s e g me n t s / t e c hni c a l

Continuing
innovation
in segmentally
lined tunnels
The last 40 years the tunnelling industry has seen significant changes in the
technologies the industry has adopted and how it now operates. We often reflect on
both the past and the future and the authors thought it would be good to stimulate
industry wide discussion by sharing our views on where we collectively believe our
industry is heading. In a recent publication we discussed some of the emergent
technologies in TBM tunnelling and segmental linings in particular

Anthony Harding Mike King

Anthony Harding is the Global Technology Leader for Tunnels Mike has worked all over the world on a range of projects, and
at CH2M. He has a particular interest in segmental linings is currently Head of Underground Construction on Crossrail

T
he changes the tunnelling industry has witnessed Malcolm Chappell
in the last 40 years have been huge. Some important Malcolm is a consultant and director of Ozengi. He spent 7
examples of these changes are presented in Table years with CH2M as director of tunnelling in the Pacific region
1. Have all these changes been for the better? In the main
yes, but on a personal front the authors miss the hand drive
tunnels, visibility of the ground, and the challenge of a break
up. These tunnels were a great learning ground for young
miners and engineers alike.
The welcome push for safety (which has increased enormously
in recent years) reduces the exposure of younger engineers to
such situations, and one side effect of this improvement may
be that our industry could see these skills lost forever. The loss
of such skills will place increasing demands on technology
to provide the improvements in cost, time (productivity) and
safety that the industry seeks in the years to come.
The changes that we have already seen in the industry
have relied heavily on new technologies. These are, of course,
technologies that are now widely accepted and used. However,
it is easy to forget that there would have been a time when this
was not the case. In particular, the successful implementation
of these technologies could only come about because of the
commitment and diligence of designer, client, and contractor
alike.
This is one thing that has not changed over the years. The
implementation of new technologies still involves overcoming
significant technical challenges, and the attendant risk to the
projects that use them for the first time. Technologies that
have been proposed for use in TBM tunnelling today will be
subject to the same challenges. The remainder of this paper
will, through the presentation of some examples, illustrate
both the technical obstacles to the successful implementation Open face excavation with shield at Stanstead Airport

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t e c hni c a l / s e g m en t s
of new solutions, but also some ways
in which these challenges might be
overcome.
New technologies for
segmental linings
It is easy to build a long list of
emergent technologies that may see
widespread use in ten or more year’s
time. Some examples pertaining to
segmental linings and TBM tunnelling
include:
■■ Plain concrete segments
■■ Automated ring erection
■■ Accurate performance monitoring to
feedback into design methods
■■ Energy recovery segments (ground
source and in-tunnel heat recovery)
■■ Improvements in analysis to reduce
the need for testing
■■ Hexagonal linings for soft ground
tunnels with curves
■■ Fixtures/methods that facilitate
internal structures construction and
tunnel fit-out
■■ Geopolymer concrete
■■ Omitting the bolts with reliance on
dowels and segment alignment/
location systems only
■■ Real-time comprehensive automated
quality control
■■ Intelligent segments
Table 1. Significant developments in tunnelling
40 years ago
610mm (2ft) wide panelled rings (reflecting
cast iron segments)
Shields and simple erectors
Compressed air widely used
Caulking the joints for waterproofing
Predominately hand mined.
Through-the-flange bolts.
Plain concrete or conventionally reinforced
segments
Dense, low cover reinforcement for fire
protection, or secondary linings
Grouting through ports in the segments
Alignment control using string lines & plane
checks
Straight rings with packers for alignment
control
Basic concrete mixes
Static casting systems with concrete/timber
moulds
Source: Authors
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s e g m en t s / t e c hni c a l
■■ Integral segment protection for conveyance of aggressive direction the energy markets take.
fluids The solution to both these problems lies with the supply
■■ Resisting internal pressures with single pass solutions chain. Where the raw ingredients are in short supply it is
unlikely that geopolymer will be cost effective due to simple
Each of these could probably be discussed in detail economics. Therefore attempting to use geopolymer for the
in a single article, but this article focusses on just three first time in such a location is less likely to be successful.
technologies: geopolymer concrete, single pass pressure Where the supply is sufficient the critical hurdle to overcome is
tunnels, and intelligent segments. achieving consistent quality using a by-product with apparent
negligible quality control. This is an area where the segment
Geopolymer concrete precast plant has a significant advantage over other projects: a
The manufacture of conventional concrete is responsible for requirement for a high volume of binder delivered consistently
over five per cent of the world’s CO2 emissions. Around 90 over a reasonable period of time. Indeed, the authors have
per cent of these emissions come from the production of spoken to two geopolymer specialists who have indicated that
Portland Cement (OPC). Geopolymer concrete replaces all the they would be willing to set up the supply chain to ensure
OPC with industrial by-products like slag and fly ash, and can provision of binder of the required quality. They believe that
realistically achieve reductions in CO2 emissions of 70 per this would be a profitable venture given the concrete volumes
cent for delivered segments. Despite research demonstrating typical of a tunnel project of 5-10km.
the applicability of geopolymer for segments (Wimpenny Therefore by engaging specialists in a role where they
and Chappell, “Fiber-reinforced geopolymer concrete – an can take the risk (and share in the reward) by being party to Above: A and satisfy the operations criteria.
innovative material for tunnel segments”, RETC June 2013) it is the contract could help overcome the main obstacles to the segmental pipe While there are examples of single
still yet to be used within a project context. adoption of geopolymer. in North America pass solutions being used to resist
While some of the obstacles to its adoption undoubtedly modest internal pressures, there is
stem from lack of understanding of the product there are some Single pass pressure tunnels Below: The Gold significant interest in extending the
technical challenges. Firstly, geopolymer does require a slightly The traditional approach to tunnels where the internal Coast de- reach of such solutions to allow their use
higher quality of cementitious material than conventional pressure exceeds the external restraint is to excavate and salination plant at higher internal pressures (up to 2 bars
concrete. This means that suppliers would have to implement provide initial support to the tunnel prior to installing a in Queensland. net pressure and beyond). While special
more stringent quality control to achieve the required quality. secondary lining that resists the internal pressure. Such The first steel bolted-plate joints or post-tensioned
Uncertainty as to whether this could be achieved in a cost secondary linings may be reinforced concrete, steel, or other fibre reinforced systems can be adopted there are
effective manner could create risk to a project, particularly one materials, with selection determined by the agressivity of the concrete tunnel concerns that they can be more difficult
that uses it for the first time. water/ground, the length of tunnel, and the magnitude of the in Australia to install, which introduces constraints
Secondly, the materials typically used for geopolymer internal pressure. on tunnel erection as well as requiring
(slag, fly ash, silica fume) are in short supply in some parts of However, significant savings can be made on both cost additional activities in the tunnel behind
the world, and its adoption will be highly influenced by the and schedule if a single pass solution can be made to work the TBM. For this reason there has
Today Benefits
solid concrete segments 1.2 to 2.0m wide Fewer segments and longer rings means less
time spent erecting rings
Tunnel Boring Machines with highly sophisti- Increased safety, speed and accuracy
cated hydraulic systems
Compressed air seldom used and avoided if Increased safety
possible
High quality elastomeric gaskets which can Much drier tunnels
now be cast in
Almost exclusively mechanised Improved safety
Curved bolts, Spear bolts, dowels or omitted Improved erection times, more hydraulically
altogether efficient, improved durability.
Steel fibre reinforced segments widely used. Reduced costs and improved durability
Some use of macro-synthetic fibres.
Micro-synthetic fibres in segments or spalling Reduced cost and improved durability
protection in a fire
Tail shield grouting instantaneous with Reduced settlements and less potential for
advance leakage through grout ports
Lasers, Total-Stations and computerised Improved accuracy
sequencing
Tapered linings; Universal rings Improved watertightness
Improved mix design from better understand- Higher strength mixes for challenging load
ing of concrete technology cases
Steel moulds using carrousels and steam Increased production and more accurate
curing segments
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t e c hni c a l / s e g m en t s
recently been attention on using high
capacity conventional bolts and dowels
to resist tension, with some projects also
looking at post tensioned rings.
Both bolts and dowels are able to
resist tension, although the mechanisms
differ. Bolts resist tension directly, while
dowels transfer tension forces between
rings, as described in Harding and
Chappell [2015]. However, there are a
number of issues with both bolts and
dowels:
■■ Durability
■■ Consequences of failure could be
significant
■■ Securing serviceability requirements
Durability is not a great concern
for dowels, for which the steel core is
usually encapsulated in a thick plastic
coating. However, for bolts traditional
steel is vulnerable to corrosion and thus
durability can be difficult to assure for
the 100 year design life often specified
for such assets. Plastic coatings exist
that will provide the required durability
provided they are not damaged upon
installation, but it is almost impossible
to be certain that such damage does not
occur.
The seriousness of this issue is
exacerbated by the fact that the
consequences of failure can be severe.
We have experience of over a hundred
years of concrete tunnel linings and this
provides confidence that we understand
the modes of failure and can design for
them. Furthermore, we also understand
the signs of overstress and would
reasonably expect to pick those signs up
during inspection of the lining. However,
deterioration of either bolts or dowels
would not be apparent upon inspection,
and a failure could occur at very short
notice.
So a higher degree of certainty of
design is required. The same is true of
damage upon installation.
As well as securing the above
capacities it is also important to ensure
that serviceability requirements are met.
For a typical dowel a few millimetres
of movement at least is required to
mobilise the load in the dowels. When
you consider the combined impact of
this displacement with the dowel recess
positional tolerance, and the gasket
groove tolerances, high relaxation of
the gasket can result, and the increased
working ranges can be difficult to design
for.
These problems require a systematic
approach:
■■ The durability must be exhaustively
34 | Tunnels | September 2015
Above: A typical verified. Where coatings are applied to bolts this could
panelled include impact and adverse installation tests to verify
segment tunnel performance.
almost certainly ■■ The consequences of failure should be carefully examined
built by hand; and risk assessed. Where risks remain high a redundant
no gaskets, no system using bolts and dowels may provide the level of
tapers; solid assurance needed.
block key bar ■■ Careful design of the serviceability state must be
reinforcement undertaken, considering the possible effects of the joint
opening and gasket relaxation leading to water egress or
water/soil ingress after an internal pressure event.
All three of the above require braod tunnelling expertise
to be brought to the design process to help identify all
the possible risks, and a rigorous quality control process
implemented by the contractor in order to ensure that the
completed tunnel functions effectively.
Intelligent segments
The issue of ‘intelligent structures’ that monitor themselves
has been discussed in the construction industry for some time.
In other industries – such as building plant, automotive and
aerospace – the concept is much more mature. Machinery is
equipped with sensors that monitor performance and help
identify when maintenance is required – and also when it is
not.
Inspection and maintenance of tunnel structures can be
difficult, as outlined in Harding and Chappell [2015], and is
often not implemented by infrastructure maintainers, so the
benefits of such a technology could be significant.
Above:
High capacity
shear dowel
www.tunnelsonline.info
The problems with such systems are considerable:
■■ The systems are currently expensive, making the life cycle
cost difficult to demonstrate.
■■ There is uncertainty over the life span of some systems and
their susceptibility to damage, compared to that of the
design life of a modern tunnel structure.
■■ Obtaining and interpreting data can be relatively expensive
with large upfront costs for equipment
■■ It is not always clear what aspects of the tunnel would need
to be monitored to assess good or bad performance.
If the first three problems are to be overcome then it will
most likely be through technological developments that have
a wider application than just tunnels, such as developments in
power sources, wi-fi technology and others. However, defining
how structures perform in service, and how we might actually
monitor this, is a task that requires inputs from designers and
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s e g m en t s / t e c hni c a l
owners/maintainers of tunnels.
This is not a straightforward task
across a few projects or owners, but
will likely require broader industry
engagement.
The authors believe that tunnel
societies around the world are ideally
positioned to take this challenge.
Conclusions and
expectations
The changes in the tunnelling
industry in recent decades, and TBM
tunnelling in particular, have been
substantial. The developments have
resulted from new technologies whose
implementation has often involved the
taking of calculated risks by project
teams. The taking of such risks will
inevitably be a part of the future
development of technologies in the
industry.
The number of potential technologies
identified in the field of segmental
linings alone is substantial. Many of
these technologies have obstacles to
their application. While obstacles may be
political, time related, or a simple lack
of knowledge, ultimately the technical
obstacles will see a new technology
stand or fall.
When one thinks of the risk of
adopting a new technology, technical
uncertainties combined with unknown
practical difficulties are invariably the
sources of most of the risk.
This paper has, through three
examples examined some ways in which
these risks could be mitigated, including:
1. Engaging specialists within the
supply chain and allow them to
collaboratively demonstrate that they
can secure the benefits to the project.
If this can be done with a backup
plan in place then the risk to the
project can almost be eliminated.
2. Bring the right specialists to the table
Above: A in sufficient numbers to ensure that
segmentally as many of the potential risks as
lined shaft in possible are identified and mitigated.
London, UK 3. Recognise existing shortcomings
of knowledge in the industry and
promote research that fills the gaps.
It is crucial that practitioners are
involved in this process to ensure that
research actually addresses the day-
to-day problems that the industry
faces.
This list is certainly not exhaustive.
Nevertheless it does show that, as an
industry, we can manage the risks, and
ensure that improvements to segmental
linings continue at the same pace as
they have in recent decades
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