Mathematics Education Research Journal, Vol.2, No.2, 1990.

CONSTRUCTIVISM IN A KINDERGARTEN
MATHEMATICS CLASS

Agnes Macmillan

This paper seeks to show that children in their first year at

school can be guided towards a closer awareness of their own
mathematical thinking so that ultimately the achievement of
more elegant solutions to problems will become one of their
goals. A more accepting, flexible and varied approach that
centres on the conceptual state and psychological needs of the
child is one that has been espoused by mathematics educators.
The paper outlines some of the processes and problems
involved in implementing such an approach by an experienced
teacher in her classroom. It was found that by delicately
exploring a child's thought processes, it is possible to gain an
illuminating view of the particular characteristics of each
child's conceptual world.

Constructivism and the Mathematics Classroom

Recent developments in Mathematics teaching have revealed that a

convenient and comfortable mingling of language and mathematics learning
theories can create acceptable models for classroom teachers. One of the
intentions of this teacher is to show the value of such an interpolative
model. The theoretical background for this study is based mainly on the
constructivist tradition as it is represented in mathematics e4ucation (Del
Campo & Clements, 1990; Ellerton, 1986; Labinowicz, 1985; Steffe &
Cobb, 1988) and the considerable work done in language education
(Barnes, 1975; Boomer, 1986; Britton, 1970; Donaldson, 1978;
Thomson, 1987; Wilkinson, 1971) which, in tum, was built upon
foundations provided by Vygotsky (1962).
 Kindergarten Mathematics 13

Both in language and mathematics teaching, emphasis has been placed

on the importance of the learner being given a strong sense of having
control of the learning that is taking place. In mathematics, knowledge is
seen as "being personally constructed and applied according to principles
internalised by the learner" (Boomer, 1986, pp. 4-5). Among the teaching
principles recommended by Boomer, and in accordance with the ideas of
radical constructivists such as Labinowicz (1985), is the role of
communication in learning. This notion has been developed even further
and it is believed that, not only should communication in the classroom
become a two-way process, but that teachers need to incorporate activities
in which speaking, writing, drawing, performing and imagining
mathematics are integral parts (Del Campo & Clements, 1987, pp. 12-27).
Efforts will be made in this study to show how the employment of a range
of communicative networks assists the young student of mathematics.
Vygotsky (1962) believed that the development of scientific, or non-
spontaneous concepts does not differ from the learning of everyday or
spontaneous concepts. Apart from the many intellectual functions involved
in learning, there are compelling psychological processes that will
determine the patterns of concept formation. Vygotsky has classified these
processes as "deliberate control" and "reflective awareness"(p. 83). The
former term means that a child must be ready to attend voluntarily, to
apply logical memory in seeking meaning. The latter term refers to an
ability to compare and generalise within known or spontaneous concepts in
order to find meaning in new or scientific concepts. In this study the
formal aspect of the task required knowledge of counting to ten and
addition of more than two addends. The mathematical functioning was
carried out in a way that closely resembled a real-life problem solving. It
was anticipated that the children would show both of these processes in this
situation.
With the current emphasis on students focusing upon, interpreting
and translating their own thoughts and actions when learning, it is desirable
for the teacher to withhold comment and evaluative judgement from the
pedagogy (Boomer, 1986). The teacher also needs to accept answers
whether right or wrong so that students can learn to trust their own ways
of thinking (Labinowicz, 1985, p. 227). Teacher questioning that
encourages self-evaluation and self- interpretation of procedures would
then be the ideal mode of communicating guidance and support (pp. 222-
226). On the role of teacher questioning Steffe & Cobb (1988, p. 283)
 14 Macmillan

have argued that "by helping children construct thinking strategies ... the
teacher can simultaneously help them become aware of their developed
arithmetical capabilities. This dawning awareness represents an
understanding of the self doing arithmetic." The necessity for a delicate
interplay of the child's conceptual and psychological states and the teacher's
instruction was highlighted by Vygotsky (1962, p. 101) when he stated
"the development of the psychological foundation for instruction in basic
subjects does not precede instruction but unfolds in a continuous interaction
with the contribution of instruction."

The Concept of Elegance

In order to extend and perfect the capabilities and creativity of our
mathematics students it has been suggested that teachers take positive steps
towards developing a concept of elegance (Del Campo & Clements, 1990).
Elegance was defined as "particularly simple pathways to a satisfactory
solution", and anticipating accusations of encouraging elitist tendencies, Del
Campo & Clements pointed out that it is reasonable to help children feel
pleasure as a result of their efforts in problem solving in mathematics.
Elitism implies that a commodity has become an exclusive prerogative of a
group of individuals. In the sense that the student who has reached an
elegant solution can be singled out and have her solution viewed as a model
of good mathematics for other class members, then that student may be
regarded as having an achievement that could be regarded as exclusive.
However, the nature of the general response of class members to a
very "worthy" (Del Campo & Clements, 1990, p. 15) solution will be
determined by the methods employed by the teacher in the process of
evaluating the solutions and subsequent presentation of the better solutions
to the class. Ideally, the children themselves should be given the
opportunity to present them. The teacher's contribution will be crucial
during the problem-solving, as progress is monitored and guided according
to individual students' needs. In this way, children will readily
perceive that it is possible for each one of them to seek better, if not
always the best, ways of doing mathematics. Children, once accustomed to
the process, become extraordinarily accepting, yet incisively perceptive
evaluators. If children are actively engaged in the evaluative process the
emphasis on striving for better quality procedures win not be elitist.
Children can be encouraged to explain their methods to each other and to
 Kindergarten Mathematics 15

the teacher in a climate of acceptance and acknowledgement (Labinowicz,

1985, p. 222).

Description of the Problem Solving Explorations

Classroom Exploration 1
Seven children were randomly selected from a normal kindergarten
class after having been exposed to formal mathematics instruction for a few
months. The children were interviewed individually with tape recordings
taken of the dialogue and detailed notes taken by the teacher of the
accompanying behaviours of the children. The children were asked to
select and purchase some items from 'the shop' in such a way that all the
given amount of ten cents was to be spent. The children were given ten
.counters to represent one cent coins. They accepted this without apparent
difficulty. In the following accounts the terms 'coins', 'money' and so on
will be used so as to more truly represent the dialogue that occurred. Five
items constituted 'the shop' and they ranged in price from Ic to 5c: a sman
cake of soap, a tub of playdough, a box of chalk, a box of pencils and a
small tub of paste.
As Emily took each purchase from 'the shop' she placed the correct
amount of money beside the item, and counted how much money she had
left. She spent 4c, then 5c without any veroalising but closely
concentrating on the task. After taking the I c item to complete the
exercise, she triumphantly announced, "It's all gone!"
Bradley selected the four least expensive items and said that he might
buy them without making any apparent calculations. The teacher
presented a checking procedure to Bradley by asking him if he thought he
had· enough money. He then proceeded to list the cost of all the items in
order, from the most to least expensive. The teacher then asked him
which one he was going to buy first. Bradley then selected the same four
items but checked the money that was left after each purchase.
Peter found himself in some difficulty as he purchased three items
at once (2c, 4c, 5c), positioned the coins and items indistinctly and counted
inaccurately. After being asked what he was doing, Peter reallocated the
coins and discovered that he had over spent. With some assistance he was
guided towards the possibility of exchange. He returned the 4c item and
unhesitatingly chose the 3c hem.
16 Macmillan

After selecting and putting aside the 5c item, then counting out the
coins, Christopher hesitated as he held the money. He introduced an
imaginary shopkeeper 'at the counter' and placed the coins some distance
away to his right. After purchasing the 2c then 1c items he realised that
the 2c remaining was insufficient for another purchase. He then exchanged
the Ic item for the 3c item without any assistance in order to complete the
transaction.
The opportunity for kinaesthetic experiences absorbed Tracy's
attention for some time as she felt compelled to touch and move the items.
There were some hesitations and changes of mind over the first and fourth
(Ie, 4c) purchases and the other two items (2c, 3c) were selected after
considerable reflection.
Before engaging in the task each child was asked to ch~ck that there
were ten coins in the pile. The purpose of this was twofold: the children
would become aware of the importance of the numerical aspect of the task,
and the teacher would be able to observe the children's individual counting
behaviours and ascertain their readiness to proceed with the task. With
one exception only, the children employed counting methods that were
competent and that involved picking up or moving the coins and placing
them in some kind of orderly formation. Nathan touched some of the
coins in the pile in a random fashion, but without engaging in any apparent
co-ordinating behaviour and announced that there were ten coins. When
asked if he was sure, Nathan proceeded to touch the coins again in a
random fashion, but this time co-ordinated the numerical terms verbally
until he reached ten and handed the pile of coins to the teacher. After
purchasing the 3c item, Nathan was asked how much he'd started with as he
seemed unsure of the purchasing procedure. His response of "eight"
showed that the task would test his numerical understanding. However, his
subsequent management of the task provided an acceptable solution (3c, 4c,
2c, 1c). After picking up the selected item, the correct amount of money
was given to the teacher.
Another child who was unsure of the purchasing procedure was
Carly. Initially, she selected three items (5c, 3c, 4c) and put them in her
lap. When asked how much that would cost, her response, "The price ...
mmm ..." indicated that the necessary connection between the coins and the
items had not been made. The teacher was then given the correct amount
of money after the first two of the previously selected items were collected.
Carly then realised there was not enough money left to pay for the 4c item
 Kindergarten Mathematics 17

and took some time to seriously consider her difficulty. After being asked
what she was going to do, and without any other guidance, Carly
exchanged the 4c for the 2c item. Suspecting that the shopping experience
had been a difficult and unpleasant task for her, Carly was then asked if she
would like to do the shopping in a different way. The three low priced
items were purchased competently, and after counting the remaining coins,
she bought the 4c item.

Classroom Exploration 2
The same shopping items and one cent coins were placed in view of
the group of children. The teacher's comments indicated that each child had
been successful with the task, and that each child had his/her own way of
counting the money, selecting an item and paying for it. Each child was
then invited to demonstrate to the group the way they would count out ten
cents. A variety of behaviours was presented including subvocal and vocal
counting, co-ordinating the numerical term with orderly and random
pointing. The teacher then indicated that there were also different ways of
shopping. While it would be possible to choose the things you most wanted
or liked, the amount of money being spent, knowing how much was left
and paying the correct amount all had to be considered. Emily
demonstrated her shopping procedures. Through questioning, the children
were led to observe the following strategies: choosing one item, paying for
it, then checking how many cents were left for the next purchase. It was
recommended that these procedures be used for future shopping tasks.
The next task resembled the preceding one except that the five items
were of food: a very small tin of baked beans, a carton of juice, a packet
of cheezels, an apple and a banana. A formal dimension was added that
required the children to write down their shopping activity as a number
statement.
A brief report of each child's performance will be followed by a
more detailed analysis of the teaching/learning episodes.
Emily selected the 5c item and placed the coins beside it. She then
selected the 3c and 2c items together and paid for them in the same way.
During the writing of the number statement, the coins were not referred to
at an, but the fingers of both hands were grouped to represent the amounts.
When reading out what was written (Figure 1), the numerals and signs
were interpreted with adherence to mathematical conventions.
 18 Macmillan

~)n \ It,
St ~t l==- \ ()
Figure 10 Emily's number statement.

Bradley selected the 5c item and placed it on one side, with the coins
on his other side. He then purchased the 2c and Ic items in the same way.
Having insufficient coins to make another purchase, he replaced the 5c item
but omitted to take back the five coins and instead added three of them to
the two remaining coins that he had been holding. He then picked up the 4c
and 3c items but kept the five coins in his hand. After writing down the
numerals to represent the items purchased (Figure 2), Bradley said that he
couldn't do any more and couldn't remember how much he'd spent.

Figure 20 Bradley's number statement.

Peter selected the 2c item, placed the coins aside and then purchased
the 3c item, placing the coins close to, but separate from the first money
spent. The Ic item was purchased in the same way. After asking, "What do
I do next?" and finding out how much he had left, Peter purchased the 4c
item to complete the transaction. As Peter used the price labels on the
items he recorded and verbalised the numerals and signs as he wrote. The
task of recording the total amount brought the announcement, "I can't do
it!" He was then asked, "What would help you? What did you use to buy
the food with?" Peter then counted the coins and unhesitatingly recorded
the total Figure 3). The number statement was read back in the
conventional way.
 Kindergarten Mathematics 19

Q
Figure 3. Peter's number statement.

Christopher purchased the same items as Peter and Bradley, but

matched the coins to the item as he went (3c, Ic, 2c, 4c). Although the Ic
item was actually placed second in the row of purchases, its price was
recorded first. Christopher then discovered that the amounts could be
placed in a sequential order. After doing this, he then recorded it (Figure
4), followed by "the two lines" for the equals sign. Each group of coins
was then counted as a discrete amount several times. After being asked
what he needed to know about the coins, they were counted in totality.

cH~'\0\O{Hef(
(+ ~ c 4-- ~::: 10

Figure 4. Christopher's number statement.

Although Tracy approached the 5c item, she settled upon the same
items as the preceding three children (3c, 2c, lc, 4c), but continued to
"pay" the money to the teacher. She used the price labels on the items in
recording the amounts. After placing the coins in front of each purchase,
like Christopher, Tracy became fixated in counting the discrete groups of
coins. After being asked how much she'd spent altogether, Tracy
proceeded to count the total group of coins. When reading back the
number statement (Figure 5), the first equal sign was read as a plus sign.
20 Macmillan

Figure 5. Tracey's number statement.

Nathan's and Carly's shopping very closely resembled Tracy's.

They needed assistance in combining the groups of coins to form a total, as
did most of the other children. Carly made her first total of the number
of items and then recorded the total· money spent by writing the numerals
as she counted the coins (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Nathan's and Carly's number statements.

 Kindergarten Mathematics 21

Analysis of Teaching/Learning Episodes

The idiosyncratic nature of each child's prior shopping experiences

meant that the approach to the task would arise from varying levels of
conceptual understanding. Emily did not need to employ a "reflective
consciousness" in purchasing the items. The action had become
spontaneous for her. For the other children, the concept varied in degrees
of generality in the emerging learning systems (Vygotsky, 1962, p. 92),
and could be categorised as being non-spontaneous. Bradley wanted to
'buy' the items without considering their cost; Peter, Bradley, Carly and
Nathan had poorly organised systems of payment. Although the children
had been playing shops in an unstructured setting, it could be regarded as a
substantial oversight that the teacher had not considered the possible limited
nature of some children's shopping experiences.
The perceptual attractiveness of the items presented as a factor
detennining the children's choices in both tasks. Christopher was the only
child who did not select the box of coloured pencils. As well as having an
appealing function for new school recruits, they were twelve slim-line
pencils in a brand new box. Of the items in the second task, the baked
beans tin was selected only by Emily. The other items in the second task
were commodities that could be readily consumed by the young shoppers,
and these were the items chosen by all the other children. The following
comments made by the children would seem to support the view that they
were perceptually attractive to those children:

I won't eat any of them ...

I got a banana in my bag.
I like this.
It's hard to think, they all look nice.
I'm taking them all home now.

While the teacher was conscious of choosing items for the shop that would
have a general .attractiveness for the children, it was assumed that, being a
mathematics task, the numerical aspect of the problem would be the most
predominant one.
In spite of having only ten coins available to them, and having
counted them before shopping, the money changed in its essential quality
 22 Macmillan

and substance after it was spent, according to the children's perceptions. It

seems that the action of transforming the pile of coins into discrete
quantities created such a difference in the children's understanding that it
was no longer the same pile of coins. This was a conservation task for
them. The physical action of moving the coins from the original position,
combined with the understanding that the money was thus spent, meant that
a profound change had occurred. The change had become the most
perceptually dominant feature of the environment for them (Gold, 1987, p.
26). The children's varying levels of understanding of the addition
operation itself will be examined in more detail in reference to the written
mathematical statements.
As counters, the majority of the group could be classified as being
in the Pre-Operational Stage (Steffe,· von Glasersfeld, Richards & Cobb,
1983, pp. 46-52). They needed to touch each coin in the performance of
their iterative counting behaviours, which would make them counters of
perceptual unit items. At first, Nathan did not seem to have developed a
sustained system of counting that went beyond reciting the numerical
terms. When confronted with the pile of coins he did not engage in a
counting behaviour, but merely recited the numerical terms until he
reached ten. However, as he competently counted amounts of less than six
a more valid explanation of his behaviours would be that his understanding
of number concepts beyond six is incomplete, and that the prospect of
counting what was clearly more than six, was too daunting for him. Peter
also displayed a lack of expertise in counting in the first shopping task. He
was not fully aware of the importance of having a system that allowed him
to know which amounts had been counted and which had not. At the other
end of the continuum of counting development, Emily has progressed
towards the Operational Stage (Steffe, et aI., p. 55). The recommended
strategies of choosing and paying for one item at a time became
superfluous for Emily as she was able to calculate without the assistance of
the physical materials. The evidence of these children's counting
behaviours would add strength to the view that "Children are in a constant
transition to the next stage, often demonstrating characteristics of more
than one stage" (Labinowicz, 1985, p.16).
Before proceeding to discuss the ways in which talking and writing
may have assisted the children's learning, the use of the imagined
dimension warrants some comment. Imagining has been recommended as
being one of the necessary and integral parts of mathematics planning. It
 Kindergarten Mathematics 23

was included among other forms of expressive language "because by

imagining, one can communicate with oneself' (Del Campo & Clements,
1990, p.59). The imaginative dimensions of the shopping task contributed
to the children's ability to become absorbed in the problem. This was
especially so for Christopher, who not only imagined a shopkeeper but
located him "at the counter, over there". The delight and pleasure for
Tracy in imagining the teacher as shopkeeper was unmistakable: "Apple-
two cents. There you go shopkeeper." Nathan and Peter constantly
referred to what they were going to "buy", while Bradley's concerns
focused on how much money he'd "got". Despite the considerable efforts
sustained by Carly she was able to express a joy that unselfishly
encapsulated her teacher: "Ms Macmillan, don't you tell me I have lots of
money! " This pleasurable feeling allowed her to trivialise the error that
she subsequently made: "Woops, I'll have to scribble out that one!"
The individual interviews during the shopping provided maximum
opportunity for sustained and meaningful talk. The children used the
opportunity to express their thoughts in the following situations: as an
accompaniment to an action or decision and as a request for support or
guidance. Some examples that illustrate the former assumption are:

No, I don't want that, I'll have the soap.

I can only buy these four thirAgS.
Now I'm going to buy an apple. I can't buy that, I can only buy
these four things.
That cost one, that cost two ....

Several examples show that the children availed themselves of the teacher's
accessibility:

What do I do next?
I can't do it!
I can't remember how to do a six.
Plus ... like a 't' isn't it?

On one occasion a child was gleeful in predicting the teacher's forthcoming

instruction: "I know what you're going to say 'Check that there's ten of
theser". Communication during these classroom episodes does seem to
24 Macmillan

have come close to being the two-way process recommended by Ellerton

(1986).
The formal written record of counting events was included so that
the children's responses could be judged by the teacher "as potential
indicators of the children's current thinking" rather than a test of their
ability to write a correct number statement (Labinowicz, 1985, p. 227).
Vygotsky's (1962) studies of children's language revealed to him the
complexity of written language. It required "a high level of abstraction in
which the child disengages himself from the sensory aspect and uses images
and words"(p.98). Signs and symbols of a more concise nature are
required in mathematics. Within the space of time taken to translate four
mathematical events from thought, to action, to symbol, most children
were unable to return to the beginning of the process and envisage the
events as a whole mathematical operation. Only EmHy, who clearly
operates at a more advanced conceptual level, was able to combine the
addends without assistance. The written statements should indicate to the
teacher that the children require many and varied opportunities to
manipulate mathematical symbols in situations that require an
accompanying physical event and involving fewer addends, with smaller
total amounts.
The basis of effective teacher instruction depended on the quality of
the interaction with the children, the suitability of the subject matter and
the nature of the classroom environment. Almost all of the teacher-
initiated dialogue took the form of questioning. The notion of ideal
teacher questioning that guides the children towards an interpretation and
evaluation of their own thoughts and actions has been presented. To what
extent, then, was the 'ideal' attained? The situations that most required
teacher questioning were when too many items were selected at once, when
there were insufficient coins to complete the transaction and when adding
the total amount spent. The teacher's question to Bradley was the first to be
asked of a pupil in difficulty. He had selected four items at once when
asked, "Do you think you have enough money?" Bradley undoubtedly
inferred' from this question that he had made a mistake and that the teacher
had judged that there wouldn't be enough money. (In fact the four items
did amount to ten cents.) Predictably, the question did not help Bradley as
he proceeded to enumerate the cost of all the items in the shop. The
subsequent teacher question also represented an imposition of the teacher's
thoughts: "What are you going to buy first?" Fortunately such gross
 Kindergarten Mathematics 25

deviations from the ideal ceased here. Children were asked non-
intervening and uncritical questions such as, "What are you doing here?";
"Can you show me again, please?"; "Where would you like to put it?";
"What would help you to find out?"; "How much did you spend
altogether?".
The suitability of the subject matter may be questionable in the light
of the discussion and analysis of concepts such as counting, purchasing and
adding. As well, the use of real coins rather than counters is an unknown
factor. The children also could have had the exchange process
demonstrated and rehearsed prior to the task or during the presentation of
desirable strategies. These limitations on the part of all concerned could
also be regarded as having constrained the learning that was intended.
However it is the author's belief that the advantages arising from the total
experience outweigh the constraints. This is largely due to the nature of
the problem-solving situation when combined with appropriate pedagogical
support and resulting in a challenging and satisfying learning environment.
Isaksen & Parnes (1985) have presented powerful research evidence to
show the value and benefits of creative learning through· problem-solving.
They believe that "teachers must understand the intimate relationship
between problem-solving and thought" and that "where there is no problem
there is no occasion to engage in thought" (p. 2). Here children have been
involved in a complex process that necessitates

making and communicating meaningful connections; thinking

of many possibilities; thinking of experiences in various ways
and using different points of view; thinking of new and
unusual possibilities; generating and selecting alternatives.
(p.9)

Summary

A powerful opportunity exists for the teacher to contribute to the

achievement of higher levels of conceptual understanding during the
process of pupil engagement in thinking and the construction of meaning.
This positive influence, that may be broadly referred to as instruction,
encompasses a variety of techniques and behaviours. The necessity for
such an influence on. the intellectual development of the child has been
26 Macmillan

exquisitely defined by Vygotsky in his chapter on the development of

scientific concepts in childhood (Vygotsky, 1962). His belief is that:

Instruction is one of the principal sources of the school-child's

concepts and is also a powerful force in directing their
evolution; it determines the fate of his total mental
development. (p. 85)

The realisation of the unique nature of each child's conceptual state

was an awesome yet precious enlightenment for this teacher. By engaging
in this kind of close partnership with a child, it was possible to perceive the
fine details of each child's learning style. It was indeed amazing to witness
such a range of counting, purchasing and recording procedures. The task
of effectively supporting, assisting and instructing a class of pupils whose
individuality must be catered for is a daunting one. Vygotsky (1962)
provides some inspiration and direction as a counter-balance for these
thoughts of overwhelming individual differences:

The only kind of instruction is that which marches ahead of

development and leads it; it must be aimed not so much at the
ripe as at the ripening functions. (p.104)

The promotion of a concept in mathematics teaching that aims to

foster the creative thinking abilities an~ develop the metacognitive powers
of all pupils in a class is not, I believe, elitist. If the concept of elegance
can be promoted in a normal classroom situation, then it will benefit not
only the bright and exceptionally able mathematicians, but all pupils.

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 Kindergarten Mathematics 27

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