URBAN STUDIO

QUESTION PAPER
FAIZA FATHIMA M
12/22/2014
 PART A

1) List the impacts of digital revolution on urban form?

The global digital network is not just a delivery system for email, Web pages, and digital television. It is a whole new
urban infrastructure--one that will change the forms of our cities as dramatically as railroads, highways, electric power
supply, and telephone networks did in the past. William J. Mitchell examines this new infrastructure and its
implications for our future daily lives. Picking up where his best-selling City of Bits left off, Mitchell argues that we
must extend the definitions of architecture and urban design to encompass virtual places as well as physical ones,
and interconnection by means of telecommunication links as well as by pedestrian circulation and mechanized
transportation systems. He proposes strategies for the creation of cities that not only will be sustainable but will make
economic, social, and cultural sense in an electronically interconnected and global world. The new settlement patterns
of the twenty-first century will be characterized by live/work dwellings, 24-hour pedestrian-scale neighborhoods rich
in social relationships, and vigorous local community life, complemented by far-flung configurations of electronic
meeting places and decentralized production, marketing, and distribution systems. Neither digiphile nor digiphobe,
Mitchell advocates the creation of e-topias--cities that work smarter, not harder.

2) What are the influences of globalization on cities?

Globalization and Its Impact on People: Families and Mental Health

For the purpose of this presentation, I will discuss globalization and its impact on people at social, cultural, and
psychological levels. As a social scientist, I am interested in how societies and people change because of this
economic phenomena and how the process of change can impact families, individuals and communities.
Globalization is associated with rapid and significant human changes. The movements of people from rural to
urban areas has accelerated, and the growth of cities in the developing world especially is linked to substandard
living for many. Family disruption and social and domestic violence are increasing. For example, 2004 New Delhi
police reports indicate that deaths in the city of about six women everyday are dowry-related suicides.

3) Mention a few ways of interpreting the city?

 bridge the gap in all kinds of multilingual settings where speakers want to express themselves in their own
language and still understand one another (conferences, negotiations, press briefings, seminars,
depositions, TV broadcasts: you name it!)
 do not do written translation: translators work with written texts, interpreters convey ideas orally
 do not just parrot: they convert ideas expressed in one language (the source language) into another
language (the target language) as smoothly and idiomatically as possible, preserving the meaning, tone
and nuance of the original speaker
  interpret "consecutively": i.e. the interpreter is in the same room as the participants, listening carefully to
what is said, perhaps taking notes; when each speaker pauses, the interpreter conveys the same
message from source to target language
 interpret "simultaneously": i.e. the interpreters work in a team sitting in a soundproof booth; they take turns
conveying each speaker's ideas from source to target language in real-time; the audience in the
conference room listens through headsets
 interpret using "chuchotage" or "whispering": i.e. the interpreter is in the same room as the participants
providing a whispered interpretation in real-time to a small number of listeners

4) Write a short note on phenomenology?

Phenomenology is both a current aspect of philosophy influencing contemporary architecture and a field of
academic research into the experience of built space and of building materials in their sensory aspects

In phenomenology, the environment is concretely defined as "the place", and the things which occur there "take
place". The place is not so simple as the locality, but consists of concrete things which have material substance,
shape, texture, and color, and together coalesce to form the environment's character, or atmosphere. It is this
atmosphere which allows certain spaces, with similar or even identical functions, to embody very different
properties, in accord with the unique cultural and environmental conditions of the place which they exist.
Phenomenology is conceived as a "return to things", maneuvering away from the abstractions of science and its
neutral objectivity. Phenomenology absorbs the concept of subjectivity, making the thing and its unique
conversations with its place the relevant topic and not the thing itself. The distinction of natural and man-made
offers us the first step in the phenomenological approach. The second is to qualify inside and outside. The third and
final step is to assess character, or how things are made and exist as participants in their environment.

5) List the goals and objectives of sustainable cities program?

The City of Edmonton:

 Provides and promotes facilities for active transportation modes.

 Protects, maintains, conserves and restores the biodiversity of Edmonton’s natural environment.
 Protects, preserves and expands its parks, green spaces and natural areas.
 Builds on the City’s leadership role in environmental best practices.
 Provides programs and education to businesses and residents about the importance of individual
environmental responsibilities.
 Maintains and conserves natural spaces and ecological connectivity in the North Saskatchewan River Valley.
 Enforces community standards through municipal by-laws for environmental best practice.
 Partners to educate Edmontonians about the importance of acommunity food network1.
 Promotes environmental best practices in urban design, construction and re-use of materials.
 Promotes the use of the highest environmental standards through a civic culture of environmental planning,
conservation, preservation and protection.
6) What are the key features of a sustainable development?

Sustainable development: A pattern of resources use, which aims to meet human needs while preserving the
environment
Features :
1. Respect and care for all forms of life
2. Improve the quality of human life
3. Conserve the earth’s vitality and diversity
4. Minimize the depletion of natural resources
5. Change of personal attitude and practices towards the environment
6. Enable communities to care for their own environment

8) Write a short note on the role of public realm in urban areas?

The public realm is traditionally seen as a platform. Its fundamental role in modern society is to accommodate the
interaction between the individual citizen and the community, ideally giving individuals a say in all things that have
an impact on their lives, and vice versa, endowing the community with tools to pursue policies that enhance its
common goods. Since this role presupposes the view that all people have equal rights, an innovation usually
associated with the Enlightenment, most scholars see the public realm as originating in the eighteenth century. It
combines two distinct components. On an abstract level it is defined by political, administrative and legal structures,
and - a crucial aspect - the tools to inform the public (notably the press). On a spatial level, it contains all public
spaces in the city, ranging from the urban level (streets, squares) to public buildings (notably those reserved for the
public administration, but also the buildings where people gather

9) List the need for application of digital techniques in urban design?

urban design plans and methods are inadequate to deal with the scale and complexity of contemporary urban form
and multidisciplinary collaborative practice. Although recent developments in urban modeling technologies have
brought about a wide range of different techniques and potential implementations that may help address this
inadequacy, they have not yet made their desired impact on the design process.

10) Write a short note on the applications of GIS in urban planning?

GIS is a computer-based tool that allows you to create, manipulate, analyze, store and display information based
on its location. GIS makes it possible to integrate different kinds of geographic information, such as digital maps,
aerial photographs, satellite images and global positioning system data (GPS), along with associated tabular
database information (e.g., ‘attributes' or characteristics about geographic features).

GIS allows you to examine and analyze geographic information at different levels of detail or from different
perspectives. Then, it enables you to customize the display of your maps and analyses for presentation to particular
audiences.
 PART B

11) (a) Discussing the various methods of reading the urban fabric and their applications?

Various methods for reading urban fabric includes

-identifying the structures which characterise the basic composition of all existing constructions (soil, relief, hydrology,
structural transport networks, etc.)

- identifying 'permanent built and non-built structures'

- identifying minor elements of composition or those made up of different materials (vegetation, agriculture, water structure,
etc.).

- identifying and learning to recognise compositions as a whole and coherence between homogeneous and non-
homogeneous materials

- categorise and evaluate historical, landscape, and environmental

structural values of fabrics

- critically analysing the condition of the various fabrics which make up the environments we live in

- argue and establish a morphological critique using new element

emerging from observation

- construct an argument for an architectural, heritage, urban, and

landscape project, based on an historical approach.

The refined nature of reading and the ability to transform this

knowledge and information into a project will depend on the coherence and sustainability of the architectural, heritage, urban
and landscape (environmental) design that the student (future architect) is called upon to construct in order to responsibly
respond to the challenges of sustainable development.

OR

(b) Explain the important tools of mapping and their significance in urban design with examples?

Previously, one of the first applications of spatial analysis in epidemiology is the 1832 "Rapport sur la Marche et les
effects du cholera dans Paris et le department de la Seine". The French geographer Charles Picquet represented
the 48 districts of the city of Paris by halftone color gradient according to the percentage of deaths
by cholera per 1,000 inhabitants. In 1854John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to
represent the locations of some individual cases, an early successful use of a geographic methodology in
epidemiology. While the basic elements of topography and theme existed previously in cartography, the John Snow
map was unique, using cartographic methods not only to depict but also to analyze clusters of geographically
dependent phenomena.
The early 20th century saw the development of photo zincography, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for
example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This was particularly used for printing contours – drawing
these was a labor-intensive task but having them on a separate layer meant they could be worked on without the
other layers to confuse the draughtsman. This work was originally drawn on glass plates but later plastic film was
introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others.
When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera. Once color
printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each color. While the use of
layers much later became one of the main typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process just
described is not considered to be a GIS in itself – as the maps were just images with no database to link them to.

Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to general-purpose computer "mapping"
applications by the early 1960s.

The year 1960 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada by the
federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by Dr. Roger Tomlinson, it was called
the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected
for the Canada – an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils,
agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating classification factor
was also added to permit analysis.

CGIS was an improvement over "computer mapping" applications as it provided capabilities for overlay,
measurement, and digitizing/scanning. It supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded
lines as arcs having a true embedded topology and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate
files. As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS", particularly for his use of overlays in
promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data.

CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital land resource database in Canada. It was developed as
a mainframe-based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength
was continent-wide analysis of complex datasets. The CGIS was never available commercially.

In 1964 Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at the Harvard
Graduate School of Design (LCGSA 1965–1991), where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data
handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as
SYMAP, GRID, and ODYSSEY – that served as sources for subsequent commercial development—to universities,
research centers and corporations worldwide.

By the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph) along with Bentley Systems Incorporated for
the CAD platform, Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), CARIS (Computer Aided Resource
Information System), MapInfo Corporation and ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) emerged as
commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first
generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to
organizing attribute data into database structures. In parallel, the development of two public domain systems
(MOSS and GRASS GIS) began in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop GIS product emerged for
the DOS operating system. This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when it was ported to the Microsoft
Windows platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the research department into the business
environment.

By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on
relatively few platforms and users were beginning to explore viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring data
format and transfer standards. More recently, a growing number of free, open-source GIS packages run on a range
of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. Increasingly geospatial data and mapping
applications are being made available via the world wide web.

Several authoritative articles on the history of GIS have been published.

Ultimately, the GI Science as applied in the field of urban and regional planning should contribute to the following
goals of urban and regional planning practice:
Better quality (liveable, safe, and aesthetically pleasing) of urban environments
Environmentally and socially sustainable community’s effective spatial organization of urban activities (work,
residence, commerce, and recreation) "smart growth" of urban areas efficient communication between various
urban functions revitalization of deteriorated areas variety of housing options employment opportunities and
economic development democratization of the planning and policy-making process
GI Science would contribute to better urban planning if it addressed the following challenges:
Building tools that meet the needs of planning practice for policy and decision support and for visualization.

Strategic information resource management through incorporation and institutionalization of technological

developments into the planning process; and Diffusion and capacity building by transferring the technology to the
participants in the planning process and/or enabling them to build their own tools.

GIS database developments for planning-related analysis problem identification requires description and prediction;
goal setting, plan generation, evaluation of alternatives, and choice of solution requires prescription; implementation
requires description, prediction, and prescription; and finally monitoring requires description and prediction.

12. (a) Describe the salient features of transit metropolis model of urban growth?

A Transit metropolis is an urbanized region with high-quality public transportation services and settlement patterns
that are conducive to riding public transit. While Transit villages and Transit-oriented developments (TODs) focus
on creating compact, mixed-use neighborhoods around rail stations, transit metropolises represent a regional
constellation of TODs that benefit from having both trip origins and destinations oriented to public transport stations.

In an effort to reduce mounting traffic congestion problems and improve environmental conditions, a number of
Chinese mega-cities, including Beijing and Shenzhen, have embraced the transit metropolis model for guiding
urban growth .
(b) Discuss with an example that relationship between urbanization and density and its impact on the urban
form and fabric?

Understanding the determinants and pattern of urbanization is central to a host of policy issues. Urbanization raises
major environmental and social concerns. The conversion of open countryside to built-up areas involves the loss of
natural habitat, the elimination of recreational space, and increased demands for agricultural food surpluses to feed
the urban population. Dense population concentrations also create major infrastructure demands: rapid transit
systems for commuting, supplies of clean water and power, sanitation and waste management systems, and public
health facilities.

Yet despite the high levels of mortality observed in cities in nineteenth century Europe and the developing world
today and all these drawbacks, hundreds of millions have moved from rural to urban areas. There must be
compensating advantages such as higher productivity and wages, a wider range of employment opportunities,
goods, and services, and a greater diversity along ethnic, cultural, and other dimensions.

OR

(b) Describe the steps process of revitilasation of brown field sites with an example?

BOA Program Steps & Outcomes

An Overview of the Program's Process

Communities may apply to enter the program at the most appropriate of the three program steps described below
leading to New York State's designation of the BOA.

Step 1: Pre-Nomination Study

The Pre-Nomination Study is intended for communities that are highly uncertain about existing conditions and have
minimal or no information about brownfields that are impacting their community. The Pre-Nomination Study
provides a preliminary description and analysis of the proposed BOA and sets the stage for more detailed work.

Step 1 Report Contents

Step 1 consists of a report, with appropriate supporting map graphics, that contains the following
(see BOA Program Guidance for Applicants for more on contents):

Description of the Proposed Project, Boundary and Public Participation Process

• Community Overview and Description
• Project Overview and Description
• Project Area Boundary Description and Justification
• Community Vision and Goals and Objectives
• Community Participation Techniques and/or Process
• Preliminary Analysis of the Brownfield Opportunity Area
• Existing Land Use and Zoning
• Brownfield, Abandoned and Vacant Sites
• Land Ownership
• Natural Resources
• Summary and Preliminary Analysis

Step 1 Outcomes

There are four primary outcomes from Step 1:

• The community will clearly identify and describe a manageable study area.
• They will begin to form the partnerships and conduct the public outreach and community visioning process they
will need to succeed.
• A preliminary analysis that identifies compelling opportunities for revitalization.
• A scope of work for Step 2.

Advancing to Step 2
Upon receipt and acceptance of a satisfactory Pre-Nomination Study, the participant may submit an application for
a Step 2 Nomination.

Step 2: Nomination

The Nomination is intended for communities that have enough information to generate a Pre-Nomination Study on
their own, but need assistance to prepare a Nomination that thoroughly describes existing conditions, assets and
opportunities. The Nomination provides an in-depth and thorough description and analysis, including an economic
and market trends analysis, of existing conditions, assets, opportunities, and reuse potential of strategic brownfield
sites that are catalysts for revitalization.

Step 2 Report Contents

Step 2 consists of a report, with appropriate supporting map graphics, that contains the following
(see BOA Program Guidance for Applicants for more on contents):

Section 1 - Description of the Project and Boundary

• Lead Project Sponsors

• Project Overview and Description
• Community Vision, Goals and Objectives
• Project Boundary Description and Justification

Section 2 - Public Participation Plan and Techniques to Enlist Partners

• Public Participation Plan

• Techniques to Enlist Partners
Section 3 - Inventory and Analysis of the Proposed Brownfield Opportunity Area

• Community and Regional Setting

• Inventory and Analysis
• Existing Land Use, Zoning, and Economic Districts/Designations

-- Brownfield Sites
-- Strategic Sites
-- Land Ownership
-- Building Inventory
-- Historic or Archeologically Significant Areas
-- Transportation Systems
-- Infrastructure
-- Natural Resources and Environmental Features
-- Economic and Market Trends Analysis

• Analysis, Findings and Recommendations of the BOA and Strategic Sites

Step 2 Outcomes
There are five primary outcomes from Step 2:

The community will have a comprehensive land use assessment and analysis, including an in-depth assessment
of existing land uses, brownfield sites and other underutilized properties, key buildings and historic structure,
infrastructure, transportation systems, and natural resources.

They will complete an economic and market trends analysis to understand regional and local market forces, and to
determine if the community can capitalize on the market place and match uses that are in demand to strategic
brownfield sites.

The community will identify and describe all brownfield sites as well as the strategic sites that are catalysts for
revitalization.

Based on the analysis and findings, the community will develop recommendations for future uses and actions to
redevelop strategic sites and revitalize the community or neighborhood.

A scope of work will be developed for the Implementation Strategy.

Review of Step 2 Report

The Nomination will be circulated for review and comment by area residents and agencies.

Advancing to Step 3
Upon receipt and acceptance of a satisfactory Nomination, the participant may submit an application for project
advancement to complete a Step 3 Implementation Strategy and/or Site Assessments. At the conclusion of the
Nomination, the participant is encouraged to meet with the NYS Departments of Environmental Conservation and
State to discuss the status of strategic sites and to discuss which sites would be most competitive for site
assessment funding.

Step 3: Implementation Strategy and/or Site Assessments

The Implementation Strategy provides a description of the techniques and actions that will be undertaken to
advance redevelopment and community revitalization and describes how the requirements of the NYS
Environmental Quality Review Act have been met.
Site assessments are completed for strategic brownfield sites that are identified in the Nomination, concurrent with
progress on the Implementation Strategy. Key findings from the site assessment reports are factored into the
Implementation Strategy. Remedial investigations are used to design a conceptual level remediation strategy for
priority brownfield sites.

Step 3 consists of a report, with appropriate supporting map graphics, that contains the following
(see BOA Program Guidance for Applicants for more on contents):

Site Assessments - (see the BOA Program Guidance for Applicants for the content requirements of Site
Assessments associated with the Brownfield Opportunity Areas Program).
Section 4 - Implementation Strategy

• Defining Future Uses

-- Definition of Future Land Uses for all Sites

-- Reuse of Strategic Brownfield Sites: Cost Benefit Scenario
-- Design Alternatives and Illustrations for Priority Brownfield Sites
-- Profiles of Strategic Brownfield Sites for Marketing Purposes

• Land Use Implementation Techniques

-- Zoning and Other Local Laws

-- New or Modifications to Existing Economic Districts or Designations
-- Design Standards and Guidelines for Buildings
-- Best Management Practices to Minimize Impacts to Natural Features

• Implementation Projects
• Construction Projects

-- Redevelopment Projects
-- Transportation Projects
-- Infrastructure Projects
-- Public Improvement Projects
-- Environmental Improvement Projects
-- Preconstruction Projects (design, construction documents, permits)
-- Studies, Reports, Investigations, or Feasibility Assessments
• Local Management Structure to Implement BOA
• Lead Entity to Ensure Implementation
• Regional, State and Federal Actions and Programs for Implementation

Section 5 - State Environmental Quality Review Act (SEQRA)

This section will describe how the applicant has complied with SEQRA. Participants that make a positive
determination early in the process will prepare a Generic Environmental Impact Statement (see the BOA Program
Guidance for Applicants for the advantages to preparing a GEIS).
The GEIS can be completed simultaneously and blended entirely into the Nomination and Implementation Strategy
to the degree that they are one in the same

Step 3 Outcomes

There are four concrete outcomes from Step 3:

• Communities, will have determined what their brownfield sites are ideally suited for and have established an
effective strategy to leverage needed redevelopment and investigation for community revitalization.
• Communities will have completed an Implementation Strategy to ensure desired uses materialize on brownfield
sites and that their objectives for revitalization are achieved.
• Will market strategic sites to developers consistent with the future vision for the site as expressed in their
revitalization strategy.
Communities will have a marketing brochure and undertake other means to assist in building public and private
support for the revitalization of their community. The brochure will summarize and describe priority projects,
including public-sector and private-sector roles, responsibilities, and investments to achieve revitalization
objectives.

Review of Step 3 Report

The completed Nomination and Implementation Strategy will be circulated for review and comment by area
residents, and local, state, and federal agencies. The applicant submits the Nomination and Implementation
Strategy to the NYS Secretary of State for approval and designation of the Brownfield Opportunity Area

13. (a) Discuss in detail citing examples the strategies the tools for place making in urban design?

Place making is a multi-faceted approach to the planning, design and management of public spaces. Placemaking
capitalizes on a local community's assets, inspiration, and potential, with the intention of creating public spaces that
promote people's health, happiness, and well being. It is political due to the nature of place identity. Placemaking is
both a process and a philosophy.

Principles
L'Enfant's plan for Washington DC

Gehl Architects' project for Brighton New Road employing shared space

Public spaces are frequently subject to overlapping management responsibilities of multiple public agencies or
authorities and the interests of nearby property owners, as well as the requirements of multiple and sometimes
competing users. The design, construction and management of public spaces therefore typically demands
consultation and negotiation across a variety of spheres. Urban designers rarely have the degree of artistic liberty
or control sometimes offered in design professions such as architecture. It also typically requires interdisciplinary
input with balanced representation of multiple fields including engineering, ecology, local history, and transport
planning.

The scale and degree of detail considered varies depending on context and needs. It ranges from the layout of
entire city regions, cities, as with l'Enfant's plan for Washington DC, Griffin and Mahony's plan
for Canberra and Doxiadis' plan for Islamabad (although such opportunities are obviously rare), through 'managing
the sense of a region' as described by Kevin Lynch, to the design of street furniture.

Urban design may encompass the preparation of design guidelines and regulatory frameworks, or even legislation
to control development, advertising, etc. and in this sense overlaps with urban planning. It may encompass the
design of particular spaces and structures and in this sense overlaps with architecture, landscape
architecture, highway engineering and industrial design. It may also deal with ‘place management’ to guide and
assist the use and maintenance of urban areas and public spaces.

Much urban design work is undertaken by urban planners, landscape architects and architects but there are
professionals who identify themselves specifically as urban designers. Many architecture, landscape and planning
programs incorporate urban design theory and design subjects into their curricula and there are an increasing
number of university programs offering degrees in urban design, usually at post-graduate level.

Urban design considers:

Pedestrian zones

Incorporation of nature within a city

Aesthetics

Urban structure – How a place is put together and how its parts relate to each other
Urban typology, density and sustainability - spatial types and morphologies related to intensity of use, consumption
of resources and production and maintenance of viable communities
Accessibility – Providing for ease, safety and choice when moving to and through places
Legibility and way finding – Helping people to find their way around and understand how a place works
Animation – Designing places to stimulate public activity
Function and fit – Shaping places to support their varied intended uses
Complementary mixed uses – Locating activities to allow constructive interaction between them
Character and meaning – Recognizing and valuing the differences between one place and another
Order and incident – Balancing consistency and variety in the urban environment in the interests of appreciating
both
Continuity and change – Locating people in time and place, including respect for heritage and support for
contemporary culture
Civil society – Making places where people are free to encounter each other as civic equals, an important
component in building social capital

OR

(b)Discuss with an example that relationship between urbanization and density and its impact on the
urban form and fabric?

1. Global Urbanization No discussion about the urban spatial structure can take place without an overview of
urbanization, which has been one of the dominant trends of economic and social change of the 20th century,
especially in the developing world.

Urbanization. The process of transition from a rural to a more urban society. Statistically, urbanization reflects an
increasing proportion of the population living in settlements defined as urban, primarily through net rural to urban
migration. The level of urbanization is the percentage of the total population living in towns and cities while the rate
of urbanization is the rate at which it grows (UNFPA, 2007).

This transition is expected to go on well into the second half of the 21st century, a trend reflected in the
growing size of cities and in the increasing proportion of the urbanized population. Cities also dominate the national
economic output as they account for the bulk of the production, distribution and consumption. Urban mobility
problems have increased proportionally, and in some cases exponentially, with urbanization since mobility demands
are concentrated over a specific area. Since 1950, the world's urban population has more than doubled, to reach
nearly 3.5 billion in 2010, about 50.6% of the global population. This is the outcome of three main demographic
trends:

Natural increase. It is simply the outcome of more births than deaths in urban areas, a direct function of the fertility
rate as well as the quality of healthcare systems (lower mortality rates, particularly for infants). Phases in
the demographic transition are commonly linked with urbanization rates. Although this factor played an important
role in the past, it is of much lesser importance today as fertility rates in many developed countries have dropped
significantly, in some cases like Western Europe, Japan and South Korea below replacement rate.

Rural to urban migrations. This has been a strong factor of urbanization, particularly in the developing world
where migration accounted between 40 and 60% of the urban growth. Such a process has endured since the
beginning of the industrial revolution in the 19th century, first in the developed world and then in the developing
world. The reasons for urban migration are numerous and may involve the expectation to find employment,
improved agricultural productivity which frees rural labor or even political and environmental problems where
populations are constrained to leave the countryside.

International migration. The growth in international migration has been an important factor in the urbanization of
major gateway cities, such as Los Angeles, Miami, New York, London and Paris. This process has a tendency to
take place in the largest cities, but there is a trickle down to cities of smaller size.

Fundamental changes in the socio-economic environment of human activities as urbanization involves new forms of
employment, economic activity and lifestyle have been observed. Thus, industrialization in the developing world is
directly correlated with urbanization, the case of China being particularly eloquent. The industrialization of coastal
China has led to the largest rural to urban migration in history. According to the United Nations Population Fund,
about 18 million people migrate from rural areas to cities each year in China alone. Current global trends indicate a
growth of about 50 million urbanites each year, roughly a million a week. More than 90% of that growth occurs in
developing countries which places intense pressures on urban infrastructures, particularly transportation, to cope
(see Concept 4). By 2050, 6.4 billion people, about two thirds of humanity, are likely to be urban residents. What
can be considered as urban includes a whole continuum of urban spatial structures, ranging from small towns to
large urban agglomerations. This also brings the question about optimal city size since technical limitations (road,
utilities) are not much an impediment in building very large cities. Many of the world's largest cities can be labeled
as dysfunctional mainly because as city size increases the rising complexities are not effectively coped with
managerial expertise.2. The Urban Form Demographic and mobility growth have been shaped by the capacity and
requirements of urban transport infrastructures, such as roads, transit systems or simply walkways. Consequently,
there is a wide variety of urban forms, spatial structures and associated urban transportation systems.

Urban form. Refers to the spatial imprint of an urban transport system as well as the adjacent physical
infrastructures. Jointly, they confer a level of spatial arrangement to cities.
Urban (spatial) structure. Refers to the set of relationships arising out of the urban form and its underlying
interactions of people, freight and information. It tries to evaluate to what extent specific urban structures can be
achieved with specific transport systems.

In light of transport developments, the urban spatial structure can be categorized by its level of centralization and
clustering:

Centralization. Refers to the setting of activities in relation to the whole urban area. A centralized city has a
significant share of its activities in its center while a decentralized city does not. Large employers such as financial
institutions are the main drivers of centralization.

Clustering. Refers to the setting of activities in relation to a specific part of the urban area. A cluster of activities is
therefore a concentration around a specific focal point, which tend to be transport infrastructures such as a highway
interchange, a transit terminal or a smaller town that has been absorbed by the expansion of the metropolis.

Even if the geographical setting of each city varies considerably, the urban form and its spatial structure
are articulated by two structural elements:

Nodes. These are reflected in the centrality of urban activities, which can be related to the spatial accumulation of
economic activities or to the accessibility to the transport system. Terminals, such as ports, train station, railyards,
and airports, are important nodes around which activities agglomerate at the local or regional level. Nodes have a
hierarchy related to their importance and contribution to urban functions, with high order nodes such as
management and retailing and lower order nodes such as production and distribution.

Linkages. These are the infrastructures supporting flows from, to and between nodes. The lowest level of linkages
includes streets, which are the defining elements of the urban spatial structure. There is a hierarchy of linkages
moving up to regional roads and railways and international connections by air and maritime transport systems.

Depending on their nature, urban nodes and linkages provide for a functional connectivity, implying interdependent
urban functions related to trade, production and telecommunications. Urban transportation is thus associated with a
spatial form which varies according to the modes being used. What has not changed much is that cities tend to opt
for a grid street pattern. This was the case for many Roman cities built in the 1st century as it was for American
cities built in the 20th century. The reasons behind this permanence are relatively simple; a grid pattern jointly
optimizes accessibility and available real estate. Obviously, many cities are not organized as a grid. They
correspond to older cities, many former fortified towns, as well as cities which grew from a constrained location
such as an island or a river junction. Local geographical and historical characteristics remain important influences
on the urban form.In an age of motorization and personal mobility, an increasing number of cities are developing a
spatial structure that increases reliance on motorized transportation, particularly the privately owned automobile.
This has incited a shift from a grid pattern towards curvilinear and cul-de-sac patterns that are commonly found in
suburban areas. Dispersion, or urban sprawl, is taking place in many different types of cities, from dense,
centralized European metropolises such as Madrid, Paris, and London, to rapidly industrializing metropolises such
as Seoul, Shanghai, and Buenos Aires, to those experiencing recent, fast and uncontrolled urban growth, such as
Mumbai and Lagos. Recent urban expansion is consequently almost all geared towards the automobile. Therefore,
there are significant differences in the density of cities across the world, in addition to a variety of density
gradients are observed within cities. The differences are particularly prevalent between North American and
European cities.

The Spatiality of Urban TransportationThe amount of urban land allocated to transportation is often correlated with
the level of mobility. In the pre-automobile era, about 10% of the urban land was devoted to transportation which
was simply roads for a dominantly pedestrian traffic. As the mobility of people and freight increased, a growing
share of urban areas was allocated to transport and the infrastructures supporting it. Large variations in the spatial
imprint of urban transportation are observed between different cities as well as between different parts of a city,
such as between central and peripheral areas. The major components of the spatial imprint of urban transportation
are:

Pedestrian areas. Refer to the amount of space devoted to walking. This space is often shared with roads as
sidewalks may use between 10% and 20% of a road's right of way. In central areas, pedestrian areas tend to use a
greater share of the right of way and in some instances whole areas are reserved for pedestrians. However, in a
motorized context, most pedestrian areas are for servicing people's access to transport modes such as parked
automobiles.

Roads and parking areas. Refer to the amount of space devoted to road transportation, which has two states of
activity; moving or parked. In a motorized city, on average 30% of the surface is devoted to roads while another
20% is required for off-street parking. This implies for each car about 2 off-street and 2 on-street parking spaces. In
North American cities, roads and parking lots account between 30 and 60% of the total surface.

Cycling areas. In a disorganized form, cycling simply shares access to pedestrian and road space. However, many
attempts have been made to create spaces specifically for bicycles in urban areas, with reserved lanes and parking
facilities. The Netherlands has been particularly proactive over this issue with biking paths parts of the urban
transport system; 27% of the total amount of commuting is accounted by cycling.

Transit systems. Many transit systems, such as buses and tramways, share road space with automobiles, which
often impairs their respective efficiency. Attempts to mitigate congestion have resulted in the creation of road lanes
reserved to buses either on a permanent or temporary (during rush hour) basis. Other transport systems such as
subways and rail have their own infrastructures and, consequently, their own rights of way.

Transport terminals. Refer to the amount of space devoted to terminal facilities such as ports, airports, transit
stations, railyards and distribution centers. Globalization has increased the mobility of people and freight, both in
relative and absolute terms, and consequently the amount of urban space required to support those activities. Many
major terminals are located in the peripheral areas of cities, which are the only locations where sufficient amounts
of land are available.

The spatial importance of each transport mode varies according to a number of factors, density being the most
important. If density is considered as a gradient, rings of mobility represent variations in the spatial importance of
each mode at providing urban mobility. Further, each transport mode has unique performance and space
consumption characteristics. The most relevant example is the automobile. It requires space to move around
(roads) but it also spends 98% of its existence stationary in a parking space. Consequently, a significant amount of
urban space must be allocated to accommodate the automobile, especially when it does not move and is thus
economically and socially useless. In large urban agglomerations close to all the available street parking space in
areas of average density and above is occupied throughout the day. At an aggregate level, measures reveal
a significant spatial imprint of road transportation among developed countries. In the United States, more land is
thus used by the automobile than for housing. In Western Europe, roads account for between 15% and 20% of the
urban surface while for developing countries this figure is about 10% (6% on average for Chinese cities but growing
fast due to motorization).5. Transportation and the Urban StructureUrbanization involves an increased numbers of
trips in urban areas. Cities have traditionally responded to growth in mobility by expanding the transportation
supply, by building new highways and transit lines. In the developed world, that has mainly meant building more
roads to accommodate an ever-growing number of vehicles. Several urban spatial structures have accordingly
emerged, with the reliance on the automobile being the most important discriminatory factor. Four major types can
be identified at the metropolitan scale:

Type I - Completely Motorized Network: Representing an automobile-dependent city with a limited centrality and
dispersed activities.

Type II - Weak Center: Representing the spatial structure of many American cities where many activities are
located in the periphery.

Type III - Strong Center: Representing high density urban centers with well developed public transit systems,
particularly in Europe and Asia.

Type IV - Traffic Limitation. Representing urban areas that have implemented traffic control and modal preference
in their spatial structure. Commonly, the central area is dominated by public transit.

There are different scales where transportation systems influence the structure of communities, districts and the
whole metropolitan area. For instance, one of the most significant impacts of transportation on the urban structure
has been the clustering of activities near areas of high accessibility. The impact of transport on the spatial
structure is particularly evident in the emergence of suburbia. Although many other factors are important in the
development of suburbia, including low land costs, available land (large lots), the environment (clean and quiet),
safety, and car-oriented services (shopping malls), the spatial imprint of the automobile is dominant. Even if it could
be argued that roads and the automobile have limited impacts on the extent of urban sprawl, they are a required
condition for sprawl to take place. While it is difficult to assess in which specific circumstances the first suburbs
emerged, suburban developments have occurred in many cities worldwide, although no other places have achieved
such a low density and automobile dependency than in the North America. The automobile is also linked with
changes in street layouts. While older parts of cities tend to have a conventional grid layout, from the 1930s new
suburbs started to be designed in a curvilinear fashion, which included some cul-de-sacs (dead ends). By the
1950s, the prevailing design for new suburbs was privileging cul-de-sacs. Although the aim was to create a more
private and safe environment, particularly in cul-de-sac sections, the outcome was also a growing sense of isolation
and car use.Facing the expansion of urban areas, congestion problems and the increasing importance of inter-
urban movements the existing structure of urban roads was judged to be inadequate. Several ring roads have been
built around major cities and became an important attribute of the spatial structures of cities, notably in North
America. Highway interchanges in suburban areas are notable examples of clusters of urban development that
have shaped the multicentric character of many cities. The extension (and the over-extension) of urban areas have
created what may be called peri-urban areas. They are located well outside the urban core and the suburbs, but
are within reasonable commuting distances; the term "edge cities" has been used to label a cluster of urban
development taking place in a suburban settings.

14. (a) Discuss the landmark events and stages in the evolution of cities and the various issues
encountered at present in urban planning?

Water Supply, Sewerage and Solid Waste

There is a tremendous pressure on civic infrastructure systems like water supply,
sewerage and drainage, solid waste management, etc. Recent data suggest that water
supply is available for 2.9 hours per day across cities and towns. The non-revenue water
that includes physical and revenue losses account for 40-60 percent of total water supply.
About 30 to 50 percent households do not have sewerage connections and less than 20percent of total waste water
is treated. Solid waste systems are severally stressed. The state of services reflects the deterioration in the quality
of city environments.
As per 54th round of National Sample Survey, 70% of urban households are being served by tap and 21% by Tube
well or hand pump. 66% of urban households reported having their principal source of water within their premises
while 32% had it within 0.2 Km.
41% had sole access to their principal source of drinking water and 59% were sharing a public source. As per the
54th round of NSS 26% of households had no latrines, 35% were using septic tank and 22% were using sewerage
system. Sewerage connections varied from 48% to 70%. It is estimated that about 1, 15,000 MT of Municipal Solid
Waste is generated daily in the country. Per capita waste generation in cities varies between 0.2 – 0.6 kg per day
and it is increasing by 1.3% per annum. Given the inadequate solid waste management in Indian Cities, the
Supreme Court gave direction to 12 the Ministry of Environment and Forest to prepare Solid Waste Management
(Handling) Rules 2000.
Focus of improvements in water supply and sewerage is on creation of new assets rather than management of
existing assets. In order to bring about improvements in delivery of municipal services, a need has been felt to
develop National Benchmarks in respect of basic services like water supply, sewerage, solid waste management
and storm water drainage. The Ministry of Urban Development has taken the initiative of bringing out a
Handbook of Service Level Benchmarks, in 2008, which provides for standardized framework for performance
monitoring in the four sectors mentioned above. It is expected that the Handbook would enable state level agencies
and local service providers to initiate a process of performance monitoring and evaluation against agreed targets,
finally resulting in achievement of service level benchmarks identified in the Handbook and shift focus from asset
creation to outcomes. Urban Transport
Most of the cities in India have been facing urban transport problems for last many years, affecting the mobility of
people and economic growth of the urban areas. These problems are due to prevailing imbalance in modal split;
inadequate transport infrastructure and its sub-optimal use; no integration between land use and transport planning;
and no improvement or little improvement in city bus service, which encourage a shift to personalized modes. In
view of this, the Government of India approved the National
Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) in April 2006. The Policy primarily focuses on the mobility of people not the mobility
of vehicles. This will require the public transportation system to be more attractive to use. The challenge for
improved bus transport is to provide good quality service at an affordable price. It is important to evaluate
alternative public transport technologies in the context of city characteristics.
The public transport options vary between low cost buses to high cost rail metros.
Moreover the shape of a city is very important for selecting the appropriate mode of transport and capacity building
is a very important factor in introducing and implementing public transport system.
Several initiatives have been taken in India in this regard: Many cities have prepared
Comprehensive Mobility Plans; 15 cities have plans to introduce modern bus services;
Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) is coming up in 11 cities; Six cities are planning new metro rail systems; and Unified
Metropolitan Transport Authorities have been set up in two cities (Agarwal, 2009). Bus systems can be improved
through provision of better buses, improved information system and prioritization of bus flows through dedicated
bus lane.
The key message from the review of urban transport sector in India is that the proposed approach has to be
comprehensive and serve a range of human needs.
Two major problems in implementing the new public transportation system: absence of linkage of metro rail system
to the bus system; and (b) lack of expertise in Bus Rapid
Transport system. Many cities such as Indore, Baroda and Surat, private enterprises are 13 allowed to run the
public transport system. Public entity invites bids for certain routes and then the private agency is selected to
operate.
NUTP has brought the need for integrating urban transport with land-use planning A recent study has analyzed this
issues in four cities of India and brought challenges and its implications.

Integrated City Making: Transport and Land-Use Planning

Integrated City Making was a research study on integration of transport and land-use planning in Mumbai, Kolkata,
Delhi and Bangalore. Each of the cities studied by the
Urban Age is seeking to use land-use and transport planning to secure a more integrated and efficient form of
urban development, but all face systematic and behavioral challenges: Rapid urban growth has overtaken the
planning process, resulting in reactive and often outdated plans; Enforcement is weak and the planning profession
is seen as lacking capacity, leading to loss of credibility; Land-use and transport planning are conducted as
separate exercises, leading to new development without transport, and transport infrastructure that fails to further
cities long term visions and Responsibility for land-use and transport planning is fragmented between different
agencies and different tiers of government, despite recent constitutional changes aimed at rationalizing local
government structures.
Some implications for future policy development include: Creating a single transport authority and, where possible,
integrating this with land-use planning; Ensure implementation through balancing enforcement and negotiation;
Create incentives for better integration through funding and political systems; and Use urban design for better cities.
Through harnessing the dynamism of urban development in India, city leaders can make a difference. With
organizational reform, and the creation of new governance structures that recognize cities role, they can put their
cities at the forefront of sustainable growth.
Source: Urban Age, 2008.

OR

(b) Explain the role of digital media in reconfiguring urban space and as a facilitator of sustainable urban
design?

The Open City with Narrow Crevices; Marginalisation versus Facilitation in Urban Space, Amritsar City, India6

bodies to initiate independent decision making and undertake fiscal generation towards cityupgradation physically,
socially and economically. Thus the post liberalization Indian Cities have witnessed momentous transformations in
their economics and governance regimes attracting capital flows and population into their seams. One of the most
significant impacts of the reforms has been the policy to attract Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) by creating
measures to facilitate foreign capital and multinationals to enter into various development sectors and allowing
Indian corporate to enter into foreign collaborations. The second generation of reforms has seen the FDI
investments been extended and increased to the housing, infrastructure and service provision sectors. The
Government of India in its budget2002-2003 initiated further reforms to promote private sector participation and
public-private partnerships in urban/municipal infrastructure development. So at the city level, access tointernational
capital markets and attracting FDI investments has been topping the agenda of urban local bodies for quite some
while now. From a meagre 103 Million USD

Growth rate (%)Migration Stream1971-81 1981-91 1991-2001

Intrastate

Source: Census of India, Migration Tables from 1971-1991, D-2 table for 2001 census

The table indicates that migration especially in the rural to urban category has gone up sharply in the interstate
category indicating an increased opportunity in urban centres, accelerating movement from rural to urban and from
lower order urban to larger urban centres, the city acting as a magnet inviting inflows. Thus the incidence of
migration has shown an upswing and the motive for migration remains primarily economic up gradation and a better
quality of life expectation amongst the migrants. Consequently with the urban reforms and market integration
policies it is expected that the rate of urbanization will go up further and by 2030 India is expected to have 41%
urban population as compared to the present level of 28% (UNDP, 2009).In terms of service delivery to the
burgeoning urban populations, the reforms related to decentralization of service delivery, the private sector is
emerging as the frontrunner to play a more proactive role. The focus has also been on urban planning which earlier
was the most ignored aspect of city management and governance. It is envisaged that the planning process should
ensure tactical vision for the city’s socio-economic growth and the implementation of city development plans should
reflect adherence to the principles of good urban governance such as equity, efficiency, transparency and
accountability. Consequently the cities are employing the services of multinational companies to devise strategic
master plans that shall

The Open City with Narrow Crevices; Marginalisation versus Facilitation in Urban Space, Amritsar City,

enable city managers to promote and advertise the city as a sound investment and settlement destination. However
there are some contradictions in the full implementation of the urban reforms and decentralization wherein the state
and urban local bodies retain central roles and financial restructuring has also remained quite inadequate (Kennedy
and Zerah 2008).

Thus the Indian city today represents a scene of contradiction and dichotomy reflected in its spatial manifestations
that showcases openness, affluence and opulence on one hand and narrowness, inequity and unsustainability on
the other and seek to integrate the urban poor into the city development processes and provide them with urban
basic services. At this point it is still premature to analyze the entire outcomes of the JNNURM and its impact on the
city however it can be opined that if it is implemented in rue spirit and turns out to be poor sensitive as it is meant to
be then it might well be termed as a driver of sustainable and equitable city in the Indian context. Based upon the
above discussion it can be said that both the first and the second generation urban reforms are targeted to make
Indian cities more open, equitable, liveable and sustainable. Whether the reforms have achieved or will achieve
their objectives is a matter which is debatable, requires in depth study using detailed indicators and is currently
beyond the scope of this research paper.

The case of Amritsar city; a quest for openness

Located in Punjab State in India, 27 kilometres from the international border with Pakistan, Amritsar is the second
largest city in Punjab and plays a multifunctional role including that of the political capital, being the centre stage of
the Sikh religion. With its population growing rapidly, the city has emerged as a metropolis, crossing the one million
mark in 2001. The morphological origin and growth of the city can be traced back to 1576 during the reign of

The Open City with Narrow Crevices; Marginalisation versus Facilitation in Urban Space, Amritsar City, India8

Emperor Akbar when the execution of the holy tank was carried out under the aegis of the Guru Ramdas

PART A
1. In what context the urban design evolved as a field of specialization?
 due to the 19th century industrial revolution and migration of population to urban cities need for planned city
arouse. leading to specialization

2. Outline any four differences in urban design issues in india and western countries?

India western countries

Inadequate housing for urban population Quality of housing and cultural integration
Over crowded public transportation Efficiency in transportation
Shortage of electric power Sustainably production of energy
Inadequate Waste disposal facility Integrating more green space in urban area

3. What is new meaning of the word “cities’ in todays context?

A city is a relatively large and permanent human settlement with complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land
usage, housing, and transportation.

4. What is the impact of globalization on indian cities?

High industrial development, migration to cities and foreign direct investment in commercial sector leading to
high quality residential and office spaces.

5. Outline any four important aspects that must be considered while applying urban design principles?
physical geography, social and cultural theory, political vision and urban economics.

6. What do you understand by brown filed sites?

A brown field site is a land previously used for industrial or commercial purpose. the land may be contaminated
by low level of hazardous waste.

7. What are transit metropolis?

A Transit metropolis is an urbanized region with high-quality public transportation services and settlement
patterns that are conducive to riding public transit.

8. How is digital design influencing urban design?

Digital design helps to bring out the forms that are natural to the terrain.

9. What does the meaning of public realm in todays technology driven age?
In digital age the public realm means social media network, internet and media.

10. Outline any four areas of urban design which can use digital techniques for analysis?
physical conditions, population density mapping, transportation and landscape.

PART B
11. (a) Discuss in detail with case studies,the various issues arising out of globalization which has a
strong impact in the form and development of a city?

 A form of globalization and global trading where all nations prosper and develop fairly and equitably is
probably what most people would like to see.

 It is common to hear of today’s world economic system as being “free trade” or “globalization”. Some
describe the historical events leading up to today’s global free trade and the existing system as
“inevitable”. The UK’s former Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, was famous for her TINA acronym.
Yet, as discussed in the Neoliberalism Primer page earlier, the modern world system has hardly been
inevitable. Instead, various factors such as political decisions, military might, wars, imperial processes
and social changes throughout the last few decades and centuries have pulled the world system in
various directions. Today’s world economic system is a result of such processes. Power is always a
factor.
 Capitalism has been successful in nurturing technological innovation, in promoting initiative, and in
creating wealth (and increasing poverty). Many economists are agreed that in general capitalism can
be a powerful engine for development. But, political interests and specific forms of capitalism can have
different results. The monopoly capitalism of the colonial era for example was very destructive.
Likewise, there is growing criticism of the current model of corporate-led neoliberalism and its version
of globalization and capitalism that has resulted. This criticism comes from many areas including many,
many NGOs, developing nation governments and ordinary citizens.

While these are not new ideas, their resurgance in the last few decades has led to naming the ideology as
neoliberalism. Richard Robbins, quoted above, also summarizes (p.100) some of the guiding principles of this
ideology, which include:

 Sustained economic growth as the way to human progress

 Free markets without government “interference” allow for the most efficient and socially optimal allocation of
resources
 Economic globalization is beneficial to everyone
 Privatization removes inefficiencies of the public sector
 Governments should mainly function to provide the infrastructure to advance the rule of law with respect to
property rights and contracts.
To point out some of the assumptions that are made to support the neoliberalism ideology:

 Humans are motivated by self-interest, greed etc, expressed best through pursuit of financial gains
 Actions that result in greatest financial gains benefit society the most
 Competitive behavior is more rational for individuals than cooperation, hence societies should be structured
around this motive
 Progress is measured by increased materialistic consumption and so ever more consumption should be
favored.

There are elements in the above assumptions of what some have called “Social Darwinism” or others have
described as “survival of the fittest”, in a literal sense, to human societies. Yet,

 Cooperation is also often a survival mechanism as is competition, and sometimes these can go hand in hand
or even overlap (e.g. cooperation within a species or group, but competition with others).
 While there are no doubts elements of self-interest in human nature, there are also elements of cooperation
due to the perceived need for a stable society in which to live.
 (And cooperation also predates just modern civilization, and can also be seen in hunter-gatherer societies, as
pointed out by anthropologists, such as Robbins, quoted above, and Jared Diamonds, author of Guns, Germs
and Steel (W.W. Norton & Company, 1997).

(b) Discuss how evolving digital methods of designing has influenced the urban design of cities?

Design methods for landscape architecture and garden design

Design methods
Technology affects most aspects of our lives, including birth, death, marriage and design methodology. Some of the
influences are welcome and others, like pollution, are not. On the influence of digital techniques on design methods,
and we are optimists. The paper will attempt to set current methods in a broad-brush historical perspective.
1. Pre-1800 design methods Before the industrial revolution, most production was the result of craft evolution.
Designers, who were also builders and manufacturers, commonly worked by making an endless series of
evolutionary adaptations. The etymology of manufacture ('made by hand') reminds us of this history. It was
a 'dirty hands' approach and craftsmen did not have an academic training. Le Notre was unusual in that he
attended an art school in Paris. Capability Brown, like most pre-1800, garden designers learned their trade
as apprentices in gardens. They learned to dig and plant before they learned to design and draw.
2. 1800-1900 design methods As a consequence of post-renaissance scientific modernism, there was a shift
to the use of drawing boards, calculation and a 'clean hands ‘methodology. James Watt employed this
method in the design of steam engines and was excluded from the craft guild, despite his great manual
skill. His peers did not see that a man with clean hands could be a 'master' of his trade. At a later date it
became accepted that the producers of 'master' plans required clean hands, and that their drawings would
be sent for fabrication by less educated people with dirty hands. We still speak of 'master bakers' and
'master brewers' and most professions require a 'master’s degree', conferred by universities on clean-
handed scholars. In the built environment professions this led to the production of 'master plans'. In
engineering terms, a master plan is an assembly drawing which explains how components are put together.
In the landscape, planning and architecture professions it is a long term development plan, perhaps for a
university campus or a new town. Many architects, and some garden designers, served apprenticeships in
design offices - not on construction sites.
3. 1900-1972 design methods Modernists used to say that 'form follows function'. It was a partial truth. Form
is also consequent upon beliefs, technology, social structures and design methods. In the last century,
when architecture began to extend its concern beyond 'churches and mansions', modernist designers
sought to learn from industrial techniques. They hoped to find a new social relevance, to become masters
of the built environment and to produce 'machines for living'. Their drawing-board based design method
contributed to the blankness of totalitarian modernism. Jane Jacobs, Charles Jencks and Prince Charles
have criticized the results of this approach with regard to planning and architecture. Its consequences for
landscape design and planning have received less attention but are even more disturbing. Ugly buildings
affect the eye of the beholder. Badly planned and designed landscapes affect the sustainability of urban
life. The twentieth century produced too many landscapes with no regard for history, craftsmanship,
ecology or the ways in which humans interact with outdoor space. Each decade of the second half of the
twentieth century produced blank 'concrete deserts' which can be espied from Greenwich Park: the South
Bank (1950s), the Barbican (1960s), South Thamesmead (1970s), the Isle of Dogs (1980s) and the
Greenwich Peninsula (1990s). All these places have been 'master planned', admittedly with diminishing
enthusiasm, and no one who visits them can wish the procedure to be repeated. Historic Greenwich is an
island of pre-1800 quality in a mudgy sea of urban sprawl. It is no coincidence that these projects were the
result of pseudo-scientific, clean-hands, drawing-board-rooted design method. For landscape architects it
was the Survey-Analysis-Design (or SAD) Method. One conducted a semi-scientific Survey; one analysed
the results (usually on drawings with jagged lines and arrows); then one performed a creative leap and
produced a design. More often than not the design had little relationship to the survey and analysis. The
method was not a success.
4. Post-1972 design methods According to Charles Jencks' joke-date, the post-modern era began at 3.32pm
on 15 July 1972. Pruitt-Igoe, which might have been detonated at that moment, was an award-winning
example of totalitarian modernism. New architectural styles have developed since then. But there have
been few related developments in master planning or landscape architecture. Unaware of being dressed in
the concrete jacket of modernism, practitioners have been unable to move forward. The 1990s business
parks, retail parks and housing estates within sight of Greenwich Park show post-modern architecture in a
modernist structure of geometrical roads, lawns, shrub beds, and underground drainage pipes. If one
travels to Paris one can find examples of architectural post-modernism applied to park design, but not
examples of un-master-planned, post-modern, post-industrial environments. Parc de la Villette is a
 significant example. Bernard Tschumi made much of his structuralist, deconstructed, layered, approach.
But the layers are abstract constructivist geometry. They are not digital layers and they do not reflect an
intelligent set of landscape structures. Parc de Bercy takes a step forward, with its use of historical layers,
but it shows little inventiveness with regard to natural process or social process layers. As Holden remarks,
'the functions of the Parc de Bercy are those of the traditional municipal parc'¦ there is not even a cafe. But
in post-1972 projects we also see the beginning of a multi-layered computer-aided approach to design.
Hence the death of the master plan and the birth of digital creativity. Kathryn Gustafson summarized her
design method as 'Words-Diagrams-Models'. The Diagrams and the Models could well be produced
digitally.
Digital creativity
Wishing that master-planning had died in 1972, we must hope that digital techniques do as much for outdoor design
as dynamite did for modernist architecture. Computers can:

 Abolish 2-dimensional master-planning

 Make 3-dimensional design the norm
 Encourage 4-dimensional design, by simulating changes through time
 Supply designers with a wealth of factual information
 Incorporate a full range of values into the design process
 Impart post-modern structures to the design process, employing intellectual structures from natural science,
social science, the arts and the humanities
 Facilitate the environmental assessment of projects from many points of view, including the motorist, the
cyclist, the pedestrian, the local resident, the frog, the hedgehog and the buttercup.

Information-rich design
 As students, most of learned to apply a Survey-Analysis-Design procedure which began with land survey
plans. It was a classic social science approach, adapting the methodology which has had such apparent
success in the natural sciences. But the information-inputs were thin. We tended to survey the existing site
(geology, soils, artifacts etc) and make suppositions about 'user needs'. Today, the information age is
presenting us with a richer harvest of data: textual, numerical and graphical.[Fig 1].
Value-rich design
 The Survey stage of Survey-Analysis-Design was often limited by the geographical extent of the site. After
data-assembly one was expected to make a 'creative leap'. Image-editing techniques encourage the use of
other information resources. Colin Rowe discussed the role of collage in urban design. The technique can
be used to assemble ideas from books, from one's travels and from the whole history of art.
Layered design (& GIS)
 A layered approach to design has become popular, for several reasons. First, a concern for the
environment, which tends to be analyzed in layers. Second, a response to the philosophy of structuralism.
Roland Barthes wrote that:
 We know now that a text consists not of a line of words, releasing a single 'theological' meaning (the 'message'
of the Author-God), but of a multi-dimensional space in which are married and contested several writings, none
of which is original: the text is a fabric of quotations, resulting from a thousand sources of culture.
 Third, Jellicoe advised us to consider the 'transparencies' of the hunter, the settler and the voyager. Fourth,
many computer programmes, including image-editing, CAD and GIS use layered data structures.
Environmental assessment/design
 The logic of environmental impact assessment, upon which McHarg was a significant influence, invites us
to review the impact of a development on the every social, physical and biological aspect of the
environment. This requires a review of the environment from many disparate stand points. Layered data
can be made available via web-based GIS and interest groups can assess the impacts of development
projects from their own points of view. Instead of development projects being assessed only by white, male,
middle-class planners, we can embrace the views of ethnic minorities, the young, the old, the dispossessed
and every other group. It is a more democratic procedure.
Pattern-assisted design
 Kythryn Gustafson summarized her approach to design as 'words, diagrams, then models'. This lends itself
to digitization. Words can be drawn from databases. Diagrams and models gain enormously from digital
techniques because it is easy to make the endless minor adjustments which produce good results - in a
manner not unlike pre-industrial craft evolution. Turner made a case for pattern-assisted design in City as
landscape and two recent books have given further consideration to the use of patterns in design. The
Kaplans, in With people in mind advise on the creation of restorative places through the use of Alexander-
type patterns. Bell, in Landscape, pattern, perception and process considers the role of social, human and
natural patterns in creative design. We believe that digital techniques will, in due course, allow a fully-
developed pattern-assisted design procedure.
Conclusion
 Let us bid farewell to master planning and the twentieth century with one wave. Both were responsible for
some glories and many disasters. Designers can look forward to exploiting the rich information resources
which are now available to each desktop. Alone, the information could make our task more difficult. With
computing technology to process the digital information we can put the resources to creative use.
 Evaluation of the influence of modeling software in the form generation process
Experiment:The aim of the experiment is to evaluate the results in form generation achieved by the use of
basic CADmethods and parametric modeling. The exercise consists in modeling a 3D partition through
themultiplication of a geometric module. The exercise is repeated in several Auto CAD users and the results
arecompared to a result achieved by a Rhino user. The results are generated during
12. (a) Discuss in detail the various tools and methods of understanding a city form the point of urban
design?

- City Modeling
we describe the urban design data model and the structure of the spatial database, highlighting the possibilities that it overs by integrating
urban environment and urban design process feature classes, and provide an example of its implementation in Post GIS using datasets
for the Randstad region in the Netherlands. Secondly, we demonstrate its application to urban design analysis and evaluation through the
implementation of a tool for AutoCAD Map 3D.We then discuss the bents and the potential applications in urban planning and urban
design education, and point to further work required to test its integration with the complete City Induction framework.

A SPATIALDATABASE FOR URBANDESIGN

A spatial database can constitute an adequate support platform to achieve the integration and interoperability
requirements of an integrated urban design approach, namely:

It is a platform to which deferent design and analysis tools can connect, but it also provides an array of analytic
methods to quickly process spatially and statistically the information contained in it;

It stores and manipulates simultaneously the geometry and attribute information (text and numbers) that is used
and produced during the various stages of urban design;

It can import information from a wide range of data, image, GIS and CAD le formats, either natively or by using
plug-ins;

The information can be accessed locally or re-motely over a network for manipulation or visualization;

It can store very large quantities of information and provide selective access to portions of the data through queries
in an ancient way;
The information is managed in a single central repository, avoiding data duplication and ensuring that the most
up-to-date version is accessed by everyone. However, to use such an infrastructure in turban design process, it
needs to be congaed with an adequate data model that supports the kinds of information, methods and user roles
that make upthe urban design process.

URBAN ENVIRONMENT DATA MODELS

One of the leading GIS software companies has a repository with several data models but most stem from the held
of geography. Although one canned various components that would be relevant to an urban environment data
model, these are not integrated and do not constitute a complete set. The most comprehensive urban environment
data model for GIS is the OGC standard City GML. However, it follows a logic strongly oriented towards data exchange and3D city model
visualization. The model is structured around the concept of levels of detail of information that is organized according to the needs of 3D
visualization and not necessarily to those of a design process. Furthermore, it reaches a high level of detail with building features,
components and interiors, which are not very relevant to the urban design process. Other urban environment data models and
focus primarily on the retrieval, analysis and visualization of existing information, but lack components pertaining to
the design process itself, building regulations, development constraints, benchmarks and multiple design
proposals.
 City Modeling -

physical or administrative geo-spatial entities. The second domain contains data that is produced by the planning and design process. This
information is not descriptive but rather prescriptive, analytic or interpretative of the urban environment, and is an urban design project.
Within each domain a series of groups to facilitate the understanding of the content of and the relations between the various feature
classes.

These are largely de-rived from previous work on urban ontologies carried out in the City Induction project (Beirão et al. 2009; Montenegro
and Duarte, 2009; Duarte et al., 2011). The urban environment domain has the following groups:

1. Landscape system (lnd)

2. Built system (blt)
3. Mobility networks system (mbn)
4. Boundaries system (bnd)
5. Information system (inf)
6. Zones (zn)
7. Axes (ax)
8. Focal points (fp)
9. Site and design regulations (sdr)
10. Site and design analysis (sda)
11. Evaluation goals (evg)
12. Evaluation outcomes (evo)

Groups 6-8 contain graphical elements of the spatial framework or master plan, produced in the formulation
stages, and additional explanatory or conceptual information about a design proposal, produced in the design
stages. Groups 9-12 contain design support information that is produced by the formulation and evaluation stages,
providing design constraints, regulations, performance goals and as-assessment outcomes for the various design
proposals.

13. (a) Discuss the factors to be considered while designing a sustainable city?

Development of Healthy And Sustainable Cities:

A Multidisciplinary Approach

A lack of proper understanding of sustainable and integrated development amongst government officials and
building professionals, particularly in fast-developing regions with high rates of urbanization, is leading to health,
societal and economic issues often being tackled independently, rather than cohesively.

The adoption of a multidisciplinary approach to developing healthy and sustainable cities through
architectural urban planning and management is needed. This approach aims to raise the awareness of the
design professions to the evolving concept of sustainable development, and the interconnected elements
required for the development of sustainable healthy cities.
Sustainable development has focused in the past primarily on economics and the environment, described back in
1987 as: “...development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs”.1

The concept of sustainable development grew during the following decade, with international focus on the issue
cumulating in the outcome of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. The final programmer, the so-called Agenda 21, is seen as the 21st Century
roadmap for sustainable development for all nations. How does this strategy apply to the design of urban
environments?

Most designers refer to the 1987 definition of sustainable development in their design concepts, with architectural
design for health developing separately. Indeed, health and social issues are often not prioritized by business and
urban design sectors, although most policies, such as Agenda 21, Health for All2 and WHO Healthy Cities projects,
have included and emphasized the desire to integrate these factors in addition to creating economically sustainable
development.

The WHO Healthy City project suggested a conceptual model of sustainable development on the basis of
equilibrium, livability, and sustainability of relationships between environmental, economic, social factors, as well as
integrating healthy sustainable development. This model was further referred to in the later European Sustainable
Development and Health Series. This concept, adapted from the WHO models, is applied here as an alternative
design approach to the building of sustainable cities through environmental and medical sciences, technologies,
urban design, engineering and urban management.

Urban Design
Health and sustainability should be employed in town planning and urban design at project conception. City
orientation should be analyses taking into account with the sun path and wind direction for the latitude in question,
with buildings and landscaping designed and orientated correctly to maximize the air quality and potentially reduce
traffic accidents.

Guidelines from Agenda 21 should also be implemented when improving urban planning of existing cities.
Urbanization in Bayamo City, Cuba, over the past 60 years had led to a disorganized and spontaneous expansion
of the city that could not keep up with its rapid population growth. However, inspired by the Local Agenda 21
initiative, the city has adopted new planning approaches to develop non-motorized urban mobility, improve
municipal waste management and enhance river water quality through integrated hydrographic basin
management6.

Zoning analysis for industrial, residential, commercial and public areas including parks, hospitals, offices and
schools should take into account geological, meteorological and ecological factors. In the planning of industrial
zones and waste treatment sites, for example, such analysis would help through reducing air pollution from the
secondary source reaching residences. Sustainability can also be gained through appropriate zoning that optimizes
travel routes to balance energy consumption and pollution concentrations in built-up areas.

Site and building history should be examined for sources of potential contaminants (i.e. previous petrol stations or
landfill sites) and should also take into consideration geological factors (i.e. radon concentrations). Pollution
prevention and mitigation measures in addition to Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA/SEA) should be
integrated into the planning strategies of city developments.
Urban design should make air quality enhancementto measures a priority

Traffic and circulation are major criteria taken into consideration in urban planning for which analysis of
meteorological factors should be considered. Policies on pedestrian and vehicle zones should not be based on only
commercial locations, traffic control and wind direction, but also other factors such as, air pollution dispersion,
temperature, humidity, and possible weather conditions.

It is also important to recognize the impact of transport on the spread on communicable diseases. For example,
using epidemiological data from various neighborhoods, researchers modeled the transmission of tuberculosis on
bus networks in Buenos Aires. The model provides a useful framework for understanding the complex interactions
of individuals within an urban environment.

We Are What We Breathe

The landscape design of micro- and macro-environments should incorporate meteorological analysis to screen or
diminish air and noise pollution from industry and traffic where possible. Public transportation and zoning should
seek to minimize pollutant exposures to residences on both local and regional scales. The ratio of terrain to building
areas should be suitable to allow sunlight and plants to effectively reduce toxicity in the urban air.

Urban design should make air quality enhancement measures a priority. The appropriate use of trees, plants,
landscaping features and fountains can greatly help improve the quality of the air, removing airborne toxins and
reducing noise pollution. Natural daylight can also help reduce concentrations of airborne microbes in cities, whilst
trees and earth-berms help filter the air at street canyons and reduce noise pollution.

Pollution control policy, land-use and zoning control, traffic circulation planning and urban management, as well as
sustainability, can be integrated into planning legislation as a public health measure. Vernacular architecture,
aesthetics, local and ethnic requirements should be also included in the urban planning policy.

Constructing a Sustainable Environment

The effects of urban planning, engineering and management can all have a major impact on individuals’ health and
fitness levels as well as pollution exposure levels. Providing sufficient properly planned community social, play and
green areas can significantly help reduce anti-social behavior and crime rates, while enhancing a sense of
community.

The development of healthy and sustainable cities through architectural urban planning and management under a
multidisciplinary approach is needed to create and develop healthy and sustainable cities.

(b) Discuss the various aspects that contribute to place making in urban design?

* Place making is a multi-faceted approach to the planning, design and management of public spaces.
Place making capitalizes on a local community's assets, inspiration, and potential, with the intention of
creating public spaces that promote people's health, happiness, and wellbeing. It is political due to the
nature of place identity. Peacemaking is both a process and a philosophy.
‘Placemaking’ is both an overarching idea and a hands-on tool for improving a neighborhood, city or
region. It has the potential to be one of the most transformative ideas of this century.

WHAT IF WE BUILT OUR COMMUNITIES AROUND PLACES?

Placemaking is a quiet movement that reimagines public spaces as the heart of every community, in every city. It’s
a transformative approach that inspires people to create and improve their public places. Placemaking strengthens
the connection between people and the places they share.
Placemaking is how we collectively shape our public realm to maximize shared value. Rooted in community-based
participation, Placemaking involves the planning, design, management and programming of public spaces. More
than just creating better urban design of public spaces, Placemaking facilitates creative patterns of activities and
connections (cultural, economic, social, ecological) that define a place and support its ongoing evolution.
Placemaking is how people are more collectively and intentionally shaping our world, and our future on this planet.

With the increasing awareness that our human environment is shaping us, Placemaking is how we shape
humanity’s future. While environmentalism has challenged human impact on our planet, it is not the planet that is
threatened but humanity’s ability to live viably here. Placemaking is building both the settlement patterns, and the
communal capacity, for people to thrive with each other and our natural world.

IT TAKES A PLACE TO CREATE A COMMUNITY, AND A COMMUNITY TO CREATE A PLACE

An effective Placemaking process capitalizes on a local community’s assets, inspiration, and potential, ultimately
creating good public spaces that promote people’s health, happiness, and well being. When we asked visitors to
pps.org what Placemaking means to them, responses suggested that this process is essential–even sacred–to
people who truly care about the places in their lives.

True Placemaking begins at the smallest scale.

The PPS Placemaking process, evovled out of our work with William “Holly” Whyte in the 1970s, and still involves
looking at, listening to, and asking questions of the people who live, work and play in a particular space, to discover
their needs and aspirations. This information is then used to create a common vision for that place. The vision can
evolve quickly into an implementation strategy, beginning with small-scale, do-able improvements that can
immediately bring benefits to public spaces and the people who use them.
For us, Placemaking is both a process and a philosophy. It takes root when a community expresses needs and
desires about places in their lives, even if there is not yet a clearly defined plan of action. The yearning to unite
people around a larger vision for a particular place is often present long before the word “Placemaking” is ever
mentioned. Once the term is introduced, however, it enables people to realize just how inspiring their collective
vision can be, and allows them to look with fresh eyes at the potential of parks, downtowns, waterfronts, plazas,
neighborhoods, streets, markets, campuses and public buildings. It sparks an exciting re-examination of everyday
settings and experiences in our lives.

WHEN YOU FOCUS ON PLACE, YOU DO EVERYTHING DIFFERENTLY

Unfortunately the way our communities are built today has become so institutionalized that community stakeholders
seldom have a chance to voice ideas and aspirations about the places they inhabit. Placemaking breaks through
this by showing planners, designers, and engineers how to move beyond their habit of looking at communities
through the narrow lens of single-minded goals or rigid professional disciplines. The first step is listening to best
experts in the field—the people who live, work and play in a place.

Experience has shown us that when developers and planners welcome as much grassroots involvement as
possible, they spare themselves a lot of headaches. Common problems like traffic-dominated streets, little-used
parks, and isolated, underperforming development projects can be avoided by embracing the Placemaking
perspective that views a place in its entirety, rather than zeroing in on isolated fragments of the whole.

Since 1975, PPS has acted as an advocate and resource center for Placemaking, continually making the case that
a collaborative community process that pays attention to issues on the small scale is the best approach in creating
and revitalizing public spaces. Indeed, cities fail and succeed as the place scale, but it is still this scale that goes
ignored.

`KEY PRINCIPLES OF PLACEMAKING

A Placemaking approach provides communities with the springboard they need to revitalize their communities. To
start, we draw upon the 11 Principles of Placemaking, which have grown out of our experiences working with
communities in 43 countries and 50 U.S. and 3000 communties. These are guidelines that help communities
integrate diverse opinions into a vision, then translate that vision into a plan and program of uses, and finally see
that the plan is properly implemented.
Community input is essential to the Placemaking process, but so is an understanding of a particular place and of
the ways that great places foster successful social networks and initiatives. Using the 11 Principles and other tools
we’ve developed for improving places (such as the Power of 10 and the Place Diagram, below) we’ve helped
citizens bring immense changes to their communities–sometimes more than stakeholders ever dreamed possible.

The Place Diagram is one of the tools PPS has developed to help communities evaluate places. The inner ring
represents key attributes, the middle ring intangible qualities, and the outer ring measurable data.
Improving public spaces and the lives of people who use them means finding the patience to take small steps, to
truly listen to people, and to see what works best, eventually turning a group vision into the reality of a great public
place.

PLACEMAKING IS NOT A NEW IDEA

The concepts behind Placemaking got traction in the 1960s, when visionaries like Jane Jacobs and William H.
Whyte (who was Jacobs’ Fortune Magazine editor that got her to write Death and Life of Great American Cities)
offered groundbreaking ideas about designing cities that catered to people, not just to cars and shopping centers.
Their work focused on the importance of lively neighborhoods and inviting public spaces. Jane Jacobs advocated
citizen ownership of streets through the now-famous idea of “eyes on the street.” Holly Whyte emphasized essential
elements for creating social life in public spaces.
Applying the wisdom of Jacobs, Whyte, and others, PPS gradually developed a comprehensive Placemaking
approach for helping communities make better public spaces beginning in 1975. The term can be heard in many
settings–not only by citizens committed to grassroots community improvement but by planners and developers who
use it as a fashionable “brand” that implies authenticity and quality even when their projects don’t always live up to
that promise. But using “Placemaking” to label a process that really isn’t rooted in public participation or result in
lively, genuine communities dilutes the potential value.

PPS first started consistent use of the term in the mid-nineties and first published a bookwith a definition of the term
in 1997.

IT TAKES A BROADER SET OF SKILLS THAN ANY ONE DISCIPLINE CAN OFFER TO CREATE A
PLACE
Placemaking is at the heart of PPS’s work and mission, but we do not trademark it as our property. It belongs to
anyone who is sincere about creating great places by drawing on the collective wisdom, energy and action of those
who live, work and play there. We do feel, however, it is our responsibility to continue to protect and perpetuate the
community-driven, bottom-up approach that Placemaking describes. Placemaking requires and supports great
leadership and action on all levels, often allowing leaders to not have the answers but allow an even bolder process
to unfold.
We believe that the public’s attraction to the essential qualities of Placemaking will ensure that the term does not
lose its original meaning or promise. Making a place is not the same as constructing a building, designing a plaza,
or developing a commercial zone. When people enjoy a place for its special social and physical attributes, and
when they are allowed to influence decision-making about that space, then you see genuine Placemaking in action.

PLACEMAKING GROWS INTO AN INTERNATIONAL MOVEMENT

As more communities engage in Placemaking and more professionals call their work “Placemaking,” it is now
essential to preserve the integrity of Placemaking. A great public space cannot be measured simply by physical
attributes; it must serve people as a vital place where function is put ahead of form. PPS encourages everyone–
citizens and professionals alike–to focus on places and the people who use them.

Placemaking strikes a balance between the built, the social, the ecological and even the spiritual qualities of a
place. Fortunately, we can all be inspired by the examples of many great Placemakers who have worked to
promote this vision through the years. Through the development of a Placemaking Leadership Council PPS is
working to support a broad network to support the further evolution of Placemaking and build its potential impact as
a movement. Through bringing together our partnerships with UN Habitat and the Ax:son Johnson create the Future
Of Places conference series to support the prominence and impact of Placemaking internationally, with a focus on
developing cities.
Placemaking belongs to everyone: its message and mission is bigger than any one person or organization. PPS
remains dedicated to supporting the Placemaking movement as a “backbone organization”, growing the network
and offering our resources and experiences to all the other Placemakers out there.

WHAT PLACEMAKING IS–AND WHAT IT ISN’T

PLACEMAKING IS:
 Community-driven
 Visionary
 Function before form
 Adaptable
 Inclusive
 Focused on creating destinations
 Flexible
 Culturally aware
 Ever changing
 Trans-disciplinary
 Context-led
 Transformative
 Inspiring
 Collaborative
 Sociable
 PLACEMAKING ISN’T:
 Imposed from above
 Reactive
 Design-driven
 A blanket solution
 Exclusionary
 Monolithic development
 Overly accommodating of the car
 One-size-fits-all
 Static
 Discipline-driven
 Privatized
 One-dimensional
 Dependent on regulatory controls
 A cost/benefit analysis
 Project-focused
 A quick fix

14. (a) Discuss the use of GIS as a powerful tool to map and manage cities?

About GIS

A Geographic Information System or GIS is sometimes thought of as a computer based mapping system. Each
theme is put into a separate layer, and layers are overlaid on each other as the cartographer or GIS user makes the
map. Items that are commonly found on hard copy maps can be drawn and displayed on a computer
screen. However, the ability to view map information on a screen is just the tip of the GIS iceberg.

GIS integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of
geographically referenced information. GIS allows us to view, understand, interpret, and visualize data and is a tool
for City analyzers, planners, and decision makers. Simple geographic analysis includes determining where things
are, what is near them, and what sorts of database information is associated with them. GIS can also do complex
geographic analysis, including modeling and forecasting. GIS thus is a powerful tool useful to many City
departments.

Some examples of GIS use in Cambridge include:

 Community Development Department making planning decisions, analyzing zoning requirements, and
managing open space by using maps, analysis tools, and now 3D models.
 The Police Department uses GIS for crime analysis, forecasting crime trends for better policing, and easy to
understand crime reporting to residents.

 Cambridge Water Department uses the infrastructure layers for capital planning, maintenance, and hydraulic
modeling.
  Inspectional Services has integrated GIS with their new permitting system for creating work orders, field
inspections, and organizing records.

 The Public Works City Arborist uses mobile GIS to inventory the City trees, plan for planting and maintenance,
and offer residents a mobile app to visit and learn about the trees on their own.

 Traffic and Parking is working with GIS to map crash locations, traffic counts, traffic patterns, and
enforcement.

 The Assessor’s office use GIS for analysis of real estate trends and property values.

 Cambridge Watershed monitors the City's public drinking water supply which is outside the City, and also uses
GIS to help manage Fresh Pond Reservation.

The Information Technology Department (ITD) is responsible for the successful implementation of GIS technology
throughout the City departments. These responsibilities include:
 Empowering departments through the provision of GIS infrastructure including data access, hardware,
software, and Web tools.
 GIS data procurement, development of new data sets, and maintenance strategies.

 The development of computer applications that will provide quick and easy access to GIS functions.
 Provide GIS to the public through a thoughtful and innovative approach.
 The development of high quality map products including plan metric, topographic, thematic, and custom maps.
 Departmental support for spatial data analysis using GIS.
 Integrating Cambridge GIS with other enterprise systems such as permitting, work orders, and public safety.
 User training and technical support, and encouragement.
 Management and maintenance of the City's master address database.

 Providing the public with current GIS data through open data initiatives.
GIS MAPPING

There are other maps that many of us are exposed to. In newspapers and news magazines, on some TV shows,
and especially in places like the National Geographic magazine and website we may see maps that show more
than just the normal physical and political information. (Perhaps the most familiar of these are the weather maps
that TV weather persons refer to.)

Some of these maps may simply show more detailed spatial information. They point the way to particular kinds of
places, or tell more about the landscape than an average map might.

Some examples of the physical information on such a map might include:

  Water mains, phone lines, or other buried networks.
 Areas of coastal erosion.
 Sites of historical interest.
 The location of different types of vegetation – hardwood forest, evergreen forest, grasslands, meadows and
overgrown fields, alpine vegetation, etc.
 Commercial and residential areas

Although beyond what’s shown on most highway maps, all of this information can be found by going to the place in
question and looking around. There is much information that isn’t visible in this way, however. A good example is
the location of traffic accidents referred to in the introduction to this section.That’s information that is tied to specific
places, but you wouldn’t know that just from going there. Unlike spatial information, it’s more than a picture of the
landscape: it tells you what happened there as well.

In addition to showing you what happened where, a map can tell you about the lives of the people who live there,
the geology or soil chemistry of the area, the ranges of its endangered species, the spread of disease in its human
or animal populations, or the rate of its development. By using different colors or patterns, just as they often do to
distinguish between states or countries, maps can show many kinds of differences:

 Levels of population density in different parts of a city

 Where different ethnic or racial groups are concentrated
 Income levels in different areas
 Increases in housing starts for various areas
 Current ranges of endangered species
 The frequency of particular diseases or conditions in various regions, towns, neighborhoods, or even city
blocks
 The proportion of children under 18 in different school districts

These are the kinds of maps that can be created using GIS software and the appropriate data.

Two kinds of data are necessary:

 The desired physical and political features of the map you want. Depending on the software and the nature
of the data available, this might be scanned in, programmed in, or downloaded from the Internet or from a
CD.
 The location information about the other features you’re interested in. Like the spatial information, this has
to come from somewhere. It might be downloaded from a database, the Internet, or a CD, or entered by
hand from information you’ve gathered yourself, but the data have to exist to begin with, and they have to
be accurate if your analysis is to mean anything.
Let’s say you’re concerned with the effects of spreading industrial development on the health of people in the area
where it’s taking place.

Some of the data that you might want to enter into a GIS system could include:

 A map of the area with which you’re concerned – a county, a rural area, a city, a specific part of a city
 The current industrial and residential sections of that area
 Locations where residential and industrial development have taken place in the past two years, or five, or
ten, or all of these
 Projected industrial and residential development within the area you’re studying
 Population density
 Prevailing wind and drainage patterns
 Incidence of particular medical problems in the area – specific diseases, birth defects, etc.
 Location of drinking water sources, identifying those that have tested safe and those that have not

Each of these pieces of information would be a GIS map layer. Whichever of the layers you chose, or all of them,
could be laid one over another, so that many different pieces of information could be viewed at the same time. In
that way, you can examine just how particular factors overlap or interact with one another.
COMPONENTS OF GIS

There are, as we’ve mentioned, four requirements for using GIS effectively:

 The appropriate hardware. You need a computer with enough memory, video capacity, and hard disk
storage space to run the GIS program you want to use. As we’ll see when we discuss software, just how
much computing capacity is necessary depends on what kind of software you choose, and on whether you
make your own GIS maps or only need the capacity to view those that are created by someone else.
 The appropriate software. GIS software ranges from simple viewers, which allow you to view, but not
create, maps, to map-creation software that can display a small number of layers, to powerful applications
that can handle and display enormous amounts of data. Some software can create and display GIS maps
from a website, making them accessible to large numbers of users at a time. Other types of software can
embed GIS capacity into non-GIS applications, so that non-GIS software programs can use the data stored
in them to create GIS maps. The software you need depends on what you want to do with GIS, how much
you intend to use it, and how important it is to the overall functioning of your organization or project.

Good GIS map-creation software, regardless of how powerful it is, should include:

o The ability to enter and work with geographic and location information – street names, political or
other boundaries, etc..
o A database management system, to organize and manage information.
 o A map creator that makes maps that are easily viewed, rational, and simple to interpret and
analyze.
o A simple and usable graphical user interface (GUI).

SOME OF THE ADVANTAGES OF USING GIS:

 It can help you determine how seriously an issue affects an area or the community as a whole. The
layering of several factors on a map can give you a clearer picture of, or new insight into, the nature, extent,
and distribution of a condition, and make it easier to compare it with other issues in the same area.
 It can clarify the relationships among several factors, populations, or issues. Often, being able to see
a picture of the interaction of various factors makes it much easier to understand how they influence one
another. Relationships jump out at you from a map in a way that they don’t from a column of numbers.
 It can demonstrate how differently an issue affects different populations or geographical areas.This
can be important information for a number of reasons. It can pinpoint problem areas or populations, give
clues to the origin or cause of a condition, and suggest means of addressing the problem.
 It can show you exactly where to concentrate your efforts. If you’re concerned with AIDS prevention,
for example, GIS can help to identify areas where the population is at the highest risk, and where outreach,
clinics, needle exchange, or other preventive measures would do the most good.
 It can help you better understand the area or community in which you’re working. A GIS map can
show a large amount of information all at once. It may, for instance, illustrate for a targeted neighborhood
abandoned buildings, population density, and the age, income, ethnicity, and education level of the
population. The ability to see all these factors together can be a powerful tool for assessment and
planning. It can also confirm or negate impressions or unsupported assumptions about an area, giving you
a clearer and more objective view upon which to base conclusions.
 It can allow you to isolate and examine individual aspects of the situation or area. By choosing layers
to display, you can look at the interaction of various pairs of factors, or just look at the geographic spread of
specific ones.
 It can provide a picture of the community’s or area’s assets and weaknesses. Seeing these
graphically can make clear just how many positive aspects there are to the community, and how much
already exists that can be mobilized to address problems. At the same time, it shows where assets are
lacking, and can suggest ways to deal with that.
 It can help in designing, implementing, and evaluating interventions. GIS provides the evidence on
which to base planning and implementation decisions, as well as a basis on which to justify those decisions
to funders and policy makers.
 It can show you change over time. Comparing two maps, one showing the incidence of a condition two
years ago and the other current, can help you understand where and how your efforts are succeeding and
 where and how they’re not. By the same token, by using GIS maps you can compare your work to that of
others, and consult with others if they seem more successful.
 GIS is by far the quickest and most efficient method of creating maps and similar graphics that
provide a picture of not only the geographic, but of the social, demographic, environmental,
political, and other aspects of an area as well. GIS systems can gather and present information
graphically in a variety of ways, change it at command with just a few mouse clicks or keystrokes,
reorganize it, and manipulate it, creating each time a graphic representation that clarifies conditions and
relationships. If you need this kind of information (and not everyone does), GIS is the best way to produce
it.
 GIS maps make powerful presentation tools. For most people, visual representations are easier to grasp
than columns of figures or oral presentations. GIS maps can provide simple, understandable explanations
of sometimes complex situations and issues, and make strong arguments for courses of action.
 Perhaps most important, GIS maps can help influence policy. Policy makers, particularly elected
officials, often know relatively little about the issues their decisions affect. Because they are so powerful at
representing conditions in an area, GIS maps can help policy makers understand issues more clearly, and
lead to policies that address reality in rational ways.

(b) How can digital media act a facilitator of public participation to create a sustainable design
programme?

Public participation is a political principle or practice, and may also be recognised as a right (right to public
participation). The terms public participation may be used interchangeably with the concept or practice
of stakeholder engagement and/or popular participation.
Generally public participation seeks and facilitates the involvement of those potentially affected by or interested in a
decision. The principle of public participation holds that those who are affected by a decision have a right to be
involved in the decision-making process. Public participation implies that the public's contribution will influence the
decision.[1][2]
Public participation may be regarded as a way of empowerment and as vital part of democratic governance.[2]
In the context of knowledge management the establishment of ongoing participatory processes is seen by some
in the facilitator of collective intelligence and inclusiveness, shaped by the desire for the participation of the whole
community or society.[2]
Public participation is part of “people centred” or "human centric" principles, which have emerged in Western culture
over the last thirty years, and has had some bearings of education, business, public policy and international relief
and development programs. Public participation is advanced by the humanist movements. Public participation may
be advanced as part of a “people first” paradigm shift. In this respect public participation may challenge the concept
that "big is better" and the logic of centralized hierarchies, advancing alternative concepts of “more heads are better
than one” and arguing that public participation can sustain productive and durable change. [3]
The role of public participation in economic and human development was enshrined in the 1990 African Charter for
Popular Participation in Development and Transformation.[4]
Public participation in environmental governance

With growing complexities of the environmental issues, public participation has come to the fore in academic
analysis concerning the contemporary debates about environmental governance.
There have emerged a number of arguments in favour of a more participatory approach, which stress that public
participation is a crucial element in environmental governance that contributes to better decision making. It is
recognised that environmental problems cannot be solved by government alone. [11] Participation in environmental
decision-making effectively links the public to environmental governance. By involving the public, who are at the
root of both causes and solutions of environmental problems, in environmental discussions, transparency and
accountability are more likely to be achieved, thus secures the democratic legitimacy of decision-making that good
environmental governance depends on.[12][13] Arguably, a strong public participation in environmental governance
could increase the commitment among stockholders, which strengthens the compliance and enforcement of
environmental laws. GIS can provide a valuable tool for such work (see GIS and environmental governance). In
addition, some opponents argue that the right to participate in environmental decision-making is a procedural right
that “can be seen as part of the fundamental right to environmental protection”. [14] From this ethical perspective,
environmental governance is expected to operate within a framework coinciding the "constitutional principle of
fairness (inclusive of equality)", which inevitably requires the fulfillment of "environmental rights" and ultimately calls
for the engagement of public.[14] Further, in the context of considerable scientific uncertainties surrounding
environmental issues, public participation helps to counter such uncertainties and bridges the gap between
scientifically-defined environmental problems and the experiences and values of stakeholders. [12][15] Through joint
effort of the government and scientists in collaboration with the public, better governance of environment is
expected to be achieved by making the most appropriate decision possible.
Although broad agreements exist, the notion of public participation in environmental decision-making has been
subject to a sustained critique concerning the real outcome of participatory environmental governance. Critics argue
that public participation tends to focus on reaching a consensus between actors who share the same values and
seek the same outcomes. However, the uncertain nature of many of the environmental issues would undermine the
validity of public participation, given that in many cases the actors come to the table of discussion hold very different
perceptions of the problem and solution which are unlikely to be welded into a consensus due to the
incommensurability of different positions.[16] This may run the risk of expert bias, which generates further exclusion
as those who are antagonistic to the consensus would be marginalised in the environmental decision-making
process, which violates the assumed advantage of participatory approach to produce democratic environmental
decisions. This raises the further question of whether consensus should be the measure of a successful outcome of
participation.[17] As Davies suggests, participative democracy could not guarantee the substantive environmental
benefits ‘if there are competing views of what the environment should be like and what it is valuable
for’.[18] Consequently, who should be involved at what points in the process of environmental decision-making and
what is the goal of this kind of participation become central to the debates on public participation as a key issue in
environmental governance.[12]

Right to public participation

In some jurisdictions the right to public participation is enshrined by law. The right to public participation may also
be conceived of as human right, or as manifestation of the right to freedom of association and freedom of assembly.
As such the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark and Sweden, have public participation and freedom of
information provisions in their legal systems since before the Middle Ages.[19] Democracy and public participation
are closely connected democratic societies have incorporated public participation rights into their laws for centuries.
For example, in the US the right to petition has been part of the first Amendment of the US constitution since
1791.[19] More recently, since the 1970s in New Zealand numerous laws (e.g.: health, local government,
environmental management) require government officials to "consult" those affected by a matter and take their
views into consideration when making decisions.
Effective public participation depends on the public having accessing to accurate and comprehensive information.
Hence laws regarding public participation often deal with the issue of the right to know, access of information
and freedom of information.[19]
The right to participation may also be advanced in the context of equality and group rights, meant to ensure equal
and full participation of a designated group in society. For example: in the context of disabled people.