READING MATERIAL

INDEX

S.No. Name of Topic Chapter Page No.

1. Role of Electrical Wing in Telecom 1 3-11
2. Basics of Air Conditioning 2 12-18
Design Criteria and Factors affecting Air
3. 3 19-42
Conditioning Loads
4. Latest Trends in Air Conditioning 4 43-58
5. Electrical Power System- An Overview 5 59-66
6. Sub Station- Types Selection and Designing 6 67-83
7. Reactive Power Management 7 84-96
8. Power Quality Management 8 97-101
9. Latest Trends in Sub-Station 9 102-107
10. Operation and Maintenance of Sub-Station 10 108-123
11. EA System – An Overview 11 124-130
Engine Alternator set – Selection and latest
12. 12 131-139
Installation Practices
Fire Protection System in Telecom
13. 13 140-145
Installations
Fire Protection System- Evolving Trends
14. 14 146-159
and Applicability to Data Centres
15. Fire Fighting System- An Overview 15 160-166
Design Installation and Maintenance of
16. 16 167-190
Lifts
17. Energy Conservation and Management 17 191-206
Energy Conservation Strategies for
18. 18 207-214
Electromechanical Services
Application of Renewable Energy Sources
19. 19 215-236
for Telecom Installation

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 Chapter-1

Role of Electrical Wing in Telecom

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 ROLE OF ELECTRICAL WING IN TELECOM

Modern Telecommunications network plays a key role in today's world and are
required to be continuously operated even in the most adverse conditions. The
Engineering Electrical Services in the buildings housing modern
telecommunications network must perform to an exceptional degree of reliability so
as to ensure that there are no breakdowns in the telecommunications system. The
safety and well being of both the buildings , human inhabitants and its
material contents including telecom equipment depend on the smooth and
reliable operation of various Electro-mechanical services.

Electrical Divisions came into existence in the erstwhile P&T department in 1963 to
cater to the need for undertaking infrastructure electrical and mechanical works
in-house rather than sourcing it from CPWD as per earlier practice. With bifurcation
of P&T, the Electrical unit remained with DOT and with the Corporatisation,
the Electrical unit has become part of BSNL.

The Electrical Wing of BSNL is responsible for carrying out original and
maintenance works of following electro-mechanical services in BSNL/ Telecom/
Administrative Buildings and residential quarters.

• Electrical Sub-stations

• Engine Alternator Sets

• Air-conditioning Installations

• Internal EI and Fans

• Water Pump Sets

• Fire Detection and Fire Fighting System

• Lifts

• Lightening Protection

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With the liberalization and opening of telecom sector to Private companies, the
electrical unit is ready and equipped for its comprehensive role for optimizing the
electro-mechanical services and minimizing the energy cost. The electrical
consumption alone, accounts for around 20% of total operating cost and it is
necessary that energy audit is conducted at regular intervals. This will further
assume greater importance in the coming years as power supply gets privatized and
competition to BSNL becomes effective.

The strength of Electrical units, lies in its specialized manpower, who can
undertake Energy Surveys and Energy audits. Energy Surveys comprises of two
Parts:

(i) Saving on account of power factor that includes the contractive demand vs the
actual, the tariff charge and the multiplying factor in the bill.

(ii) Saving by way of optimum design layout and the equipment used.

The Electrical unit is best equipped to handle this task.

With the increase emphasizes on energy conservation , the Electrical Engineers are
required to introduce systems/ equipment for controlling , the quality of power and
for automation of Electro-mechanical services with remote connectivity.
Stringent quality Electro-mechanical items are required for energy conservation.

Many products available in the market may have to be upgraded by continuous

interaction with manufacturers. The Electro-Mechanical items used in a Telecom
Building are mostly manufactured by Indian manufacturers, whereas exchange
equipment is being imported or manufactured by many International giants. Thus,
Quality of Electro-Mechanical items manufactured by local industry has to match
with exchange equipment of international standards so that there is no mismatch
between the Quality of Exchange equipment and Electro-mechanical items. This
requires quality improvement at the manufacturing stage itself. Factory visits,
testing and Inspection have to be done on continuous basis for improvement of
quality. The specialized manpower available with the electrical unit is in a
position to play a dominant role on the above.

The Electrical unit also undertakes the following professional activities:

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 • Updating the specifications of various electro-mechanical works.

• Introduction of new and latest technology.

• Performance evaluation of various contracts.

• Inventory control and material management.

• Standardization of Products.

Vision

Electrical Wing, BSNL aspires to be one of the best functional units in the country
and considers this as an achievable goal. All its members are committed to strive for
and to ensure that electrical services perform to an exceptional degree of
reliability.

Mission

Energy conservation, System Optimization, Quality, Speed and Economy in

Electrical and Mechanical Services.

Customer Needs

• Installation of Electro-Mechanical services to match SSAs'/ Admn units'

requirements particularly for installation of exchanges.

• Availability of electro-mechanical services at optimum level on continuous

basis.

Electrical Units Organizational Requirements

Optimum utilization of electrical unit capacity to add value to the telecom system by
executing electro-mechanical works on demand with quality speed and
economy. This can be done by :

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 • Understanding the requirement of Telecom System and their environment.

• Working productively on the creation of the most suitable financial

solution.

• Offering and facilitating access to the wealth of knowledge and expertise

• available in Electrical group for meeting operational and developmental

requirement.

Regulatory Requirements

Electrical Wing is a functional unit of BSNL. It shall function under rules and
guidelines issued by BSNL which is the regulatory authority for electrical unit.
The electrical services are to be provided as per the regulatory requirement of Indian
Electricity Rules , Pollution Control guidelines and Energy Conservation Act
2001.

Quality Policy

Electrical Wing, BSNL avows to provide electro-mechanical services with Quality ,

speed and economy to all its customers and to ensure their continuous and
reliable operation. We are committed to deliver defect free electrical services and will
continuously improve our processes to meet the need to our customers.

Quality Objectives

 To work hard to provide quality electro-mechanical

services, on time, so as to meet the customer's requirement.

 To make efforts through a constant dialogue with suppliers

and

 involving of People at all level to remove all possible irritants

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 during the execution of works.

 To meet the BSNL Exchange Commissioning Programmes

 To ensure reliable energy efficient and continuous operation

and maintenance of electrical services by involving people at
all level.

 To improve testing and checking procedures for electro-

mechanical installations for their optimum operation and
maintenance.

 To achieve energy efficiency of global standard by

continuously improving the specifications, quality of products,
conducting energy surveys and energy audits

Energy Conservation

As per the Energy Conservation Act 2001,efforts are required for conservation of
energy. We plan to reduce energy consumption by introducing energy efficient
lightings, motors, reduction in air-conditioning space, retro fittings and taking up
Pilot Projects with non-conventional energy sources i.e., Solar Power and natural gas.
etc to name a few.

Electrical Wing occupies an important position in terms of assets managed by the

group and its share in BSNL's operating costs. It is managing assets worth Rs. 5000
crore, equivalent to eight percent of the assets of BSNL. Annual Cost of energy
including diesel is to the tune of Rs 1900 crore accounting for around 15-20 percent of
the operating costs of BSNL.

Operation and Maintenance of Electrical Assets

O&M of the electrical assets is being outsourced to third parties, which is an

international practice. Economically also it is justified that specialist agencies do this
task as they can undertake it at much lower cost with better quality. In India this is
further justified since the number of locations are very large and geographically
spread out. However, management of the O&M contracts has to be undertaken in-
house.

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In India maintenance work assumes greater importance due to geographically
spread out locations, rural areas, different kinds of exchanges and various kinds of
services. There are about 27,000 exchanges in the country. High fluctuation in power
necessitates adequate preventive maintenance. Also the equipment is not sturdy
enough to sustain itself in the high pollution environment and frequent
breakdowns.

The Electrical Wing has prepared exhaustive guideline on preparation of

maintenance documents for Electromechanical works and maintenance schedule for
electromechanical services . These guidelines include following:

• Eligibility conditions for operation and maintenance contractors

• Contract outlines for each category of assets for both O&M and also AMC

• Guidelines for officers on the documents to be maintained at sites

and recording of maintenance events

• Preventive maintenance and trouble shooting schedule for each category of

assets

The Electrical Wing is responsible for managing the operations and maintenance for
electrical items for urban exchanges, admin and residential complexes. However
for rural exchanges, which are largely scattered all over the country the Electrical
Wing only manages the preventive and breakdown maintenance.

Introduction of new technology

Advancement in technology has necessitated continuous upgradation in

technologies used for electrical assets. For example in AC equipment we have moved
from central plants to water-cooled package units, then to air-cooled package
units and now towards micro processor based units. In engines, we have
introduced Ready to use (RTU) engines to cater to the huge demands of engines for

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small exchanges located in interiors of the country. In light fittings, from
conventional fitting to mirror optics and now to compact fluorescent lamps. Until
now the remote monitoring of health of equipments is restricted to telecom only. The
power and air-conditioning has also to be introduced for remote monitoring.
This will go a long way in better maintenance and less outages.

Hence remote monitoring systems need to be introduced.

Electrical Wing has introduced microprocessor based AC units, lifts, and fire
fighting equipment.

It is not only technologies that have to be upgraded from time to time but also design
parameters, which have undergone a sea change from the past with introduction
of new exchange equipment and AC systems. Humidifiers systems and heaters in
AC systems are now irrelevant in electronic exchanges on account of high
sensible load. The static pressure for air handling units was reduced from 50
mm to 35 mm as per the requirements of new electronic exchanges. All this has
resulted in energy savings.

Also with more fragile electronic exchanges highly susceptible to power

fluctuations, control devices have to be introduced to prevent surges and spikes in
electric supply. More electronics is coming in to the traditional areas of
electromechanical devices. Electronic chokes, microprocessor based controls etc.
are becoming more reliable and desirable as they contribute towards energy saving as
well as energy management. In India we have just started taking note of these
developments and in the coming times these electronics will become an integral part
of our electromechanical devices. Energy savers, surge protectors
and harmonic suppressors are to be used to improve the quality of power supply.
Many products available in the market need to be continuously upgraded by
interaction with manufacturers as most of the telecom equipment is imported
while the electrical equipment is sourced locally.

Since the electricity supply is erratic in the country particularly so in the rural and
hilly areas, alternate energy sources need to be tapped. Internationally, solar
energy has been tried and successfully used for small energy consumption
stations. In India, this needs to be considered for remote regions such as J&K, Ladakh

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and North East and also for rural and desert areas. Electrical Wing has started taking
steps in this direction. In the past the department has provided solar panels for
MARR systems mainly for providing Village Panchayat Telephones (VPT). This
can be a more reliable source of power particularly for rural areas where supply is not
available and erratic. However in the absence of proper design/installations, the solar
system could not be used effectively. The Electrical Wing needs to handle this task
henceforth.

With introduction of new technologies the standard specifications, for equipment and
design have to be reviewed and updated regularly and circulated to the
respective officials to ensure compliance with the new standards.

Training

Training needs to be imparted regularly for both the new entrants in the EW and also
for up gradation of skills of the existing officials. As on date training is being
imparted to Electrical wing related issues at Advance Level Telecom Training
Centre (ALTTC), Ghaziabad and Regional Telecom Training Centre (RTTC) at
Nagpur. For various other courses such as Telecom technologies,
Communication systems, management and accounting, one is free to take
training at ALTTC Ghaziabad, NAFTM Hyderabad or at other RTTCs located in
different states. The training needs for electrical officers are continuously being
reviewed in view of induction of new technologies.

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 Chapter-2

Basics of Air Conditioning

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 BASICS OF AIR CONDITIONING

INTRODUCTION

Air conditioning means the maintenance of air conditions inside a building

irrespective of outside atmospheric conditions. This can be accomplished in one or
more of the following ways

1. Maintain the air at the desired temperature

2. Control moisture content of the air
3. Hold contamination to an acceptable level.
4. Circulate the air properly in order to have correct proportion of oxygen.

Human comfort is not the only purpose of air conditioning. It may also be provided to
prevent deterioration of equipment and to maintain a specified temp & humidity for
electrical & electronic equipment. Air conditioning is an essential requirement for
proper functioning of a telephone exchange. The various A/C systems used for air
conditioning of telephone exchanges are discussed in this lesson.

OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson the participants shall be able to :

(i) Know the various A/C systems in use.

(ii) Select a suitable A/C system for a particular requirement.

Air-conditioning system in use may be categorised in to the following Types :

A] UNITARY SYSTEM :

1] Window Type Units.

2] Split Type Units.
3] Package Type With i) Air Cooled Condenser.
ii) Water Cooled Condenser.

B] CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM :

1] Direct Expansion Type.

2] Chilled Water Type.

Each of these has its limitations as well as advantages and the most suitable
one should be selected taking all relevant factors into account.

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C] WINDOW TYPE AIR CONDITIONERS :

Window type air conditioners are completely self contained units with the
compressor, condenser, evaporators, refrigerant piping and air filters, all
assembled in a very compact single unit.

The window units are usually of 1, 1.5, 2TR capacity. Modern tendency is to
employ sealed type motor compressor unit. The condenser is air cooled. The
motor usually has shaft extension on both sides for air to draw the return air
from the room, pass through evaporator and send the cooled air back into the
room.

The units are easy and convenient to handle. One limitation however is that a
window type can only be installed in a wall whose outer face is exposed, so
that the hot air from the condenser may be discharged in to the atmosphere.

ADVANTAGES :

a] These units don't occupy floor space.

b] Can be mounted on the window side or on a hole cut in the wall.
c] Absence of ducting and plumbing.
d] Easy and quick installation.

DISADVANTAGES :

a] No Humidity control.
b] No fresh air control.
c] Not suitable for continuous operation.
d] No effective uniform air distribution and week air throw.
e] No effective dust control.

SPLIT TYPE AIR CONDITIONERS :

These units are functionally very similar to the window models. Here the
condenser/ Compressor Unit [outdoor unit] and cooling coil unit [indoor unit]
are housed in two separate enclosures and both the indoor and outdoor units
are connected through refrigerant pipe line.

ADVANTAGES :

a] Opening in wall/window is not required.

b] Indoor units can be placed any where inside the room.
c] Effective Dust Control.
d] No Noise problem.

LIMITATIONS :

The distance between Indoor and outdoor units should not be more than 30
feet.

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 PACKAGE TYPE A/C UNITS :

These units are also functionally very similar to the window models but are
very much bigger in size and therefore installed on the floors. The self
contained single package units possess several advantages. It can be installed
in A/C space with or without duct system. The nominal capacity ranges from 5
Ton to 15 TR.

The Compressor units may be of hermetically sealed semi sealed or open type.
The control panel is conveniently located on the unit itself.

ADVANTAGES :

1] Structural alterations required are negligible.

2] Prompt delivery & immediate A.C. benefits.
3] Ease of installation and removal.
4] Simplified field engineering.
5] Factory assembly of balanced and tested equipment.
6] More flexibility in operation.

CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING PLANT :

Central air-conditioning plant becomes a necessity when areas to be air-

conditioned is large and in multiple zones as the unitary air-conditioners will
be highly costly proposition. Another aspect is that the nearly infinite
combination of coil configuration & evaporator temperature, air handling
arrangements and other variations that are available in the control system are
rarely possible with unitary systems.

DIRECT EXPANSION TYPES AC PLANT :

In this type of system evaporation of refrigerant takes place in the cooling

media. Refrigerant cools the air which is in direct contact with it. The heat
which is given out by air is picked by the refrigerant and the condenser water
picks that heat from the refrigerant and reject into atmosphere by means of
cooling tower.

CHILLED WATER TYPE A.C. PLANTS :

In chilled water type A/C plants water as second intermediate heat transfer
medium is used. Water absorbs heat from the air returned from the conditioned
space and then transfers the same to the refrigerant in the chiller. Here water
circulates in chillers, water pumps and air handling unit coils.

In some of the big installations there are more than one chilled water circuits
like primary and secondary circuits.

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 Other items remain similar to that of direct Expansion Type Plants.

COMPONENTS OF A.C. SYSTEM :

A.C. system can be broadly sub-divided into three areas :

1] Refrigerant Circuit.
2] Water Circuit.
3] Air Circuit.

REFRIGERANT CIRCUIT :

In a vapour compression type refrigerant cycle, a refrigerant is used in

conjunction with compressor, evaporator and condenser.

A] COMPRESSOR :

Compressor only helps to maintain pressure difference in evaporator and

condenser so that the refrigerant cycle can work continuously. It expands
Freon Gas from the evaporator as fast as it is formed and maintains low
pressure 69 p.s.i.g at low Temp. [400F].

It compressors and discharges the gas to the condenser at a pressure of about

229 p.s.i.g at a Temp. 1100F.

Because of rapid compression, the refrigerant becomes hot.

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 B] CONDENSER :

It is intended for cooling the hot gas and liquefying it under pressure. It may
be air cooled or water cooled. At the condenser, the refrigerant vapour which
is maintained at high pressure releases heat to the condenser water through
heat transfer surface of condenser water tubes and becomes liquid by principle
of Latent heat of condensation.

C] EXPANSION VALVE :

Its function is to control and regulate the rate flow of liquid Freon under
pressure and allow it in to the evaporator under low pressure.

D] EVAPORATOR :

This constitutes the cooling unit in which the liquid Freon under a low
pressure evaporates and in doing so picks up heat from the air [By principle of
Latent Heat of Evaporation] thereby cooling the medium surrounding the
cooling coil.
An important point to note is that the compressor and Expansion valve
constitute the two dividing points between high and low pressure that the
condenser and evaporator contains the refrigerant both in liquid and gas form
and that they both act as heat exchanger i.e., Evaporator absorbs heat and
condenser gives out heat. In other words the refrigerant cycle can be used
either for cooling or for heating.

WATER CIRCUIT :

The condenser water picks up heat from the refrigerant system and in turn
reject heat into the atmosphere with the help of cooling tower, where the water
is sprayed and subject to cooling by atmospheric air and recirculated to the
condenser by pumps.

Reasonably soft water is to be supplied for make up of condenser water. Hard

water causes fouling of condenser tubes thereby reducing the heat transfer
efficiency.

AIR CIRCUIT :

Cooling and dehumidification of air is done at cooling coil to off set sensible
and latent heat of the space.

Distribution of conditioned air to the areas in proportion to the load is

achieved through supply air ducting with the help of the fan. Collection of
return air back to the Air Handling system takes place through return air space
and fan provides the necessary suction force.

Dust filtration by filters is provided in return air stream.

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 RECOMMENDED INSIDE DESIGN CONDITIONS

TYPE OF APPLICATION SUMMER RH% WINTER RH%

TEMP 0F TEMP 0F

1. GENERAL COMFORT 74-76 45-50 74-76 30-35

(HOUSES, HOTEL,
HOSPITAL,OFFICE,
SCHOOL)

2. SHOPS, BANKS, (SHORT 76-78 45-50 72-74 30-35

TIME OCCUPANCY)
DEPTL. STORES.

3. LOW SENSIBLE HEAT 76-78 50-55 72-74 35-40

APPLICATION (HIGH
LATENT HEAT LOAD)
AUDITORIUM,
RESTAURANT,
KITCHEN.

4. FACTORIES (ASSEMBLY 77-80 54-50 68-72 30-35

AREAS, MACHINE
SHOPS)

ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES 68-75.2 40-60 68-75.2 40-60

OTHER EXCHANGES 72-80 45-60 64-72 45-60

FRESH AIR REQUIRMENT - 1- 1.5 AIR CHANGES PER HOUR.

XGES

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 CHAPTER-3

Design Criteria and Factors affecting Air

Conditioning Loads

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 Design Criteria and Factors affecting Air Conditioning
Loads

Design and analysis of air conditioning systems involves selection of suitable

inside and outside design conditions, estimation of the required capacity of
cooling or heating equipment, selection of suitable cooling/heating system,
selecting supply conditions, design of air transmission and distribution systems etc.
Generally, the inputs are the building specifications and its usage pattern and
any other special requirements. Under a typical summer condition, the building
gains sensible and latent heats from the surroundings and also due to internal heat
sources . The supply air to the building extracts the building heat gains from the
conditioned space. These heat gains along with other heat gains due to ventilation,
return ducts etc. have to be extracted from the air stream by the cooling coil, so that
air at required cold and dry condition can be supplied to the building to complete the
cycle. To estimate the required cooling capacity of the cooling coil , it is essential to
estimate the building and other heat gains. The building heat gains depend on the
type of the building, outside conditions and the required inside conditions. Hence
selection of suitable inside and outside design conditions is an important step in
the design and analysis of air conditioning systems.

Selection of inside design conditions:

The required inside design conditions depend on the intended use of the
building. Air conditioning is required either for providing suitable comfort
conditions for the occupants (e.g. comfort air conditioning), or for providing
conditions for a process to take place or for products to be manufactured (e.g.
industrial air conditioning). The required inside conditions vary widely depending on
the specific requirement. However, the required inside conditions for comfort air
conditioning systems remain practically same irrespective of the size, type,
location, use of the air conditioning building etc., as this is related to the thermal
comfort of the human beings.

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In BSNL the inside design conditions for equipment room
(Switch room) is selected as :

 Temperature below the rack wherever bottom feed is

Stipulated: 20  2OC DB

 Switch room temperature : 23  3OC DB

 Switch Room Relative Humidity : 45  15%

 Fresh Air Requirement: System to be designed for one air

change per hour,

but normal operation shall be half air change per hour

with adjustable dampers.

 Air Filtration: Two-stage filtration. Pre-filters with 90%

efficiency down to 20

microns and fine filters having 99.9% efficiency down to 5

microns.

Selection of outside design conditions:

Design outside conditions is selected from a long-term statistical database. For most
of the major locations of the world, meteorological data is available in the form of
mean daily or monthly maximum and minimum temperatures and
corresponding relative humidity or wet bulb temperature. The conditions will not
necessarily represent any actual year, but are representative of the location of the
building. Design data for outside conditions for various locations of the world have
been collected and are available in tabular form in various handbooks.

Cooling load calculations:

For estimating cooling loads, one has to consider the fact that the peak cooling load
occurs during the day time and the outside conditions also vary significantly
throughout the day due to solar radiation. In addition, all internal sources add on to
the cooling loads and neglecting them would lead to underestimation of the required

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cooling capacity and the possibility of not being able to maintain the required
indoor conditions.

Load calculations involve a systematic and stepwise procedure that takes into
account all the relevant building energy flows. The cooling load experienced by a
building varies in magnitude .The design cooling load is a load near the
maximum magnitude. Design cooling load takes into account all the loads
experienced by a building under a specific set of assumed conditions. Figure
below shows various components that constitute the cooling load on a building.

Estimation of cooling load involves estimation of each of the above components from
the given data.

Estimation of external loads:

a) Heat transfer through opaque surfaces: This is a sensible heat transfer

process. The heat transfer rate through opaque surfaces such as walls, roof,
floor, doors etc.

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b) Heat transfer through fenestration: Heat transfer through transparent surface such
as a window, includes heat transfer by conduction due to temperature
difference across the window and heat transfer due to solar radiation through the
window.

c) Heat transfer due to infiltration: Heat transfer due to infiltration consists of both
sensible as well as latent components.

d) Miscellaneous external loads: In addition to the above loads, if the cooling coil has
a positive by-pass factor (BPF > 0), then some amount of ventilation air
directly enters the conditioned space, in which case it becomes a part of the
building cooling load. The sensible and latent heat transfer rates due to the by-passed
ventilation air can be calculated and considered. In addition to this, sensible
and latent heat transfer to the building also occurs due to heat transfer and air leakage
in the supply ducts. If the supply duct consists of supply air fan with motor, then
power input to the fan becomes a part of the external sensible load on the building. If
the duct consists of the electric motor, which drives the fan, then the efficiency of the
fan motor also must be taken into account while calculating the cooling load.

Estimation of internal loads:

The internal loads consist of load due to occupants, due to lighting, due to
equipment and appliances and due to products stored or processes being
performed in the conditioned space.

a) Load due to occupants: The internal cooling load due to occupants consists of both
sensible and latent heat components. The rate at which the sensible and latent heat
transfer take place depends mainly on the population and activity level of the
occupants.

b) Load due to lighting: Lighting adds sensible heat to the conditioned space. The
heat transferred from the lighting system consists of both radiation and

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convection. The usage factor accounts for any lamps that are installed but are not
switched on at the time at which load calculations are performed. The ballast factor
takes into account the load imposed by ballasts used in fluorescent lights. A typical
ballast factor value of 1.25 is taken for fluorescent lights, while it is equal to
1.0 for incandescent lamps.

c) Internal loads due to equipment and appliances: The equipment and

appliances used in the conditioned space may add both sensible as well as latent
loads to the conditioned space.

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[Type text]
 Chapter-4

Electrical Power System- An Overview

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 Electrical Power System- An Overview

Modern Telecommunications network plays a key role in today's world and are
required to be continuously operated even in the most adverse conditions. The
Engineering Electrical Services in the buildings housing modern
telecommunications network must perform to an exceptional degree of reliability so
as to ensure that there are no breakdowns in the telecommunications system. The
safety and well being of both the buildings , human inhabitants and its
material contents including telecom equipment depend on the smooth and
reliable operation of various Electro-mechanical services.

The Electrical Wing of BSNL is responsible for carrying out original and
maintenance works of following electro-mechanical services in BSNL/ Telecom/
Administrative Buildings and residential quarters.

• Electrical Sub-stations
• Engine Alternator Sets
• Air-conditioning Installations
• Internal EI and Fans
• Water Pump Sets
• Fire Detection and Fire Fighting System
• Lifts
• Lightening Protection

In BSNL we are mainly concerned with the Distribution substation

where the main activity is to step down the higher voltage received through
transmission line. This stepping down may be to a level of suitable voltage to
feed the load/equipments directly, viz 415V or 230V. These voltages are stepped
down by the step down transformers and other associated electrical switchgears for
the protection, control, distribution and utilization of electrical energy.

The various components of substation are discussed as under-

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1.0 HT Panel –

Three Panel HT switchgear incorporates the following features :

a) 1No isolator as incomer incorporating trivector meter, Voltmeter, ammeter, earth

switch without protection.

b) 2Nos HT OCB as outgoing, one each for transformer incorporating IDMT relay
for overload, earth fault, short-circuit protection, On-Off indicating lamp, trip
indication, voltmeter and ammeter.

The HT panel is provided with Busbar, cable end termination box for XLPE cables,
50Volt trip supply system and 50mmx5mm copper earth Busbar.

2.0 TRANSFORMER

The transformer consists of different parts or components. These components

depend upon the design, type and method of cooling etc. Certain essential
parts or components are discussed below.

Steel Tank

It is meant for housing and mounting of all components including the core, the
winding and the cooling substance etc. It is made of steel. Sometimes it
contains heat-radiating tubes.

Core

It is housed inside the steel tank and made of silicon steel sheet laminations having
the thickness of 0.35 mm. These laminations are insulated to reduce the core loss.
The core may be divided into two types - Core and shell type.

Windings

The windings are normally made of copper, concentric cylindrical type

conductors. The primary and secondary windings are placed on the same limb of the
core. Keeping in view of the rating, the design of the windings varies.

Transformer Oil

It is a mineral oil. The core and the windings sometimes are immersed in it for
insulation and cooling purpose.

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Conservator Tank

It is provided on the top of the transformer tank and connected through a

suitable pipe. It is provided where oil is used for cooling and insulation. It is
provided for the following reasons: -

I) With the increase and the decrease of temperature the volume of oil
changes. The conservator tank provides suitable space for accommodation of
expanded volume of oil.

II) During expansion and contraction the minimum oil is exposed to air.

III) It contains a glass and a scale for observation of oil level.

IV) It has the provision of a breather.

FROM
CONSERV
Breather ATOR
TANK

SILICA
GEL

TRANSFORME
R OIL

The breather is shown above. It is connected to the conservator tank. It is provided

with silica gel granules. Due to increase of temperature the volume of oil
increases and that it pushes air from the conservator tank to the outside air
through the breather. Again when temperature decreases the oil contracts and
that causes the outside air to enter the conservator tank through

the breather. The silica gel grains provided in the breather absorb the moisture
contained by the air. When silica gel is completely dry, its colour is blue. After
absorbing moisture its colour changes from blue to yellow and then to pink.

Thermometer: -

When the rating of the transformer is above 50 KVA a thermometer is

provided to indicate the oil temperature. Sometimes the sensor of the

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thermometer is fitted in the winding itself and the dial is provided outside the
tank. Sometimes this temperature-sensing device also operates an alarm.

Pressure relief valve or Explosion vent: -

All of a sudden there may be abnormal increase of pressure inside the

transformer due to sudden decomposition of transformer oil for various reasons.
This excessive pressure may not be able to be relieved through the breather quickly
and the transformer may be exploded. To avoid this situation a pressure relief
valve is provided on the top of the tank. It is a bend pipe with a glass cover plate
at the outer end. As soon as pressure increases to certain limit the glass cover
plate breaks and the pressure is released.

Valves: -

A number of valves are provided at different places of the tank for facilitating oil
filling, draining, filtering etc.

Tap changing switch: -

It is fitted on the side of the transformer tank. The tap changer is used to vary the
output terminal voltage of the Transformer.

3.0 OVERHEAD BUSBAR TRUNKING-

The connection from the transformer to the M V panel is by overhead Busbar

trunking. The Busbar trunking is normally done for transformer substation above
315KVA. The Busbar shall be made from rectangular section, high conductivity
wrought Aluminium alloy and insulated by superior quality PVC sleeve .The
Busbar system shall be provided with coupling joints and expansion joint. The
Busbar shall be supported on Hylum plates. The enclosure of the bus duct shall be
fabricated from 12SWG M.S sheet and two bottom end cover of 16SWG.The bus
duct provided with rubber gaskets to make the duct dust proof.

4.0 M V PANEL

The MV panel is made of 16SWG MS sheet (1.6mm thick) .The positioning of the
panel shall be 75cm from the wall .The incoming to the panel from
transformer by overhead Busbar trunking or cable of adequate size. The MV
panel is having Air break type circuit breaker (ACB) in order to eliminate the fire and
explosion risk. Each ACB has detachable arc chutes on each pole for cooling,
extinction of arc. The compartment doors should be so interlocked that they do not
open when ACB is in the closed position. All TPN switch fuse unit shall be

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provided with HRC fuses .The MV panel is provided with IDMT relay
voltmeter, ammeter and indicating lamps. Earth Busbar shall run along the panel.

5.0 CABLES

On the HT sides XLPE cables are used where as on LT sides PVC cables are used .
HV and LV cable shall be avoided to cross each other .At the time of laying cable it
must be checked that insulation shall have no external injuries .It should also be
tested for its continuity. For identification cable route markers shall be provided.
All the ducts shall be covered

6.0 CAPACITOR PANEL

The capacitor panel is provided for power factor improvement. The capacitor
panel is provided with capacitors. The capacitors can be connected in order to
achieve the desired power factor .The capacitors can be connected by manual
operation or Automatic operation .In manual operation the capacitors are
connected by manual operation of switches and in automatic operation
capacitors are connected by APFC relay. The capacitor panel is provided by
power factor meter, dead band knob provide on the APFC for preventing hunting of
capacitors and over correction. Each capacitor bank will have red indicating lamp to
indicate the capacitors is ON or OFF and AUTO/MANUAL/OFF selector switch.

7.0 EARTHING

It is recommended to provided copper earthing .The total no of earthing should be

normally be 2N+2, where N indicates the number of neutrals which is same as the
number transformer .For body earthing 2Nos earth Busbar shall be provided and the
body earth strips shall independently terminate on the body earth Busbar The
recommended size of the earth continuity conductor are

SNo Capacity of Transformer Size of copper earth strip in mm

1. Upto 300KVA 20x4

2. Above 300 and upto 500KVA 32x5 or 40x4

3. Above 500 and upto 800KVA 40 x 6.3 or 50 x 5

4. Above 800 and upto 1000KVA 50 x 6.3 or 2Nos 40x4

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8.0 DP STRUCTURE

For outdoor substation the DP structure incorporates insulators, lightening

arrestor, air break switches, DO fuses, outdoor jointing Kits, operating rods for
operation of air break switches.

The insulators are used for supporting line conductors. The insulators can be
mounted horizontally or vertically .The air break switch are generally manually
operated but can also be motorized if they are to be remote controlled .The air break
switch opens only after the circuit breaker had made the circuit dead The number of
outdoor and indoor HT joints depends upon the number of end termination.

9.0 Safety Equipment

The Safety Equipment viz fire buckets with suitable stand for storage of sands,
Insulation Mats, First Aid Chart displaying methods of giving artificial respiration to
a recipient of electrical shock, First aid Box, Fire Extinguisher and Danger
Notice plate.

10.0 ENGINE ALTERNATOR

The Engine Alternator set is the combination of a Diesel engine and an

alternator. This combined unit is also called a “generator set” or a “DG set”.
Real power in the form of mechanical power is generated by the engine and it is
converted into electrical power by the alternator. So, the output of an engine
alternator set depends mainly on the output of the engine. However, the
alternator coupled with the engine must match the load requirement and the
engine.

Need of Engine Alternator Set

Now days it is extremely difficult to get an uninterrupted power supply from the
supplier. Non-availability of power supply is caused by various factors. A few of
them are mentioned below.

i. Load shedding

ii. For repair and maintenance of the distribution line.

iii. Breakdown due to faults in the distribution networks.

iv. During extension and modification of the existing network for new consumers.

[Type text]
Keeping in view all these factors the department keeps the captive power system to
meet the requirement during above-mentioned circumstances. In the present
working system of telecom equipments continuous maintenance of temperature,
humidity etc. in the switch room is a must, besides the requirement of power for
telecom equipments, computers etc. though the telecom equipments and
computers can be fed through standby batteries. However air conditioning units
cannot be run without the required A.C supply. So the department is in need of
Engine alternator set.

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 Chapter-5

Sub Station – Types Selection and Designing

[Type text]
 Sub Station – Types Selection and Designing

INTRODUCTION

The “ substation “ is the most popular word in Electrical engineering. When we talk
about the substation it comes to our mind that the substation is a place where
the electrical activities such as the generation, the transmission, the distribution
are performed. These activities require some equipments or electrical
components for their execution.

NEED OF SUBSTATION

The L.T. supply i.e. Three phase -415 V or Single phase-230 V supply is
normally available near the premises and building installations, but the quantum of
electrical power needed may be reasonably high. Because high power at low voltage
necessitates high ampere rating, which may cause heavy electrical energy loss in
the distribution line , the supply companies are reluctant to extend such high
quantum of power at a lower voltages ( LT voltage). Therefore most of the electricity
boards have their own regulations and restrictions on this issue. Some state
electricity boards stipulate that if the power needed by the consumer exceeds 50KVA
, the consumer has to take HT supply. Some other boards stipulate 100KVA.
So the restrictions put by the state electricity boards vary.

This compels the user to take HT Supply from the supply company.

Sometimes it may happen that though the power requirement of the building is low
yet we may be compelled to go for H.T. supply necessitating the installation of the
substation due to the following reasons.

(a) Non availability of LT supply near to the premises

(b) LT supply may be available but may not be capable enough to deliver

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the required electrical power.

(c) If the building or premises are in an area where large numbers of

industries or consumers are situated resulting in frequent breakdowns and voltage

fluctuations, we may be compelled to go for HT supply, again needing a
distribution substation of our own.

(d) LT supply line is more prone to breakdowns, load shedding and

shutdown for repair, maintenance and extension of connection to the consumers.

Thus there is a necessity for HT substation.

TYPE OF SUBSTATION –

In BSNL we are mainly concerned with the Distribution substation where the
main activity is to step down the higher voltage received through transmission
line. This stepping down may be to a level of suitable voltage to feed the
load/equipments directly, viz 415V or 230V. These voltages are stepped down by the
step down transformers and other associated electrical switchgears for the protection,
control, distribution and utilization of electrical energy.

On the basis of the location of the transformer the distribution substation can be sub
divided into two types

(i) Outdoor Substation

(ii) Indoor Substation

(i) Outdoor Substation

Outdoor Substation receives the H.T Supply to a pole structure through Air Break
switch. The transformers are installed near the pole structure, which is
constructed in the open space. The L.T.supply from the transformer is extended to the
L.T panel in the Indoor.

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(ii) Indoor Substation.

In this type of Substation all necessary equipments are installed inside the
building and H.T supply is received through a H.T panel provided in the Indoor
Substation.

SPACE PLANNING

A Substation is designed and installed to provide trouble free service over entire life
expectancy of about 20years. It works on continuous basis round the clock. Trouble
free and continuous service can be ensured if periodical maintenance schedules,
testing, cleaning and recording of meter ‘s reading etc are given due care. Location
& space planning plays vital role in satisfactory operation and maintenance of
various equipments installed in the substation. These are instances, where break
–down could not be attended promptly on accounts of one or more reasons given
below –

(i) Faulty transformer could not be taken out for repairs due to in-

adequate handling space in the substation room

(ii) Vehicle could not be brought up to the gate of substation for taking out

the transformer for repair.

(iii) Extension to LT panel could not be made, as new panel could not be

brought in side the substation room.

(iv) Due to in-adequate space around the transformer, supervisor received

burn injury.

(v) When OCB trolley of H/T Breaker, is drawn out, there is no working

space around it.

(vi) Leakage of water into the substation room has resulted damage to the

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equipment and finally breakdown.

(vii) Long distribution cables have resulted higher voltage drop and

therefore voltage level at equipment is inadequate.

If proper care is given for location and space planning of the substation most of the
above problems can be solved at the planning stage it-self.

LOCATION OF THE SUBSTATION

Following considerations shall be made while deciding the location: -

i) As far as possible, it should be located on the ground floor.

ii) It should be approachable through vehicle.

iii) It shall not be located below or / adjacent to toilet block or water source

iv) Earthing space shall be available near / adjustment to substation.

v) Substation should be located near load center i e power room & A/C plant

room in Telephone exchange.

SPACE –PLANNING

Number of consideration play important role in working out space requirement.

These are listed below –

1. Power Requirement

2. Type of Substation

3. Class of voltage

4. System maintainability / Stand by requirement

5. Auxiliaries

6. Future expansion

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POWER REQUIREMENT

After deciding the power capacity of the substation, next step is selection of the
equipments. However selection of the equipments shall be made only after
getting the details of supply from the agency or supply company. As such
following details shall be called up from the supply company.

a. Rated voltage at which power will be made available.

b. System fault level at the rated voltage of supply.

c. Is there any possibility of change in supply voltage in future?

CLASS OF VOLTAGE

Sometimes it may be necessary to have a particular rated voltage due to specific load
requirement. In some cases it is found that operating voltage for heavy
machinery is 11KV whereas general power requirement is of 415 volt. In such cases
space requirement has to be worked out for both the system voltage.

SYSTEM MAINTAINABILITY / STAND BY

A system design cannot said to be proper unless it takes care of

i) Stand by requirement
ii) Maintenance requirement

Some sort of inbuilt redundancy provides for better system maintainability. This
leads to trouble free service.

AUXILIARIES

Most of the time we may require equipments like power factor panels, Automatic
voltage Regulator etc. to be installed in the substation. Space for these
equipments shall be provided for space requirement of the substation.

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FUTURE EXPANSION

Some of the buildings have provision for horizontal / vertical expansion and
power need in near future increases. Increase in power requirement may cause higher
size /additional transformer to be installed as well as may also need to extend LT
and HT panel. For a good planned substation, it is essential that provision for
future expansion shall be taken into consideration while space planning the
substation.

SPACE REQUIREMENT – GUIDELINES

Supply company:

We obtain power from local supply company. They need space for metering
arrangement and HT switchgear for terminating the incoming feeder. Normally
Supply Company ask for space of 4m x 4m since most of the telecom buildings have
a grid pattern of 3.75 m , We are likely to offer them a space of 3.75 m x 4m at the
same time complying with their other requirement of ventilation , illumination
etc.

TRANSFORMER

The average Dimension of a transformer varies from manufacturer to

manufacturer. A general guidelines for space requirement could be given as
(L +2) mt x (B +2) mt. Where L & B stands for length and Breath respectively

HT PANEL

The space required for HT panel depends on

i) Size of the

ii) Number of panel

iii) Likely installation practice and

iv) Future requirement, if any The dimension of a single HT panel, 11

KV 400 amps, 250 MVA having trunk type OCB are given below to get an idea:
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 i) Width - 610 mm

ii) Height – 2565mm (with relay panel)

iii) Depth – 1625 mm (in normal position)

iv) Depth – 1625 mm + 711 mm = 2336 mm

v) Rear Access required = 610 mm minimum

We maintain a clear 1meter space around to have better feasibility of

maintenance thus we need space for 3 panels (HT), then the space requirement
shall be:

(3 x 610 + 2000) x (1625 + 711 + 2000) = 3830 x 4336 = 3.83 mt x 4.336mt

Thus we may plan for space of 4mt x 4.5 mt for in stalling the above panel.

L T panel

Size of LT panel depends on the various out going requirements. We have

again to take the following factors into consideration

(i) Size of each panel

(ii) Number of panels and

(iii) Likely installation practice

(iv) Future requirement if any

Power Factor Improvement Panel:

For this the number of capacitor Bank has to be worked out first and than the
space required can be worked out. The number and rating of capacitor depend
on load, the existing power factor and the value for which the existing power
factor is to be improved.

CO-ORDINATION AT PLANNING STAGE

SUB-STATION:

The internal partitions of the Sub-station should be finalised taking special care that
the HT Panel, the transformers and LT Panels can be properly accommodated
with required clearances. Also the energy flow i.e. from supply company HT Meter

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panel to our HT Panel, then to Transformer I, Transformer II and from there to LT
Panels should be considered. These spaces should be so allocated that there is least
cris-crossing of cables/ducts, (ref. sketch 1)

Rolling Shutters :

Rolling shutters of about 2.4. mtrs. in height and 2.2 mtrs. in width are normally
adequate. Except in cases whether we propose to install transformers of
capacities higher than 500 KVA. In past generally the rolling shutters provided were
of much bigger dimensions. At the drawing stage we should get these sizes reduced.
The doors can be completely close type as grills in the rolling shutters add to dust
collection. Small sizes of door serve our purpose and are easy to operate.

Ventilation:

Our efforts should be to get permanent type of ventilation in the sub station area.

Which can be attained by providing grills/louvers at lower level on the

internal walls and at higher level on the external walls. Concrete jallies can be
provided in place of present practice of providing closed and openable type
ventilators. For fire protection it is essential that HT Panels and Transformers
are housed in enclosed spaces. In case of transformers we can have the partition
walls upto a level of 9 ft. leaving some space on top for ventilation.

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Ramp/Platform:

In some cases where road level is lower than the sub-station room level
ramp/platform is provided for transportation of transformers etc. It is seen that
these ramps/platforms create avoidable hindrances at site and even if not
provided it will not be difficult to install or remove the transformer/other
equipments. Hence there is no need to provide ramps/platforms.

Earthing:

In the beginning itself we should interact with Architect and see that some
kachha space is provided near the substation. Road crossing, extra large lengths of
strips can thus be avoided.

[Type text]
NOTES TO SUBSTATION LAYOUT DRAWING:

1. ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS UNLESS OTHERWISE

SPECIFIED

2. FOR VENTILATION CONCRETE JALI IS RECOMMENDED ON OUTER

WALLS AT VENTILATOR LEVEL, CARE IS TO BE TAKEN THAT WATER
DOES NOT ENTER

3. NO PLATFORM OR CONSPICUOUS RAMP NEEDED IN FRONT OF

TRANSFORMER ROAD

4. IT IS PREFERABLE IF ADJOINING TO SUB-STATION, A KATCHA

GROUND ONE METER AWAY FROM BUILDING, IS PROVIDED FOR
EARTH.

5. L. T. ROOM TO HAVE TWO ENTRIES 1600 WIDE DEPENDING UPON

LAYOUT OF BLDG.

6. SUPPLY COMPANY ROOM TO HAVE ACCESS FROM OUT SIDE.

7. WALLS UPTO 2500 HEIGHT IS INDICATED BY

8. DOORS 600 WIDTH & SILL OF 150 HEIGHT IS INDICATED BY

9. ROLLING SHUTTER SIZE 2400 X 2400

10. PARTITION WALLS MUST BE OF MINIMUM 4 HRS. FIRE RATING

[Type text]
SUBSTATION LOAD ANALYSIS & SELECTING THE CAPACI TY OF

TRANSFORMER

ELECTRICAL LOAD ANALYSIS

For the purpose of calculating the substation capacity following load and their peak
load demand may be considered.

Electrical Installation and fans

The electrical installation and fans load is calculated on the basis of plinth area of the
building. The chart below given the quantum of load to be considered.

Connected load Peak load per

Type of Area per sq. mtrs sq. mtrs
(In watts) (In watts)
Technical area 30 40%
Administrative
15 80%
and general area

Power plug Though the power plug also comes under E.I and fans, but its load is
calculated separately as shown below

Connected load Peak load per

Type of Area per sq. mtrs sq. mtrs
(In watts) (In watts)
Technical area 15 10%
Administrative
20 25%
and general area

Pump sets:

The pump load is to be taken as per the actual requirement. If one submersible pump
and two centrifugal pumps (one stand by) are installed, the load is to be taken for one
number submersible pump and one number centrifugal pump.

[Type text]
If sump pump is provided in the basement to drain out seepage water the
calculation should be base don the area of the basement floor. The load is to be
calculated at the rate of 20 watt/sq.mtr. The peak load to be taken as 50% of the
above said connected load.

Lifts:

a) Passenger lifts – The capacity and the number of lifts of a building are
decided on the basis of traffic analysis. Once the capacity and the number of lifts are
decided the connected load can be decided normally, during emergency only one lift
is to be operated. Peak load to be considered as 100%.

Capacity Connected load

Speed (mt/sec)
(persons) (kw)
8 1.5 12
10 1.5 14
13 1.5 15
16 1.0 15
16 1.0 15
16 1.5 17
20 1.0 16
20 1.5 20

b) Goods lift: - If there is any goods lift in the building, it is a general practice to

provide 3000Kg capacity which is having connected load of 16KW with peak load
as 100%

Compound light:

Load for the substation taken as per actual and peak load as nil since the
compound light load comes into picture only at night when the normal office lights
and fans are “off”, it is not considered for E/A set load.

Air conditioning load

Now a day’s air conditioning is a must for an electronic exchange. So the full load of
the A/C units (main) is to be taken for load calculation at the rate of 2 .25KVA
per TR of the main units. For Peak load 100% for main unit and Nil for stand by
unit. This will also include load on account of window A/C or Split A/C.

[Type text]
Fire fighting pumps

Load for fire fighting pump to be taken as per actual, and Peak load as nil.

Equipment load (Rectifier)

For different types of telecom equipment the load to be taken as given below:

i) CDOT

2K 2.5K 3K 3.5K 4K 5K 6K**

7.5 KW 8.5 KW 9.25 KW 11 KW 11 KW 12.75 KW 15.65 KW

** Add 0.75 KW for next 1K each upto a total capacity of 10K

ii) E-10 B

10 K 15 K 20 K
20.93 KW 26.76 KW 32.56 KW

iii) Other New technology telephone exchanges

Parameter FETEX OCB EWSD AXE AT&T

10 K 20.93 KW 0.8 W/Line 18 KW 20.4 KW 26.188 KW
20 K 26.76 KW 0.8 W/Line 28 KW 36.0 KW 58.333 KW
30 K 32.56 KW 0.8 W/Line 32 KW 50.0 KW
40 K 38.38 KW 0.8 W/Line 38 KW 64.0 KW 85.978 KW
50 K 44.19 KW 0.8 W/Line 44 KW 80.0 KW

Battery charger:

Add 30% of Rectifier Capacity.

Miscellaneous Load such as Room heaters, Hoists etc are to be decided

judiciously

GUIDELINES FOR DERIVING SUB-STATION CAPACITY :

1. Transformer shall be selected for 85% loading so that cushion is available for
adverse environmental conditions.

2. Standby transformer shall be on (N+1) concept N is the number of

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 transformer for meeting full load. Upto load of 1000 KVA, N should be one.

3. Provision of unforeseen load may not be taken.

4. For calculation of Substation Load, Telecom Buildings may be classified

into three categories

a) G+1 Bldg. At Tehsil or Taluka Load may be taken for full A/C (H/Q)
and ultimate capacity of
switch room.

b) G+2 Bldg At District ( H/Q) Ground Floor –as per usage

First Floor – Complete Load including A/C for Two switches of ultimate
capacity.
Second Floor- Only EI & Fan Load when usage is not definite. Otherwise as
per actual

c) Multi storied Bldg (more than To be decided in consultation

G+2) Metros & Mini Metros with concerned Telecom units

6. Contract demand to the electricity boards may be projected as per present

actual use of building .In case Electricity boards rules calls for higher contract
demand based on installed capacity etc, matter should be discussed at higher levels
and justification for lower demand may be explained.

7. Whenever open land is available, outdoor type substation may be preferred.

Some advantages of outdoor type substation are

a) Low cost.

b) No dependence on building construction.

c) Less danger to building due to accidents or fire.

d) In smaller places maintenance expertise may be readily available for out- door
types as most of the time Electricity Boards/Supply Companies also go for out-door
type substations.

[Type text]
8. In cities upto district H/Q, out-door type of sub-station may be preferred and in
bigger cities, indoor sub station may be planned. These recommendations are for
upto 11 KV substation. Sub-station of higher voltages shall be out-door type only.

9. Transformers shall be copper wound only.

10. In high density building, use of dry type transformers shall also be
considered.

EXAMPLE OF SELECTING THE CAPACITY OF SUBSTATION

A typical example of C-DOT MAX-I building is worked out

Area /
S.No. Details Connected Load Peak Load
Capacity
1 EI & Fans
a) Tech Bldg 1000 sq mtr 30x1000=30KW 40%=12KW
b) Admn Bldg 500 sq mtr 15x500=7.5KW 80%=6KW
2 Power Plugs
a) Tech Bldg 1000 sq mtr 15x1000=15KW 10%=1.5KW
b) Admn Bldg 500 sq mtr 20x500=10KW 25%=2.5KW
3 Pumps
a) Centrifugal 2 x 4 HP 2x4x746=6KW 50%=3 KW
b) Submersible 1 x 5 HP 1x5x746=4KW 50%=2KW
4 C/Light 23 x 70 W 23x70=1.61KW Nil
5 A/C
a) Main 4 x 7 TR 2.25x28=63KVA 100%=63KVA
b) Standby 2 x 7 TR 2.25x14=31.5KVA Nil

Telecom Exchange Equipment: 10K C-DOT

Rectifier Load = 15.65+0.75x4 = 18.65KW

Considering rectifier efficiency at 75% and power factor at 0.7

Connected load will be = 18.65 /(0.75x0.7)= 35.52 KVA

Battery charger load 30% of 35.52 KVA = 10.65 KVA

TOTAL CONNECTED LOAD = 46.18 KVA

[Type text]
 PEAK LOAD @100% = 46.18 KVA

Considering operating power factor as 0.8, KVA required for loads other than
A/C and Exchange equipment = 27/0.8 = 33.75 KVA

TOTAL PEAK LOAD = 63 KVA + 46.18 KVA + 33.75 KVA = 142.93 = 143
KVA Select Transformer for 85% loading
=143/0.85= 168,23 KVA

We Select 2 X 200 KVA Transformers

[Type text]
 Chapter-6

Reactive Power Management

[Type text]
 Reactive Power Management
1.0 Introduction :

In today’s power scenario, we are facing a major power crunch. Day by day, the gap
between demand and supply of electric energy is widening. In the Indian Energy
Scenario, even though the generation capacity increased from 1,400 MW in 1947 to
1,65,000 MW by Dec 2010 and the gross generation increased 100-fold – from 5
billion units per year to 535 billion units per year in the same period, still the per
capita electricity consumption is one of the lowest in the world @ 612 kWh per
annum. And we have a very low optimum utilization of existing generation capacity –
our average Plant Load Factor is only 72%. Also, the T & D Losses are very high at
app. 30% as against International standards of 8 to 10%. Add to this the inefficient
utilization of electric power by end consumer; the Planning Commission estimates
that over 25, 000MW equivalent capacity creation could be achieved through efficient
utilization of electric energy by the end user. In this scenario, reactive power
management or power factor improvement measures can result in considerable energy
saving. This Chapter aims to discuss the causes, effects and remedies of the reactive
power problems in industry and the considerable energy saving potential of Reactive
Power Management.

2.0 Objective:

At the end of this chapter, participants will be able to understand:

 Problems of poor Power factor
 Benefits of power factor Improvement
 Methods to improve power factor and compensation types

3.0 Reactive Power:

There are three types of loads in electrical networks (viz.) Resistive, Inductive &
Capacitive. In resistive loads, the current is in phase with the voltage. In (pure)
inductive loads, the current lags behind the voltage by 90o. In (pure) capacitive loads,
the current leads the voltage by 90o. But, in practice, the loads are a mix up of two or
more of the above three components. Hence, the degree of the current lag or lead with
respect to the voltage also varies, depending upon the proportion of the above
components in the connected load.

Electric power is utilized to do some useful work like pumping of a fluid or

conveying of some material or compression or expansion of a gas, etc. The power
required to do this useful work is called the “Active Power” or “Real Power”. The
unit of active power is kilowatt (kW). But, to do this useful work, the electrical
machine, as it needs to convert the electrical energy into motive energy, as in the case
[Type text]
of motors, draws a certain other power called “Reactive Power”. This is the inherent
property of the induction machine and thus cannot be avoided. The unit of reactive
power is kilovolt ampere (reactive) i.e. kVAR. Strictly speaking as this power is not
doing any useful work this is unwanted power.

We also know that electric power is a product of voltage and current. So, for any
useful work to be done, the power that is consumed from the mains by the machine
can be calculated by multiplying the voltage (as read from a voltmeter) and the
current (as read from an ammeter). This power is termed the “Apparent Power”, as
this is the power, which is “apparent” or “visible” as readings in the meters. The unit
of apparent power is kilovolt ampere (kVA). Ideality requires that there shall be no
difference between the apparent power and the active power, implying that the entire
power that is drawn from the mains is used to do only useful work. But, in practice it
is not so. Strangely, in the case of induction machines, it can be observed that there is
always a difference between active power and apparent power. This means that not all
the power drawn from the mains is used for doing actual work and some power is
used in the induction machine itself. If this cannot be avoided altogether, one should
at least know the ratio of actual power to apparent power (i.e.) to know what
percentage of the power drawn from the mains is converted to useful work. This ratio
is denoted by a factor called “Power Factor”. This is the ratio of Actual Power to the
Apparent Power. Obviously, the higher the power factor, the better is the utilization of
the power drawn. But, all induction machines have a very poor power factor.

Typical Example:

When the need arises to correct for poor power factor in an AC power system, you
probably won't have the luxury of knowing the load's exact inductance in henrys to
use for your calculations. You may be fortunate enough to have an instrument called a
power factor meter to tell you what the power factor is (a number between 0 and 1),
and the apparent power (which can be figured by taking a voltmeter reading in volts
and multiplying by an ammeter reading in amps). In less favorable circumstances you
may have to use an oscilloscope to compare voltage and current waveforms,
measuring phase shift in degrees and calculating power factor by the cosine of that
phase shift.
Most likely, you will have access to a wattmeter for measuring true power, whose
reading you can compare against a calculation of apparent power (from multiplying
total voltage and total current measurements). From the values of true and apparent
power, you can determine reactive power and power factor. Let's do an example
problem to see how this works: (Figure below)

[Type text]
Wattmeter reads true power; product of voltmeter and ammeter readings yields
apparent power.

First, we need to calculate the apparent power in kVA. We can do this by multiplying
load voltage by load current:

As we can see, 2.308 kVA is a much larger figure than 1.5 kW, which tells us that the
power factor in this circuit is rather poor (substantially less than 1). Now, we figure
the power factor of this load by dividing the true power by the apparent power:

Using this value for power factor, we can draw a power triangle, and from that
determine the reactive power of this load: (Figure 1)

[Type text]
 Figure 1

Reactive power may be calculated from true power and apparent power.

To determine the unknown (reactive power) triangle quantity, we use the Pythagorean
Theorem “backwards,” given the length of the hypotenuse (apparent power) and the
length of the adjacent side (true power):

If this load is an electric motor, or most any other industrial AC load, it will have a
lagging (inductive) power factor, which means that we'll have to correct for it with a
capacitor of appropriate size, wired in parallel. Now that we know the amount of
reactive power (1.754 kVAR), we can calculate the size of capacitor needed to
counteract its effects:

[Type text]
Rounding this answer off to 80 µF, we can place that size of capacitor in the circuit
and calculate the results: (Figure 2)

Figure -2

[Type text]
4.0 Problems of low power factor:

i) If power factor will be low , Current drawn will be higher: As we know, for 3-phase
induction motors,

KW = √3 * V * I * Cosφ

I = [(kW) /(√3 * V * Cosφ)]

For same kilowatt to be delivered and for the same applied voltage, the current drawn
by the motor will be inversely proportional to the power factor. (i.e.) poorer the power
factor, higher will be the current drawn and vice versa.

ii) As the current drawn is higher at low power factor, the power loss (I2R loss) in
cables will be higher too.

iii) So also will be the power loss in the power transformer.

iv) Because of increased current flow at low power factor, the impedance voltage (IZ)
drop in the transformer will increase and will lead to poor voltage regulation in the
transformer.

v) As power factor is the ratio of kW to kVA, at low power factors, for the same
connected load (kW), the kVA demand of the system increases (kVA =kW/PF).

That is, for the same connected load, the requirement of contracted maximum demand
(CMD) would increase at low power factor. Increased CMD means increased deposit
with the electricity utility company as also increased demand charges every month
under the two-part tariff structure.

On the other hand, if a certain power factor is assumed and a certain maximum
demand is contracted from the utility company, and if the power factor falls below the

[Type text]
assumed value, now, the recorded demand will exceed the CMD and will lead to
heavy penalties imposed by the utility company, which might even lead to ultimate
disconnection of power supply, in certain cases.

vi) Heavy penalty by Utility Companies : Almost all electricity supply companies,
today, impose a heavy penalty for low power factor. A benchmark power factor is
fixed (say 0.9) and for every one percent (i.e.) 0.01 drop in the power factor, a
percentage (say about 1.0%) of the total electrical bill amount is charged as power
factor penalty. This expenditure is totally unnecessary.

5.0 Benefits of power factor improvement:

i) Reduction in kVAR Demand

ii) Reduction in kVA Demand
iii) Reduction in Transformer Rating
iv) Reduction in Line Current
v) Reduction in Cable Size
vi) Reduction in Switchgear rating
vii) Reduction in Power Loss

5.1 How to improve power factor?

As we have seen above, the problem of low power factor is due to the large reactive
power drawn by the induction machines. So, if one wants to improve the power factor,
one has to bring down the reactive power drawn by the induction machines. But, the
reactive power that is drawn by an induction machine cannot be removed or reduced
from the machine, as it is an inherent property of the machine. So, one has to think of
any other method to improve the power factor. The fact that comes to our aid is that
the induction machines draw “lagging” reactive power. Fortunately, we have a circuit
element – capacitor – which draws “leading” reactive power, thus behaving in an
opposite fashion to the induction machine.

Thus, in a network if both inductive and capacitive components are present, then the
net reactive power drawn from the mains will be the difference of the reactive powers

[Type text]
of the inductive and capacitive components. Hence, to overcome the lagging reactive
power problem in networks with induction machines, one can connect capacitive
loads, which would draw reactive power in the opposite direction and thus would
neutralize the lagging reactive power of induction machines.

There are many such capacitive devices such as Synchronous Condensers, Static
Capacitors and the like. Among them, Static Capacitors are most popular because of
their cost advantage, ease of installation and maintenance.

5.2 How to calculate the kVAR required?

Capacitor kVAR required

= kW (tanφ1 – tanφ2), where kW is the connected load

φ1 = cos-1 pf1
φ2 = cos-1 pf2
pf1 = Existing power factor
pf2 = Target power factor

Normally, the term (tanφ1 – tanφ2) is given as a multiplication factor for various
existing power factors and for various target power factors, in a tabular form. The
same is enclosed herewith as Annexure – 1.

6.0 Types of Compensation:

6.1 Fixed Compensation: Here the switching ON and switching OFF of the capacitor
units is done manually depending upon the requirement. This is suitable only for
steady loads and for the no-load compensation of transformers & motors.

6.2 Variable Compensation: This is most suitable for varying loads, as is the case
with most of the process plants. Here the switching ON and the switching OFF of the
Capacitor units is done automatically by an ‘Automatic Power Factor Correction
(APFC) Relay‘’ or a ‘Reactive Power Management (RPM) Relay’, in which the target
power factor is set by the operator. The micro controller in the relay automatically
calculates the existing power factor from the voltage and the current inputs given to it
[Type text]
and switches ON the required number of capacitor steps to achieve the desired target
power factor.

7.0 Modes of compensation:

7.1 Central Compensation:

This is the installation and connection of the entire required kVAR of capacitors as a
single bank near the transformer.

Advantages:

i) Improves PF at the metering point; thus eliminates low PF penalty

ii) Optimizes kVA demand of the installation.
iii) Reduces load on the Transformer.
iv) Reduces transformer losses
v) Reduces ACB Rating
vi) Extremely easy to maintain
vii) Less capital expenditure

Disadvantages:

i) All the problems associated with low PF still prevails downstream of the
capacitor installation
ii) Full benefits of capacitor provision not utilised

7.2 Group Compensation: This is the installation and connection of the required
kVAR of capacitors at each PCC and/or MCC Panel bus bars.

Advantages:

i) All the advantages listed above

[Type text]
ii) Cable losses minimized further

Disadvantages :

i) Still the problems of low PF persist between the PCC/MCC Bus bars and the
ultimate load.
ii) As the number of units is more, cost per kVAR of capacitors will increase
relatively.
iii) More maintenance required as more number of units are installed.

7.3 Individual Compensation: This is the installation and connection of the required
kVAR of capacitors directly at the load terminals.

Advantages:

(i) Maximum benefit of capacitor installation attained.

Disadvantages:

i) Many number of discreet capacitor units required.

ii) Cost per kVAR of capacitor units will be maximum.
iii) More maintenance required.
iv) Suitable only for constant loads
v) May lead to other more serious problems, if opted for varying loads.
8.0 Types of Capacitors : Depending upon the type of dielectric used in a capacitor,
they are classified as:

i) Metalized Polypropylene
(MPP)
ii) Mixed Dielectric (MD)
iii) Film-Foil or All Polypropylene (FF or APP)
iv) Mixed Dielectric – Low loss (MD-XL)
The relative merits and de-merits of each type are given in Annexure - 2.

[Type text]
 Annexure – 1
Multiplying Factors for calculating the capacitor kVAR required for various
present and final power factors
Procedure to find out the capacitor kVAR required:
Final PF
Present PF 0.9 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00
0.4 1.807 1.836 1.865 1.896 1.928 1.963 2.000 2.041 2.088 2.149 2.291
0.45 1.500 1.529 1.559 1.589 1.622 1.656 1.693 1.734 1.781 1.842 1.985
0.5 1.248 1.276 1.306 1.337 1.369 1.403 1.440 1.481 1.529 1.590 1.732
0.55 1.034 1.063 1.092 1.123 1.156 1.190 1.227 1.268 1.315 1.376 1.518
0.6 0.849 0.878 0.907 0.938 0.970 1.005 1.042 1.083 1.130 1.191 1.333
0.65 0.685 0.714 0.743 0.774 0.806 0.840 0.877 0.919 0.966 1.027 1.169
0.7 0.536 0.565 0.594 0.625 0.657 0.692 0.729 0.770 0.817 0.878 1.020
0.75 0.398 0.426 0.456 0.487 0.519 0.553 0.590 0.631 0.679 0.739 0.882
0.8 0.266 0.294 0.324 0.355 0.387 0.421 0.458 0.499 0.547 0.608 0.750
0.85 0.135 0.164 0.194 0.225 0.257 0.291 0.328 0.369 0.417 0.477 0.620
0.9 0.029 0.058 0.089 0.121 0.156 0.193 0.234 0.281 0.342 0.484
0.91 0.030 0.060 0.093 0.127 0.164 0.205 0.253 0.313 0.456
0.92 0.031 0.063 0.097 0.134 0.175 0.223 0.284 0.426
0.93 0.032 0.067 0.104 0.145 0.192 0.253 0.395
0.94 0.034 0.071 0.112 0.160 0.220 0.363
0.95 0.037 0.078 0.126 0.186 0.329
0.96 0.041 0.089 0.149 0.292
0.97 0.048 0.108 0.251
0.98 0.061 0.203
0.99 0.142
Capacitor kVAR required = Connected Load x Multiplying Factor
Example:
Present power factor: 0.80
Final power factor: 0.98
Connected load: 100kW
Capacitor kVAR required = Connected Load x Multiplying Factor
= 100 x 0.547 ( as shown in grey area)
= 54.7 kVAR, say, about 55kVAR

62
 Rat- MPP- Rat- Rat- MD- Rati Rat
MPP-S MD FF
ing H ing ing XL ng -ing

Life Optimu Long Long Long

3 5 10 Long 10 10
m life life life
Non
linear
Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to
load 1 6 10 10 10
10% 15% 25% 25% 25%
capabil
ity
Initial Med- High High-
Cost Lowest 10 4 1 High 1 1
ium est est
Operat
Low- High Low-
ing Lowest 10 10 1 10 High 4
est est est
Cost
Total
24 25 22 31 25

Annexure -2

Comparison of various capacitor technologies

63
 Chapter-7

Power Quality Management

64
 Power Quality Management

Introduction:

The most widely discussed topic among power engineers today is “power quality”.
Today, industries have been continually evolving newer and newer methods to
optimize their production costs to remain competitive in the marketplace. Electrical
energy being an important and costly ingredient in any industrial process,
conservation of this energy has become a vital consideration. New “energy saving”,
power electronic equipment were invented and are in widespread use in industries.
As per the law of equity, to gain something one has to loose something. The same rule
holds good for energy conservation, using power electronic devices. Yes! While we
could reduce the quantity of electricity consumed, we greatly corrupted the quality of
electricity.

Objective:

At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to understand :

 Reasons for poor power quality.
 Results and Solutions for poor power quality.

What is Supply Power quality?

Most electrical equipment are designed to operate from a power supply that is to
deliver voltages and currents in a purely sinusoidal waveform and to maintain the
voltages and frequency within permissible limits of variation. There is an expectation
on the part of the consumer that the supply will be available always and that it will be
maintained within tolerances. But, this cannot be guaranteed by the supply authority
and also it would be practically impossible to realize this at an economically viable
price level.

Unlike many other commodities, the quality of electricity cannot be assessed before
delivery. It is consumed at the time of actual utilization, kilometers away from the
point of generation, passing through several transformers, transmission lines and sub-
stations. The supply authorities can only measure the quality of electricity supplied in
retrospect and can take corrective measures that will maintain an approximately
minimum power quality level.

65
The term “Good power quality” can be applied to such a power supply, which is
always available, is always maintained within the tolerances, has a pure sinusoidal
wave shape and is supplied from an infinite source. Conversely, ‘poor power quality’
can be applied to all power supplies, which deviate from this ideal. In practice, many
factors affect the quality of power supply. They manifest in different forms, some of
which are listed below:

Supply interruption is the complete loss of power supply for longer durations, which
may be caused by generation and/or distribution station failures, line faults, load-
shedding by the authorities, etc. They will lead to the complete shut down of the plant
and process. To overcome this, one must install alternate sources of power supply
such as captive generators, UPS etc.

Transients are sudden changes in voltage or current or both, that are momentary in
nature. They may be caused by lightning surges, sudden tripping of grid supply,
sudden switching operations of heavy reactive loads, etc. They may cause irreparable
damage to equipment and installation. The Solution of this is to go for surge
absorbers.

Transient interruption is momentary power failure, lasting generally less than a

minute. Usually the result of auto-reclosers in transmission system, reclosing after a
fault. These may cause data loss and data errors in communication equipment and
computers. Installation of UPS would help overcome this problem.

Voltage Dip or Voltage Surge: These are short duration disturbances, outside the
permitted variations. These are the result of large motor starting or shut down. While
voltage dips may cause equipment shut down, voltage surges may cause insulation
breakdown in equipment. Installation of surge absorbers would overcome the
problems caused by surges. For voltage dips, one may have to use alternate power
sources like voltage stabilizers, UPS etc., for voltage sensitive equipment.

Under voltage /Over voltage: These are long duration variations in voltage outside
permissible limits. Under voltage may cause unreliable operation, heating of motors,
etc. Over voltage may cause insulation damage. To safeguard equipment from these
damages, one has to go for voltage operated releases/ relays which will trip the
associated circuit breakers in the event of any abnormality.

Voltage Unbalance: Is caused by unequal loading of phases in a three-phase network.

This results in circulating currents in transformers and generators and thus cause
increased heating. In motors this may cause reduced efficiency problems. Care must
be taken to distribute single-phase loads equally over the three phases. Protective
measure is to install a voltage balance protection scheme.

66
Voltage Flicker: Periodical variations in voltage from about 90% to 110%, caused by
cyclic loads. This results in irritating visible flicker in lighting loads and also cause
disturbances in other loads. This can be felt in the vicinity of arc furnaces and welding
loads.

Some of the above mentioned defects such as interruptions or flicker would be

obvious to the user while others may be apparent only after their effects on the
equipment. While the customer has no control over the supply problems, the system
reliability can be improved in many ways.

Use of equipment like isolation transformers etc would help overcome problems like
transients. LC Filters can be effectively employed to attenuate noise. Devices like
MOVs & Gas arrestors absorb high voltage spikes and transients. Similarly, many
other types of power quality problems can also be corrected. But, in the present day
context, a more recent problem is prevalent when it comes to the discussion of power
quality. The problem of “ HARMONICS”.

What is Harmonics:
Harmonic refers to all sinusoidal voltages and currents that are integral multiples of
the fundamental. Non-linear loads are primary sources of harmonics. Harmonic
current distortions are caused by non-linear loads. Such loads draw currents in spurts,
even when the power supplied is purely sinusoidal. Thus, the current drawn is not
sinusoidal. These non-sinusoidal currents, when flowing through the system
impedances cause harmonic voltage drops. These harmonic voltages get imposed
upon the system voltage. Thus the system voltage gets distorted. Now, only this
distorted voltage is available to all other linear loads too. Thus, all linear loads also
start drawing non-linear current further compounding the problem. And, remember!
Unlike transients, harmonics is a continuously occurring problem. And also note that
the loads are in customers’ control.

Effects of Harmonics:

 Increased conductor/cable loss due to skin effect

 Overheating of transformers due to increased core losses
 Overheating and reduced torque in induction motors
 Damage of power capacitors
 Nuisance tripping of circuit breakers
 Interference in communication lines
 The harmonic distortions will travel back to the grid, if not mitigated at the
user end, thereby polluting the entire power grid.

67
Solution :

Today, we have an array of instruments and power quality analyzers available in the
market, some of which are easy to carry, hand held and economical too. With one
such instrument, the power quality problems at a particular installation can be brought
out. Once the problem is known, one can always find the solutions.

Harmonic filters: If the order of the harmonics prevalent is the system is known,
suitable harmonic filters can be designed to suppress the harmonics. It is very unlikely
that the network contains only one type of harmonics. A network may predominantly
consist of 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th & 13th order of harmonics. Filters will have to be
designed for each order of harmonics taking into account its magnitude and the effect
on the system.

Conclusion:

The use of the so-called “energy saving” power electronic equipment will continue to
increase in industrial, commercial as well as domestic sectors. The ever-increasing
presence of such equipment will change the operation and reliability aspects of any
power supply network. The effect of power quality problem has become so enormous
that it cannot be ignored anymore.

Energy saving is very important. At the same time, ensuring clean power supply is
also equally important. One must resolve not to use any equipment that causes power
quality problems. On the part of the authorities, they must make regular power quality
audits mandatory for customers. Limits should be set for the various power quality
disturbances and stringent punitive action shall be taken against any violators. On the
part of power electronic equipment manufacturers too, they must develop and
manufacture their products such that they do not become sources of power quality
problems while put to operation.

Each one of us has a role to play in limiting this hazard. We have already polluted our
Air & Water. At least, let us not pollute the power supply network. Let us keep it
clean.

68
 CHAPTER-8

Latest Trends in Sub-Station

69
 LATEST TRENDS IN SUB-STATION

1. Introduction:

A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution

system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform
any of several other important functions. Electric power may flow through several
substations between generating plant and consumer, and its voltage may change in
several steps.

A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the
current, while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the
current for domestic and commercial distribution. The word substation comes from
the days before the distribution system became a grid. The first substations were
connected to only one power station, where the generators were housed, and were
subsidiaries of that power station.

All these years we have seen transformers sub –station using pole structures, where
the basic disadvantages of the system are:

 Ugly structures,
 Large utilization of space,
 Improper fuse links resulting in no proper protection to transformers.

When faults take place, heavy damage to transformers and auxiliary systems are
reported. Instead of using proper rating of fuses, people have been using wires,which
is technically incorrect. Recent development in this field is the Unitizes Sub station.

Objective:

At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to understand:

 Concept of Unitized sub station
 Its salient features
 Advantages of USS

70
UNITIZED SUB STATION

The unitized substation is a state-of-the-art-system which simplifies conventional

substation design. USS is fully engineered factory built design, tailor made to
customer needs.

USS comprises of a
single substation
factory built package
having transformer, HT and LT controls. The safety features and mandatory
requirements are fully complied with. USS is a fit and forget technology, where the
connections are precise, secure and totally enclosed. Hence no chance for failure,
corrosion and losses.

Aesthetics and Safety

USS is built as a product in line with the thinking of the architects who are quite
concerned with aesthetics, safety and ease of installation. Due to the enclosed
construction, it avoids bird hit, human/animal contacts which may lead to fatal
accidents, disruption of supply and power loss as may happen in the open execution.
In open execution installations, the AB switch /Transformer / LA are mounted either
on two or four pole structures. The hanging and sagging of the wires give a clumsy
appearance, affecting the elevation of the building. Moreover, the tall structures not
only occupy the floor area, but also the shaft area along the high rise building

71
Space Saving & Cost Effective

Space to install USS is typically 10’ X 10’ which is approximately the space required
for a car park. Saving of floor space to the tune of 80-85% can be achieved by
installing USS as compared to that required for conventional installation. Considering
the benefits offered by USS, it is advisable to opt for HT supply in places where the
consumption is around 125KVA. The additional cost of installation can be recovered
in few years.

Salient Features
 Design conforms to lEC 62271-202 standards
 The compartmentalized construction prevents accidental entry to energized
areas
 Meets IP53/IP23 degree of protection
 Tailored configuration to customer needs
 Designed to withstand electrical impulses, thermal and dynamic stresses
 Variety and choices for MV/LV switchgear
 Low power loss and low noise transformer
 Number of feeders for LV can be customer specific
 Easy to install
 Delivery ready for commissioning
 Modern manufacturing techniques ensure cost effectiveness, reliability and
long trouble free performance

Application

The USS can be placed in the basement or ground floor or on roof top of the high rise
building. USS enclosure design is such that care has been taken to vent out the heat
generated in the transformer cubicle. Indoor USS located at the basement of high-rise
buildings, natural ventilation is more than adequate for cooling. However, in places
where natural cooling is insufficient, forced cooling with fans can be provided on .
USS can also be installed at construction sites, exhibitions, open cast mines as mobile
substation, either on truck or skid mounted.

EB metering (Optional)
USS can be offered with Tariff (TOD) meter. The CTs &PTs for TOD meter are
housed in a separate cubicle with tamper proof sealing arrangement.

72
Technical Highlights

Dynamic Mimic
The status (ON & OFF) of both main & earth switch will be automatically indicated
in the mimic diagram for triple pole gang operated load break switch. Also healthiness
of the fuses, spring charge indication are provided separately.

Live Line Indicator

Specially designed live line indicators operating through Voltage Sensors for
indication if the cable terminals are live or not.

Over Current & Earth Fault Protection

Unique O/C & E/F protection for Transformers controlled by Load Break Switch Fuse
Unit..

The HV Compartment

It comes in two versions i.e. Vacuum Circuit Breaker RMU & H V Fuse RMU and
load break switch

The Transformer
Compartment:

The compact substation

incorporates Distribution
Transformer which is
designed and made
strictly as per IEC60076
and IS2026 specifications.
The transformer
compartment is fitted with
removable bolted cover
with louvers and sand
traps. This design allows
maximum ventilation and
prevents ingress of sand
or its accumulation in
door cavities.

The LV Compartment

This compartment encloses the LV Distribution Board which is connected to LV

bushing of the transformer. The LVDB can be designed to meet various application
and requirements having

 MCCBS and ACB

 LV fuse switch units
73
 Instrumentation and metering

Connection Between Compartments

Specially designed Elasta mould HV bushings is provided for complete safety of

equipments. The connection between the transformer and the RMU is made with
XLPE insulated cable.

Main Advantages Of Unitized Sub- station

 Custom built design and suitable for constant mobility. This provides a high
flexible power supply points without much difficulties.
 Reduced Electrical losses as package substation can be provided in the center
location of load.
 Total economy in cost. Even site cable cost is minimized as the transformer is
directly connected to LV switch board.
 A high degree of safety and operational reliability is achieved by HT and LT
switchgears and protective relays to avoid overloading.

Light Weight Unitized Package Substation reduces fire risk by eliminating oil-filled
transformers and ensures safety when installed in chemically hazardous places like
petrochemical complexes, drilling platforms, etc. Light Weight Unitized Package
Substation is made from high grade raw material.
Light Weight Unitized Package Substation reduces electrical losses in cable runs
especially LV side, since these packages substations can be located exactly at the load
centre.

Advantages of Light Weight Unitized Package Substation are:

 Reduced fire risk by eliminating oil-filled transformers, ensuring safety when

installed in chemically hazardous places like petrochemical complexes,
drilling platforms, etc.
 Reduced electrical losses in cable run especially LV side, since these packages
substations can be located exactly at the load centre.
 Reduced on site cable costs because the transform is directly connected to the
LV switchboard.
 Simplified contractual procedures by single sourcing of complete substations.
 Reduced weight compared with other designs of equipment performing the
same function.
 Because these are fully factory assembled units, mounting on the site-prepared
foundation is easy

74
 CHAPTER-09

Operation and Maintenance of Sub-Station

75
 Operation and Maintenance of Sub-Station

INTRODUCTION :

Substation equipments are supposed to work round the clock

uninterruptedly. To perform in this way requires some maintenance without which a
failure is likely to take place. NO PLANTS OR EQUIPMENTS FAIL WITHOUT
GIVING ANY DISTRESS SIGNAL. The duty of a maintenance engineer is to
identify a signals well before any damage is going to take place and thus to prevent
breakdown, i.e. that is what is a preventive maintenance.
We know that maintenance requirement of static equipments (like
transformers, Capacitors etc. are much less compared to other dynamic equipments
(like circuit breakers, motors etc.). we will concentrate here on maintenance of the
following components :

(i) Various circuit breakers,

(ii) Transformers,
(iii) Earthing and lightning arrestors, and
(iv) Relays.
The maintenance schedule is usually in the form of log sheets on which
weeks, months of the year are tabulated. Each equipment in the substation or the plant
is provided with a column. The maintenance period is indicated against each
equipment. Further each major equipment is provided with a history card. The details
about inspection, operation and remarks are written in these cards.

INSPECTION, SERVICING & OVERHAUL :

Maintenance covers a wide range of activities aimed at keeping that
equipment in perfect working condition for performing its function as per assigned
duties.

1. INSPECTION:

It comprises careful observation/scrutiny of the equipment without

dismantling it. It usually includes visual and operational checks.

2. SERVICING:
This refers to cleaning, adjustment, lubrication and other maintenance
functions without dismantling equipment.

3. EXAMINATION:
This refers to inspection with necessary dismantling, measurements and non-
destructive tests to obtain data regarding the condition of components/sub-
assemblies.

4. OVERHAUL:
This refers to the work done with the objective of repairing/replacing worn-out parts
and defective parts. The equipment, sub-assemblies are dismantled partly or
completely. The condition of components is inspected. Dimensions of worn-out

76
components are measured. The components worn-out beyond acceptable limit are
replaced. The assembly is followed by functional checks and measurements to ensure
satisfactory operation.

MAINTENANCE OF SWITCHGEARS:

The requirement of inspection, servicing, examination and overhaul vary with :-

- environmental aspects : such as dust, chemical fumes,
moisture/humidity, ambient temperature etc,

- operating duty: frequency of operation, rated current etc.

- switching duty severity: e.g. repeated operations.

Thus maintenance schedule has to meet all the above requirements. The fixed
parts need regular inspection and servicing for removing dust, damp and corrosion
etc.
The moving parts need regular inspection and periodic replacement of worn-
out parts. The functional readiness of switching devices should also be ensured.
The maintenance of switching devices is related mainly with the wearing out
of contacts, deterioration of quenching medium and mechanism components.
Table -1 below gives recommendation regarding the period of maintenance of
contacts and quenching medium in terms of number of load operations and number of
short circuit operations on rated short circuit breaking current.

TABLE-1
MAINTENANCE OF QUENCHING MEDIUM AND CONTACTS.

K=I2n !
Maintenance of Quenching Replacement of contacts
Medium
Type of C.B. Load * Fault Load ** Fault
Operation operation Operation Operaion

Air C.B. 3000 10 to 15 -

Bulk oil C.B. 2000 6 2000 6 2000

MOCB 1000 3 1000 6 1000

Life of contacts becomes supposedly bad after certain operations on load and /or after
clearing faults on rated short circuit current an indication of which is shown in Table
-2.

* Shelf life 20 Years.

** Technical endurance test should be performed with specified number of
operations on no load to confirm suitability of mechanism.

77
 !K is the cumulative sum of the product of the number of breaking operation and
square of the breaking current in KA and is taken as a guide to the inspection of
contacts internal insulation and the quenching medium.

TABLE-2

MAINTENANCE OF CONTACTS

Life of contacts
Type of C.B Number of load operations on Number of fault
rated load current operations on rated
short circuit current
A.C.B. 10,000 50-100
M.O.C.B. 1,000 3-6

MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE CHECK LIST

The check list of maintenance of switchgear gives the list of activities
and there periodicity. The periodicity of activities vary with:

- type of switching devices,

- frequency of operating duty and breaking current, and
- environment.
Table 3, below, gives the periodicity of important checks on C.B.
during routine maintenance.
TABLE - 3

Important checks on C.B. during routine maintenance

Sl. No. Activity Quarterly Half yearly Annual

1. Check insulation resistance of each pole of X X X

phase of ground across terminals
2. Check the dielectric strength X
3. Check mechanical Operations X
4. Check tightness of bolts X
5. Check oil level X
6. Clean porcelain insulators X
7. Check contact length and simultaneous X
contact touch.
8. Measure contact resistance X
9. clean cross jet pots, recondition contacts X
and fill oils.
10. Measure contact speeds X
11. Measure break time and make time. X
12. Level of oil/gas pressure X

The check list and maintenance schedule for various types of circuits breakers
are indicated below in table 4. The following abbreviations have been used:

78
 DI= Daily inspection;
WI= Weakly inspection;
MI= Monthly inspection;
QI= Quarterly inspection;
HI= Half yearly inspection;
AI= Annual maintenance;
N= Normal duty;
R= Repeated operations on rated load
current.

TABLE -4

Check list and maintenance schedule for circuit Breakers

Indoor Metal clad Minimum oil Vacuum C.B.
Maintenance Activity switchgear C.B.
N. R. N. R.
1. General Inspection HI QI MI AI QI
2. Cleaning of external insulation. HI QI QI QI

3. Contacts, arc control devices, - HI QI AI AI

contact position external (VCB)
contact resistance.
4. Quenching medium in C.B. and QI HI QI - -
topping up
5. Cleaning of internal insulation of - AI HI - -
C.B.
6. Terminal connections, earthing QI AI HI AI AI
connections, Cabinets Cable,
Structure etc.
7. Main mechanism Operating - HI QI AI AI
Checks, inter-pole Linkages.
8. Servicing AI AI HI 5Y AI
9. Control wiring AI AI AI AI AI
10. Operating checks & I.R. AI HI AI AI
measurement, contact resist.
measurement
11. Post fault maintenance. after no. of 25 6 50
fault operations.
12. Overhaul after no. of years
No. of fault operation 1 10
No. of load operation 1,000 10,000

79
STEPS IN MAINTENANCE OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS :

(A) GENERAL INSPECTION :

Observe the C.B. visually. Note the cleanliness of terminals, earth

connections, reading of counters, levels of quenching medium (in case of oil C.B.)
etc.

(B) CLEANING AND DRYING :

Use CTCL or trichloroethylene or other cleaning agent as recommended by

the manufacturer. Use air pressure jet (3 kg/cm 2) for cleaning. Use clean cloth which
does not leave fibers or particles on the surface. Avoid water, moisture or dampness
during the cleaning. Care should be taken to avoid falling of dust, iron particles, nut-
bolts, washers etc. inside the breaker.
Terminals should be cleaned of dust, oxide coating if any by emery paper
without iron particles.

(C) INSULATION SURFACES :

Inspect visually, carefully for signs of cracks, tracking or any other defects. It
should be free from electrical or mechanical damages. Finally, insulation resistance
measurement gives indication about the health of the insulation. The internal
insulation should be cleaned thoroughly by trichlorethylene, lint free cloth and air jet.
Any deposition of sludge and carbon particles, conducting dust particles etc. shall be
removed before reassembly.

After cleaning and drying insulation resistance is measured by the help of

Megger between the terminal and earth.

INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT :

Insulation resistance tests are strictly comparative in that for each item tested a
rejection value can only be fixed on the basis of experience by comparison with
earlier results. For this reason the test equipment and method used should be the same
on each occasion.

The test values obtained should be logged on a standard form designed for the
purpose, together with the humidity and temperature at the time of the test, and in
general a steady fall of insulation resistance over a period of time is a more reliable
indication of deterioration than is a relatively low value which remains reasonably
constant.

During overhaul of the electrical equipment the insulation surface should be

cleaned with trichloroethylene, clean cloth and compressed air.

For h. v. switchgear 1000 V or 5000 V (d.c.) meggar is preferred. The

insulation resistance of H.V. C.B. is very high (above 10000 Mega. Ohm). Test
voltages which could be applied to primary insulation when making resistance test

80
varies according to the voltage rating of the switchgear. An indication to this is given
below in Table 5.

Table - 5

Test Voltages

3-phase system rating of primary insulation of Test voltage recommended to insulation

switchgear. resistance test (to earth and between phases)
KV (d.c.)

upto 1 KV 1
Above 1 KV to 3.6 KV 2
Above 3.6 KV to 12 KV 5
Above 12 KV 5

(D) MECHANICAL ASSEMBLY:

Check that all the nuts and bolts are in their position and check their tightness.
Check circlips, split pins, oil dashpot (if any for current level and its operation. Also
air dashpots should be checked for current operation.

Clean, inspect and replace worn-out parts during overhauls., In case of spring
operated mechanism check the ratchet wheels and prawls for broken or chipped teeth.

Values of pneumatic mechanism or hydraulic mechanism should not be

disturbed unless the diagnostic tests indicate the need for their readjustment.

(E) INTER-POLE LINKAGES :

Inter-pole linkages should be checked to ensure simultaneous operation of 3

poles (within pole discrepancy of 5 ms) and deteriorations, found if any, of springs
and other components should be checked and set right. Linkage pins, circlips, nut-
bolts etc. should be checked.

Mal-operation of mechanism. inter-pole linkages dashpots etc. can be revealed

by the time/travel record of 3 poles which shall be described in the subsequent
discussion.

The moving contacts of each phase should meet the fixed contact practically
simultaneously which can be easily checked with a simple practical arrangement as
shown below:

81
 Battery
Supply

LR LY LB

R
Y
B
C.B.
Fig. : Method of checking simultaneous
contact meeting during slow closing

METHOD OF OBTAINING TIME-TRAVEL CHARACTERISTIC ON NO-

LOAD :

This is extremely important because the breaking capacity is related with the
time/travel characteristics of moving contacts. No load characteristics give sufficient
indication about the health of mechanism linkages.

For satisfactory arc interruption the moving contact should open and travel
with optimum characteristic.

Slow movement of contact initially, during middle of stroke and during final
part of the stroke indicate excessive friction between sliding parts, very high dynamic
loading during arc quenching and excessive damping respectively.

A straight rod is connected to the moving contact or movable part. This rod is
in turn connected to the curvo-roller which is a specially designed motor driven drum
mounted on the top hood of the MOCB. The moving contact touches the paper on the
drum. The motor is driven electrically. The drum rotates at known speed. The graph
sheet fixed on the drum has definite circumferential speed. During the opening stroke
and closing strokes, the pencil gives the time/travel characteristic marking on the
graph sheet on the curvo-roller.

(F) CHECK AND MAINTENANCE OF OTHER IMPORTANT

ACCESSORIES :

Wherever required check for cleanliness, loose connection, dirt and moistures,
tightness of joints, proper contact matching and sequential operation of auxiliary
switches and interlocks etc. The following accessories must be properly attended :

Main connections,
Secondary wiring and fuses,
Earth connections ;
Heater,

82
 Safety shutters (check for proper operation after de-energisation of bus)
Bus bars and bus chambers,
Auxiliary switches, Indicating devices and interlocks,
Isolating contacts,
Overload devices and protective relays,
Instrument transformers and instruments,
Contactors.

Particular attention must be paid to interlocks and locking devices especially

those associated with earthing and testing facilities . A defective or worn device may
result in a dangerous condition. Any incorrect operation must be rectified.

Auxiliary contacts controlling the trip circuit shall also receive particular
attention for its operation within the required timing.

(G) FINAL VERIFICATION :

After overhaul the C.B. is subjected to operational checks by performing

C,O,CO, Operations from local control cabinet and from the control room (if remote
control is also there).
Simultaneous touching of the contacts of three phases is verified. Insulation
resistance is measured between the terminals and between the lower terminal and
earth.
Insulation resistance of auxiliary winding is also measured.

(H) TYPICAL MAINTENANCE RECORD DATA :

History card for each is kept. It may be recorded in the following from :

Circuit breaker serial number :

Name of manufacturer :
Year of purchase :
Cost of purchase :
Current and voltage rating :
Making capacity (Symmetrical) :
Breaking Capacity (Symmetrical) :
Short time rating :
Inspection date :

Component Observation Action taken Initials

Mechanism
Linkages
Insulation
Quenching medium
Main contacts
Arcing contacts
Terminals
Final verification

83
 MAINTENANCE OF A.C.B., FUSE GEAR FOR LOW & MEDIUM
VOLTAGES :

Maintenance schedule depends upon frequency of load operations, fault

operations and environment of operation and as such no uniform guide lines can be
prescribed. However, for indoor, dust free installation with infrequent load operations
the following schedule may be recommended :

-Inspect as often as possible with maximum interval of 12 months ;

-Examine at 5 years interval ; and
-Overhaul when examination and diagnostic tests indicate need. Maximum
interval of 15 years.

TABLE 6 : MAINTENANCE. OF A.C.B. & SWITCHGEAR

Routine Maintenance
S. No. Maintenance Operation Post fault
Inspection Examination Maintenance
and Overhaul
1. Operational checks X X
2. Visual Inspection X X X
3. Cleaning X X
4. Insulation resistance X X
5. Circuit breaker enclosure X X
6. Main/arcing contacts X X
7. Arc control devices and inter-phase X
barriers
8. Mechanisms X
9. Auxiliary switches, indicating X
devices and interlocks
10. Isolating contacts X
11. Overload devices and protective X X X
relays
12. Instruments and instrument X
transformers
13. Contactors X
14. Main connections X
15. Secondary wiring and fuses X
16. Earth connections X
17. Shutters X X
18. Switchgear spouts X
19. Heaters X
20. Buses and bus bar chambers X
21. Maintenance of auxiliary equipment X
22. Diagnostic testing X
23. Final verification X X X

84
MAINTENANCE OF OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS (B.O.C.B., MOCB) :

The following schedule may be followed for the purpose (O.C.B. installed
outdoor and in damp/rainy areas) :

(i) Under normal conditions for frequency operations, once in 6 months with
maximum period of 9 months.
(ii) After fault clearance : If fault level is high; inspect as early as possible.
Otherwise after fault opening operations.
(iii) Overhaul : Once in 5 years for normal and once in 3 years for
repeated/frequenct fault duty.
(iv) Following checks should be done during periodic check up :
(a) Level and condition of oil
(b) Condition of insulators; if required cleaning may be resorted to.
(c) Contacts
(d) Operating mechanism
(e) Auxiliary switches
(f) Tighten nuts & bolts.
(g) Insulation resistance by megger (use 500 V megger for control
circuits).

(v) When the breaker operates on faults, the internal and external inspection
should be carried out as soon as the operating schedule permits.
(a) Examine the oil; if badly deteriorated, change it.
(b) Check arcing contacts and take remedial measures.
(c) Inspect the insulation.
(d) Check the arc control devices and do the needful.
(e) Check the tripping circuit and operating mechanism.
(f) Be sure that no tools are left in the tank.
(g) Check the Dielectric property of oil. Limiting value for various
properties of Dielectric oil is tabulated below :

TABLE 7 : PROPERTIES OF DIELECTRIC OIL

Characteristic Limiting value

Sludge (maximum) 1.200 %
Flash point (closed minimum) 1460C
Viscosity at 700F 37 CS
Electric Strength, 1 minute minimum 40 K.V. r.m.s.
Saponification value 1.00 mg KOH/gm
Copper discolouration Negative
Crackle Shall pass test.

While using centrifugal separators for removing free water and fine solid
impurities, the oil is heated to about 700C by means of electric heater.

Hot oil should not be used to fill switchgear. There should be as little
aeration of the oil as possible during filling of the tank. A standing time
should be allowed after the tank is filled before commissioning the
equipment.
85
 (h) Silica-jel breather should also be maintained properly it the O.C.B. or
transformer contains it. When the colour of silica-jel changes from the
blue to pink, it requires reactivating. This is done by baking it at a
temperature of about 2000C until the whole mass has restored its original
blue colour.

POST FAULT-MAINTENANCE OF OIL CIRCUIT-BREAKERS :

Depending upon the design and duty of the circuit breaker, inspection may be
required after about six fault operations or the number specified by the manufacturers
and based on local fault level. When such an inspection is necessary special attention
shall be given to the points tabulated below under table 8 :

TABLE 8 :

MAINTENANCE FOR OIL-CIRCUIT BREAKER IN

METAL ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR

Routine maintenance Post fault

Sl. No. Maintenance operation Inspection Examination maintenance
and overhaul
1. Operational check ; C-O-CO X X X
2. General Inspection X X X
3. Cleaning X
4. Insulation, insulating oil X X X
5. Circuit breaker enclosure X
6. Main arcing contacts X
7. Arc control devices X X
8. Isolating contacts X X
9. Venting and gas seals X X
10. Mechanism X X
11. Auxiliary switches, Indicating devices and X
interlocks
12. Overload devices and protective relays X X
13. Instruments and Instrument Transformers X
14. Control relay or contactor X
15. Insulating oil X X
16. Tank and tank lining X X
17. Tank lifting mechanism X X
18. Main connections X
19. Secondary wiring and fuses X
20. Earth connections X
21. Heaters X
22. Shutters X

86
 Routine maintenance Post fault
Sl. No. Maintenance operation Inspection Examination maintenance
and overhaul
23. Switchgear spouts X
24. Busbars and busbar chambers X
25. Weather shields X
26. Final verification X X X
27. Joints and seals X
28. General Mechanical Inspection X
29. Maintenance of oil, switches etc. X
30. High voltage fuse connection and associated X
linkages
31. Maintenance. of air break isolating devices X
associated with oil switchgear
32. Maintenance. of auxiliary equipment X X

MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE OF OUTDOOR UNATTENDED

SUBSTATIONS :

The maintenance schedule (for transformer) as listed in Table 9 below may be

followed for outdoor unattended substations (though very less in our deptt.) :

Table 9
Period Items to be checked
Quarterly (i) Clean bushes of all dirt and oil
(ii) Examine condition of switches and tighten connections.
(iii) Look for any leaks
(iv) Check condition of silica-gel. See that the air passages in the
dehydrator are free.
(v) Check oil level and top up, if necessary.
(vi) Look for broken bushes.
Yearly (i) Check dielectric strength of oil
(ii) Check earth resistance
(iii) Check lightning arrestors.
Five yearly Open tank for cleaning and reassembly.

The following measures may be taken to keep observation on the transformer

oil so far as its acidity is concerned :

(i) Acidity below 0.5 mg KOH/gm - permissible, if oil is

satisfactory
otherwise
(ii) Acidity between 0.5 & 1.0 mg KOH/gm - Keep oil under
observation
(iii) Acidity above 1.0 mg KOH/gm - Discard oil.

The acidity of oil should be checked every two years for transformers upto
1000 KVA capacity and annually for transformers above this size.

87
 MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE OF TRANSFORMERS ATTENDED SUB-
STATIONS :

Transformers will run practically trouble-free if proper maintenance is done.

For this purpose a maintenance schedule can be drawn. Though this schedule shall be
only indicative in nature and tests may be conducted at more frequent intervals
depending upon the severity of service. Such a maintenance schedule is given below
in table 10.

Table 10
Inspecting Items to be inspected Remarks
Frequency
(I) Hourly Ambient temperature, winding Adjust load if temperature is
temperature, oil temperature, load high.
and voltage
(ii) Daily Oil level If low top up with dry oil
Relief diaphragm Look for any sign of leakages
Dehydrating breathers (check for Replace if broken
free air passages.
Check colour of silica-gel Change if colour is pink
(iii) Quarterly Lubricate bearings etc. of cooler
fans, circulating pumps etc., if any.
(iv) Half yearly Check oil for dielectric strength and Filter or replace if necessary
presence of moisture
Check bushes, insulators etc.
Check cable boxes etc.
(v) Yearly Check oil for acidity, sludge and Filter or change oil as
flash point, if possibly. necessary.
Check relays, alarms, contacts etc.

Check earth resistance Methods of lowering resistance

may be followed if required.
Check lighting arrestors
(vi) Five yearly Over-all inspection including lifting Wash by hosing down with
of core and coils clean dry oil.

MAINTENANCE OF TRIP CIRCUIT & BATTERY SUPPLY :

Maintenance of the trip circuit and battery supply is essential for the
satisfactory operation of all protective relays (for shunt trip type). Following care and
maintenance of batteries are required to be taken :

(i) Electrolyte level must be maintained 10 to 15 mm above the plates for the
proper reaction of the constituents,
(ii) Terminal voltage of the cell must not be allowed to fall below 1.8V,
(iii) Battery should be charged to its rated capacity to increase its efficiency,
(iv) Do not allow battery to remain in semi-discharged condition for long
otherwise the life of the battery will be reduced,

88
(v) Commercial sulphuric acid should not be used otherwise the active
components will be damaged soon,
(vi) Use distilled water for topping the level of electrolyte,
(vii) Avoid excessive charging since it reduces life of the battery,
(viii) Bare and insulated lead should be painted with recommended paint to avoid
accidental short circuit,
(ix) Battery should be kept clean and dry and battery room should be well
ventilated to avoid suffocation,
(x) If acid falls out of battery, wipe over with wet rag and dry thoroughly to save
the components from being damaged,
(xi) Terminal posts and connectors should be clean and free from corrosion to
increase the life of the battery,
(xii) Nuts and bolts of cell connectors should be kept tightened and smeared with
Vaseline to avoid rusting; and
(xiii) it should not be left in discharged condition for long otherwise the defects of
sulphation will occur.

Every relay should be tested once in six months, with suitable testing set and
the records of such tests should be logged in a maintenance register. During tests a
check should be made if any of the overload or time setting on the relay require
change due to the increase or decrease in the load condition since the date of last test.
Following defects are possible :

(a) Improper contact or misalignment of the contact prongs of the trip battery
circuits, between the cubicle and the draw-out truck
(b) Discharged battery,
(c) Wrong current transformer connections,
(d) Wrong relay settings for the load conditions, and
(e) Stiffness of circuit breaker operating mechanism due to dust, dirt, rust or lack
of lubrication.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF EARTHING :

(i) Check the earth resistivity during dry season half yearly and maintain and
compare the record with previous reading.
(ii) Water should be poured at regular intervals during dry season at the small
substations.
(iii) When the system is expanded, the earthing system should also be expanded by
using additional earth electrodes and earth wire separately.
(iv) Electrodes should be placed in the earth in the up[right vertical position.
(v) The electrodes and the earth continuity conductor used in the circuit should be
of same material i.e. copper or G.I.
(vi) Check the earth connections and tighten them properly.
(vii) Pass the earth continuity conductor through the galvanised pipe from being
damaged.
(viii) Inspect the broken or rusted earth continuity conductors and replace them with
proper size.
(ix) The earth resistance of the following equipments must be measured during the
driest part of the year :

89
 (a) transformer body and other metal parts,
(b) neutral of the transformer, and
(c) lightning arrestors.
The value of earth resistance should not be allowed more than 2 ohms.
(x) Mixture of salt and water may be added to improve the earth resistance.
(xi) In the corrosive earth, the steel electrode should be replaced by copper coated
steel electrode.
(xii) The earth continuity conductor should be properly welded with the earth
electrode.
(xiii) Avoid any jointings from earthing conductor.

90
 CHAPTER-10

EA System – An Overview

91
 EA System – An Overview

The standby power supply commonly used in T.E buildings is from Diesel
Engine Alternator Set .In the Engine Alternator Set, the Diesel engine is the
prime mover which rotates the alternator of the engine Alternator set and
alternator in turn produces Electrical energy. In the first stage of energy
conversion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted in to the mechanical
energy at the common shaft of Engine & Alternator. This mechanical energy is
then converted into electrical energy at alternator in the second stage of energy
conversion.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF ENGINE

When the fuel ignites in the combustion chamber, energy in the form of heat
and gases is generated. The rapid expansion of hot gases creates pressure in
the combustion chamber which pushes the piston away. The reciprocating
motion of the piston is converted in to the circular motion by the engine
crankshaft, which is connected to the piston by the connecting rod.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF ALTERNATOR

Alternator works on Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction. There are
two requirements for the functioning of Alternator– (1) Magnetic field & (2)
Rotation. Magnetic field is produced by passing direct current through the
field winding of the Alternator and rotation is achieved by means of coupling
the alternator from engine. The Automatic Voltage regulator (AVR) is
provided in the alternator for maintaining the terminal voltage within the close
limits over wide operating condition.

Mechanical
Chemical Electrical
Engine
Energy of fuel
Alternator
Energy Energy

Block Diagram of Engine & Alternator

92
SYSTEMS OF A DIESEL ENGINE & COMMON TROUBLES

Various systems of diesel engine constituting the working system are

as below:

(1) LUBRICATION SYSTEM

The moving parts of the diesel engine are lubricated for their
optimum operation by this lubrication system. A dipstick in the oil
sump serves to check the oil level. The lub oil level and the
lubrication oil pressure have to be checked for satisfactory
performance and long life of the engine.
Basic function of lubrication system is to reduce
- friction
- heat
- wear
by introducing oil between solid sliding surfaces

Common problems related to Lubrication system are -

- High oil consumption

- Low oil pressures
- High oil pressure
- Oil in coolant
- Coolant in oil
- Fuel in oil

(2) FUEL SYSTEM

Depending on the position of the fuel, the fuel is supplied to the

distributing pipe through fuel filter either by natural head from an
elevated tank or by a fuel pump. Fuel is supplied inside the cylinder
by injection nozzles.
The main objective of fuel system is as follows :-
 To control the quantity of fuel to each cylinder
 To ensure that the fuel is delivered at correct time
 To deliver the fuel in correct condition
 To govern the engine speed
Partially burned fuel may cause soot and carbon. The other problems
associated with fuel system are :-
 Engine not taking load
 Engine not starting
93
  Hunting / surging
 High fuel consumption
 Early wear of fuel components

(3) AIR SYSTEM

For the combustion of fuel sufficient quantity of the filtered air is

taken in the combustion chamber. After the combustion the exhaust
gases are taken away from the engine through suitable ducting or
piping. This is known as air exhaust system.
The main requirement of air system are :-
 Sufficient air
 Cool air
 Dry air
 Clean air

The troubles associated with malfunctioning of air system are as

follows :-
 Insufficient air for burning of fuel
 Unburnt diesel
 Loss of power
 Excessive exhaust temperature

(4) COOLING SYSTEM

Cooling System is essential for cooling the engine body, and to act as
a heat exchanger for lubricating oil. This can be either water-cooled
or air –cooled. Malfunctioning of cooling system may cause over
heating of the engine and ultimately seizure of the engine.

(5) STARTING SYSTEM

The Diesel Engine can be equipped with the starting system i.e. with
an electric starter with a pinion, which engages with the fly wheel of
the engine. The power to the electric starter is provided by means of
a battery which is kept in charged condition by means of a dynamo
or electric rectifier.

94
INDICATIONS OF A HEALTHY ENGINE

An engine is said to be healthy if it has:

1. Good Compression:

The temperature of the induced air when entrapped and compressed in the
combustion chamber is about 540 deg C to 560 deg C.

2. Good Combustion:

Fuel is sprayed in atomized form to ensure proper ignition of the fuel.

Burning temperature is about 1425 deg C.

3. Clean exhaust:

The exhaust system is clean and back pressure is with in permissible

limits. The general condition of the Engine can be determined by the type
of smoke it emits. This can be said as “The pulse of the engine”. Smoke
should be of brown colour (Barely visible haze). Any other colour of
smoke indicates some problem in the engine.

CPCB Norms for DG set

Central Pollution Control Board has specified certain norms in

respect of sound and emission levels for Engine Alternators. These are
discussed below:

(A) NOISE LIMIT FOR DG SETS:

1. Noise limit for diesel generator sets (upto 1000 KVA) manufactured on or
after the 1st January, 2005
.
 The maximum permissible sound pressure level for new diesel
generator (DG) sets with rated capacity upto 1000 KVA,
manufactured on or after the 1st January, 2005 shall be 75 dB(A) at
1 metre from the enclosure surface.
The diesel generator sets should be provided with integral acoustic
enclosure at the manufacturing stage itself

2. Noise limit for DG sets not covered by Point 1 above.

 Noise limits for diesel generator sets not covered by point 1, shall be
as

95
 follows:
 Noise from DG set shall be controlled by providing an acoustic
enclosure or by treating the room acoustically, at the users end.
 The acoustic enclosure or acoustic treatment of the room shall be
designed for minimum 25 dB (A) insertion loss. The measurement
for Insertion Loss may be done at different points at 0.5 m from the
acoustic enclosure/room, and then averaged.
 The DG set shall be provided with proper exhaust muffler with
insertion loss of minimum 25 dB(A).

(B) EMISSION LIMITS FOR DG SETS:

The emission limits in respect of Nox, HC, CO & PM emissions have

been defined by CPCB. These limits are required to be followed for all
DG sets.

ACOUSTIC TREATMENT OF DG SET ROOM

The sound proof treatment has become very important because of CPCB
norms. BSNL has to provide this treatment at its existing installations. The
following points are required to be seen:-

 The acoustic treatment of the room is to be designed for minimum 25

dB insertion loss (measured at different points at 0.5 mt. from the
room and than averaged). Final sound level shall be 75 db (A) at a
distance of 1 mt.
 Mineral glass wool of density 24 kg/cubic meter & 75 mm thickness
conforming to IS –8183 should be used.
 High quality gaskets are to be used to avoid leakage of sound.
 A specially designed large pusher fan or axial flow fan for forced
ventilation inside the room shall be provided.
 Specially designed circuitry to ensure that the fan starts when the DG
set is in operation. When the DG set has been switched off, the fan
automatically switches over to mains supply and runs for three
minutes before stopping to ensure that DG set is ready to start in case
of another mains failure.
 The temperature inside the enclosure shall not exceed 5o C than the
ambient temperature during acceptance testing.

Performance Testing Of DG Set

The DG set trial data is analysed with respect to :-

a) Average & percentage engine and alternator loading.

96
 b) Specific power generation Ltr/Kwh
c) Specific lube oil cap. Ltr/kwh
d) Derated DG set capacity

Energy Saving Opportunities

 Optimise loading
 Clean air filters regularly
 Insulate exhaust pipes to reduce DG set room temperatures
 Regular servicing of DG set

97
 CHAPTER-11

Engine Alternator Set – Selection and Latest

Installation Practices

98
 Engine Alternator Set – Selection and Latest Installation Practices

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Diesel Engine-alternator sets are extensively used as an alternative and stand

by source of power in the event of failures, interruptions or service break-
down of main source of electrical energy of telecom equipments. The selection
approach of an E/A set depends upon different types of load, their nature, site
conditions etc. During this lesson, we shall study these factors and steps
needed for selecting an E/A sets optimally.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

At the end of this lesson participants shall be able to -

(a) Analyse the various loads and their effect.

(b) Select an Diesel Enginer-alternator set.

TYPE OF LOADS

The loads can be classified as -

(i) Linear loads.

(ii) Non linear loads.

(i) Linear Load :

A linear load is one for which load impedance remains constant regardless of
applied voltage. For alternating current, current increases proportionately as
the voltage increases and decreases proportionately as the voltage decreases.
Motor, incandescent lighting and heating loads etc. are linear in nature. For a
sinusoidal voltage, the current is also sinusodial, these are called linear loads.

(ii) Non linear Load :

A non linear load is one in which the load current is not proportional to the
instantaneous voltage. Often, the load current is not continuous. Solid state
devices are non linear in nature. Rectifier load, thyristor loads, computer load
etc. are non linear in nature. Non linear load currents are non sinusoidal and
even the source voltage is sine wave, the non linear loads distort the voltage
wave, making non sinusoidal. For arriving at the capacity of an E/A set, it is
necessary to calculate various loads and work out initial and ultimate peak
loads after applying the demand factor over the connected load for each and
every type of load.

99
3.0 FACTORS AFFECTING RATING OF ENGINE-ALTERNATOR SETS

While selecting an Engine-alternator set, proper deration should be allowed so

that engine should not under perform at the site. Following factors should be
considered for deration of engine or the alternator.

(i) Altitude

Engines are generally rated for atmospheric pressure at mean sea level. As the
altitude increases the density of air starts reducing. Low pressure injection to
the engine results in lower output and therefore, deration is allowed for higher
altitude.

(ii) Temperature

Ambient air temperature is important for cooling of engine and alternator. As

the air temperature rises the engine temperature also goes up and therefore, a
deration factor is used. Winding resistance of alternator also increases with
increase in temperature.

(iii) Humidity

Efficiency of engine reduces with increase in relative humidity of supply air.

For more humid applications the engine is suitably derated.

(iv) Non-linear

Non-linear load on the alternator is also important factor. Most of the

alternators are designed for 40% non-linear load applications. In case the non-
linear load increases this value, the alternator should be properly sized.

4.0 SELECTION APPROACH OF AN DIESEL ENGINE-ALTERNATOR

SET

For selecting the capacity of an Engine-alternator, the following factors are

considered -

(i) Linear load;

(ii) Non linear load;

(iii) Altitude;

(iv) Ambient temperature;

(v) Relative humidity.

4.1 SELECTION OF ALTERNATOR

100
 For selecting the capacity of alternator, the following steps should be followed
-

(i) Calculate the non linear load to be fed by E/A set after applying the
load factor for each and every type of load (say X KVA).

(ii) Calculate the linear load to be fed by E/A set after applying the load
factor for each and every type of load (say Y KVA).

(iii) After considering the derating of alternator on account of non linear

load select, the alternator as to meet the total load requirements (X + Y
KVA), X KVA non linear load for telecom applications.

4.2 SELECTION OF ENGINE

For engines, there is no need to derate engine capacity on account of non

linear load. However, the engine selection shall be made on the basis of
derating their capacity on account of stringent atmospheric conditions e.g.
altitude, ambient temperature & humidity.

Diesel engines are designed to deliver their normal rating continuously at

specified conditions of temp., humidity & altitude. (i.e. known as standard
reference conditions).

The standard reference conditions are as -

Pr = 100 Kpa = 750 mm Hg

Ambient/ Air temperature Tr = 3000 K (270 C)

Relative humidity r = 60 %

Charge air coolant temperature Tcr = 3000 K (270 C)

When an engine is required to work under conditions which differ from the
standard reference conditions the rated output of engine at site conditions shall
be given as per the following formulae

Px = Pr .............(i)

where,

 = K - 0.7 (1-K) (1/m-1) .............(ii)

m n q
 P  x Psx   Tr   Tcr 
K x      .............(iii)
 Pr  r Psr   Tx   Tcx 

101
 where the symbols have their meaning as explained below :

 = Power adjustment factor.

pr = Standard reference total barometric pressure.

r = Standard reference relative humidity.

psr = Saturation vapor pressure under standard reference conditions.

px = Total barometric pressure conditions being considered.

psx = Saturation vapour pressure under the conditions being considered.

x = Relative humidity condition being considered.

Tr = Standard reference absolute air temperature.

Tx = Absolute air temperature being considered.

Tcr = Standard reference absolute charge air coolant temperature.

Tcx = Absolute charge air coolant temperature at charge air cooler inlet being
considered.

K = Ratio of indicated power.

m = Mechanical efficiency.

Pr = The brake power under reference condition.

m,n,q,a = Various constants.To find out the value of different constants

the following table may be referred :

Engine type Facto Exponents

r
a m n q
Naturally aspirated 0 1 1 0
engine
Turbo charged without 0 0.7 2 0
charge air cooling
Turbo charge with air 0 0.7 1.2 1
cooling

It may be noted that putting q = 0 gives the same equation (3) of I.S. 10000 (part iv) -
1980; and so we can follow the B.S. 5514.

102
xpsx = Whether vapour pressure (depending upon air temperature and relative
humidity

 Px  x Psx 
  = The dry air pressure ration.
 Pr  r Psr 

In the case of turbo charged engines in which the limits of turbocharger speed
and turbocharger turbine inlet temperature have not been reached at the declared
power under standard reference conditions, the manufacturer may declare substitute
reference conditions to or from which power adjustment is to be made.

The following formulae will then be used.

m n q
 P  P   Tcr 
K x   ra   
 Pra   Pra   Tcx  .............(iv)

 rr
Pra  Pr .............(v)
 max

where,

px = Total barometric pressure conditions being considered.

pra = Substitute reference total barometric pressure.

r = Boost pressure ratio at declared power under reference conditions to be

tested by the manufacturer.

max = Maximum available boost pressure ratio to be stated by the

manufacturer.

Tra = Substitute reference absolute air temperature to be stated by the

manufacturer

Tx = Absolute air temperature being considered.

Tcr = Standard reference absolute charge air coolant temperature.

Tcx = Absolute charge air coolant temperature at charge air cooler inlet being
considered.

m,n,q = Constant.

Till new there is no difference. But I.S. rating of the engine has been classified
as two types - I.S. rating A (with overload) and I.S. rating B (without over load). But

103
BS covers only with overload. In any case our departmental requirement is for I.S.
rating A.

To find out the value of different constants the following table may be followed :

Engine type Condition Formula Factor Exponents

reference
a m n q
Compression Non turbo Power A 1 1 0.75 0
ignition oil charged limited by
engine and air excess
duel fuel
engines
Power B 0 1 1 0
limited by
thermal
reason
Turbo Low and C 0 0.7 2 0
charged medium
without speed four
charge air stroke
cooling engines
Turbo D 0 0.7 1.2 1
charged
with charge
air cooling
Spark Non turbo E 1 0.85 0.55 0
ignition charged
engines using
gaseous fuel
Turbo Low and F 0 0.57 0.55 1.75
charge air medium
cooling speed 4
stroke
engines
Spane Naturally G 1 1 0.5 0
ignition aspirated
engines using
liquid fuel

104
Latest Installation Practice of EA set:

READY TO USE EA SET WITH MICROPROCESSOR BASED AMF

CONTROL PANEL

 SALIENT USE OF READY TO USE EA SET

1. Close coupling between Engine and Alternator

2. Diesel tank is fabricated as a welded part of Base Channel
3. Starting battery is fixed in frame welded to the Base Channel
4. The control panel is mounted on the alternator
5. The exhaust silencer is supported from the Base Channel

FEATURE OF THE CLOSE COUPLED RTU E/A SETS WITH

MICROPROCESSOR

 THE RTU CONCEPT

 Various accessories of E/A set like Diesel tank, starting battery,Electrical

control panel, exhaust silencer etc. are integrated to the E/A set to form single
unit. The diesel tank and starting battery are mounted as slide ranking type for
ease of maintenance.

 The engine and alternator are mounted over the base channel with AVMs and
the control panel is fixed on the base channel through vibration isolation
mounting.

 The channel height of the base channel has increased to 0.30mtrs. To have the
fuel tank and starting battery built into.

 The capacity of the fuel tank has been to 12hrs capacity in place of 24hrs
capacity as provided in the conventional type E/A sets.

 The E/A set is Ready to use after giving body and neutral Earthing connection,
mains and load cable

AMF CONTROL PANEL

 In order to have unmanned and uninterrupted supply the AMF(Auto Main

Failure)panel is provided.

105
  The control panel is provided with Voltage Monitoring Relay in association
with microprocessor based AMF logic controller closely check the status and
take the necessary steps to change over from mains to E/A supply and vice
versa through power contractor as and when requirement ids detected.

 The AMF is also provided with the option to have starting, stoping and change
over operation with manual control, if so required.

 Advantage of Microprocessor based AMF logic

Its reliable,positive and full proof AMF logic to suit the entire requirement like
starting, battery status checking, intelligent monitoring of the engine working
parameters to ensure total protection and operational control of set.

Remote Monitoring and Control

 The RTU has the facility to get connected with a computer through modem
and telephone line and to convey all the information in respect of operating
parameters, set values and other relevant particulars like no. of hours run,
alarm status etc. so as to have total remote operation, control and monitoring
of the EA set.

Cost Effectiveness

 The cost of close coupled RTU E/A set with microprocessor based AMF Panel
is only slightly higher than the cost of conventional E/A set.

 Cost comparison:-
-- Set Capacity– 60KVA EASET with Alternator 75KVA
-- Cost of RTU– Rs. 4,88,450/-
-- Cost of conventional EA set – Rs. 4,31,000/-

Space Saving

 The space required by the RTU is less by occupying lesser length of the engine
room because of the non requirement of separate space for locating ‘Diesel
Tank’ and control panel compared to the same capacity conventional EA Set.

Quick Commissioning

 The RTU set has proved to be the most appropriate choice wherever normal
installation and commissioning this cannot be permitted due to exigencies of
the work. Now the concept of providing the EA set immediately ON
DEMAND

106
 CHAPTER-12

Fire Protection System in Telecom Installations

107
 Fire Protection System in Telecom Installations

Introduction:

A telecom installation with high concentrations of cables and electronics switching

equipment within relatively small areas constitutes a HIGH RISK installation.
We have to prevent fire before everything is afire. This chapter deals with Fire
Safety measures in telecom installations.

OBJECTIVE

At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:

(i) Define active and passive fire measures.

(ii) Implement the active and passive fire protection system Telecom buildings.
(iii) Inspect the building with respect to active and passive fire protection
measures.

DEFINITIONS

FIRE RESISTANCE

Fire resistance is a property of an element of building construction and is the measure

of its ability to satisfy for a stated period some or all of the following :

(a) Resistance to collapse

(b) Resistance to flame penetration
(c) Resistance to excessive temperature rise on the unexposed face.

AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEM

An arrangement of
 Fire detectors.
 Sounders
 Control panel(s)
 And accessories.

For detecting and outbreak of fire without manual interventions and alerting the
occupants of the building through audio visual alarms.

FLOOR AREA RATIO

FAR = Total covered area of all floors.(plinth area )/Plot area

108
FIRE PROTECTION

Fire protection measures in a building can be classified in two parts :

(a) PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION

Passive fire protection measures are those which are adopted at the planning stage of
the building or facility such as :

i. Provision of adequate fire resistance of the structure.

ii. Provision of proper FAR, open spaces.
iii. Provision of adequate access to sufficient and readily available water supply etc.
for fire brigade.

(b) ACTIVE FIRE PROTECTION MEASURES

Active fire protection measures are those which operate(manual/Automatic) in the

event of out break of fire such as:-

i. Provision of suitable and adequate Fire detection system with audio visual alarm.
ii. Wet riser & fire Extinguisher.

PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION MEASURES

Telephone exchange buildings have been classified as E4 business buildings in the

“National Building-Code of India”. As such building Material(s) of suitable fire
retardant ability as mentioned therein shall only be provided. Important features of
passive fire protection are given below-

BUILDING AND ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

1. The panels of partitions shall be of fire retarding Material having metallic frame.
The thickness of glass in glazed partitions shall be of min 5.5 mm.
2. All furniture in technical rooms shall be of steel. Plastic or wooden furniture
should not be used.

3. Jute matting shall not be permitted for floor covering in telephone exchange.

4. Compulsory open spaces around the building(i.e4.5 mtr) shall be provided and
shall not be used for parking. The minimum radius at the turnings shall not be
less than 9 mtr. The width of entry shall not be less than 5 mtr(clear).

5. Openings in wall and floors shall be sealed by compressed asbestos fiber mixed
with cement or verni culete concrete or any other filler material having a fire
resistance of 2 hrs.
109
6. The Electronic switch room, OMC rooms shall be separated from other areas by
walls having a minimum fire resistance of 2 hrs.

7. Entry doors of lifts, lobby, corridors, staircase lobby, should have at least 1 Hr fire
resistance.

8. Escape routes shall be marked clearly with red arrows and should be free from all
obstructions.

9. Provision of Emergency lights in corridors, staircase lobbies, etc as well as in

technical rooms.

10. Provision of inter communication or any other suitable communication system in

lift car connected with reception/control room.

11.No articles cotton wastes etc should be stored at the back of switch boards.

12. Temporary wiring or extension circuits shall not ordinarily be permitted.

Extension circuits/Temporary wiring shall be installed under the supervision of
officer in charge of Electrical maintenance.

13. Cable trenches inside substation shall be filled with pebbles or sand, and covered
with ecc slabs or steel plates.

14. It is absolutely essential to ensure that fuse wire of correct rating only, are used in
distribution system.

15. Wherever fire lifts are installed, the words ‘FIRE LIFT’ should be conspicuously
displayed.

TELECOM EQUIPMENT AND POWER WIRING

1. Power distribution in switch room shall be done according the Engineering

instructions issued by T&D circle from time to time.

2. No bare wire shall be used in fuses. Only cartridge fuses shall be used.

3. The distribution fuses shall be rated for maximum load condition.

4. A fuse of proper rating shall be provided at the negative terminal of battery sets.

5. All power leads, especially those having heavy currents must have conductor of
sufficient gauge, sufficient to carry safety the maximum current that is likely to
pass through them. Even for temporary repairs, unnecessary long length of wire,
or the wire of gauge smaller than what is needed, should not be used.

6. The negative bus bar shall be insulated by tapes and positive bus bars by
insulation paint.

110
7. In a multi exchange building when a common power plant feeds more than one
exchange, independent bus bars shall be provided for each exchange. Clear cut
instructions regarding operations to be carried in case of fire shall be displaced
prominently in all equipment rooms.

AIR CONDITIONING INSTALLATION

1. The material used for insulating the ducts shall be non combustible.

2. Normally air handling units and ducting shall be separate for each floor.

3. The false ceiling and its fixtures shall be non-combustible material.

4. Escape routes like staircase, lift lobbies etc shall not be used for return air passage.

5. All ducts emerging from weather maker units shall be provided with automatic
control fire dampers.

6. In all plants these shall be a provision of automatic switch off of the respective air
handling units/package plant with the operation of fire alarm.

7. Air filter shall be of non - combustible material.

ACTIVE FIRE PROTECTION MEASURES

FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM

If outbreak of fire is detected promptly in its incipient stage and simultaneously, a

correct fire fighting media is applied, losses from fire can be minimized. Thus
philosophy of fire detection and alarm system is to provide an audio visual signal for
alerting the building occupants.

MANUAL FIRE ALARM

All buildings excepting manual local exchange and MAX III, shall have a manual fire
alarm system. In multistoried buildings, each floor shall constitute one or more zone
depending on the area of floor. Fire alarm switches shall be mounted at conventional
locations in the zones. The call boxes shall be accessible to all occupants without
having to travel more than 22.5 mtr and shall be mounted at a height of 1.2 mtr from
floor level. It shall be colored red.

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AUTOMATIC DETECTION SYSTEM

All buildings above 15 m height and all Digital Electronic exchanges and all the
exchanges of 1K or above shall be provided with an automatic fire detection system,
in addition to manual fire alarm system. In case of E-10 B exchanges, false floor
plenum and false ceiling shall constitute separate zones.

The detectors shall be of rate of type and smoke type. Wherever smoke detectors are
provided, a mixture of photoelectric and ionization type will be used.

A control indication panel to which detection circuits in all the zones are connected,
shall be installed in the fire control room or in the main entrance lobby on the ground
floor of the building. Light indications on the panels shall unable the fire to identify
the fire site.

The alarm system shall provide both alert system and evacuation alarm with
different distinctive tones.

The alarm system shall have a battery back up so that in case of mains failure, the
back up batteries take over and feed the power to the system.

A non exchange direct fire emergency magneto telephone shall be provided in the
equipment room to all Telecom buildings for direct communication with the fire
brigade. One of the extensions of the non exchanges line shall also be available at
the ground floor hi the santry cabin or at the reception. The fire telephone shall be
tested daily.

FIRE FIGHTING APPLIANCES

Sufficient number of fire Extinguishers(portable type) shall be bring or kept in shelves

or mounted on wheels at conspicuous places(but not too close to the equipment). The
operating instructions shall be clearly printed on the body of extinguishers.

Sufficient quality of refills for the extinguishers shall be stored.Two water buckets and
too sand buckets shall be provided at each floor.

All fire fighting appliances shall be maintained in working condition.

For more details the latest “Fire protection manual” of the department can be
referred.

Summary:

The Fire Safety is very important for any organization as fire may result in to damage
to property and loss to human lives. Suitable measures should be adopted to prevent
the occurrence of Fire. Fire can be extinguished by detection in early stage and
application of suitable fire extinguishing media.

112
 CHAPTER-13

Fire Fighting System – An Overview

113
 Fire Fighting System – An Overview

INTRODUCTION

High rise buildings are susceptible to fire because of presence of combustible

materials , oxygen and heat. More the combustible material more is the fire
load of the building. Stack effect caused due to high rise building supplies
enough oxygen to sustain fire and thus it may lead to disaster. Thus, means are
required to be devised for effectively controlling such situations.

FIRE FIGHTING APPLIANCES:

 Sufficient number of fire Extinguishers (portable type) shall be

brought or kept in shelves or mounted on wheels at conspicuous
places (but not too close to the equipment). The operating
instructions shall be clearly printed on the body of extinguishers.
 Sufficient quality of refills for the extinguishers shall be stored.
 For buildings above 15 mt. In height one wet riser for every 1000 sq.
mtr or part therefore of floor area shall be provided. The hydrant shall
be so located that it is not farther than 30 mt. from any point in the area
covered.
 In data centers, automatic flooding system is provided keeping in view
the importance and fire risk involved.
 Two water buckets and too sand buckets shall be provided at each floor.
 All fire fighting appliances shall be maintained in working
condition.
 For more details the latest “Fire protection manual” of the department
can be referred.

Classes of Fire and Fire Extinguishers:

The Nation Fire Protection Association (NFPA) extinguisher standard classifies

fire into four types.

CLASS A

Fire in ordinary combustible materials ( like wood, cloth, paper, rubber, etc.)

CLASS B

Fire inflammable liquids, gasses etc.

CLASS C

Fire in live electrical equipment.

CLASS D

Fire in reactive metals (Like Mg, Ti, Na, K, etc.).

114
CLASS OF FIRE SUITABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHER.

CLASS A WATER, FOAM.

CLASS B FOAM, CO2, , DRY POWDER.

CLASS C CO2 , HALON.

CLASS D SPECIAL DRY CHEMICAL POWDER.

WET RISER SYSTEM

DEFINITIONS

WET RISER

A charged vertical water main inside a building connected to a water main or an

automatic stationary pump and fitted with internal hydrants, landing valves and
hose reels for tapping water at various floors.

DOWN COMER

A wet riser fed from an overhead tank installed on the terrace of the building.

DRY RISER

A vertical water main inside a building, not normally connected to a water

main or an automatic stationary pump, with an inlet at street level, through
which water can be pumped by fire service pumps to hydrants outlets or hose
reels at various floors.

JOCKEY PUMP

A pump of small capacity which is set to come into operation, automatically

with drop in static pressure in the system and to automatically stop when the
preset value of pressure is obtained again.

FIRE PUMP

An electric /diesel pump at static water tank to charge the wet riser system.

STANDBY PUMP

A pump of same capacity as fire pump, driven by a diesel engine or connected

to any other alternate source of electric supply.

115
LANDING VALVE

An assembly comprising valve(s) and outlet(s) connection from a riser system.

HOSE REEL

Fire fighting equipment, consisting of length or tubing fitted with a shut-off nozzle
and connected to a reel, with a permanent connection to a pressurized water supply.

AIR RELEASE VALVE

A device by which the trapped air inside a riser main is expelled by water as the
system is being charged.

PRESSURE SWITCH

A switch connected on delivery line of fire pump at preset pressure so designed to

automatically start the fire pump or jockey pump, as the case may be, as the pressure
in the system falls below the preset value.

All high rise buildings shall be provided with a wet riser system as per local fire bye-
laws. In case there are no fire bye-laws, all buildings above 15 mt. In height shall be
protected by a wet riser system. A wet riser is an arrangement for fire fighting within
the building by means of vertical rising mains not less than 100m.m. internal dia.
With hydrant outlets and hose reels on each floor/landing connected to a water tank
with a water pump and an over head tank. The size and No. of internal vertical &
rising mains depends upon the height of building and floor area. A fire brigade inlet at
ground level fitted with a non return valve is also provided for charging the rising
main with a fire brigade Pump in case of failure of fire Pump. Fire brigade inlet
connection is also provided for the under ground static water storage tank.

COVERAGE OF WET RISER

For buildings above 15 mt. In height one wet riser for every 1000 sq. mtr or part
therefore of floor area shall be provided. The riser shall be fully charged with a
minimum Pressure of 3kg/sq cm. at the top most landing at all times and shall be
automatic in operation. The hydrant shall be so located that it is not father than 30 mt.
from any point in the area covered.

WET RISER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

1. ELECTRICAL FIRE PUMP

The electric fire pump shall be suitable for automatic operation complete with
necessary electric motor and automatic starting gear, suitable for operation on 415
volts 3 phase, 50 Hz. A.C. system. Both the motor and the pump shall be an
assembled on a common bed plate, fabricated M.S. channel type or cast iron type.
The pump shall be only direct driven by means of a flexible coupling. Coupling guard
shall also be provided.

116
SPECIFICATIONS

A. FIRE PUMP

i. The fire pump shall be horizontal split casing centrifugal type. It shall have a
capacity to deliver 1800/2400 lpm as specified, developing adequate head so
as to ensure a minimum pressure of 3kg/ cm2 at the highest and farthest outlet.
The delivery pressure at pump outlet shall be 7Kg/cm2 in any case.

ii. The pump casing shall be of cast iron and parts like impeller, shaft sleeve,
wearing ring etc. shall be of non-corrosive metal like bronze/brass gm metal.
The shaft shall be of stainless steel.

iii. Bearings of the pump shall be effectively sealed to prevent loss of lubricant or
entry of dust or water.

iv. The pump casing shall be designed to withstand 1.5 times the working
pressure.

B. MOTOR

The motor shall be squirrel cage A.C. induction type suitable for operation on
4.5 volts 3 phase 50 Hz system. The motor shall be totally enclosed fan cooled
type conforming to protection class IP 21 vide I.S.4691. The class of
insulation shall be type B. The synchronous speed shall be 1500/3000 RPM as
specified. The motor shall be rated for continuous duty and shall have a horse
Power rating necessary to drive the pump at 150 percent of its rated discharge
with at least 65% rated head.

C. MOTOR STARTER

The motor starter shall be automatic start delta type conforming to IS: 1822-1967 as
amended up-to-date. The unit shall include suitable current transformer and ammeter
of suitable range on one line to indicate the current. The starter shall not incorporate
under voltage, no voltage trip, overload or SPP.

2. DIESEL FIRE PUMP

This is a standby fire pump operated by a diesel engine. The diesel pump set shall be
suitable for automatic operation complete with necessary automatic starting gear for
starting on wet battery system and shall be completed with all accessories. Both
engine and pump shall be assembled on a common bed plate fabricated from mild
steel channel type. The pump shall be only direct driven by means of a flexible
coupling. Coupling guard shall also be provided. The speed shall be 1500/1800 RPM
as specified.

SPECIFICATIONS

117
A. FIRE PUMP: same as electric fire pump.

B. Diesel Engine

The Engine shall be cold starting type without the necessity of preliminary heating of
the engine cylinder or combustion chamber. The engine shall be multi
cylinder/vertical 4 stroke cycle, water cooled diesel engine, devolving suitable H.P. at
operating speed specified to drive the fire pump. The capacity shall be atleast 20%
greater than the maximum H.P. required to drive the pump at its duty point. It shall
also be capable of driving the pump at 150% of the rated discharge at 65% of rated
head. The engine shall be capable of continuous non-stop operation for 8 hours and at
least 3000 hours of operation before major overhaul. The engine shall have 10% over
load capacity for one hour in any period of 12 hours.

3. PIPING FOR WET RISER SYSTEM

The wet riser system piping shall comprise cast iron or galvanized iron pipe work
as specified with necessary C.I. or G.I. fittings and accessories C.I. pipe shall be
used in location where the pipes are burried under ground. G.I. pipes shall be used
in other locations. The wet riser piping system shall remain pressurized at all
times during operation and as such the piping work shall be carried out to with
stand the same.

G.I. pipes and accessories and fittings shall be of heavy class conforming to
IS1239 part I/1974 and part II/1979 as amended up-to-date, hot dip galvanized to
grade-I. The pipe joints shall be flanged with smooth faced flanged.

C.I. pipes shall be of class B to IS 1537-1976 and fittings shall be of heavy to IS

1538-1976. The flanged shall be smooth faced.

4. AIR VESSEL AND RELEASE VALVE

Air vessel on top of each wet riser piping shall be fabricated of at least 10m.m
thick steel to with stand the pressure, with dished ends and supporting legs. This
shall be of 450 mm dia and 2m high. This shall be complete with necessary flame
connection to the wet riser piping and air release valve with necessary piping to
meet the functional requirement of the system. The air vessel shall be of
continuous welded constructions and galvanised. This shall be tested for twice the
working Pressure.

5. RING MAIN AND YARD HYDRANT

In the open compounds a ring main or tree main with suitable no. of yard hydrants
shall also be provided so that one hydrant is available at every 60 mtr length of
the building. Each hydrant point shall be provided with a hose Box with 2 Nos 15
metre length hose pipes. The hydrant main shall be buried at a minimum depth of
1 mtr. below ground level. Yard hydrant shall be of stand post type conforming to
IS: 908-1975 and stand post for single outlet flame riser and single headed
brass/gunmetal valve.

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6. HOSE REELS AND HOSE BOXES

First aid hose reels and hose boxes shall be installed on all floors of the buildings.
The hose reels shall be connected to one of the female couplings of twin
couplings of landing values of the wet riser installation by means of an adapter.
The hose boxes shall be provided with 2 Nos. 15 mtr. Length 63 mm hose pipes
with couplings and one branch pipe nozzle.

Hose pipes shall be rubber lined woven jacketed and 63 mm in diameter. They
shall conform to Type –2 of IS 636-1979 as amended up-to-date. The hose shall
be sufficiently flexible and capable of being rolled.

7. STATIC WATER STORAGE

A satisfactory supply of water for the purpose of fire fighting shall always be
available in form of an under ground static storage

The capacity of under ground tank shall be as under:

For buildings up to 15 mt. in height ----- 50,000 litres

For buildings beyond 15 mt. & upto 24 mt in height ----- 1, 00,000 litres
For buildings beyond 24 mt. in height ----- 2, 00,000 litres

Arrangement for replenishing of the static tank with main or alternative source of
water supply at the rate of 1000 litre/minute should be available. When this is not
possible the capacity of the static storage tank shall be suitably increased in with
the local fire brigade. To prevent stagnation of water in the static tank the suction
tank of domestic water supply shall be fed only through an over flow
arrangement to maintain level therein at the minimum specified capacity. The
static water tank shall be provided with a fire brigade inlet connection with 4 mt
63 m.m. dia instantaneous male inlet arranged in a valve box at a suitable point at
street level at level and connected to the static tank with a suitable fixed pipe of
not less than 15 cm. diameter to discharge the water into the tank at the rate of
2250 litres/minute. All the buildings above 15 mt. in height shall in addition to the
static water tank be provided with terrace tank of 20,000 litre capacity along with
dry riser both only connected as per specifications. This need not be provided if
automatic pumps are provided at ground level.

8. POWER AND CONTROL PANEL

The power and control panel shall be totally enclosed, free standing floor mounted
cubical type fabricated out of sheet steel not less than 2m.m. thick. General
construction shall be of compartmentalization and sectornatisation such as main
incomer, electric fire pump, diesel fire pump, pressurization pump, and control, so
that there is no mixing of power and control wiring and connections in the same
section as far as possible. The panel shall be front operated type with all connections
accessible from the front. Front doors shall be hinged type. Back doors shall be
hinged type or removable type for inspection. A direct feeder, without any tappings
shall be laid from the sub-station to the control panel. The control panel shall be
located in the pump house.

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 CHAPTER-14

Design Installation and Maintenance of Lifts

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 Design Installation and Maintenance of Lifts

Lift: An appliance designed to transport persons or materials between two or

more levels in a vertical or substantially vertical direction by means of a guided car
or platform

Requirement

The passenger lift shall normally be provided only when the number of floors to be
served exceeds four or the height of the building exceeds 14.5 meters.

Number of lifts

The number of lifts for a particular building shall be decided keeping in view any
probable future expansion. It is important to have a thorough investigation of
quantity and quality of service desired.

Location and Layout

The ideal arrangement of lifts depends up on the particular use in the respective
building and shall be determined in every individual case. It is generally found
convenient to have bank of two or more lifts at one or more convenient points in the
building with one or more banks near a stair case. However, in selecting the location
for lift installation in any building particular attention shall also be taken to the fire
rescue aspect in conformity with the local Municipal By-Laws and prevention
of water entry into the pit.

Conformity with Statutory Acts, Rules, Regulations, Standards and Safety

Codes

The installation shall be carried out in conformity with the local lift Act and Rules
e.g. The Bombay Lift Act for Mumbai or as extended for Delhi etc. The installation
shall also conform to requirements of Local Municipal By-laws, Fire Regulations and
Rules wherever they are in force.

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Works to be done by the Department
a) Provision of 3-phase, 4 wire, 50 Hz, 415 V A.C. supply terminated in the

lift machine room separately for each lift with suitable size TPN SFU /
MCCB with double earthing.
b) Provision shall also be made for suitable size TPN SFU / MCCB at the
ground floor for each lifts.
c) Provision of 1-phase 50 Hz 230 V A.C. power supply terminated with
suitable size SPN MCB for lighting in the machine room and lift well.
d) Provision of adequate lighting in the machine room and at all landings.
e) Properly ventilated machine room with exhaust fans, lift well and water
proof lift pit.
f) Provision of suitable storage space.
g) Provision of hoisting beam or hook above the lift well and trap door.

Works to be done by the Contractor: Following works shall be deemed to be

included within the scope of the work to be done by the contractor in addition to
SITC of the lift.
a) All minor building work necessary for installation of lift such as machine

foundation, grouting and anchoring of R.S. joists etc. Such work shall exclude
cutting of marble work and construction of partition wall wherever involved.
b) All scaffolding as may be necessary in the lift well during erection work.
c) Temporary barricades with caution boards at each landing to prevent
accident during execution of work.

TERMINOLOGY

Buffer: A device designed to stop a descending car or counterweight beyond its

normal limit of travel by storing or by absorbing and dissipating the kinetic energy of
the car or counterweight. A buffer which stores in a spring the kinetic energy of the
descending car or counterweight is called the Spring Buffer.

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Call Indicator: A visual and audible device in the car to indicate to the attendant the
lift landing from which calls have been made Car frame: The supporting frame or
sling to which the platform of the lift car, its safety gear, guide shoes and suspension
ropes are attached Clearance
Bottom Car Clearance

The clear vertical distance from the pit floor to the lowest structural or mechanical
part, equipment or device installed beneath the car platform aprons or guards
located within 300 mm, measured horizontally from the sides of the car platform
when the car rests on its fully compressed buffers Counter weight: A weight or
series of weights to counter-balance the weight if the lift car and part of the rated load
Door
Door, Center Opening Sliding

A door which slides horizontally and consists of two or more panels which open from
the centre and are usually so interconnected that they move simultaneously.
Door, Vertical Bi-parting

A door which slides vertically and consists of two panels or sets of panel that
move away from each other to open and are so interconnected that they move
simultaneously Door Closer: A device which automatically closes a manually-
opened door Door Operator: A power operated device for opening and closing
doors.

Car door Electric Contact: An electric device, the function of which is to prevent
operation of the driving machine by the normal operating device unless the car door
is in the closed position Emergency Stop Push or Switch: A push button or switch
provided inside the car designed to open the control circuit to cause the lift car
to stop during emergency

Floor Leveling Switch: A switch for bringing the car to level at slow speed in case
of double speed or variable speed machines Geared Machine: A machine in
which the power is transmitted to the sheave through worm or worm and spurs
reduction gearing Gearless Machine: A lift machine in which the motive power is
transmitted to the driving sheave from the motor without intermediate reduction

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gearing and has the break drum mounted directly on the motor shaft Guide Rails
Shoe: An attachment to the car frame or counterweight for the purpose of
guiding the lift car or counterweight frame Landing Call Push: A push button fitted
at a lift landing, either for calling the lift car, or for actuating the call indicator
Landing Door: The hinged or sliding porting of a lift well enclosure, controlling
access to a lift car at a lift landing Lift Car: The load carrying unit with its floor or
platform, car frame and enclosing body work Lift Landing: That portion of a
building or structure used for discharge of passengers or goods or both into or
from a lift car Lift Pit: That space in the lift well below the level of the lowest lift
landing served Lift Well: The unobstructed space within an enclosure provided for
the vertical movement of the lift car(s) and any counterweight(s), including the lift pit
and the space for top clearance Lifting Beam: A beam, mounted immediately below
the machine room ceiling, to which lifting tackle can be fixed for raising or lowering
parts of the lift machine Operation: The method of actuating the control of lift
machine
Automatic Operation

A method of operation in which by a momentary pressure of a button the lift car is set
in motion and caused to stop automatically at any required lift landing.
Car Switch Operation

Method of operation by which the movement of lift car is directly under the
operation of the attendant by means of a handle – i.e. Manual Operation

Over-Speed Governor: An automatic device which brings the lift car and/or
counterweight to rest by operating the safely gear in the event of the speed in a
descending direction exceeding a predetermined limit Position and / or Direction
Indicator: A device which indicates on the lift landing or in the lift car or
both, the position of the car in the lift well or the direction or both in which the
lift car is traveling.

Rated load: The maximum load for which the lift car is designed and installed to
carry safely at its rated speed Rated Speed: The means of the maximum speed
attained by the lift car in the upward and downward direction with rated load in the
lift car Retiring Cam: A device which prevents the landing doors from being
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unlocked by the lift car unless in stops at a landing Safety Gear: A mechanical
device attached to the lift car or counterweight or both, designed to stop and to
hold the car or counterweight to the guides in the event of free fall or if governor
operated of over speed in the descending direction.

Sheave: A rope wheel, the rim of which is grooved to receive the suspension
ropes but to which the ropes are not rigidly attached and by means of which
power is transmitted from the lift machine to the suspension ropes.

Suspension Ropes: The ropes by which the car and counterweight are
suspended Terminal Slow down Switch: A switch when actuated shall compulsorily
cut-off the high speed and switch on the circuitry to run the elevator in leveling speed
before reaching on terminal landings.

Total Headroom: The vertical distance from the level of the top lift landing to the
bottom of the machine room slab Travel: The vertical distance between the bottom
and top lift landing served.

Automatic Rescue Device: This is provided to bring the car to rest at the
nearest landing in the event of breakdown of power supply. The motor runs at slow
speed with the help of batteries.

125
126
TYPES OF LIFTS AND DRIVE SYSTEM
Lift

An appliance designed to transport persons or materials between two or more levels

in a vertical or substantially vertical direction by means of a guided car or platform

Lift Types: Lifts are classified as below -

On the basis of service:

a) Passenger Lifts b) Goods Lifts

c) Service Lifts d)Hospital Lifts

On the basis of Speed: a) High Speed b) Low Speed

On the basis of Drive: a) Geared b) Gearless

1. Passenger Lifts: A lift designed for the transport of passengers in :

a) Residential Buildings
b) Office Building and Hospital
c) Shops and Departmental Stores

2. Good Lifts: A lift designed primarily for the transport of goods, but which may
carry a lift attendant or other persons necessary for the loading or unloading of goods

3. Service Lift (Dumb –Waiter): A lift with a car which moves in guides in a
substantially vertical direction; has net floor area of 1 m2, total inside height of

1.25 m, whether or not provided with fixed or removable shelves; and capacity
not exceeding 250 kg; and is exclusively used for carrying materials and shall not
carry any person (due to its construction as regards its size).

4. Hospital Lifts: A lift normally installed in a hospital/dispensary/clinic and

designed to accommodate one number bed/stretcher along its depth, with

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sufficient space around to carry a minimum of three attendants in addition to the lift
operator.

Recommended Dimensions of Passenger Lifts as per IS 14665(Part-I):2000-

(All dimensions in mm)

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Notes:
1. The total overhead dimension has been calculated on the basis of car height of
2.3m.

2. In case of manually operated doors, clear entrance will be reduced by the amount
of projection of handle on the landing door.
3. All dimensions given above for lifts having centre opening power operated doors
with counterweight at rear, are recommended dimensions primarily for architects and
building planners. Any variations mutually agreed between manufacturer and
purchasers are permitted. However, variation in:
i. Car inside dimensions shall be within the maximum area limits specified.
ii. Entrance width on higher side is permitted.
iii. Entrance width on lower side is permitted up to 100mm subject to
minimum of 700mm.

4. Dimensions of pit depth and overhead may differ in practice as per

individual manufacturer’s design depending upon load, speed and drive.
Recommended dimensions for depth, overhead and machine room for different
lift speeds are given in Table.

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Recommended Up-to > 0.70 > 1.00 > 1.50 > 1.75 > 2.00
Dimensions of Pit,
Overhead & Machine-0.70 < 1.00 < 1.50 < 1.75 < 2.00 < 2.50

Room of Passenger
Lifts (all dimensions in
mm) Speed in M/s
Pit depth 1350 1500 1600 2150 2200 2500
Overhead 4200 4250 4800 4800 5200 5400
Machine room Depth D+2000 D+2500
Machine room Width C+1000 C+1200 C+1500

The design of a Goods Lift is similar to that of a Passenger Lift, in principal, the main
difference being that the car is rougher in construction, the entrances are wider and
the contract speeds rarely exceed 0.7 m/sec to 1.0 m/sec. Speed in the case of
Goods Lift is not so important as the travel time is insignificant
compared to the loading and unloading operations. Accurate leveling is essential to
facilitate the loading and unloading of trolleys filled with fragile goods. The
contract load for the Goods Lift is to be based on the weight of the heaviest
articles to be carried.

Operation: The method of actuating the control of lift machine

Automatic Operation

A method of operation in which by a momentary pressure of a button the lift car is set
in motion and caused to stop automatically at any required lift landing.

Non-Selective Collective Automatic Operation

Automatic operation by means of one button in the car for each landing level
served and one button at each landing, wherein all stops registered by the
momentary actuation of landing or car buttons are made irrespective of the

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number of buttons actuated or of the sequence in which button are actuated.
With this type of operation, the car stops at all landings for which buttons have been
actuated making the stops in the order in which the landing are reached after the
buttons have been actuated but irrespective of its direction of travel.

Selective Collective automatic operation

Automatic operation by means of one button in the car for each landing level
served and by up and down button at the landings, wherein all stops registered by the
momentary actuation of the car made as defined under non-selective collective
automatic operation, but where in the stops registered by the momentary
actuation of the landing buttons are made in the order in which the landings are
reached in each direction of travel after the buttons have been actuated. With
this type of operation, all ‘up’ landing calls are answered when the car is traveling in
the up direction and all ‘down’ landing calls are answered when the car is traveling in
the down direction, except in the case of the uppermost or lowermost calls which are
answered as soon as they are reached irrespective of the direction of travel of the car.

Group Automatic Operation

Automatic operation of two or more non-attendant lifts equipped with power

operated car and landing doors. The operation of the cars is so coordinated by a
supervisory operation system including automatic dispatching mean whereby
selected cars at designated dispatching points automatically close their doors
and proceed on their trips in a regular manner. It includes one button in each car for
each floor served and up and down buttons at each landing (single buttons at terminal
landings). The stops set by the momentary actuation of the car buttons are made
automatically in succession as a car reaches the corresponding landings
irrespective of its direction of travel or the sequence in which the buttons are
actuated. The stops set up by the momentary actuation of the landing buttons may be
accomplished by any lift in the group, and are made automatically by the first
available car that approaches the landing in the corresponding direction.

Car Switch Operation

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Method of operation by which the movement of lift car is directly under the
operation of the attendant by means of a handle - i.e. manual operation

Elevator Motor Drive Control System

Electricity is directly consumed by the motor drive system of the lift machine.

Thus how effective the motor drive can convert the electrical energy into the
required kinetic energy have a remarkable effect on the energy performance of the
equipment. In the history of lift equipment development, different types of
motor drive system were developed. Some of these motor drive systems include:

• DC motor drive with generator set (DC M-G).

• DC motor drive with solid state controller (DC SS).

• AC 2 speed motor drive.

• AC motor drive with variable voltage controller (ACVV).

• AC motor drive with variable voltage and variable frequency controller

(ACVVVF or V3F).

Among the above drive systems, DC M-G has the lowest efficiency because of large
energy loss in the motor and generator arrangement, which converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy and finally back to electrical energy again.
Another reason for the low efficiency of the DC M-G motor drive is that the motor
has to be kept running when the lift is idle. A general guideline on the motor
drive system for traction lift equipment is shown in the following table:

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The AC-2 speed motor drive system is not recommended for lifts with contract speed

higher than 1 m/s due to their inferior energy performance. It is highly

recommended that even for lift with speed under 1 m/s, building designers should
always consider to use AC VVVF whenever feasible. As an illustration on the
energy saving potential for utilizing VVVF drive, let’s take the energy of a lift with a
pole-changing motor as 100%. Then the ACVV system requires approximately 70%
of this energy for the same output whereas VVVF will only require 50%. If the
energy to be fed back into the mains supply is taken into account, a further reduction
of 5% (i.e. 45%) of energy can be achieved for the VVVF.

Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) controller

A variable speed drive system employs frequency inverter technology which

rectifies AC voltages from the mains supply into DC, and then converts this into AC
voltage with variable amplitude and frequency (i.e. VVVF control). The motor is
thus supplied with variable voltage and variable frequency which enable
infinitely variable speed regulation.

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In lift applications, VVVF control regulates input voltage and frequency to the
motor throughout the journey. The figures below illustrates the operating
characteristic of some motor drive systems during an ideal journey of a lift car. The
ideal journey includes a linear acceleration, contract speed travel and a linear
deceleration.

The energy consumed for the journey should be proportional to the area under the
current line of the corresponding motor drive system, that is:
Thus it can be seen that a significant proportion of energy has to be consumed during
the acceleration process as well as the deceleration process. VVVF motor drive
consumes less energy during the start/stop cycle of the lift car. The saving is more
remarkable when it is compared with an AC 2 speed and ACVV motor drive system.
It has also been stressed that in real life applications a remarkable proportion of lift
journeys are non-ideal journey. That is, the contract speed of the equipment is not
achieved. In this case, the lift equipment is always operating in an
acceleration/deceleration cycle, which is the most energy consuming mode.

Besides energy concern, ACVVVF also provides good riding comfort due to the
smoothness of speed control.

VVVF AC drives are divided into two categories: inverter drives and flux vector
drives. Inverter drives are typically used for low speed, open loop (no encoder)
applications. Flux vector drives also called vector control, are typically used for high

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performance, closed loop (encoder required) applications with higher speeds
(greater than 0.75 m/s)

Block diagram of VVVF drive system for Lift application:

135
LIFT TRAFFIC ANALYSIS AND CAPACITY CALCULATIONS

A lift installation for office building is normally designed to populate the building at
a given rate and the three main factors to be considered are –
a) Population or the number of people who require lift service
b) Handling capacity or the maximum flow rate required by these people
c) Interval or the quality of service required

These basic principles are equally suitable for other applications.

Population:

i. The first point to be ascertained is the total building population and

whether this is likely to increase in the future.
ii. If a definite population figure is unobtainable an assessment should be
made from the net area, and probable population density. Average population
density can very from about one person per 4 sq m to one person to per 20 sq
m. If no indication is possible population in the region of 5 sq m per person for
general office buildings is usually assumed.
iii. General Guidelines are as below –

Floor Area per Person

Dance Halls, Lodge Rooms and Assemblies 1.0 Sq.M

Courts, Restaurants and School Class
Rooms 1.5 Sq. M
Stores, Markets, Lodges and Reading
Rooms 2.5 Sq. M
Work Rooms 3.5 Sq. M
Office and Show-rooms 5.0 to 10.0 Sq. M
Hospitals, Hotels and Residences 10.0 Sq. M
Warehouses 15.0 Sq. M

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Traffic Peaks:

The maximum traffic flow during the morning peak period is usually used as a
measure of the vertical transportation requirement in an office building. If the lifts are
designed so that they will satisfactorily clear the traffic during the peak period,
the service will generally be adequate at all other periods.

Capacity:

The total capacity of Passenger Lifts required in any building to give a certain
grade of services is determined by the number of occupants and the number of
visitors who will be expected to utilize a lift service and both vary considerably with
the type of building. The density of visitors and occupants will be grate for
restaurants and theatres and less for offices and flats. It is always preferable to install
two small lifts, if on the grounds of capacity alone, it is thought that a single lift
would have to be of large capacity (say 20). Two smaller lifts of 10 passenger
capacity will give better service than one large lift. The large lift will be running
comparatively lightly loaded for most of the day, with a resulting decrease in
efficiency and increase in running costs. On the other hand, with two smaller lifts,
adequate service could probably be maintained during greater part of the day
with one lift; the 2nd lift being brought into service during peak loads. The
advantages to be gained by installing two smaller lifts outweigh the extra initial
outlay.

The minimum size of car recommended for a single purpose building is one
suitable for a duty load of 884 kg.

Speed:
It is dependent upon quantity of service required and quality of service desired.
Therefore, no set formulae for indicating the speed can be given.

When determining a suitable speed for the car, the height of the building,
distance between stops and quality of service desired must be considered. The higher
the car speed, the better the resulting service, but the cost of lift increases as the
contract speed is raised. If a large amount of inter-floor traffic is anticipated,

137
the car speed should not exceed 1.0 m/sec to 1.5 m/sec, otherwise most of the
running time will consist of acceleration and retardation and the motor will not
have sufficient time to travel appreciable distance at its full speed.

The measure for the speed of the car is the number of meters the car travel
during the period in one second. It is dependent upon the quantity of service
required and quality of service desired.

Quantity of Service:

The quantity of service is a measure of the passenger handling capacity of a

vertical transportation system. It is measured in terms of the total number of
passengers handled during each five-minute peak period of the day. A five-
minute base period is used as this is the most practical time over which the traffic can
be averaged.

Acceptable value
For diversified tenancy building 10% to 15%
For single purpose occupancy building 15% to 25%
For residential buildings 7.5%

Quality of Service:

The quality of service on the other hand is generally measured by the passenger
waiting time at the various floors. The following shall be guiding factor for
determining this aspect –

Quality of Service or
Acceptable Interval
20 to 25 seconds Excellent
30 to 35 seconds Good
35 to 40 seconds Fair
40 to 45 seconds Poor
Over 45 seconds Unsatisfactory

Recommended Speeds:
The following are general guidelines –
Office Building Passenger Lifts

Sr. No. No. of Floors Recommended Speed

1 4 to 5 floors 1 mtr/sec

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 2 6 to 12 floors 1.5 mtr/sec
3 Above 12 floors Above 1.5 mtr/sec

Residential Building Passenger Lifts

Sr. No. No. of Floors Recommended Speed
1 4 to 8 floors 1 mtr/sec
2 8 to 12 floors 1.5 mtr/sec
3 Above 12 floors Above 1.5 mtr/sec

Layout:

The shape and size of the passenger lift car bears a distinct relation to its
efficiency as a medium of traffic handling. A study of the most suitable
proportions for these lifts reveal that the width of the lift well entrance is, in reality,
the basic element in the determination of the best proportions. In other words, the
width of the car is determined by the width of the entrance, and the depth of the car
is regulated by the loading per square meter permissible. Centre opening doors
are the most practicable and the most efficient entrance units for passenger
lifts.

Determination of Transportation or handling capacity during the morning

Peak

The handling capacity is calculated by the formula:

H = 300 X Q X 100
___________________________________________-----

TXP

Where,

H = Handling capacity as the percentage of the peak population handled during 5

minute period,
Q = Average number of passengers carried in a car,
T = Waiting interval, and
P = total population to be handled during peak morning period

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The value of ‘Q’ depends on the dimensions of the car. It may be noted that the car is
not loaded always to its maximum capacity during each trip and , therefore,

for calculating ‘H’ the value of ‘Q’ is taken as 80% of the maximum carrying
capacity of the car.

The waiting interval is calculated by the formula:

T = RTT
N

Where
T = waiting interval;
N = numbers of lifts, and

RTT = round trip time, which is the average time required by each lift in taking one
full load of passengers from ground floor, discharging them in various upper floors
and coming back to Ground floor for taking fresh passengers for the next trip,
after making an average number of landings.

RTT is the sum of the time required in the following process:

a) Entry of the passengers on the ground floor,
b) Exit on the passengers on each floor of discharge,
c) Door closing time before each starting operation,
d) Door opening time on each discharging operation,
e) Acceleration periods,
f) Stopping and levelling periods,
g) Period of full rated speeds between stops going up, and
h) Period of full rated speeds between stops going up and down.
NOTE:

Acceleration periods (e) and Stopping and leveling periods (f) = 10% of
(a+b+c+d+g)

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It is observed that the handling capacity is inversely proportional to the waiting
interval which in turn is proportional to RTT. Reducing the RTT of a lift from 120
seconds to 100 seconds increases its handling capacity by 20 percent.

Door operation: Time required for opening and closing of doors depends on the
method of operation and on the type and width of doors. With a 4’ entrance and two
speed power operated doors, in which the landing and car doors move
simultaneously, the minimum time for opening and closing is about 4 seconds. If
centre opening doors are fitted, these move a distance of only half the entrance width
and hence corresponding time is approximately 3 seconds.

Time for passenger entry: This depends upon the number of passengers
entering the lift, on the width of entrance and whether or not an attendant is
employed. The loading time is shortened if the entrance is wide and if a trained
attendant drives the car instead of the control being automatic.

Push Button operation: Some time will be required for the selection and
operation of the appropriate buttons after the doors have closed. An average
time of 2 seconds is reasonable for this purpose.

Travel Time : TT, between successive stops is composed of periods of

acceleration, running at constant speed and retardation. Rates of acceleration
depend upon the type of motor used and may be as low as 1 ft/sq.sec (0.305
mtr/sq.sec) with a low speed geared lift or as high as 6 ft/sq.sec (1.830
mtr/sq.sec) with gearless machine. Sudden acceleration and sudden retardation
induces more discomfort to the human body.

WORKED EXAMPLE :
1 Gross Area per floor : 1100 sq m
2 Net useable area per floor : 950 sq m
3 No. of landing including ground : 15
4 Assuming population density : 9.5 sq m per person

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5 Population per floor : 950 / 9.5= 100
persons
6 Probable population on upper floors excluding : 100 X 14 = 1400 persons
ground floor

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7 Calculated RTT**, taking 20 passenger lift
with speed 2.5 m/s : 165 sec
8 A lift car is not normally loaded to its full capacity so assuming 80%.
Loading of the car, the average number of passenger carried in a car (Q) : =20 X
0.8 = 16 persons

9 Taking no. of lifts (N) : 4

10 Then Waiting Interval (T) : RTT / N = 165/4 = 41sec

11 Handling capacity (H) : (300XQX100) / (T x P)

H = 300 X 16 X 100 = 8.3%

41 X 1400

But neither the quantity (H) nor the quality (T) is satisfactory in this case.
Therefore increasing the number of lifts to Six, (N=6)

T = 165 = 27.6 seconds

6
H = 300 X 16 X 100 = 12 %
27.6 X 1400

In this case both H as well as T is good.

** Calculation of RTT :
Lets assume the floor height as 3.5 mtr and that the Lift stops at alternate floors.

Door opening 8x3 24 sec

Door closing 8x3 24 sec
Passenger entry 20x1.5 30 sec
Passenger exit 20x1.5 30 sec
Travel time (15x3.5x2)/2.5 42 sec
Total 150 sec
Add 10% for acceleration, stopping & leveling periods 15 sec
RTT 165 sec
 Elevator Maintenance.

Proper preventive maintenance is the life line for safe running of the elevator.

Even a perfactely installed high quality elevator if not properly maintained can not
perform well, neither be ensured for user's safety.

On other hand an effectively maintained elevator will give trouble free performance
and ensure user's safety.

By way of proper preventive maintenance advance detection of wear & tear, failure
and break dowens could be ensured.

Therefore required action for repairs, rectification, Readjustments and replacements

could be initiated.

Daily schedule (by operator/attendant)

*Switch on power supply and check the functions of c.o.p. (car operating
penal) switches and buttons.

-floor call button.

-emergency alarm.
-emergency stop.
-door open button.
-car door safety edge/ir beam, screen.
-auto/attendant switch & other switches.
-car light, fan & switches.

*Travel in the car to each floor and check:

-the function of landing buttons.

-each door is opening with delocking key not by force.

-clean the landing sill & collect refuge in dust bin.

*Switch off power supply, when car is on top floor.

-check visually in machine room that controller, machine and speed governer has no
abnormality.

-ensure that machine room windows are closed.

-ensure thst machine room light, fan & exhaust fan is working.

-ensure that brake releasing lever and hand wheel for hand cranking is in place.

-do dusting of car, enclosure, floor, car door, light, fan and accessories including
bottom sill.

*never put the elevator in use if any of following is observed.

-elevator starts moving with open car and/or landing door.

-any landing door is opening with out d’locking key.

-the car door does not re-open by pushing the safety edge.

-any abnormal noise or jolt is observed during travel.

-the floor level difference is more than 100mm.

Stop and lock the elevator and report the senior .