Sampling error

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In statistics, sampling error is incurred when the statistical characteristics of a
population are estimated from a subset, or sample, of that population. Since the
sample does not include all members of the population, statistics on the sample,
such as means and quartiles, generally differ from the characteristics of the
entire population, which are known as parameters. For example, if one measures the
height of a thousand individuals from a country of one million, the average height
of the thousand is typically not the same as the average height of all one million
people in the country. Since sampling is typically done to determine the
characteristics of a whole population, the difference between the sample and
population values is considered an error.[1] Exact measurement of sampling error is
generally not feasible since the true population values are unknown.

Contents
1 Description
1.1 Random sampling
1.2 Bias problems
1.3 Non-sampling error
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Description
Random sampling
Main article: Random sampling
In statistics, sampling error is the error caused by observing a sample instead of
the whole population.[1] The sampling error is the difference between a sample
statistic used to estimate a population parameter and the actual but unknown value
of the parameter.[2] An estimate of a quantity of interest, such as an average or
percentage, will generally be subject to sample-to-sample variation.[1] These
variations in the possible sample values of a statistic can theoretically be
expressed as sampling errors, although in practice the exact sampling error is
typically unknown. Sampling error also refers more broadly to this phenomenon of
random sampling variation.

Random sampling, and its derived terms such as sampling error, simply specific
procedures for gathering and analyzing data that are rigorously applied as a method
for arriving at results considered representative of a given population as a whole.
Despite a common misunderstanding, "random" does not mean the same thing as
"chance" as this idea is often used in describing situations of uncertainty, nor is
it the same as projections based on an assessed probability or frequency. Sampling
always refers to a procedure of gathering data from a small aggregation of
individuals that is purportedly representative of a larger grouping which must in
principle be capable of being measured as a totality. Random sampling is used
precisely to ensure a truly representative sample from which to draw conclusions,
in which the same results would be arrived at if one had included the entirety of
the population instead. Random sampling (and sampling error) can only be used to
gather information about a single defined point in time. If additional data is
gathered (other things remaining constant) then comparison across time periods may
be possible. However, this comparison is distinct from any sampling itself. As a
method for gathering data within the field of statistics, random sampling is
recognized as clearly distinct from the causal process that one is trying to
measure. The conducting of research itself may lead to certain outcomes affecting
the researched group, but this effect is not what is called sampling error.
Sampling error always refers to the recognized limitations of any supposedly
representative sample population in reflecting the larger totality, and the error
refers only to the discrepancy that may result from judging the whole on the basis
of a much smaller number. This is only an "error" in the sense that it would
automatically be corrected if the totality were itself assessed. The term has no
real meaning outside of statistics.

According to a differing view, a potential example of a sampling error in evolution

is genetic drift; a change is a population�s allele frequencies due to chance. For
example, the bottleneck effect; when natural disasters dramatically reduce the size
of a population resulting in a small population that may or may not fairly
represent the original population. What may make the bottleneck effect a sampling
error is that certain alleles, due to natural disaster, are more common while
others may disappear completely, making it a potential sampling error. Another
example of genetic drift that is a potential sampling error is the founder effect.
The founder effect is when a few individuals from a larger population settle a new
isolated area. In this instance, there are only a few individuals with little gene
variety, making it a potential sampling error.[3]

The likely size of the sampling error can generally be controlled by taking a large
enough random sample from the population,[4] although the cost of doing this may be
prohibitive; see sample size determination and statistical power for more detail.
If the observations are collected from a random sample, statistical theory provides
probabilistic estimates of the likely size of the sampling error for a particular
statistic or estimator. These are often expressed in terms of its standard error.

Bias problems
Sampling bias is a possible source of sampling errors, wherein the sample is chosen
in a way that makes some individuals less likely to be included in the sample than
others. It leads to sampling errors which either have a prevalence to be positive
or negative. Such errors can be considered to be systematic errors.

Non-sampling error
Main article: Non-sampling error
Sampling error can be contrasted with non-sampling error. Non-sampling error is a
catch-all term for the deviations from the true value that are not a function of
the sample chosen, including various systematic errors and any random errors that
are not due to sampling. Non-sampling errors are much harder to quantify than
sampling error.[4]

See also
Margin of error
Propagation of uncertainty
Ratio estimator
Sampling (statistics)
References
Sarndal, Swenson, and Wretman (1992), Model Assisted Survey Sampling, Springer-
Verlag, ISBN 0-387-40620-4
Burns, N.; Grove, S. K. (2009). The Practice of Nursing Research: Appraisal,
Synthesis, and Generation of Evidence (6th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier.
ISBN 978-1-4557-0736-2.
Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2002). Biology. Benjamin Cummings. pp. 450�451.
ISBN 0-536-68045-0.
Scheuren, Fritz (2005). "What is a Margin of Error?". What is a Survey? (PDF).
Washington, D.C.: American Statistical Association. Retrieved 2008-01-08.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sampling error.
NIST: Selecting Sample Sizes
itfeature.com: Sampling Error
Categories: Sampling (statistics)Errors and residualsAuditing terms
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