and 3D-graphics. DesignSoft currently
has distributors in 22 countries including the well-known UK electronics design software house,
Quickroute Systems. DesignSoft describes TINA PRO as a “Complete Electronics Lab for Win-
dows”. Mike Tooley sets out to investigate this claim.
TINA PRO is a powerful yet techniques. With optional the benefit of those readers who
affordable software package for hardware it can be used to test may be unsure of whether or
designing, simulating, and real circuits for comparison with not their hardware will support
analyzing analog, digital and the results obtained from TINA PRO, the basic
mixed (analog/digital) electronic simulation. Teachers and requirements are:
circuits. Results of circuit lecturers will be delighted with
TINA PRO’s training and o) Microsoft Windows 95/98
analysis can be displayed in (or Windows NT 4.0, or
various ways, including displays examination modes that allow
the package to be used as a later).
produced by TINA PRO’s virtual
powerful tool in the classroom o) IBM PC/AT compatible
instruments. A comprehensive
or as a standalone training aid computer with a '486 (or
range of desktop publishing
in the school/college open- later) processor.
tools are available with which
you can easily produce learning center. o) 16 MB RAM.
professional-looking reports and DesignSoft has placed TINA o) 20 MB hard disk space.
publications. Cutting and PRO in the middle of the o) Mouse (or equivalent
pasting TINA PRO’s output into market, between Electronics pointing device).
a Windows application program Workbench EDA (at the
(such as Microsoft Word or professional end of the market)
Microsoft Publisher) is also and Crocodile Clips (at the INSTALLATION
quick and simple. student end of the market). Installation is quite
TINA PRO is available in Despite its simplicity – the straightforward and TINA PRO’s
several different versions, program really is easy to learn CD-ROM installer will auto run
including a trial/demo version and use – TINA PRO is on a system configured for
containing a selection of self- extremely powerful and should autorunning applications from
demonstrating examples (but easily satisfy the requirements CDs placed in the CD-ROM
with save and print disabled), a of the hobbyist and enthusiast drive. Once started, the set-up
single user version (licensed for as well as the professional user program will display a menu
use on a single computer), and wishing to carry out in-depth offering users the choice of:
a network version suitable for circuit analysis.
o) Installing Internet Explorer.
use with Novell Netware
(version 3.12 or later) and o) Installing TINA PRO.
SYSTEM o) Viewing a tutorial covering
Windows NT (version 4.0 or
later). REQUIREMENTS the most important
TINA PRO is a 32-bit features of the program.
It also includes unique tools
for testing students’ knowledge, application that will run well on o) Obtaining information on
monitoring progress, and virtually any modern Windows- upgrading and ordering.
introducing troubleshooting compatible PC. However, for
A full TINA PRO installation
6SHFLDO 5HYLHZ
requires 22,189 KB of space on
a local hard disk drive. With
modern multi-GB hard drives
this should not place too many
demands on your system!
Having selected the option
to install TINA PRO, you are
next offered the choice of either
American (ANSI) or European
symbols. Installation takes just a
few seconds, thereafter you are
presented with a message that
informs you that the “Trial
Installation” is valid for “15
runs”. In common with most
well-behaved applications these
days, TINA PRO provides its
own uninstaller. This program
cleans up the Windows system
files and removes all of the Fig.1. The TINA PRO screen.
TINA PRO files without
removing any user-created data groups. The program also o) Fourier analysis (Fourier
files. provides more than 1,000 spectrum, Fourier series,
manufacturer made and distortion).
For the educational user,
components in Spice sub-circuit o) Noise analysis (including
TINA PRO may be installed on
format. Compared with earlier noise spectrum and signal-
a network (Novell 3.x, Novell
TINA versions, a number of new to-noise ratio).
4.x or Windows NT) and
component models, including o) Tolerance analysis (Monte
configured for multiple user
nonlinear coils, transformers, Carlo and worst-case
access. After running the
relays, Darlington transistors, scenario).
network set-up utility, users will
opto-couplers, voltage
be able to run TINA o) HTML-based component
regulators, fuses, comparators,
simultaneously, just as though help.
and CMOS logic ICs, are
each workstation had a single o) Sub-circuits, which may
provided. Other useful features
user version installed. include both spice macros
include:
Unfortunately, TINA PRO or schematics.
registration is a little o) Analog, digital, and mixed o) Schematic symbol editor
cumbersome. Program branding (analog/digital) mode for creating custom sub-
not only involves a “Registration simulation. circuit components.
Code” but it also requires a “Site o) Powerful editing tools o) Average and RMS value
Code”, and a “Site Key” (schematic, netlist, text, determination for arbitrary
(supplied as part of the equation, and waveform periodic waveforms.
registration process). Doubtless editors)
there are good reasons for this o) Customizable
somewhat complicated process. presentations of Bode TINA PRO SCREEN
plots, Nyquist diagrams, The TINA PRO screen
transient responses, or use format is shown in Fig.1. The
FEATURES of virtual instruments in screen comprises a
TINA PRO provides more order to produce conventional Windows menu
than 10,000 built in conventional instrument bar that provides access to all
components. Component displays. of the main program functions,
selection is based on a simple o) Spice library manager. such as File, Edit, Insert, View,
“Component Bar” with tabs that Analysis, etc. Below this is a
o) Symbolic analysis (results
are used to arrange toolbar that provides access to
appear as closed form
components in manageable some of the most commonly
expressions).
6SHFLDO 5HYLHZ
used editing features, such as symbols immediately above the the * key). Once you have
cut, paste, and zoom. component tabs. selected the position and
When you click on a orientation for the component
The component bar is
particular component in the you can simply press the left
located beneath the toolbar.
toolbar (and release the mouse mouse button to lock the
The component bar provides
button), the cursor changes to symbol in place.
access to the extensive library
of components that is supported show the currently selected The Task bar appears at the
by TINA PRO. Components are component. The component can bottom of the screen and
arranged in groups, named by be moved anywhere within the provides rapid access to the
the tabs on the Component Bar. circuit drawing area of the various tools or test/measuring
Once a particular group has screen. The component can instruments currently in use.
been selected, the available then be rotated (by pressing the Each tool or instrument
components appear as a row of + and – keys) or mirrored (using operates in its own window and
Fig.2. Using TINA PRO to analyze the opera- Fig.3. Using TINA PRO's virtual oscilloscope
tion of a simple astable oscillator based on a to view the output waveforms produced by
555 timer. the astable oscillator in Fig.2.
Fig.4. The first attempt using TINA PRO in- Fig.5. Frequency response of the two stage
volved “building” and testing this simple two- amplifier using TINA PRO's virtual frequency
stage amplifier. Having assembled the com- analyzer (the amplifier's upper cut-off fre-
ponents in the schematic window, TINA quency has been limited to about 100kHz by
PRO's nodal voltage analysis tool is being applying some HF negative feedback).
used to check the bias conditions (note the
test probe at the collector of TR1).
6SHFLDO 5HYLHZ
Fig.6. An alternative to using one of TINA Fig.7. The graphic displays produced by
PRO's virtual instruments is that of using one TINA PRO can be enhanced and customized
of the built-in analysis tools. This shows the by the user. Here some captions, markers
alternative gain and phase versus frequency and a circuit diagram have been added to a
display (without the controls and adjustments basic Bode plot that shows the gain and
that would be present with the signal analyzer phase response of a simple L-C-R series res-
virtual instruments). onant circuit.
Fig.8. TINA PRO is equally at home analyzing Fig.9. TINA PRO has many advanced fea-
digital circuits. Here we are displaying the out- tures, including signal and equation editors.
put of a four-stage shift register using TINA This screen shows how the signal editor can
PRO's logic analyzer virtual instrument. be programmed to produce an amplitude
modulated signal (part of the resulting signal
can be made active by clicking provides you with appears in the virtual oscilloscope window
on the respective Task bar an interactive
button. Finally, TINA PRO mode that will allow you to do you to simplify a complex circuit
provides a single line of help just this! schematic by turning portions of
text at the bottom edge of the Not only can you play with it into a sub-circuit. In addition,
screen. the controls but you can also you can create new TINA PRO
change component values and components from any SPICE
even add or delete components sub-circuit, whether created by
INTERACTIVE MODE yourself, downloaded from the
while the analysis is in progress.
The ultimate test of a circuit Internet, or obtained from a
simulation is to try it in a “real manufacturer or component
life” situation using interactive SUB-CIRCUITS AND supplier’s CD. A typical
controls (such as keypads and example of where you might
MACROS wish to use a sub-circuit is that
switches) whilst watching
displays and other indicators. As with other SPICE of a half-adder, replacing the
Fortunately, TINA PRO programs, TINA PRO allows five discrete gates with just one
6SHFLDO 5HYLHZ
“black box” subsystem. Once subdirectories. If this is all the problem. The contents of
the subsystem has been created beginning to sound a little this panel are dependent on the
(and tested) it can be used over complex, here’s an example: type of the problem.
and over again. Assume that you have a The Interpreter standard
descriptor file TEST_B.EXA that button will launch the built-in
resides in the TEST TINA PRO interpreter. The
TINA IN THE subdirectory, the program can Submit standard button will
CLASSROOM be started with the commands: validate the solution and file it in
TINA has two special the student records.
TINA /EXAM
modes for educational TEST\TEST_B It is important to note that
purposes. In examination mode, TINA PRO will only accept as
the student has to solve a series or correct those solutions that are
of problems (a problem set) formally valid; e.g. in DC
either by traditional pencil-and- TINA /TRAIN problems both the numerical
paper methods or by using the TEST\TEST_B value and the units must be
TINA Interpreter and analysis correct. If the answer is a
The TINA PRO installation
functions. When the student numerical/symbolic expression,
program actually provides you
finds the answer, the program the correct units must also be
with two icons in the TINA
sends it immediately to the given. When using the training
program group that can be used
teacher’s machine, where it is mode, TINA will either confirm
to start the program in training/
promptly displayed by the the answer or tell the student
examination mode. You then
TSuper supervision utility. how the solution is incorrect
only need to click on the
Operation is similar in training (e.g. missing units, syntax
required icon in order to start
mode, except that TINA gives problems, etc.).
the program in either training or
the student feedback about the Doubtless this will be music
examination mode. TINA will
correctness of his or her in the ears for long suffering
then prompt you for the name of
answer. In training mode, the teachers and lecturers who, like
the descriptor file. When the
student may turn to the Advisor me, find that students are all too
program is started, it will
to get help prepared by the often hazy about the units that
request the student’s name. The
teacher. they are working in or are
student can then select a
TINA PRO can be set into problem using the Tasks List on simply too lazy to state the
one of the special educational the Examination/Training Panel. answer in full!
modes by the use of a
The Examination/Training
command line switch, the
general format of which is:
Panel appears automatically SUPPLEMENTARY
when TINA is started in
TINA [MODE SWITCH] examination or training mode. HARDWARE
[FILENAME] The current mode (Training or DesignSoft has developed a
Examination) is displayed at the variety of external hardware
where [mode switch] is top of the panel. Beneath the modules that can be attached to
either /EXAM or /TRAIN, and mode display is the total a PC for use with TINA PRO.
the [filename] is the relative accumulated time display. This This includes:
path and filename (with the starts counting when the student
optional .EXA extension) of the selects the first task. o) TINALab, a data
problem set descriptor file. This acquisition card with
file must have been prepared multimeter, oscilloscope,
using the TTask program, and ADVISOR and signal generator
should give the names of the An Advisor Panel gives functions.
problems in the set, along with access to the hints prepared by o) ExtBox, an experimenter
their train/exam options. This the teacher. Some advice items box that allows users to
path is always relative to the carry a penalty, in which case assemble prototype
TINA home directory; that is, the student will be warned that a circuits as well as making
the descriptor file must reside in penalty applies. The Current measurements on up to 16
the TINA directory (where TINA Task panel allows the student to external modules.
was installed) or one of its prepare and submit a solution to o) FaultGen, an expansion
6SHFLDO 5HYLHZ
card (for use in conjunction VIRTUAL text. Next, I put TINA PRO to
with the experimenter box) work solving some network
that allows faults to be INSTRUMENTS problems that form the basis of
placed in tested circuits. TINA PRO provides you assignments carried out by my
o) DigiCard, an expansion with a Function Generator, HND students. Once again,
card (for use in conjunction Digital Multimeter, Frequency TINA PRO excelled at the task,
with the experimenter box) Analyzer, Logic Analyzer and a delivering not only the response
that facilitates dual-channel Oscilloscope. curves required but also
measurements on digital These instruments provide the formulae required to produce
circuits . same displays and control as the transient response for each
found on real instruments and circuit.
o) Experiment modules, a
series of modules that can will help you make TINA PRO incorporates a
be used to demonstrate measurements in just the same number of features that make it
the operation of basic way as you would in a real a real pleasure to use. These
electronic circuits. The laboratory. include the orthogonal wiring
modules are automatically As an added bonus, if you tool, the multiple undo facility,
recognized and displayed have TINA PRO’s and the automatic component
when they are connected supplementary hardware, the numbering. The various output
to the experiment box. program will allow you to switch displays produced by the
to “Real Measurement” mode. program are excellent, as are
This facility lets you work with the virtual instruments.
IMPROVING THE the same on-screen instruments There are two features that I
OUTPUT and settings when making real would like to see in the next
measurements on a real circuit. version of TINA PRO. The first
Having designed and
analyzed your circuit, you will, is a menu option that will allow
users to open a selection of the
at some point, probably want to HELP! most recently used files (Since
disseminate your results to
others in the form of a paper or The “Quick Start” manual this review was written we have
technical article. TINA PRO will comprises around 70 pages in been advised by Quickroute
help you to do this – at least by A5 spiral bound format. The Systems that this request has
providing you with all of the manual is divided into four been implemented. Users can
graphical content – in the form sections; Welcome, now open a selection of the
of Bode plots, Nyquist Introduction, Installation and most recently used files – Ed)
diagrams, transient responses, Start-Up, and Getting Started. whilst the second is a facility
digital waveforms, etc. You can Of these, the last section is by that will allow me to print the
create, edit and print documents far the largest (comprising 43 virtual instrument displays and
from within TINA PRO or cut pages). On its own, the manual settings (I use this facility
and paste the results into is not particularly extensive. regularly in Electronics
another Windows application However, TINA PRO’s help Workbench to keep a record of
using the Windows clipboard. system provides a wealth of circuit performance as I make
reference information (including changes to circuit parameters,
A particularly useful feature a comprehensive description of component values, etc). That
is that TINA PRO’s graphics the SPICE models). One said, I have very few other
editing facilities allow you to unfortunate omission from the concerns and niggles!
add your own information to the manual is the lack of an index.
results of a circuit analysis. It
makes it easy to add markers, IN CONCLUSION
special annotation, and circuit IN USE
schematics to the results of any TINA PRO is packed with
In use, I found TINA PRO features, simple to use and
circuit analysis. This facility is a extremely intuitive. My first task
real boon for students as it can represents really good value.
was to “build” and test a simple So, if you are thinking of
save hours of graph plotting, two-stage amplifier. This was
drawing and sketching. moving up to a Windows SPICE
accomplished quickly and easily package (or are planning to
and without having to refer to upgrade your current SPICE
either the manual or the help software) you should take a
6SHFLDO 5HYLHZ
serious look at DesignSoft’s PRICES manufacturers’ data. 204.45 UK
latest offering – it can be highly Pounds (including VAT and
recommended! There is a wide range of shipping and handling).
TINA PRO software available,
DesignSoft can be together with various different TINA PRO Industrial Edition
contacted at: site licenses for those that need – the full version with all the
www.designsoftware.com them (prices on request from options. 363.08 UK Pounds
Quickroute Systems). (including VAT and shipping
The TINA website is at:
and handling).
www.tina.com TINA PRO Basic – a cut
down starter version suitable for Further information on the
Note that a demonstration
hobbyists and students various versions is available
version of TINA PRO can be
(particularly helpful for students from Quickroute Systems, also
downloaded from this site. The
who have access to a full see their web site at:
site also features a Students’
version at college etc): 57.58 www.quickroute.co.uk
Forum and a downloadable
“Student Contest” with a chance UK Pounds (including VAT and
to win a free upgrade to the full shipping and handling).
version of TINA. TINA PRO Educational –
In the UK, TINA PRO is includes full Teacher Pack:
available from: Quickroute 204.45 UK Pounds (including
Systems (Dept EPE), Regent VAT and shipping and
House, Heaton Lane, Stockport handling).
SK4 1BS, UK. Tel: +44 (0) 161- TINA PRO Industrial
476-0202, Fax: +44 (0) 161- Classic Edition – similar to the
476-0505. (Please mention this full Industrial Edition but without
review when contacting the SPICE library, a symbol
Quickroute.) designer, or the ability to form
component models from
Robert Penfold looks at the Techniques of Actually Doing it!
This series of articles is comply with the commercial earthed. In the past, a solder
aimed primarily at complete be- safety regulations, and provide tag mounted on one of the
ginners, but this month we a safe means of obtaining mains transformer’s mounting
move on slightly to consider the mains power for a wide range of bolts has been used as the
subject of transformers and circuits. A few projects have earthing point on the case, but it
mains powered projects. No ex- specialized supply requirements is apparently considered safer
cuses are given for pointing out that no battery eliminator can to have a separate mounting
yet again that mains powered meet, but the vast majority of bolt for the earthing point – see
projects, or indeed any projects projects can be powered in this Fig.1.
that involve direct connection to way. Another important point
the mains supply, are unsuit- Unless you know what you about the case is that it should
able for beginners. The mains are doing, it is advisable not to be a type that cannot be opened
supply is potentially lethal use non-regulated eliminators. easily. In other words, a screw-
and has to be treated as such In general these have large driver or other tool should be
by those who deal with it. amounts of mains “hum” on required in order to open the
Until they have gained suffi- their outputs and the actual out- case so that there is no easy
cient experience to tackle mains put potential varies considerably way of gaining access to the
oriented projects, beginners with variations in loading. When dangerous mains wiring. An en-
should settle for building lightly loaded the output can closure that has some form of
battery-powered gadgets. If you easily be more than 50 percent clip-on lid should not be used,
make a mistake with a project higher than the nominal output as this would make it too easy
powered from a PP3 battery it is voltage, which could be suffi- for young hands to open the
unlikely that anything will be cient to damage some circuits. case.
damaged, and you should cer-
tainly be in no real danger. DOWN TO EARTH COVER UP
A similar mistake with a When copying a battery As a second line of defense,
mains powered project would powered project you are largely it is advisable to insulate any
probably cause a lot of expen- free to “do your own thing”, but connections that carry the
sive damage and could be ex- with a project that connects to mains supply. There are match-
tremely dangerous. When deal- the mains supply you must be ing insulators, known as “boots”,
ing with a mains powered more cautious. Everything must available for some components
project you have to proceed be done in a manner that will be (also shown in Fig.1). These
as if your life depended on it, completely safe. make it easy to completely and
because it does! reliably insulate all the connec-
This does not mean that
you have to produce an exact tions to a component. Unfortu-
ADAPTABLE clone of the author’s original, nately, these “boots” are not as
but everything must be done in widely available as they should
Beginners should not over- be, and are not available for all
a way that satisfies some basic
look that very useful invention, components that could be used
rules of safety. For instance,
the battery eliminator (mains to carry the mains supply.
any exposed metalwork must
adapter). The regulated types
be reliably earthed to the However, in most cases it is
mostly have accurate and well-
mains Earth lead. possible to insulate the tags and
smoothed outputs that can be
In practice, this invariably the connections to them using
used to power projects that
means using a case that is large diameter PVC sleeving. In
would be uneconomic to oper-
largely or entirely constructed order to accommodate the tag,
ate from batteries. (Most com-
from metal. With the case the wire, and the connection, an
ponents suppliers carry stocks.)
inside diameter of around 4mm
A unit of this type should earthed, any metal parts
to 6mm is usually required.
mounted on it will also be
3UDFWLFDOO\ 6SHDNLQJ
current safety regulations, there
will be comprehensive insula-
tion between the primary and
secondary windings, and there
will be no significant danger in
touching any wiring in the sec-
ondary circuit of the trans-
former. Even if a fault should
occur in the insulation, with the
case and one supply rail
earthed there should be little
danger anyway.
HAVING TWINS
Modern mains transformers
tend to cause a certain amount
of confusion as they mostly
have “twin” secondary windings,
Fig.1. A solder tag provides an Earthing point on the base of and sometimes have two pri-
the metal case. The IEC inlet is comprehensively insulated by mary windings as well. In the
a matching insulating “boot”. past there were sometimes two
230V or 240V primary windings
TRIP WIRE you can use an IEC connector that had to be connected in par-
that has an integral on/off allel for operation on the UK
It is possible to connect the switch. There is a slight draw- mains supply – see Fig.3a.
mains lead direct to the on/off back in this method in that it
switch and earth tag, and this is On the face of it there is no
means having the on/off switch point in having two 230V or
again a method that has been inconveniently located at the
used extensively in the past. 240V windings since there
rear of the project. would seem to be no 460V or
However, it does have the dis-
advantage of being a bit dan- 480V mains supplies that could
gerous if someone should trip TRANSFORMERS use the alternative method of
over the cable. The person do- series connection. This type of
(Note that these discus- transformer seems to have died
ing the tripping over could injure sions are largely based on
themselves, and the project out, but there could still be
the 230-volt AC supply found some in circulation.
could be left with a damaged
in the UK.) The mains trans-
cable and exposed mains The more common form of
former in a modern project per- twin primary winding has two
wiring.
forms two functions. One is to 115V or 120V windings. These
A better, if somewhat more step-down the 230-volt AC sup-
expensive option, is to use a can be used in series for opera-
ply to one that is more suitable tion on the 230V UK mains sup-
standard IEC connector at the for modern low voltage circuits.
rear of the unit, and to connect ply, or in parallel for use with
The other is to provide isolation some continental or USA sup-
this to the on/off switch and from the mains supply.
earth tag. If anyone should acci- plies that operate at about
The mains supply connects 115V.
dentally kick the cable it should
to the primary winding of the For operation on the UK
simply pull free from the rear of
transformer, and this produces mains, it is essential to connect
the project with no harm done.
a low voltage signal in the sec- these transformers in the man-
The IEC connector takes a stan-
ondary winding, but there is no ner shown in Fig.3b. The alter-
dard mains lead of the type
direct connection between the native methods of series con-
used with PCs and many other
primary and secondary wind- nection (with the two “0” or
electrical and electronic gad-
ings. “115” tags connected together)
gets.
Provided you use a modern will give no significant output
For the ultra-safe approach
transformer that conforms to the from the secondary winding.
effectively a single 24-volt sec- but many constructors run into
ondary. The current rating re- difficulties because they do
mains at 0 5A.
¬ things in the obvious way.
Parallel connection, as in With our example trans-
Fig.4b, gives a 12V output, but former, simply connecting the
the current rating is doubled to two “0V” tags together appears
1A. It has to be pointed out here to give the required 12V-0V-12V
that parallel connection is only output. In reality this gives two
usable with transformers that windings operating in-phase,
are specifically designed for use whereas it is out-of-phase wind-
in this manner. ings that are needed.
This mode of operation re- In other words, the two
quires the two secondary wind- windings should provide power
ings to be very accurately to the supply circuit on alternate
matched, since any imbalance half cycles, but they will actually
could result in one winding forc- supply power on the same half
ing a very large current through cycles. This results in no output
Fig.2. The mains transformer on one set of half cycles, and
the other winding. Do not use
at the bottom has twin sec- this method unless the retailer’s what is really just a simple half-
ondary windings while the one or manufacturer’s literature wave power supply.
at the top has twin primary specifically states that a trans- The circuit may actually
windings as well. former can be used with parallel seem to work after a fashion,
connection. but with what is likely to be a
Things are worse with the great deal of mains “hum” on
use of parallel connection, the output. The output voltage
which will give an excessive pri- POWER POINTS might also be inadequate.
mary current and double the ex- Power supply circuits that
pected secondary voltage. In The correct method of con-
use two rectifiers to provide full-
addition to the likely cost of re- nection for center-tapped opera-
wave rectification require a
placing damaged components, tion is shown in Fig.4c. This is
center-tapped secondary wind-
this could also be very danger- basically just ordinary series op-
ing. The center-tap goes to the
ous. eration, but with the point where
earth rail and is labeled “0V”
the two windings are joined now
while the other two outputs drive
used as the center-tap. Al-
SECONDARY the rectifiers and are labeled
though this method of connec-
something like “12V”. Twin sec-
EDUCATION tion may look nonsensical, it is
ondary windings can be used
quite definitely the right way of
It is probably on the sec- with this type of supply circuit,
doing things.
ondary winding side of things
that mains transformers pro-
duce most problems. The rea-
son that so many of these com-
ponents have twin secondary
windings is that it enables one
transformer to mimic three dif-
ferent types of transformer.
As an example we will con-
sider the three ways in which a
transformer having twin 12V
0 5A secondary windings can be
¬
used. If the two windings are

connected in series, as in Fig.3. (a) Twin 230V primary windings are connected in paral-
Fig.4a, the output voltages are
lel, while twin 115V windings (b) are used in series for
added together to give what is
the UK mains supply.
the other wiring to the power
supply circuit. If possible get
someone else to check the
wiring as well. Never be
tempted to save money by leav-
ing out fuses, and always use a
fuse of the correct type and rat-
ing.
Never work on a project
while it is connected to the
Fig.4. The three possible ways of using the twin secondary mains supply – remove the
windings of the mains transformer: (a) series operation; (b) mains plug. Mains powered
parallel operation; (c) center-tapped operation. projects should be perfectly safe
provided you adhere to the ba-
not acceptable with mains pow- sic safety precautions and do
FINALLY not “cut corners”.
ered projects. The mains wiring
When dealing with battery is usually very simple, but mis-
powered projects many con- takes could cause costly dam-
structors keep the amount of age and could also be very dan-
checking to a minimum. This is gerous.
a bit dubious even with battery
powered circuits but is definitely Always carefully double-
check the mains wiring, and all
writes by E-mail:
by ALAN WINSTANLEY
Whilst flicking through EPE I
Single transistor common emitter amplifiers come noticed the Teach-In No. 7. I
thought my electronics skills
under our surgeon's microscope, along with a follow- could do with some dusting off
up on opamps. and thought there is no better
place to start than at the
beginning. I then immediately
Before we continue with our Previous Teach-In series
discovered the Mini Lab, which I
in-depth look at opamps, first a still continue to be popular as
am thoroughly enjoying building
couple of interesting questions well – our Teach-In '93 series
and doing the experiments – my
from Mike Tinker via email. was prepared for GCSE and
involvement and interest in
Advanced Level electronics
electronics has laid dormant for
students. We developed a
TEACH-IN many years but is once again
modular-built test-bed called
alive and kicking! Please could
AMPLIFIERS the Mini Lab (still available
you help with some questions
from Magenta Electronics –
Hopefully, readers and see their ad. elsewhere in this as follows.
electronics novices everywhere issue). An optional add-on Teach-In No. 7 talks about
are already engrossed in our Micro Lab microprocessor the “10% Rule’’ for potential
latest educational tutorial – demo unit was also produced dividers. I tried an experiment
Teach-In 2000, written by our for more advanced readers, with a 5k6 resistor and LDR
own Technical Editor John and the entire series was re- (light dependent resistor), which
Becker. The series is specially published as Teach-In No. 7, I’m trying to use as a potential
written for beginners and which is still available from the divider with a 5V supply to drive
includes an interactive EPE Online Store – see the a light-emitting diode (yes –
computer program, which runs “Books and CDs” page on the LED).
on virtually any IBM-compatible EPE Online web site at
PC. The Teach-In 2000 The LDR has a resistance
www.epemag.com of 29k (kilohms) in the dark.
software is available free from
the EPE Online Library site at However, there is insufficient
www.epemag.com Reader Mick Tinker current to drive the LED How
can I arrange this so that 10mA
9
9
9
,IN
,L ,IN
5D
N 5D
5D
N ,L
,L
5E
N 287387 5E 5L
5E 5L
N Ω
9 9
9
Fig.1. A simple potential di- Fig.3. The “10% Rule” says
Fig.2. The load resistance RL
vider. The output voltage is that the load should not af-
shunts the resistor Rb and
calculated using the stan- fect a potential divider un-
causes a load current IL to
dard formula VO = Rb/ duly – ideally RL should be at
flow out of the divider.
(Ra+Rb) x supply voltage. least ten times the value
of Rb.
Copyright © 1999 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online, january 2000 - www.epemag.com - 68
&LUFXLW 6XUJHU\
is available to drive the light- by the presence of RL to form a adding an amplifier stage, such
emitting diode without loading :
90 9 resistor so, unless we
¬ as an opamp. A CMOS-input
the divider? Or should I try a now take RL into account, our opamp would act as a suitable
different LDR? potential divider formula (Fig.1.) load for the potential divider,
Can you also help with no longer holds true. The 10% because the opamp’s input
Rule says that it’s OK to add a resistance is incredibly high: so
common emitter amplifiers. How
load to a potential divider this high that you can ignore the
does such a circuit work with
way as long as the current IL current flowing into its input.
regard to any subsequent
flowing out of the divider is no This means it will not load the
amplifier stages? Could you
more than roughly 10 percent of potential divider whatsoever,
clarify what happens to the bias
the input current, see Fig.3. As see Fig.4. The opamp has a
voltages which are set up using
a general rule of thumb, the gain of one (it’s a unity gain
resistors and potential dividers. buffer) and its output can then
load RL should be at least ten
times greater than Rb, or you be used to drive a LED if that’s
The “10% Rule” for potential will affect the potential divider. what you wanted to do.
dividers is depicted in Fig.1 to
Fig.3. If you strap two resistors COMMON EMITTER
across a supply voltage then a
OVERRULED
potential divider is produced, It is very important to AMPLIFIERS
Fig.1. The voltage across each understand that in practice, the Your second point relates to
resistor is proportional to the load resistor RL can represent a “common emitter” amplifiers.
resistance value, so if Ra and much more complex circuit, How can a transistor actually
Rb are one kilohm (1k) in value, including the input impedance amplify a voltage? A single-
then with a 10V rail, 5V would of a subsequent amplifier stage. transistor amplifier is shown in
appear across each resistor. Similarly, resistors Ra and Rb Fig.5, which Mike noted from
Usually, it is the potential could be the output impedance our Teach-In No. 7 book.
divider’s “output” voltage with of a preceding amplifier stage. Resistors R1 and R2 set a
respect to 0V that we are The same rule holds true: voltage at transistor TR1 base
interested in, so we would say provided that the amplifier does (b) of 1 7V and approximately
¬
that this potential divider has an not “load” the potential divider 0 7V is dropped by the base-
¬
output of 5V. by more than 10 percent or so, emitter “diode” (junction),
This is fine provided that no you can apply potential divider meaning that 1 0V appears
¬
“load” current is drawn from the formulae with reasonable across the emitter (e) resistor
output of the potential divider. If impunity. If it does, then the R4.
any current (shown as IL in amplifier’s bias voltages may be
Fig.2) is drawn then the affected, and this could lead to Using Ohm’s Law, a current
equation for calculating the distortion. Some writers aptly of 1mA passes through resistor
output voltage is affected. describe how “stiff” a potential R4, so a voltage of 5 6V
¬
divider is, which refers to its appears across resistor R3 (see

Imagine that we now place
a load resistor RL in the shape ability not to be unduly affected 9
of a 100 ohm resistor on the by an intended load.
output. What happens? Simply, Mike Tinker quotes values
5
it is placed in parallel with Rb, of 5k6 for the resistor and an N
whose value is now “shunted”. It LDR of 29k and clearly there’s a 81,7< *$,1
reduces in resistance, so the problem with the available %8))(5 287387
voltage divider output must start current. With a 5V rail the
to fall. current flowing into the divider 5
/'5
Using the formula for will only be 0 14mA. Under the
¬
calculating the resistance of any 10% Rule, the maximum load

two resistors in parallel: current we can safely draw is 9
even less – a meager 14uA.
RP = (Rb x RL) / (Rb + RL)
Fig.4. An opamp can be
The only solution is to used to act as a “buffer” and
the value of Rb is modified “buffer” the potential divider by avoid loading the LDR at all.
&LUFXLW 6XUJHU\
Fig.5). With a 12V rail, this needs to ensure that there is the opamp. Consider an opamp
leaves 5 4V across the transistor sufficient “headroom” to permit with a gain of 1 million

¬
between collector and emitter the amplified signal to swing operating on a 10V supply.
(the formula P=IV says that TR1 between ever increasing The maximum output voltage
dissipates 5 4mW at this time).
¬
voltage levels. Otherwise the
signal will be clipped, which will

will be 10V, which only
requires a differential input of
Note that the gain of this
stage is:
cause distortion. This is
explained with practical
10uV (ten microvolts). A
differential input larger than this
–Vout / Vgain examples in the Teach-In No. 7 will cause saturation – that is,
book – see the “Books and CDs”
the output cannot go any higher
(the minus indicating that page on the EPE Online web
(10V in this example).
the output signal is inverted, or site at www.epemag.com.
the opposite polarity to the ARW. Amplifiers, filters, and
input). similar signal processing circuits
use the opamp in this way, but
Let us suppose the base MORE ON OPAMPS other circuits such as
voltage rises by 0 5V to 2 2V, so
¬ ¬
comparators and some types of
the voltage across R4 rises too Now we return to the opamp
extravaganza. Recall that last oscillator may use large
and the current through the differential inputs, which switch
collector/emitter increases as month Mohab Refaat asked
how to select an opamp for a the opamp between positive
well. You can soon calculate and negative saturation. Fig. 3
that the voltage across R3 must particular application out of a
large number of candidates. (last month) shows the
rise to 8 4V as a consequence.
¬
relationship between opamp
Also, Tony Soueid wanted to
This amplifier’s output know about the innards of differential input voltage and
voltage falls dramatically for a opamps. output voltage.
small increase in input signal. In Saturation should usually be
We continue now by looking
Fig. 5, a change of 0 5V input
¬ avoided in circuits that must
at opamp specifications: it is
causes a change of –2 8V, so ¬
these parameters that designers operate at high speed as the
the amplifier’s gain is –5 6. It is
¬
of opamp circuitry will strive to opamps take longer to recover
no coincidence that this gain meet, so it helps to know what from saturation than to respond
figure is also the ratio of R3/R4. they are before we look inside to signals within their linear
the opamp itself. operating range.
A coupling capacitor C1 is
used to apply the alternating Maximum Input Voltage:
input signal. A capacitor is good The maximum V1 or V2. Like
at letting AC signals pass, but ELECTRICAL maximum differential input
blocks any DC content, so the RATINGS voltage, this is often specified in
effect of C1 is to allow us to terms of the applied supply
Maximum Differential
“superimpose” the alternating voltage.
Input Voltage: The maximum
signal onto the steady DC bias
voltage at TR1 base. It ensures value of (V2-V1) which can be Maximum and Minimum
that TR1’s base voltage is applied (see Fig.2 in last Power Supply Voltage: (or
separated from any DC bias month’s Circuit Surgery). Supply Voltage Range) The
voltages on the input side of C1. Typically this is equal to the
maximum is typically 15V to
supply voltage or is a largish 18V for dual supplies and 3V
To answer your final query,
an amplifier stage has its own
value such as 40V. In a few to 36V for single supplies, but
cases it may be much lower, some devices have a much

“local” bias voltages, but by
using capacitors to couple less than 1V, for example. You lower maximum voltage (e.g.
stages together, the alternating will need to take note of this if 6V). The minimum voltage is
signal can be shifted along from your application causes large
typically 2V to 3V for opamps
one stage to the next without differential inputs to occur.
with 15V maximum supplies,
interfering with (or being In actual operation, the but this varies quite a bit.
affected by) these bias levels. differential input voltage is often There are a number of low
Of course, the designer very low due to the high gain of voltage opamps that have
&LUFXLW 6XUJHU\
9
does not tend to happen.
5 5
Power Dissipation: The
9 9 &+$1*( 9
N N
product of supply current and
&
Q
supply voltage.
,1387 287387
75 F
Power dissipation will
increase as the power supply
9 E 9 9
voltage is increased and if
H higher output currents are
9
demanded from the opamp.
5 5
,e P$
N N
9 9
:+(1 If an opamp is available in
9B E 9
more than one type of package
9
these may have different power
dissipation ratings. For special
Fig.5. A common-emitter amplifier. A change of low power (micropower)
0 5V on the input produces a change of 2 8V
¬ ¬
opamps, the amount of power
across resistor R3. Its gain = –5 6. ¬ consumed in typical operation is
often quoted. For most opamps
minimum supply voltages down power dissipation. This can even the maximum power dissipation

to 1V or less. These are occur with short over-voltage that can occur without causing
usually designed for low power transients that can cause the damage is quoted.
applications. circuit to latch in a state where We'll press on with more
high supply current flows even “inside information” about
Exceeding maximum supply
after the supply has returned to opamps next month. IMB.
voltages can cause damage to
its normal level. However, great
integrated circuits due to
care is taken with most integrated
excessive current flow and
circuit designs to make sure this
with DAVID BARRINGTON vibration sensors, magnet-
operated reed switches etc. at
special discount prices.
Some Component Suppliers for EPE Online Con-
structional Articles The warning devices used
in the prototype came from
Web: Farnell, order codes as follows:
Antex siren/klaxon 676-843; alarm bell
www.greenweld.co.uk
Web: www.antex.co.uk 107-843; bell enclosure 149-
Maplin (UK) 797; and 12V xenon strobe
CPC Preston (UK)
Web: www.maplin.co.uk beacon 223-712. The miniature
Tel: +44 (0) 1772-654455
Magenta Electronics (UK) reed switch (code Cl37S) and
EPE Online Store and Library operating magnet (code FX71N)
Tel: +44 (0) 1283-565435
Web: www.epemag.com both came from Maplin.
Web:
Electromail (UK) www.magenta2000.co.uk
Tel: +44 (0) 1536-204555 Scratch Blanker
Microchip
ESR (UK) Web: www.microchip.com The only real cause for
Tel: +44 (0) 191-2514363 concern when getting together
Rapid Electronics (UK)
Fax: +44 (0) 191-2522296 parts for the Scratch Blanker is
Tel: +44 (0) 1206-751166
Email: sales@esr.co.uk more than likely to be in finding
Web: www.esr.co.uk RF Solutions (UK)
a source for some of the
Tel: +44 (0) 1273-488880
Farnell (UK) semiconductor devices. Most of
Web: www.rfsolution.co.uk the other components for this
Tel: +44 (0) 113-263-6311
Web: www.farnell.com RS (Radio Spares) (UK) project should be available from
Web: www.rswww.com your usual local supplier or by
Gothic Crellon (UK)
Speak & Co. Ltd. mail order.
Tel: +44 (0) 1743-788878
Tel: +44 (0) 1873-811281 If any readers do
Greenweld (UK)
experience problems in
Fax: +44 (0) 1992-613020
obtaining the MN3004 512-
Email: greenweld@aol.com stage “bucket-brigade” delay
transformer. Also, note that the
type BC184B transistor must be line and its companion MN3101
Versatile Burglar Alarm ordered (base being the center clock generator/driver ICs, the
Looking through the pin) and not one with the suffix author obtained his from Maplin
components list for the Versatile L. (quote codes UM64U and
Burglar Alarm project, a few UM66W respectively).
The DIL type 12V 2-pole Incidentally, in case you are
decisions will need to be made miniature relay was purchased
by readers as to the complexity/ wondering about the connecting
from Maplin, code GU36P. The of the “ground” pins to the
cover they wish to have as this stripboard for this circuit will
will have a considerable effect positive supply line, these two
have to be cut down to size chips are PMOS devices;
on the costing of the project. from a larger piece.
This applies particularly to the mystery solved.
separate listing of the alarm Turning our attention now to The above company also
devices. the alarm devices, readers may supplied the small double-pole
wish to investigate some mains rotary switch, code
Starting with the main “security” component suppliers,
listing. The bridge rectifier used FH57M. The original mains
such as Suma Designs, ASA, or transformer used in the
in the prototype unit is a type general component suppliers
W005 and should be generally prototype came from
like Bull Electrical, Chevet ElectroValue, type BR515 rated
available. Most component Supplies, or J&N Factors, who
suppliers should be able to offer 5VA, but as it is mounted off-
sometimes carry warning board most component
a suitably rated 20VA mains sounders, pressure mats, suppliers should be able to
6KRS 7DON
match its electrical capacitor C2 should be a new packs readers should contact:
characteristics. They will good quality component. The
probably offer a 6VA type. translucent type of LED seems ESR Electronic
The 8-pin low power to be fairly widely stocked and Components – Hardware/Tools
TS555CN timer should be used should not be a serious sourcing and Components Pack.
in this circuit and is widely problem. The TL071 opamp and Magenta Electronics –
stocked (it is not advisable to the two transistors should also Multimeter and components, Kit
use a standard 555). It is also be stock items. 879.
best to stick with the NE5532N The Flashing Snowman is FML Electronics (Tel +44
high quality audio amp IC in this easily built up on our multi- (0) 1677-425840) – Basic
project. Both the 4066 and 4016 project printed circuit board, component sets.
analog switch ICs are popular, which is available from the EPE
well stocked, devices. Online Store, code 7000932. As N. R. Bardwell (Tel +44 (0)
for the polystyrene tile, a trip 114 255-2886) – Digital
The large printed circuit Multimeter special offer.
board is available from the EPE down to your local DIY store
Online Store (code 7000250) at should soon sort this one out.
www.epemag.com PLEASE TAKE NOTE: 8-
Vehicle Frost Box Channel Data Logger,
Flashing Snowman We cannot foresee any Aug/Sept '99
Our “starter project” this component buying problems for An updated software
month has a timely festive constructors of the Vehicle Frost version V1.2 became available
theme and all the components Box project. They all appear to in the EPE Online Library on
th
(tile excluded) needed to make be “off-the-shelf” items. The 29 November 1999.
up our Flashing Snowman only point we would highlight is
should be readily available from the use of heavy-duty auto-wire
components suppliers. They will for the unit's power supply
also be able to offer a suitable leads. This should be obtainable
stabilized mains adapter unit at from any good motoring store.
a reasonable price if the
Snowman is to be left “running” Teach-In 2000
for long periods.
No additional components
Note that the LEDs should are called for in this month's
all be of the same type and installment of the Teach-In 2000
size, and that electrolytic series. For details of special
A ROUNDUP OF THE LATEST EVERYDAY NEWS
FROM THE WORLD OF ELECTRONICS
DIGITAL TV’S PROBLEMATIC FUTURE

Yet again different standards pose a threat to technology’s development.
BARRY FOX REPORTS.
The US government’s plan

to convert from analog to digital
TV by 2006 is now “in disarray
and on the verge of collapsing”,
warns Strategy Analytics
(formerly BIS Mackintosh). The
international research company
previously and correctly pre-
dicted that the Divx limited-play
DVD system would flop. ”Less
than five per cent of households
will be watching DTV by 2005”,
says SA’s David Mercer.
The European and US gov-
ernments want to switch viewers
onto digital viewing so that they
can sell off the liberated analog
frequencies for more TV or mo-
bile radio. But the two Conti-
nents have adopted radically
different approaches. MAGENTA TOOLS UP
With the PIC16F877 well and truly available from Microchip (you
1250-LINE FAILURE may recall that its introduction was much delayed), Magenta Elec-
tronics have produced a kit of components for the EPE PIC Toolkit
Ten years ago the Euro- Mk2 (May/June '99), including a revised version of the PCB.
pean Commission tried to con-
Magenta’s PCB is very similar to that published in EPE Online
vert European viewers from
but, following suggestions from Toolkit’s author John Becker, has
625-line PAL TV to the 1250-
some new features included. Principally, these entail the separation
line high definition MAC system.
of the combined socketing for IC3 into two sockets, one each for the
HD-MAC flopped because view-
two PIC16F87x package sizes.
ers did not want to buy the ex-
pensive new widescreen HD re- Additionally, connection points have been added to each of the
ceivers needed. Learning from pins for both new IC3 sockets, allowing external circuits to be con-
this mistake, Europe has nected directly to Magenta’s board. The option to install separate
adopted digital standards ini- crystal control components for the two IC3 version sizes has also
tially based on 625 lines. been added.
DVB, developed by the Dig- In common with other Magenta produced boards, all component
ital Video Broadcasting Group position notations have been silk-screened onto the upper side of the
in Geneva, lets viewers plug a board. The underside is solder-resist coated.
new set-top box between a ter- For more details, contact Magenta Electronics Ltd., Dept EPE,
restrial antenna and existing TV 135 Hunter Street, Burton-on-Trent, Staffs, DE14 2ST, UK.
set. DVB has the option to
heighten resolution in the future Tel: +44 (0) 1283-565435
Fax: +44 (0) 1283-546932
1(:6
if the public think it is worth buy- the TV set has a memory which He predicts that terrestrial
ing new sets. permanently stores an image of broadcasters in the US will end
DVB uses COFDM, Coded the pulse. The set continually up using their digital capacity
Orthogonal Frequency Division compares the reference and re- for data services.
Multiplex, which spreads the ceived pulses. This reveals the
broadcast signal between sev- echo characteristic, and the set
eral thousand narrow carriers. uses this tell-tale information to SKY
This slows the data rate in each cancel out the delayed TV sig-
stream and lets the receiver re- nal. ELECTRONICS
ject unwanted signal reflections The ITC was stymied be- Colorful and comprehensive
or “ghosts”. Terrestrial DVB can cause chips could not work fast are our first reactions in receipt
work with a set-top aerial or mo- enough to cancel in real time. of the latest catalog from Sky
bile receiver. Seven years on, the US set- Electronics. There are over 140
makers have a better chance of pages of full-color details of an
Any viewer in the UK can
making the system work, and enormous and diversified range
now get a DVB box free if they
making VSB do what COFDM of products. It is a catalog that
subscribe to a pay-TV service.
does naturally. will delight anyone who is into
After one year nearly 0.5 million
ready-made equipment and the
DTTV boxes are in use. The
accessories that maintain it.
Sky digital satellite service also VIEWERS WON’T
uses 625 lines and carries most The main titles of the sec-
of the digital terrestrial channels PAY tions include Audio and Video,
free to around 1.8 million set- US viewers are now baulk- Music and Disco, Car, Commu-
top boxes. ing at the need to spend several nication, CCTV, Electrical,
thousand dollars on a new TV Computer, Test, Power Sup-
set that can decode digital sig- plies, Tools, Connectors, Cable,
GHOST BUSTERS nals and display them in higher Loudspeakers.
The US government’s Fed- resolution. Set-top antennae do Each of these sections is
eral Communications Commis- not work. filled with beautifully pho-
sion and its Advanced Televi- US broadcast chain Sinclair tographed products that really
sion Standards Committee pre- has rallied 400 stations, more show off the product quality and
ferred a high definition digital than a third of all US commer- desirability. Where detailed
system, tailored to the hierarchy cial broadcasters, to ask the specifications are required,
of display standards used by FCC for permission to use these are well-itemized. All
PCs. The FCC also opted for COFDM instead of VSB. Nokia products have code reference
Vestigial Sideband transmis- of Finland has built COFDM re- numbers and the prices are then
sion, a more simple technique ceivers for the US broadcasters’ cross-referenced in an accom-
than COFDM, similar to that tests. panying 16-page list.
used for North America’s 525-
CEMA, the Consumer Elec- Sky tell us that they also
line NTSC analog TV.
tronics Manufacturers Associa- stock a massive range of other
The VSB system carries the tion, argues that poor reception components, including semicon-
TV signal at high data rate in a is the fault of poor sets, not ductors, capacitors, resistors,
single channel, so it is much VSB. CEMA President Gary video parts, remote controls
more susceptible to echoes than Shapiro warns that splitting the etc., all at “what we believe are
a COFDM signal. The echoes standard would have very reasonable prices”.
corrupt the bitstream. “devastating results for the DTV For more details contact
US set-makers are trying to transition”. Sky Electronics, Dept EPE, 40-
improve reception with ghost- 42 Cricklewood Broadway, Lon-
Says David Mercer of Strat-
canceling circuitry, as pioneered don NW2 3ET, UK.
egy Analytics in Boston, MA,
by the UK’s Independent Televi-
“Analog broadcasting is an Tel: +44 (0) 20-8450-0995
sion Commission in 1993.
anachronism, but switching off Fax: +44 (0) 20-8208-1441
Reference pulses, like a NTSC is going to be a far
radar “chirp”, are broadcast greater challenge than most
along with the TV signal, and people realize’’.
1(:6
case, which can result from a

number of causes.
To combat this effect, Pre-
mier Elmech have developed a
specially formulated lubricant
which is said to restore the
treated cassette to its former
glory. The lubricant is non-toxic,
non-flammable and will not af-
fect the rubber drive belts, the
tape, or any adhesive tape
joins.
The lubricant is supplied in
a 10cc dropper bottle, which
dispenses the correct quantity to
treat one cassette hub at a time,
and contains sufficient to treat
upwards of 50 cassettes. A
hand-operated cassette winder
VINTAGE RADIO SALE is included to enable the treat-
ment to be accomplished out-
Recently, a sale of Vintage Radios, the Duncan Neale Collection, side the machine. The cost is
took place at Donnington Priory, Newbury. It thoroughly confirmed 4.50 UK Pounds, including VAT
that vintage radio equipment continues to be much sought after. and postage.
Top price of the day was achieved for a Marconiphone receiver, For more details, contact
which fetched 3000 UK Pounds. This was a fascinating set, seen to Premier Elmech, 65 High Town
the bottom right of the photo, with the cabinet very finely japanned in Road, Luton, LU2 0BW, UK.
oriental style. Two other four-figure prices were tendered for pre- Tel: +44 (0) 1582-611991
broadcasting items, one of them a tuner from 1918. Even vintage
crystal sets were fetching in excess of 200 UK Pounds, one example Fax: +44 (0) 1582-611911
reaching 520 UK Pounds. E-mail: pre-
mier@interdart.co.uk
Duncan Neale had concentrated his collecting on the early
broadcasting years of the 1920s and into the 1930s but he also had a
small group of much later communications receivers. These were FML ELECTRON-
unexpectedly well received!
ICS CATALOGUE
Auctioneers Dreweatt Neate tell us that at the end of an exciting
afternoon, all but two of the 244 lots had sold for a total of over Another catalog received is
45,000 UK Pounds, comfortably in excess of the top estimate. The that of FML Electronics. Com-
innovative live presence of the Internet was felt in that at least 15 prised of five A4 pages of
lots sold to Internet bidders, who were also active underbidders on closely type-set lists of compo-
other items. Clearly a pointer to the future. nents, this cat contains masses
of items for which readers will
For more details, contact Dreweatt Neate, Donnington Priory, be frequently on the look out.
Donnington, Newbury, Berks RG14 2JE, UK. Semiconductors are heavily
Tel: +44 (0) 1635-553553 featured on pages 1 and 2, from
Fax: +44 (0) 1635-553599 discretes through digital and
analogue ICs to PICs.
Web: http://dreweatt-neate.co.uk
The other pages include ca-
enced old or “tired” cassettes –
TAPE DROPS IN they don’t run smoothly, the
pacitors, crystals, connectors,
cases, all sorts of hardware, in-
EASILY sound is distorted, tape spills cluding switches and stripboard.
out, or wraps itself up inside. Page five features a selection of
Premier Elmech remind us These happenings are due to
that we’ve probably all experi- development and “popular as-
tightness within the cassette sortment” packs.
1(:6
Separately enclosed with For more details, contact

the main cat sent to HQ were Pico Technology Ltd., Dept
details of FML’s very wide EPE, 149-151 St Neots Road,
range of kits for EPE Online Hardwick, Cambs CB3 7QJ,
projects, including not only UK.
those for Ingenuity Unlimited Tel: +44 (0) 1954-211716
designs, but also for our current
Fax: +44 (0) 1954-211880
Teach-In 2000 series.
Email: post@picotech.com
For more details contact
FML Electronics, Dept EPE, Web: www.picotech.com
Freepost NEA3627, Bedale, N.
Yorks DL8 2BR, UK. SHERWOOD CAT
Tel: +44 (0) 1677-425840
Sherwood Electronics have
been advertisers with the hard
PICO CAT copy edittion of EPE for many
years and it’s good to receive
Pico Technology’s latest and publicize their latest cata-
catalog has been received, cov- log, that for the year 2000, ap-
ering the period for Sep '99 to propriately sub-titled “The Mil-
March '00. As many of you will lennium Edition”. Containing
know, Pico have become lead- around 100 pages in A5 format,
ers in the field of virtual instru- this catalog of essential elec-
ment technology solutions. tronic components is one which
Their range of PC-based instru- ought to be prominently on your
ments covers oscilloscopes, bookshelves or workbench.
spectrum analyzers, meters,
data acquisition, environment Products include batteries,
monitoring and signal condition- buzzers, capacitors. connectors,
ing. The entire range is exten- semiconductors galore, dis-
sive, and of excellent quality plays, motors, pots, speakers,
and value. Amongst the selec- switches, tools and much, much
tion of accessories shown in more, to just name a few groups
Pico’s cat is a dual parallel port in Sherwood’s range.
for only 15 UK Pounds. If you The cat is cleanly laid-out
are one of the (few) readers with prices well-prominent, and
who cannot get your PC parallel line-drawing illustrations where
port to function with some of our appropriate. It costs 1 UK
published software, this inter- Pound, but there is 1 Pound
face might provide you with a worth of discount vouchers in-
solution. cluded. For more details contact
New products in this catalog Sherwood Electronics, Dept
include a higher-speed thermo- EPE, 7 Williamson Street,
couple to PC converter, and Mansfield, Notts NG19 6TD,
some more signal conditioners. UK.
John Becker addresses some of the general points readers have raised. Have
you anything interesting to say? Email us at editor@epemag.com!
on DC or 200 volts AC. Many of tion, English continues to evolve
WIN A DIGITAL the installations used the desig- and, irrespective of “official” def-
MULTIMETER nations Main, Line and an Earth initions, the perceived meaning
symbol. The new equipment of many words changes
used Line, Neutral and Earth. amongst the general population.
A 3 1/2 digit pocket-sized LCD There was some confusion There are many cases, too,
multimeter, which measures when L, N, E was used instead where words have acquired dif-
AC and DC voltage, DC cur- of M, L, E. I believe that this ferent meanings depending on
rent, and resistance. It can confusion still exists to some the context in which they are
also test diodes and bipolar degree. used.
transistors. Every month we All the electricians I have It’s worth remembering (or
will give a Digital Multimeter to been associated with in industry is it?!) what Alice’s Wonderland
the author of the best Readout over the last 30 years have re- friend Humpty-Dumpty said (in a
ferred to Live or Dead circuits. rather scornful tone), “When I
letter.
Only on official drawings does use a word it means just what I
the label Line appear. Anyone choose it to mean – neither
capable of reading them under- more nor less”!
* LETTER OF THE stands the obvious. It is typical
MONTH * of standards groups to choose
long winded labels that when HIEROGLYPHS
abbreviated, result in an am- Dear EPE,
A-LIVE-A-LIVE-OH! biguous Line. There is “Hold the
line please!”, “Shoot a line”, I’ve downloaded the EPE
Dear EPE, Teach-In 2000 software from
“Cast a line”, “Cloths line”, and
A friend recently drew my at- your website, unzipped and
“Draw a line”. I believe that
tention to the current series you loaded it. It works perfectly on
bomb disposal squads refer to a
are running on Oscillators (since my machine, except that it is
bomb as Live. Sensible people
July '99). Having obtained the completely unreadable. I see
with a lot to lose!
September issue, I sent for the from the note on EPE page 854
previous issues. What interesting Another wonder decision (Nov '99) that FTP software has
reading they make! was to insist that a light bulb or to be set to ASCII transfer.
torch bulb (to mention just a Should this be done for down-
I have been pleasantly sur-
few) should be called a lamp. loading from the website, and if
prised by the exchange of infor-
To most of us, I think, a lamp is so, how is it done? Is FTP soft-
mation with readers in Readout,
a structure or package contain- ware something that is included
and the informative level of Cir-
ing a light source, which could in Outlook Express?
cuit Surgery. be a wick and oil, a carbon rod
I also wish to add to various and an arc, a bulb and battery, Tim Rollin
previous discussions about mains or light bulb and flexible cord. via the Net
electrical power lines. Being long How about fluorescent light
in the tooth, I can say that I was lamp? Really rolls off the
an apprentice on the Southern tongue, doesn’t it! Tim addressed his query to
Electric Board not long after Na- our On-Line Editor Alan. Here’s
Arthur Lawrance a summary of the subsequent
tionalization. I was involved in the
via the Net on-line conversation:
huge task of replacing old equip-
ment with new certified units. At Alan: Hmmmm... are you
the time there were still people It is an interesting fact that, seeing funny characters? Read-
with gas lighting, but many were despite attempts at standardiza- ers have reported this once or
5HDGRXW
twice. Explorer or Navigator will gram after restarting the com- text. You must be right when
handle FTP automatically. If you puter in DOS mode (that took you say there is a fault on the
fetched it as ASCII, the file me back!), but the program was video adapter, but as everything
would arrive broken and still unreadable. else works fine, I’m loath to fid-
wouldn’t run properly. You don’t Alan: Your codepage and dle around with it too much.
need to worry about ASCII/FTP. country code settings are the John: Another reader
Please could you let me have same as the ones I use, so that (anonymous) also made the fol-
more details of what you’re ac- cause is eliminated. lowing comment to Alan (having
tually seeing. Are the graphics been following correspondence
OK but the lettering and wording This is starting to sound like
your video adaptor is failing to on the EPE Chat Line):
weird?
display EGA text correctly. I Anon: Had a similar prob-
Tim: Yes – the graphics don’t think this is a codepage lem with PIC Toolkit, characters
seem to work fine, but the let- problem. I might be wrong, but were all garbled. The cause was
ters are a series of jumbled cap- we think your card is either non- a faulty video card in my PC,
ital letters, numbers and charac- standard or has failed in one every other program worked
ters, of which half only is visi- circuit, the alternative is that fine. Suspect your Teach-In 2K
ble, as if some were partly on there is a problem with font ta- users may have a similar prob-
the line above and some partly bles looked up by QBasic. The lem. A new video card solved
on the line below. The charac- following display fonts are com- my problem.
ters make no sort of sense and monly used by MS-DOS, ensure
seem to be randomly dis- John: I also had a similar
they are installed: problem with one machine a
tributed. The menu screen is not
rectangular – the vertical sides CGA40WOA.FON couple of years ago. The cause
are bowed outwards. I can of the problem turned out to be
WA80WOA.FON
move from one screen to the due to a config.sys/autoexec.bat
DOSAPP.FON
other fine, and back to the problem with the country code
EGA40WOA.FON settings. Amending the code to
menu once I’d worked out that I EGA80WOA.FON
needed to press “M’’! The pro- that on my other machines
gram is fine – I just can’t read it. Try running the program in (country code 437) solved the
My machine uses Windows 95. a Windows 95/98 MS-DOS box problem. This was the comment
again, then force full screen I made to those readers who
Alan: Sounds like you have
mode by hitting ALT+ENTER. phoned me saying they had a
the Teach-In 2000 file OK, it’s
Repeat this again to see if it tog- “hieroglyphics” problem. I am
your PC system which may be
gles back to a Windows box. A interested to note that Alan also
configured for a different coun-
warning message will be dis- thought that Tim’s problem
try or codepage, or video driver
played if it doesn’t like the might be due to a similar situa-
issues. I’m unsure at the mo-
graphics mode. There may be tion, but that this turned out not
ment, but one or two others
an issue on your system when to be the case.
have said the same sort of
thing. running the software in charac- What also intrigues is that
ter mode rather than graphics we have published many pro-
Send me a copy of your
mode in a DOS box. Try experi- grams written in QBasic/Quick-
config.sys and autoexec.bat, I
menting with this, and also with BASIC, many of them mine, but,
need to look at the setup, and
the MS DOS menu settings with the exception of a couple of
ask my team at Hull University.
above your Windows box. hieroglyph queries with Toolkit,
Also, are you running the soft-
Tim: Thanks for all your ef- there have been no reported
ware in a DOS box, or from the
forts. I’ve solved the problem display problems with any of
C:\ prompt (command prompt) –
messily by copying all the files them. However, it’s pertinent to
i.e. a true DOS screen without
to an old Compaq 386, where comment that I have an early
the Windows shell running in the
the program works perfectly. I EasyPC program that I use for
background (not that I’m sure it
loaded the various font files you all my PCB design work which
will make any difference yet)?
mentioned onto the Windows 95 runs cleanly on three of my
Tim: I thought that in Win- machine (which is a Viglen) but computers, but not on two oth-
dows 95, DOS was only an em- it made no difference to the ers, it too producing hiero-
ulation. However, I tried the pro- glyphs. This despite all ma-
5HDGRXW
chines having the same apparent 1) When converting MPASM Neither points 1 nor 2 have
display settings and working per- (*.ASM) files to TASM occurred with the MPASM files
fectly with Basic in all QB and (*.ASM) files, the END in- I’ve converted from time-to-time.
GW forms. Whilst I normally run struction in MPASM never These two problems seem re-
my programs in Basic from DOS, appears as in the TASM lated, however. DOS Error 62 is
I can also run them through Win- conversion. Having looked “Input Past End of File” (ignore
dows without problems. briefly at the QB program I Route 9, that’s for my info only).
noticed a line which ap- If your input file is terminating
We would welcome feedback
pears to convert the string early, then the END statement
from readers on this puzzling hi-
END to .END but have not may not be received by Toolkit,
eroglyph situation, and its defini-
yet discovered why the er- hence the omission on the con-
tive solution! Thanks Alan for dis-
ror is occurring. version file.
cussing matters with Tim and for
the information you’ve brought to 2) The conversion of MPASM Examine the MPASM text
light. to TASM always closes file through DOS EDIT and en-
with the error message sure that END is indented and
“MS-DOS ERROR 62 clear of other statements. Re-
LISTEN WITH TOOLKIT move any strange characters
ROUTE 9’’. However, the
Dear EPE, conversion is always com- that might also be part of your
I am in the process of con- pleted with exception of text file. There is one ASCII
structing PIC Toolkit Mk2 (May/ points 1 and 3. value that can be a problem on
June '99) and recently down- occasion, value 26 decimal (hex
3) Labels in my MPASM $1A) which is the “end of file”
loaded the software (V2.3) from
source code that start with marker. Toolkit does not have
your web site. Up to this time I
the alpha characters an intercept for this code
have been using Microchip’s
LISTxxxx (e.g. LIST, LIS- (though one day I might add
MPASM software package includ-
TEN, LISTVAL) do not one).
ing simulator with an inexpensive
translate to TASM as la-
home constructed programmer LIST is a reserved word
bels. Instead they appear
from a kit provided by a UK elec- used by MPASM to indicate
after a semicolon as in a
tronic supplier. This system has such matters as PIC type and
comment statement. Sub-
worked well and is very fast but radix, etc. Toolkit constantly
sequent statements such
the programmer is limited to looks for this group of four let-
as GOTO LISTxxxx are
PIC16x84 microcontrollers. ters (which as you’ve found
also prefixed with a semi-
The Toolkit Mk2 appears to colon. might precede other letters as
provide a flexible and compre- well) and takes any necessary
Since LIST is a functional
hensive way of expanding pro- action as specified after it in re-
command in QB, usually pre-
jects to incorporate the new lation to MPASM’s protocols.
fixed by other code, I wondered
PIC16F87x family with their sub- Having done that, the line is
whether this is an inherent limi-
stantially greater capabilities, then “commented out” with a
tation of the software, although I
avoiding the need for too much semicolon to avoid confusion to
have tried changing the label in
additional memory (my particular TASM.
the MPASM code to other QB
interest is neural networks for
commands such as RUN or VAL
small mobile robots). It also pro-
to see what happens but they TRUMPET VOLUNTARY
vides, in my case, the opportunity
translate satisfactorily with no
to familiarize myself with the Dear EPE,
problems. I would welcome any
TASM version of PIC assembly In the two years or so since
comments or information you
language. I have been trying out I first subscribed to EPE, I’ve
might have.
the V2.3 software and it generally enjoyed reading the magazine
operates very well and is easy to I am looking forward to
completing this programmer tremendously. It’s certainly the
use. best edited of the four or so
which I am sure will provide
However, I have discovered electronics magazines I read
substantial scope for much
one or two glitches running under regularly, and I find the Teach-
more complex projects.
both QB (*.BAS) and executable Ins very valuable. Keep up the
file (*.EXE): Christopher Knight good work!
via the Net
5HDGRXW
Professor John Hagge opener! It revived my interest in to wait until another year! It is
Iowa State University electronics. basically to do with an intercept
via the Net In your Nov '99 issue you for commas which Basic will not
gave an Editorial on how some import through normal string in-
readers are not embracing the put commands. In itself the in-
Thank you Professor John, tercept is OK but I made an
PIC. Well, this is my testimonial
appreciation is appreciated! oversight in what would happen
and letter of encouragement to
There was a time, though, the readers that learning to PIC when another intercept is ac-
when we were reluctant to blow is not all that hard and it is a tioned for the same command
our trumpet too loudly by publish- very cheap hobby to get started line, that for specifying charac-
ing the complimentary letters re- in. It can and will open so many ters within single quotes. The
ceived. Such self-praise when more doors in the world of elec- end result is that Basic then
seen in other magazines can be- tronics. Keep on PIC’n! tries to return an ASCII value for
come tedious. However, the situ- a null string – which it can’t do.
ation has changed somewhat in Steve Patterson It’s a bit more complicated than
that we have many new readers Lake Orion, USA that, but that’s the gist of it.
joining us from around the world via the Net The problem, now that I see
(principally through our Internet it, will also manifest itself
presence) and we know that they My feelings entirely – al- through the use of constructions
are unlikely to be aware yet of our though my interest in electronics such as MOVLW ’\ ’ and
longstanding good name, ac- has never wavered, I have MOVLW ’;’. For these “quoted’’
quired over 30-odd years of exis- found that the challenge of writ- characters, backslash and semi-
tence. ing control programs, whether in colon, their ASCII values should
At present, we feel that it is in PIC or other languages, has be used, i.e. MOVLW 92 and
our interests to occasionally boast opened up a whole new realm MOVLW 59.
a bit to these new-comers (old- opportunities for me.
comers already know our merits!) TEACH-IN AND PSION
by telling them what others think
of us. (In case you’ve ever won- MS-DOS ERROR 5 Dear EPE,
dered, we never invent letters for Dear EPE, I’ve recently downloaded
Readout – they are all genuine, When using PIC Toolkit your Teach-In 2000 (Nov '99,
although we may well edit them V2.3 and attempting to assem- current series) software and had
for length, grammar or spelling.) ble one of my own .ASM files, I no problems running it on a
kept getting MS-DOS Error 5. modern PC. I’ve tried also run-
Further investigation revealed ning it on an XT emulator but it
KEEP ON PIC’N fails to load. I get the following
that the software would not rec-
Dear EPE, ognize the following command: error “Illegal function call in
The reason I subscribe to MOVLW ’,’. When the line was module TY2KMENU at address
EPE is because it has more PIC changed to MOVLW 44 (44 is 1153:0041”. Can the software
projects than any other magazine the ASCII value of a comma) run on an old XT, or only on a
that I am aware of. I subscribe to the program assembled okay. '286 and above?
at least five other electronics- Keep up the excellent work I currently run your TASM
related magazines and they can- with the magazine. software on the XT emulator on
not touch what you offer regard- a Psion Series 5 (Palmtop) so
ing the PIC. Thank you!!! Stuart Pearson that I can write PIC code and
I took an embedded controller via the Net compile while on the move. I
course for my bachelors degree would also like to run the
at Northern Michigan University Teach-In 2000 application on
There was I thinking that the Psion but this will not work if
(USA) using the PIC. That course V2.3 was bug-free! MS-DOS
changed my whole outlook on the requirements are for a
Error 5 is “Illegal function call”, higher spec machine than an
electronics. This versatile chip
and I can see what causes the IBM XT. I’m aware that the em-
opened a whole new world of pro-
problem, but amending it ulator has its limitations and that
jects and experiments for me and
through a version V2.4 will have you can’t possibly know what it’s
the other students. What an eye
5HDGRXW
doing, but I can only ask… the comments on my “quibbles” Apart from electronics, one
(Readout Aug '99), I resisted the of the things I am interested in
Federica Appolloni temptation to leap back into the is language, especially its ori-
via the Net fray. gins, but also in its use (and
Professional writers, on the misuse, either unwittingly or
other hand, do have a responsi- purposefully). Whilst my col-
And I can only answer… neg-
bility to get things right. So, af- leagues and I try to be correct
atively, I regret. I have run the
ter seeing viri/virii offered once with our grammar and spelling
TY2K software on ’386, ’486 and
again as alternatives (Net Work (puns and other words-play ex-
Pentium based desk-top ma-
Nov '99), here I am again. If I cluded!), as I implied in my
chines, under Win3.1 and Win95,
said “mans” or “oxes” instead of Readout reply to your original
but I do not know how other ma-
“men” or “oxen”, you wouldn’t letter, we do not claim perfec-
chines/systems will cope. I would
say I was choosing an accept- tion in this matter.
expect, though, that Microsoft
(who wrote the QuickBASIC ver- able alternative, you’d say I was However, you read far more
sion 4.50 software which I used to just plain wrong. The same ap- into Alan’s Net Work “misuse” of
write the program and compile it plies to virii. Second declension “virii” than you should. One
to a run-time .EXE stand-alone Latin nouns ending in -us have characteristic of the English is
format) would have made their their plurals in -i, and that is that we are prone to making fun
software compatible with as many that. of our own foibles. Alan has a
machines as were current at the I hope I am not being too keen sense of humor and by
time the software was first re- one-eyed (forgive the pun) using the word in the context of
leased. By-and-large, I have about this. For what it is worth, I what he was saying, he was hu-
found commercial software to be have a theory about it. Perhaps morously (humoriily?) comment-
nearly always upwards compati- “radius”, with its plural “radii’’, ing on his own previous misuse!
ble. Does any reader know an an- accounts for the wide-spread
swer for Federica? misconception that other words
ending in -us take -ii in the plu-
ral. The point, of course, is that
HUMOURii the first -i in “radii’’ is part of the
Dear EPE, stem, and only the second i is
the plural ending.
Correspondents, including
me, can say anything we like. We Peter Kelly
have no responsibility. if we are Woombye, Queensland
wrong, sooner or later someone Australia
will sort us out. So after reading

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9ROXPH  ,VVXH 

VERSATILE BURGLAR ALARM - by Ian March 11

SCRATCH BLANKER - by Robert Penfold 17

INGENUITY UNLIMITED - hosted by Alan Winstanley 28

VEHICLE FROST BOX - by Steve Dellow 31

SERIES AND FEATURES

NET WORK - THE INTERNET PAGE surfed by Alan Winstanley 40

TEACH-IN 2000 - Part 3. Potentiometers, Sensor Resistors, 42

TINA PRO REVIEW - by Mike Tooley BA 57

PRACTICALLY SPEAKING by Robert Penfold 64

CIRCUIT SURGERY - by Alan Winstanley & Ian Bell 68

REGULARS AND SERVICES

READOUT - John Becker addresses general points arising. 78

WE’VE COME A LONG WAY

Copyright © 1999 Wimborne Publishing Ltd and EPE Online,

The Great Logo Adventure More details are

Controlling the Forrest Mims

Bebop to the Bebop BYTES Back

9LVLW WKH (3( 2QOLQH 6WRUH DW

ZZZHSHPDJFRP DQG SODFH \RXU RUGHU WRGD\

Fig.2. Complete circuit diagram for the Flashing Snowman.

R4 until the upper threshold is be no problems with the specified

Alternatively, the circuit

The PhizzyB Computer Simulator

PICtutor by John Becker

Electronic Circuits & Components

Digital Electronics (Mike Tooley)

Analog Electronics (Mike Tooley)

Modular Circuit Design

Visit the EPE Online Store at

All three were fitted in the The positive-going edge is

'225 $1' :,1'2: &

USING THE ALARM FURTHER

Programming Micro- Designus Maximus

(3( 2QOLQH ZHE VLWH

Visit the EPE Online Store at

still be quite strong, but the

not gone away. Noise caused by

and handling this can be

Fig.2. Ideally the blanking pulse would last for

circuits. The ease or difficulty

entirely dependent on the

recording of piano music where

should “stick out like a sore

difficult with a recording of pop

music at high modulation levels

and masses of high frequency

Reliably blanking scratches

on a recording of this latter type

while leaving the main signal

intact might not be possible.

Fortunately, signals that make

scratch detection difficult also

tend to mask the “clicks” and

are most noticeable that a

blanker can most easily detect

and remove them.

The outputs of the two

preamplifiers are fed to a

Differential Amplifier. The main

signal is generally in-phase in

the two stereo channels (to

produce the center of the sound

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