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REVA University School of ECE
CONTENTS
Sl.
Title Page No.
No.
1. Course Objectives, Course Outcomes 02
2. Syllabus 03
3. Laboratory Safety 04
Experiments
BTEC15F3700 L T P C
Analog Electronic Circuits Lab
Duration :14 Weeks 0 0 2 2
Prerequisites:
Course Objectives:
Course Outcomes:
Syllabus
List of Analog Electronic Circuit Design Lab experiments:
Laboratory Safety
Other Precautions
No loose wires or metal pieces should be lying on table or near the circuit,
to cause shorts and sparking.
Avoid using long wires, that may get in your way while making adjustments
or changing leads.
Keep high voltage parts and connections out of the way from accidental
touching and from any contacts to test equipment or any parts, connected
to other voltage levels.
Be Aware of bracelets, rings, metal watch bands, and loose necklace (if you
are wearing any of them), they conduct electricity and can cause burns. Do
not wear them near an energized circuit.
Note: Each of the students in group is evaluated separately for these matters.
Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y
AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it
can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half
the peak-peak voltage.
Tabular Column:
p-p p-p Voltage=p-p RMS Voltage Measured RMS
Sl. Volts/
Division in div. in Y axis X = Vp-p/2√2.in Voltage by DMM
# Division
Y axis Volts/div. in Volts Volts in Volts
1
2
3
4
5
Tabular Column:
No. of Time period= No. of
Frequency on
Sl. divisions Time/ divisions per cycle X f= 1/T
Function
# per cycle Division Time/div. in Hz.
Generator in Hz.
on X axis Seconds(mS Or µS)
1
2
3
4
5
A=Distance between the points where the ellipse crosses the Y axis & the
origin.
B=Distance between the origin & the Y coordinate of the maxima of the
ellipse.
Calculate the theoretical phase difference as Ø = tan-1 (f1/f2). Where f2=
1/2πRC & f1= input Signal frequency.
Do it yourself
Know the specifications of CRO, Function Generator & DC Regulated Power
Supply.
Analysis:
For Vin ≤ VR + VT Diode is “OFF”
For Vin> VR + VT Diode is “ON”
Rf= Forward resistance of the Diode Rr = Reverse resistance of the Diode
VT = Diode threshold voltage (0.6 for Silicon Diode) Vr = Reference Voltage
Design:
To find the Value of R
R = √(Rf + Rr) ( Rf = 10Ω & Rr = 10MΩ)
Therefore R = √(10 x 10 X 106) = 10kΩ
Clipper:
Let the output to be clipped is 3Volts.
Therefore Vo = 3 Volts
Vo = VT + Vr (where VT is Diode drop approximately 0.6 Volts for Silicon Diode)
Therefore Vr=Vo - VT = 3 – 0.6 = 2.4 Volts.
Note: If the input voltage is less than clipping voltage, the output will be same as
input. So apply input voltage mare than clipping voltage to get clipping effect.
Waveforms:
Analysis:
For Vin ≤ Vr - VT Diode is “ON” Therefore Vo = Vr - VT
For Vin>Vr - VT Diode is “OFF” Therefore Vo = Vin
Design: Calculation of resistance is as same as part 1
Let the output to be clipped is -3Volts.
Therefore Vo = -3 Volts
Vo = Vr - VT (where VT is Diode drop approximately 0.6 Volts for Silicon Diode)
Therefore Vr=Vo + VT = -3 + 0.6 = -2.4 Volts.
Waveforms:
Design:
To generate a symmetrical amplitude of ±4Volts (Output to be clipped above 4
Volts & below 4 Volts)
To find Vr1
Since Vomax is 4 Volts
We have Vomax = Vr1 + VT (where VT is Diode drop approximately 0.6 Volts for Silicon
Diode)
Vr1 = Vomax - VT = 4 – 0.6 = 3.4 Volts.
To find Vr2
Vomin is 4 Volts
We have Vomin = Vr2 - VT
Vr2 = Vomin + VT = 4 - 0.6 = 3.4 Volts.
Waveforms:
Procedure:
1. Test the components & probes for their working & Set the calibration of
CRO.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Apply input sine wave @ 1kHz. with an amplitude of 8-12V ( Depending
on Circuit) through Function Generator & set the D. C. RPS value as per
the design.
4. Observe the input & output waveforms on CRO & sketch it on a graph
sheet.
5. Also observe the transfer characteristic & sketch it on a graph sheet.
Result Analysis:
Mandatory Exercise:
To demonstrate the difference between resistor & Diode in a voltage divider
network using MultiSim:
Example: To drive a 6 Volts Load with a 9 Volts Power supply.
Case 1: Using Resistors:
For the above circuit if the load Resistor R L = 1kΩ, V = 6.2Volts, If RL varies say
RL=600Ω, the output remains unchanged i.e. 6.2Volts.
From the above two cases we can say that by using diode circuit the output does
not vary with the load and remains stable.
Do it yourself
Identify different types of diodes & its Applications. Learn to analyze
specifications
Go through the specification sheet of 1N4001 and 4007 and know about the
peak reverse voltage and also learn the applications of Zener diode.
Learn to test Diodes by using DMM
Activity
Design all the clipper circuits for different values of clipping levels & sketch
Input, Output & Transfer Characteristic curves on a graph sheet. And verify
with the design
Analysis:
During +ve Half cycle
D=OFF, Vin=6V, VO=Vin+Vc/2=+9V
During -ve Half cycle
D=ON, Vin=-6V, Vo = VT + VR = -3V
Design:
Let the output to be clamped is +3V
VO=3 = VR + VT
VR = VOUT-VT = 3-0.6 = 2.4Volts
To design R & C
Let f = 1kHz. Therefore T = 1ms.
Time constant T=RC (During charging, time constant is small as it charges through
diode & During discharging, time constant is large as it discharges through R,)
Discharging: R>T, Say RC = 10T. Therefore RC = 10ms. Choose R = 10kΩ & C = 1µF.
Charging: RC>>T, Rf=100Ω (forward resistance of diode), R = Rf || R = 100Ω
RC= 0.1ms. Therefore C = 1µF.
Waveforms:
2. Negative Clamper:
Analysis:
During +ve Half cycle
D=ON, VC=V/2 + VR, VO=-VR
During -ve Half cycle
D=OFF, Vo = Vin + VC = -(V/2 + V/2 + VR), = -(V+VR)
Waveforms:
Procedure:
1. Check all the components
2. Connect the circuit as shown.
3. Apply a 1 kHz. sine wave of 12V p-p @ 1kHz. Set the D.C. RPS value as per
the design.
4. Verify the Input & Output waveforms on CRO (By keeping the input & output
waveforms on same axis with coupling released to Gnd.), observe the level
shift in output waveform
5. Sketch the waveforms on a graph sheet. Compare input and output
waveforms.
Result:
Do it yourself
By changing the function to Square wave & Triangular wave observe the
changes in output.
Learn the importance of Peak Reverse Voltage & how it is helpful in
designing the circuits
Activity
Design all the clamper circuits for different values of clipping levels &
sketch Input & Output Characteristic curves on a graph sheet. And verify
with the design
Design: Design a voltage divider bias amplifier for Ic=4mA by choosing transistor
having hfe=100
Given IC = 4 mA and hfe = 100 Let Vcc = 12 V . VCE= 1/2VCC
Assuming VE= Vcc 12
2V
6 6
Choose RE = 470Ω
Applying KVL to the Collector Emitter loop to find R C
VCC ICRC VCE VE 0
VCC VCE VE
RC
IC
RC 12 6 2 = 1kΩ
4mA
VB VBE VE = 0.7+2 = 2.7V
R2
VB VCC
R1 R2
2.7 R2
12 R1 R2
R2
0.225
R1 R2
R2=0.225R1+0.225R2
0.775R2=0.225R1
Let R2 = 4.7kΩ
R1 = 16.18kΩ Choose 15kΩ
Bypass capacitor CB and Coupling capacitors CC1 and CC2
1
Let XCE = RE at frequency f = 100 Hz
10
1 R
= E
2 f C E 10
CE = 72.3 F
Select CE = 100 F
Also use CC1 and CC2 = 0.47 F (Ceramic)
Ideal Graph:
Low Mid High
Frequency Frequency Frequency
range range range
Power
Gain
dB
3dB Maximum
Gain
Bandwidth
(f2 – f1)
f1 f2
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Measure the D.C. condition.
3. The input voltage Vin is adjusted to a convenient value (Approximately 20 to
40 mV) within the distortion less limit and value must be kept constant
throughout the experiment.
4. Frequency of the input signal is varied from 100Hz to 2MHz in steps and at
each step, corresponding output Vo is noted down.
5. All readings are tabulated and graph of Voltage gain in dB V/s frequency is
drawn on a semi-log sheet.
6. 3dB bandwidth is determined from the frequency response curve.
Observations:
VBE= ________Volts. VCE=_______Volts. (Q – Point Voltage)
Tabular Column:
Input Voltage Vin= ________mV.
Gain Gain
Sl. Frequency Vo in dB=20 Sl. Frequency Vo in dB=20
# in Hz. Volts. log10 # in Hz. Volts. log10
(Vo/Vin) (Vo/Vin)
1 100 Hz 20 20 kHz
2 200 Hz 21 30 kHz
3 300 Hz 22 40 kHz
4 400 Hz 23 50 kHz
5 500 Hz 24 60 kHz
6 600 Hz 25 70 kHz
7 700 Hz 26 80 kHz
8 800 Hz 27 90 kHz
9 900 Hz 28 100 kHz
10 1kHz 29 200 kHz
11 2 kHz 30 300 kHz
12 3 kHz 31 400 kHz
13 4 kHz 32 500 kHz
14 5 kHz 33 600 kHz
15 6 kHz 34 700 kHz
16 7 kHz 35 800 kHz
17 8 kHz 36 900 kHz
18 9 kHz 37 1 MHz
19 10 kHz 38 2 MHz
Do it yourself
Identify the values of Resistors by Color Coding.
Identify the values of Capacitors
Identify the terminals of Transistor
Know the specifications of Transistor
Download the specification sheet of Transistor on internet and read the
Specification Parameters
Learn to test Transistor by using DMM
Learn the applications of the circuit & Importance of Impedance
measurement.
Activity
Design Amplifier circuits for different values of Ic / Vcc Rig up the circuit &
Measure DC Condition. Find bandwidth by plotting frequency response
curve. Measure Input & Output Impedances.
Aim: Design a BJT R-C Phase shift Oscillator for frequency fo = 2 kHz. And test the
circuit in MultiSim
Circuit Diagram:
These types of oscillators are used to produce low frequency range i.e. audio
frequency range.
Advantages:
It does not require inductors or transformers.
It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
The circuit provides good frequency stability.
Dis-Advantages:
It is difficult for the circuit to start oscillations as feedback is generally
small.
The circuit gives only low frequencies.
Note:
The last resistor in the phase shifting network is chosen to be a 10k Pot.
This is done to get an overall phase shift of 1800 at frequency of oscillations.
The maximum hfe required for the Transistor to operate is
R Rc
h fe min 23 29 4
Rc R
Where Rc = 1KΩ & R = 2.2KΩ (Phase shifting network)
2.2 K 1K
h fe min 23 29 4 89
1K 2.2 K
The transistor should be chosen to have a value of h fe greater than 89.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Switch on the power supply and the Output Vo (sine wave) is obtained on
CRO. The 10 kΩ POT is adjusted to get a stable output on the CRO.
3. Note down the practical frequency and compare it with the theoretical
value.
4. Measure phase shift.
Model Graph:
Result Analysis:
Designed frequency f = __________Hz.
Simulated frequency fo= __________Hz.
Do it yourself
Identify the values of Resistors by Color Coding.
Identify the terminals of Transistors & Test it by DMM.
Learn Circuit operation.
Know the frequency Range & Applications of the circuit
Activity
Design the Oscillator circuit for different values of frequencies & measure
the frequency of Oscillations on CRO verify with design & Plot the
waveforms on a graph sheet.
Design an Oscillator circuit & Implement it on a General Purpose PCB & Test
it
Circuit Diagram:
feedback +ve which is the essential condition for oscillations. When the loop gain
Aβ of the amplifier is greater than 1, oscillations are sustained and frequency of
oscillations is determined in the circuit. The frequency of oscillations is given by:
f = 1 / 2 √ LeffX C where Leff= L1 + L2
Hartley oscillator is very popular and is commonly used as a local oscillator in
Radio receivers. The Hartley oscillator is extensively used in all broadcast bands
including FM 88 to 108MHz.
Dis-Advantages:
Harmonic rich content at the output due to inductances.
Design of Amplifier:
VCE=5V, IC=2mA, VCC=2VCE=10V.
1 1
VRE VCC 10 1V
10 10
VRE 1
R E= 500Ω . Choose 470Ω.
IC 2mA
Then C = 1/4π2Leff F2
C =791.5pF, Choose 800pF, (The value of L & C may be changed as per the
design frequency.)
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Measure the D.C. bias condition & vary the POT to get the output.
3. Observe the output on CRO & measure the Frequency & Amplitude and
draw waveforms on graph sheet.
4. Compare the designed values of frequency with practical values of
frequency.
Observations:
VBE =______Volts. VCE =______Volts.
Result Analysis:
Designed frequency f =___________Hz.
Simulated frequency fo =_________________ Hz.
2. Colpitt’s oscillator
Aim: Design a BJT – Colpitt’s Oscillator for frequency fo = 100 kHz. And simulate
the circuit in MultiSim
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit Working: The voltage VCC is responsible for the charging of the capacitors.
When the capacitors are fully charged to their rated voltages, they discharge
through the inductor L of the tank circuit, which produces damped harmonic
oscillations. The oscillations across C1 are applied to the Base-Emitter junction &
appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit and supply losses to the tank
circuit, which is then coupled to tank circuit through C 2 to neutralize the losses in
the tank circuit. The starting end of C 1& finishing end of C2 are 1800 out of phase.
The further phase shift of 180 0 is produced by BJT-CE amplifier. In this way the
energy is supplied to the tank circuit in phase with the oscillations & Aβ is
greater than one, the oscillations are sustained in the circuit.
The Colpitt’s oscillator is named after its inventor Edwin H. Colpitt’s. One of the
key features of this type of oscillator is simplicity & robustness.
The Colpitt’s oscillator is an LC oscillator generally LC oscillators are designed to
operate in the Radio frequency range above 1 MHz. however they can also be
designed to produce oscillations in Low audio frequency range. The frequency of
oscillations is given by:
f= 1/2 LCeff
Where Ceff = C1 x C2 / (C1+ C2)
Since Colpitt’s oscillator is a high frequency oscillator, the capacitors will be
selected in Pico-Farads range. Real time circuits will oscillate at a slightly lower
frequency due to Junction capacitances of the BJT & for other stray capacitances.
Sinusoidal oscillators are used for various applications in Electronics &
Telecommunications like Sine wave used as a carrier signal in modulation circuits,
testing frequency response of various Amplifiers, Filters & in Closed loop control
systems etc.
Observations:
VBE =______Volts. VCE =______Volts.
Result:
Designed frequency f =_________________ Hz.
Simulated frequency fo =_________________ Hz.
Do it yourself
Identify the values of Resistors by Color Coding.
Identify the terminals of Transistors & Test it by DMM.
Learn Circuit operation.
Know the frequency Range & Applications of the circuit
Activity
Design the Oscillator Tank circuit for different values of frequencies &
measure the frequency of oscillations on CRO verify with design & Plot the
waveforms on a graph sheet.
Aim: Design & Test a BJT -Crystal oscillator for frequency f0 = 2MHz.
Observations:
VBE =______Volts. VCE =______Volts.
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Measure the D.C. bias condition.
3. Vary the 10k Potentiometer so as to get an un-distorted sine wave at the
output.
4. Note down the amplitude & frequency of the output wave & frequency
and draw waveforms on a graph sheet. The frequency of oscillator has to
match with the crystal frequency.
Result Analysis:
Activity
Rig up the circuit with different Crystal values & measure the frequency of
oscillations on CRO verify with Crystal value & Plot the waveforms on a
graph sheet.
Aim: Design & Test a BJT Darlington emitter follower and determine gain, input
and output impedances.
Design:
Given: VCC=10V, IC=4mA. Assume hfe= 50
VCC 10
Then VCE = ½ VCC= 5V.
2 2
To design emitter resistance:
VRE = 5V
IE X RE = 5V
5
Therefore RE = (Since IE=IC)
4mA
Therefore RE = 1.2KΩ.
1.6µA.
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The input voltage Vin is adjusted to a convenient value within the
distortion less limit by using Digilent waveform generator and connected
through W1(Waveform Generator1) of Analog Discovery2 Module.
3. Frequency of the input signal is kept constant & Vi and Vo should be
connected to Scope Ch. 1 & Ch. 2 of Analog Discovery2 Module. The
output can be observed in Digilent WaveForm. Calculate gain by using
formula G = Vo/Vin.
Observations:
Vin=_____Voltsp-p Vo==_____Voltsp-p
Result Analysis:
a) Gain =
b) Input impedance =
c) Output impedance =
Do it yourself
Know the applications of the Circuit and the importance of Input & Output
Impedances
Aim: To Design & Test a two stage BJT voltage series amplifier and determine the
gain, Frequency response, input and output impedances with and without
feedback.
Circuit diagram:
Design: Design the voltage divider bias circuit for Ic=4mA & Vcc=12V
Given IC = 4 mA and Vcc = 12 V, Choose hfe = 100, VCE = ½ Vcc = 6V
Assuming VE= Vcc 12
2V
6 6
RC 12 6 2 = 1kΩ
4mA
VB VBE VE = 0.7+2 = 2.7V
R2
VB VCC
R1 R2
2.7 R2
12 R1 R2
R2
0.225
R1 R2
R2=0.225R1+0.225R2
0.775R2=0.225R1
Let R2 = 4.7kΩ
R1 = 16.18kΩ Choose 15kΩ
Design for II stage is same as that of first stage Use 470Ω as RE
Let CE=47µF (Emitter by-pass Capacitor) for both the stages.
Coupling Capacitors CC1 = CC2 = CC3 = 0.47µF
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. With Rf disconnected from first stage, Vi from Waveform generator 1 of
Analog Discovery2 Module is fed to first stage with an amplitude within
the distortion less limit (Say 20mV) and value must be kept constant
throughout the experiment. And measure the V in and Vout at frequency
say 2kHz. Using Scope Ch.1 & Ch.2 of Analog Discovery2 Module and
Digilent WaveForms. Calculate the gain without feedback by A=Vo/Vin
3. Frequency of the input signal is varied from 100 Hz to 2 MHz in steps and
at each step, corresponding output Vo is noted down.
4. With Rf connected in the circuit i.e. with feedback the steps 2 & 3 are
repeated Gain with feedback Af is Calculated.
5. Plot the Graphs of frequency versus Gain in dB for both the cases i.e.
with Rf and Without Rf.
6. Go to Welcome in WaveForms choose Network Analyzer and observe the
Bode Plot.
Tabular Column:
Vi =___________mV
Vo p-p Gain dB=20 GainfB
Frequency Vo p-p with
without log10 dB=20 log10
in Hz. Rfin Volts.
Rfin Volts. (Vo/Vin) (Vo/Vin)
Ideal Graph:
Result:
Do it yourself
Learn the effects of cascading amplifiers. Learn cascoding effects also.
Know the importance of Impedance without & with feedback.
Aim: Rig up the following circuits with & without filter & find the Ripple factor.
Also Determine Efficiency and Regulation for rectifier circuits without filter.
1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier
3. Bridge rectifier
Design:
To design a half wave rectifier for the following specifications:
Let the output DC voltage = 5V &IL(max) =100mA.
For Half wave Rectifier V Vm
DC
π
Vm π VDC π 5 15.70V
Transformer secondary Voltage Vm 15.70
11.10V
2 2
Choose230V/12V-500mA Transformer
VDC 5
RL 50Ω
IL(max) 100mA
Power dissipated in RL is PL VDC IL(max) 5 100mA 0.5Watts.
Choose RL = 50Ω/5W in series with DRB
To design a half wave rectifier with C – Filter:
Ripple factor 1
γ
2 3fRL C
1
γ 1.15
2 3 50 50 100μ
Procedure:
1. Do the connections as shown in the fig.
2. Set the DRB value to maximum value & note down value of currents I AC& IDC
with the same Ammeter (Use Multimeter) also note down the value of
voltages VDC& VAC with the same Voltmeter (Use Multimeter).
3. By varying DRB in steps repeat above procedure for other set of readings.
4. Display the input & output waveforms on CRO & plot the same on a graph
sheet.
5. For each value of I DC determine the values of Ripple factor, Efficiency and
Regulation.
6. Now connect a capacitor filter across load RL& repeat steps 2, 3 & 4 and for
each value of IDC Ripple factor, Efficiency and Regulation are calculated &
tabulated.
7. Compare theoretical & practical ripple factor.
Tabular column:
RL = IDC in VDC in VAC in IAC in Ripple % %
mA Volts Volts mA γ Efficiency Regulation
R+DRB
50+Max(NL)
50+450
50+0(FL)
Ripple factor γ VAC IAC Note: Ripple factor for half wave rectifier should be less
or
VDC IDC
than 1.21
I2 DC
% Efficiency η 2 100
I DC I2 AC
VDC(NL) VDC(FL)
% Regulation 100
VDC(FL)
Waveforms:
Result Analysis:
Design:
To design a Full wave rectifier for the following specifications:
Let the output DC voltage = 10V & IL (max) = 100mA.
VDC 10
RL 100Ω
IL(max) 100mA
Ripple factor γ VAC IAC (Note: Ripple factor for Full wave should be less than
or
VDC IDC
0.483)
% Efficiency η I2 DC
100
I2DC I2 AC
% Regulation VDC(NL) VDC(FL)
100
VDC(FL)
Waveforms:
Result analysis:
Design:Same as part 2.
Procedure:Same as part 1.
Tabular Column:
RL = IDC VDC in VAC in IAC Ripple % %
in Volts Volts in γ Efficiency Regulation
R+DRB
mA mA
100+Max(NL)
100+400
100+0(FL)
Ripple factor γ VAC IAC (Note: Ripple factor for Full wave should be less than
or
VDC IDC
0.483)
% Efficiency η I2DC
100
I2DC I2 AC
% Regulation VDC(NL) VDC(FL)
100
VDC(FL)
Waveforms:
Result Analysis:
Do it yourself
Learn the applications of the circuit & Limitations of the circuit.
Activity
Design Rectifier circuits for different values of Voltages/Load Currents &
Measure Ripple factor, Efficiency & Percentage of Regulation.
Design Rectifier circuits for different values of Filter Capacitors & Measure
Ripple factor, Efficiency & Percentage of Regulation
Design a 3 Pin Voltage Regulator circuit & Implement it on a General
Purpose PCB & Test it
Aim: Demonstrate working of a transformer less class-B push pull power amplifier
& determine its conversion efficiency.
Components/Instruments required: Transistors, Resistors, Power supply, Milli
Ammeter, Function generator, DRB, CRO, Connecting wires, CRO probes etc.
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
1. Rig-up the circuit as shown above.
2. Switch on Power Supply
3. Observe the output on CRO. Sketch the cross-over distorted output on a graph
sheet.
4. Adjust the input amplitude to get undistorted output at a frequency less than
1 kHz.
5. Measure output peak-to-peak voltage. Calculate efficiency (Efficiency Should
be <78.5% for Class C Amplifiers) by varying RL (DRB).
Waveforms:
Result:
Do it yourself
Learn about the class of operation of power amplifiers.
Learn about Dual Power Supplies(+/- sources)
Know the Maximum Efficiency & Cross-over distortion effects of the Class
B Amplifier.
Know the Applications of the circuit & Limitations
Design a Buzzer circuit using transistors & diodes which sounds a buzzer if either
car door is open, and the driver is seated and not wearing a seat belt using Analog
Discovery2 Module.
Ref:
Features:
The analog and digital inputs and outputs can be connected to a circuit using
simple wire probes; alternatively, the Analog Discovery BNC Adapter and BNC
probes can be used to connect and utilize the inputs and outputs. Driven by the
free Waveforms software, the Analog Discovery 2 can be configured to work as any
one of several traditional instruments, which include:
Two-channel oscilloscope
Two-channel arbitrary function generator
Stereo audio amplifier to drive external headphones or speakers with
replicated AWG signals
16-channel digital logic analyzer.
16-channel pattern generator.
16-channel virtual digital I/O including buttons, switches, and LEDs.
Two input/output digital trigger signals for linking multiple instruments.
Two programmable power supplies (0…+5V, 0…-5V). The maximum available
output current and power depend on the Analog Discovery 2 powering
choice:
o 250mW max for each supply or 500mW total when powered through
USB
o 2.1W max for each supply when powered by an auxiliary supply
o 700mA maximum current for each supply
Single channel voltmeter (AC, DC, ±25V)
Pinout Diagram
Analog Discovery 2's high-level block diagram is presented in Fig. below. The core
of the Analog Discovery 2 is the Xilinx® Spartan®-6 FPGA (specifically, the
XC6SLX16-1L device). The Waveforms application automatically programs the
Discovery’s FPGA at start-up with a configuration file designed to implement a
multi-function test and measurement instrument. Once programmed, the FPGA
inside the Discovery communicates with the PC-based Waveforms application via a
USB 2.0 connection. The Waveforms software works with the FPGA to control all
the functional blocks of the Analog Discovery 2, including setting parameters,
acquiring data, and transferring and storing data.
Signals in the Analog Input block, also called the Scope, use “SC” indexes to
indicate they are related to the scope block. Signals in the Analog Output block,
also called AWG, use “AWG” indexes, and signals in the Digital block use a D index
– all of the instruments offered by the Discovery 2 and Waveforms use the circuits
in these three blocks. Signal and equations also use certain naming conventions.
Analog voltages are prefixed with a “V” (for voltage), and suffixes and indexes are
used in various ways: to specify the location in the signal path (IN, MUX, BUF, ADC,
etc.); to indicate the related instrument (SC, AWG, etc.); to indicate the channel
(1 or 2); and to indicate the type of signal (P, N, or diff).
The USB Controller interfaces with the PC for programming the volatile
FPGA memory after power on or when a new configuration is requested.
After that, it performs the data transfer between the PC and FPGA.
The Calibration Memory stores all calibration parameters.
Except for the “Probe Calibration” trimmers in the scope Input divider, the Analog
Discovery 2 includes no analog calibration circuitry. Instead, a calibration
operation is performed at manufacturing (or by the user), and parameters are
stored in memory. The Waveforms software uses these parameters to correct the
acquired data and the generated signals
The Discovery BNC adapter board is intended to be used with the Analog Discovery
tool to enable the use of standard BNC terminated test leads and probes. The
adapter board enables the user to AC couple or DC couple signals to the
oscilloscope in the Analog Discovery
Functional Description
The Discovery BNC adapter board has BNC terminations to each of the two
oscilloscope channels on the Analog Discovery. Each channel of the oscilloscope
can be selected as AC or DC coupled by adjusting the jumper that is located behind
that channel's BNC input connector.
The two AWG channels are equipped with BNC terminations for use with BNC style
test leads. Each of the two channels can have either the 50Ω or the 0Ω termination
selected. This enables the user to match the Analog Discovery’s output impedance
with either standard 50-ohm test leads or to be directly tied to the lead.
All the remaining signals from the Analog Discovery pass through the adaptor to a
female header located on the outer edge of the board.
Oscilloscope
The AD2's oscilloscope has two channels each capable of ±25V input at 30MHz
bandwidth. Using the software for the oscilloscope is very similar (if not identical)
to using a typical dedicated bench scope. All of the standard controls are available
including:
Channel enables
Offset
Range
Time position
Time base
Single capture
Repeated capture
Screen shift
Triggering
1. Attach the Analog Discovery using the included USB cable to a USB port on
the computer. If this is the first time, it sometimes takes a few minutes
while it installs the proper USB driver, so you may have to be patient.
2. Start the Waveforms 2015 software. If everything is working properly, you
should see the window like Figure 1 with the device serial number displayed
in the bottom of the window.
3. If you have problems, try unplugging and reconnecting the Analog Discovery
from the USB port and restarting the Waveforms 2015 software.
The AD2 also includes a spectrum analyzer and a network analyzer with Bode
plot capabilities. Each of these tools can be used for analysis up to 10MHz and
are available for each oscilloscope channel input.
Noise floor
SFDR
SNR
THD
Bode plots
Nyquist plots
Nichols transfer diagrams
Summary
Further they can be classified according to the working principle of clippers like
Depending on Diode position with the load:
1. Series clippers
2. Shunt/ Parallel Clippers
The series configuration is made by connecting a diode in series with the load &
the parallel configuration is made by connecting diode across the load.
By clipping action
1. Positive Clippers
2. Negative Clippers
3. Combinational Clippers
Positive clippers are designed to clip only positive half cycle of the signal to be
clipped & the negative clippers are designed to clip only the negative half cycle of
the wave to be clipped. Combinational clippers are designed to clip both the half
cycles for specified values (e.g. Slicer/squarer, Clipping at two independent levels,
clipping at two extremities of signals, / noise clippers etc.).
Based on biasing:
1. Biased Clippers
2. Non-biased Clippers
Biased clippers need external D.C. Power source for its functioning & Non-biased
does not require external D.C. source (these are designed for specific
applications).
Theanalysis of any clipping circuit involves the following stages:
Study of the working of Diodes.
Formulation of the transfer characteristic equations. &
Plotting the output waveform Vo by transfer characteristic.
Note: Transfer characteristic is the plot of output voltage V o V/s input voltage Vin.
It depends upon whether the diode is “ON” or “OFF”. By the switching action of
non-linear element, definite relationship can be obtained between V o & Vinin
practical clipper circuits. The equation connecting Vo & Vin is termed as transfer
character equation.
Clampers
In certain applications, a periodic waveform needs to be shifted above or below
reference level without changing the appearance of the signal, thus the clamping
circuit or clampers keep the amplitude of the output signal same as that of the
input signal except that the D. C. level (offset) has been changed. A clamper shifts
the D. C. level or in other words it introduces a D. C. level to an A. C. signal or
component. It is also called as D. C. restorer.
The clampers consist of junction Diode, Capacitor and Resistor, but it employs an
independent D. C. supply to introduce an additional shift. The magnitude of R & C
must be chosen to ensure time constant.
There are two types of clampers
1. Positive Clamper (-ve peak Clamper)
2. Negative Clamper(+ve Peak Clamper)
A Clamping circuit should not change Peak-to-Peak value of the signal. It should
only change the D. C. level.
1. Positive Clamper: The clamper which adds the D. C. component and pushes the
input signal above the reference line i.e. upward so that the –ve peak fall on zero
level. The shape of signal will not change but there is an upward shift in the signal,
such clamper is termed as Positive Clamper. These are also termed as –ve peak
clampers, since the circuit clamps the –ve peak of the input signal. The –ve peak
clamper introduces a positive D. C. Value hence the name +ve clamper.
Operation: The operation of a clamper is based on the principle that, the charging
time of a capacitor is made very small as compared to its discharge time. The
input signal is assumed to be a sine wave with time period T. The clamped output
is obtained across RL. The circuit design incorporates two main features, firstly the
Values of C & RL are so selected that Time constant is very large i. e. T = RLC
This means that the voltage across the capacitor will not discharge significantly
during the interval, the diode is non-conducting. Then RLC Time constant is
deliberatively made much greater than the Time period T of the incoming signal.
Troubleshooting:
Test the components & probes.
Check the values of components & choose designed values.
Adjust CRO & set calibration.
Rig-up the circuit properly.
Set function generator voltage & frequency as specified in procedure.
Set nature of input wave (Sine, Square, Triangle etc.) properly.
Do not connect wire from output to ground.
Set DC RPS voltage & polarities properly.
Keep function generator DC offset knob in “OFF” position.
Do not switch on “symmetry” switch of function generator.
While observing transfer characteristics set CRO to X-Y mode.
Always connect output to channel 2 & input to channel 1 of CRO.
Measure the waves properly on CRO.
Oscillators
An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequency is
known as sinusoidal oscillator.
Types of Sinusoidal Oscillations
1. Damped Oscillations
2. Undamped Oscillations
Once the capacitor is discharged, the magnetic field will begin to collapse and
produce a counter emf. According to Lenz’s law the counter emf will keep the
current flowing in the same direction. The result is that the capacitor is now
charged with opposite polarity making upper plate of capacitor –ve and lower
plate +ve as shown in fig. 3
After the collapsing field has recharged the capacitor, the capacitor now
begins to discharge and current now flows in the opposite direction as shown in
fig. 4
The sequence of charge and discharge results in alternating motion of
electrons or an oscillating current. The energy is alternately stored in the
electric field of the capacitor C and the magnetic field of the inductance coil
L. This interchange of energy between L and C is repeated again and again
resulting in the production of Oscillations.
Waveform- In practical tank circuit there are resistive and radiation losses in the
coil and dielectric losses in the capacitor. During each cycle a small part of the
originally imparted energy is used up to overcome these losses. The result is that
the amplitude of oscillating current decreases gradually and eventually it becomes
zero. Therefore tank circuit produces damped oscillations.
Frequency of oscillations- The expression for frequency of oscillation is given by,
1
fr
2 LC
Undamped Oscillations from Tank Circuit
A tank circuit produces damped oscillations. In practice we need continuous
undamped oscillations for the successful operation of electronics equipment. In
order to make the oscillations in the tank circuit undamped it is necessary to
supply correct amount of energy to the tank circuit at the proper time intervals to
meet the losses.
The following conditions must be fulfilled:
1. The amount of energy supplied be such so as to meet the losses in the tank
and the a.c. energy removed from the circuit by the load. For example if
losses in LC circuit amount ot 5 mW and a.c. output being taken is 100 mW,
then power of 105mW should be continuously supplied to the circuit.
2. The applied energy should have the same frequency as the oscillations in
the tank circuit.
3. The applied energy should be in phase with the oscillations set up in the
tank circuit.
2. The circuit needs only a quick trigger signal to start the oscillations. Once
the oscillations have started, no external signal source is necessary.
3. In order to get continuous undamped output from the circuit, the following
condition must be met;
mvAV =1
where AV = voltage gain of amplifier without feedback.
mv = feedback fraction.
This relation is also called Barkhausen criterion
The crystal exhibits the property that when a mechanical stress is applied across
one faces of crystal, a potential difference is developed across the opposite faces
of the crystal. Conversely, when the potential difference is applied across one
faces, a mechanical stress is produced along with other faces. This is known as
piezoelectric effect. When a piezoelectric crystal is subjected to a proper
alternating potential, it vibrates mechanically. The amplitude of mechanical
vibrations becomes maximum when the frequency of alternating voltage is equal to
the natural frequency of the crystal.
Working of crystal: In order to use the crystal in the electronic circuit, it is placed
between two metal plates. The arrangement is equivalent to a capacitor with
crystal as dielectric as shown. When an alternating voltage is applied, the crystal
starts vibrating with the frequency of applied voltage. If the frequency of applied
voltage is made equal to the natural frequency of crystal, resonance takes place &
crystal vibrates with maximum value.
The following table gives the comparison between Voltage Amplifier & Power
amplifier:
Sl.
Characteristic Voltage amplifier Current amplifier
#
1 β High ≥ 100 Low(20 to 50)
2 Rc High ≥ 10kΩ Low(≥20Ω)
3 Input Voltage Low (Few milli Volts) High(Few Volts)
4 Power Output Low High
5 Collector current Low(1mA) High (>100mA)
6 Input Impedance High Low
Usually R-C Invariably Transformer
7 Coupling
amplifier
Troubleshooting:
Test the components & probes.
Check the values of components (Test transistor & DRB by using multimeter)
& choose designed values.
Adjust CRO & set calibration.
Rig-up the circuit properly (check for loose connections & missing
connections).
Do not connect wire from output to ground.
Connect D.C. RPS properly i.e. ±9V to the circuit properly, don’t forget to
connect Ground wire.
Measure supply voltage by using multimeter.
Measure DC condition (Bias condition).
Set function generator voltage & frequency properly.
Set nature of input wave (Sine, Square, Triangle etc.) properly.
Do not switch on “Symmetry” & “DC offset” switch of function generator.
Vary DRB values as specified in procedure.
Rectifiers
“Rectifiers are the circuit which converts ac to pulsating dc” Rectifiers are
grouped into two categories depending on the period of conductions.
1. Half-wave rectifier
2. Full- wave rectifier.
Half-wave rectifier
The circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier is shown in fig. below along with the
I/P and O/P waveforms.
The circuit diagram of a center tapped full wave rectifier is shown in fig.
Above. It employs two diodes and a center tap transformer. The a.c. signal
to be rectified is applied to the primary of the transformer and the d.c.
output is taken across the load RL.
During the +ve half-cycle end X is +ve and end Y is –ve this makes diode D1
forward biased and thus a current i1 flows through it and load resistor RL.
Diode D2 is reverse biased and the current i2 is zero.
During the –ve half-cycle end Y is +Ve and end X is –Ve. Now diode D2 is
forward biased and thus a current i 2 flows through it and load resistor RL.
Diode D1 is reversed and the current i1 = 0.
Advantages
Ripple is reduced.
Efficiency is improved.
Disadvantages
Since, each diode uses only one-half of the transformer secondary voltage;
the d.c. output is comparatively small i.e. half of the secondary voltage.
Manufacturing of centre-tap transformer is quiet expensive.
The diodes used must have high Peak-inverse voltage.
Bridge rectifier:
The circuit diagram of a bridge rectifier is shown above. It uses four diodes
and a transformer.
During the +ve half-cycle, end A is +ve and end B is –ve thus diodes D 1 and D3
are forward bias while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased thus a current
flows through diode D1, load RL ( C to D) and diode D3.
During the –ve half-cycle, end B is +ve and end A is –ve thus diodes D2 and
D4 are forward biased while the diodes D 1 and D3 are reverse biased. Now
the flow of current is through diode D4 load RL ( D to C) and diode D2. Thus,
the waveform is same as in the case of center-tapped full wave rectifier.
Advantages
The need for center-taped transformer is eliminated.
The output is twice when compared to center-tapped full wave rectifier
for the same secondary voltage.
The peak inverse voltage is one-half (1/2) compared to center-tapped full
wave rectifier.
Can be used where large amount of power is required.
Disadvantages
It requires four diodes.
The use of two extra diodes cause an additional voltage drop thereby
reducing the output voltage.
Comparison of Rectifiers
Centre-tapped
Half wave
Particulars Full wave Bridge rectifier
rectifier
rectifier
1. No. of diodes 1 2 4
4. Irms Im / 2 Im /√ 2 Im /√ 2
6. PIV Vm 2Vm Vm
Note:
The relation between turns ratio and voltages of primary and secondary of
the transformer is given by
N1 / N2 = Vp / Vs
RMS value of voltage and Maximum value of voltage is related by the
equation.
Vrms = Vm/ √2 (for full-cycle of ac)
If the type of diode is not specified then assume the diode to be of silicon
type.
For an ideal diode, forward resistance rf= 0 and cut-in voltage, Vγ = 0.
Ripple factor: The pulsating output of a rectifier consists of d.c. component and
a.c. component (also known as ripple). The a.c. component is undesirable and
account for the pulsations in the rectifier output. The effectiveness of a rectifier
depends upon the magnitude of a. c. component in the output: the smaller this
component, the more effective is the rectifier.
“The ratio of rms value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the rectifier
output is known as ripple factor”
Iac
r=
Idc
Ripple factor for Half-wave rectifier = 1.21
It is clear that a.c. component exceeds dc component in the output of a half-wave
rectifier.
Ripple factor for full-wave rectifier = 0.48
This shows that in the output of Full-wave rectifier, the d.c. component is more
than the a.c. component
FILTERS:
We know that the output of the rectifier is pulsating d.c.ie the output obtained by
the rectifier is not pure d.c. but it contains some ac components along with the dc
o/p. These ac components are called as Ripples, which are undesirable or
unwanted. To minimize the ripples in the rectifier output filter circuits are used.
These circuits are normally connected between the rectifier and load as shown
below.
Types of Filters
1. Capacitor Filter (C-Filter)
2. Inductor Filter
3. Choke Input Filter (LC-filter)
4. Capacitor Input Filter (Π-filter)
Capacitor Filter(C-filter): The capacitor filter essentially consists of capacitor C
connected across the Load resistor RL. The pulsating D.C. is applied across it and
capacitor gets charged to Vm Volts at the end if a 1/4 th cycle. As the voltage
gradually decreases the capacitor discharges and supplies current to output, As
soon as another voltage peak arrives, it again get charged. Thus the capacitor gets
charge and discharge alternately and continuously. It is seen from the waveforms
that, much of the ripple current is filtered out. This type of filter is used very
widely in practical applications.
When the Input signal rises from o to a the diode is forward biased therefore it
starts conducting since the capacitor acts as a short circuit for ac signal it gets
charged up to the peak of the input signal and the dc component flows through the
load RL.
When the input signal fall from a tob the diode gets reverse biased. This is
mainly because of the voltage across the capacitor obtained during the
period o to a is more when compared to Vi. Therefore there is no conduction
of current through the diode.
Now the charged capacitor acts as a battery and it starts discharging
through the load RL. Mean while the input signal passes through b,c,d
section. When the signal reaches the point d the diode is still reverse biased
since the capacitor voltage is more than the input voltage.
When the signal reaches point e, the input voltage can be expected to be
more than the capacitor voltage. When the input signal moves from e to f
the capacitor gets charged to its peak value again. The diode gets reverse
biased and the capacitor starts discharging. The final output across R L is
shown in Fig.
The ripple factor for a Half-wave rectifier with C-filer is given by
r= 1/2√3fCRL
f-----the line frequency (Hz), C-----capacitance (F), RL------- Load resistance (Ω)
Ripple factor for full-wave rectifier with C-filter is given by
r = 1/ 4 √3 f C RL
Advantages of C-Filter
Low cost, small size and good characteristics.
It is preferred for small load currents ( up to 50mA)
It is commonly used in transistor radio, batteries eliminator etc.
Troubleshooting:
Test the components & probes.
Check the values of components (Test diodes by using multimeter) & choose
designed values.
Adjust CRO & set calibration.
Rig-up the circuit properly (check for loose connections & missing
connections).
Do not connect wire from output to ground.
Set DRB to Rated Value
Check the Diode Direction
Choose proper range of resistors & capacitors.
Measure transformer secondary voltages.
Choose proper ranges of currents & voltages while using multimeter.
Do not overload or short transformer secondary connections.
Amplifiers
Figure above shows a practical circuit of a single stage RC coupled amplifier. The
different circuit components and their functions are as described below.
a. Input capacitor(Cin)- This capacitor is used to couple the input signal to the
base of the transistor if it is not used, the signal source resistance RS gets in
parallel with R2 thus changing the bias. The capacitor Cin blocks any d. c.
component present in the signal and passes only a. c. signal for
amplification.
b. Biasing circuit –The resistances R1, R2 and RE forms the biasing and
stabilization circuit for the CE amplifier. It sets the proper operating point
for the amplifier.
c. Emitter bypass capacitor (CE)-This capacitor is connected in parallel with
the emitter resistance RE to provide low reactance path to the amplified a.
c. signal. If it is not used, the amplified a. c. signal passing through RE will
cause voltage drop across it thereby reducing the output voltage of the
amplifier.
d. Coupling capacitor (Cc) - This capacitor couples the output of the amplifier
to the load or to the next stage of the amplifier. If it is not used, the biasing
conditions of the next stage will change due to the parallel effect of
collector resistor RC. i. e. RC will come in parallel with the resistance R1 of
the biasing network of the next stage thus changing the biasing conditions of
the next stage amplifier.
Since cut-in voltage of the diode is O.7V, so the output level will be clipped
by O.7V (peak point) depending on which type of clipper is used.
6. What is a biased clipper?
In some applications, it is required to remove only a small portion of input
signal, hence the name biased clipper. The clipping level is adjusted by
adding a bias voltage in series with diode.
Clamping Circuits
1. What do you mean by clamper?
A clamping circuit shifts the dc level or in other words it introduces a dc
level to an ac signal. It is also called dc restorer.
2. What are the circuit components of clamping circuits?
It consists of diode, capacitor and resistor.
3. What is positive clamper?
Positive clamper is a circuit which clamps the input waveform positively;
the positive peak is pushed in positive direction. It is also called negative
peak clamper.
4. What is negative clamper?
Negative clamper is a circuit which clamps the input waveform negatively.
The negative peak is pushed in negative direction. It is also called positive
peak clamper.
5. What is biased clamper?
In these types of clampers, the clamping may be done at any voltage level
other than zero.
6. Can we obtain both positive and negative clamping in a single circuit?
No, since at a time either the dc level can be shifted positively or
negatively.
7. Where the clamper circuits are used?
Used in analog television receiver for restoring dc component of
video signal.
Class-B Push Pull Power Amplifier
1. What do you mean by Class B Push-Pull Amplifier?
If we replace the single output transistor circuit of class A amplifier with
two "complementary" transistors, one a NPN and the other a PNP and the
two transistors are driven with input signals that are equal in magnitude,
but of opposite phase with each one amplifying only one half cycle of the
input we have the basis of a class B push - pull amplifier.
2. What do you mean by Push-Pull?
In this type of circuit, only one transistor is active over each half cycle of
the input signal. As a result the output current is pushed one way and then
pulled the other through the load by a similar amount hence the name
Push-Pull
3. Advantages of Class-B over Class-A amplifier
Class-B amplifiers have the advantage over Class-A amplifiers in that no
current flows through the output when in the quiescent state (i.e. no input
signal), so the overall conversion efficiency of the amplifier is greater than
that of the equivalent class A and efficiencies of about 75% are possible
with nearly all modem type push - pull amplifiers operated in class B.
4. Disadvantages of Class B push-pull Amplifier
One of the main disadvantages of class B type push - pull amplifiers is that
they suffer from an effect known commonly as Crossover Distortion. This
occurs during the transition when the transistors are switching over from
one to the other as each transistor does not stop or start conducting exactly
at the zero crossover point.
5. Define Crossover Distortion?
In order that there should be no distortion we must assume that each
transistor starts conducting when the base to emitter voltage is just above
zero, but we know that this is not true as for silicon transistors the base
voltage must reach at least O.6V before the transistor starts to conduct.
This causes a delay between the first transistor turning "OFF" and the second
transistor turning "ON" resulting in an effect commonly known as "Cross-over
Distortion".
6. What are the effects of Cross-over Distortion?
Cross-over distortion effect reduces the overall peak to peak value of the
output waveform causing the maximum power output to be reduced.
7. How to reduce Crossover Distortion?
Crossover distortion can be reduced considerably by applying a slight
forward bias to the bases of the transistors. This biasing cause's one
transistor to turn ON exactly at the same time as the other transistor turns
OFF. To achieve this bias voltage must be at least twice that of the normal
base to emitter voltage.
8. Which of the push-pull configuration is commonly used in audio power
amplifier?
Class-B push pull or Class-AB push pull amplifier is commonly used.
Rectifiers
1. What do you mean by a rectifier?
A rectifier is a circuit which converts ac voltage into pulsating
dc voltage.
2. What is a half wave rectifier?
An half wave rectifier conducts for only half cycle of ac input and delivers
power to the load.
feedback.
11. What is the function of C c?
The coupling Capacitor Cc transmits ac signal but blocks de. This prevents dc
interference between various stages & the shifting of operating point.
12. What is Duty cycle?
Duty cycle is a measure of the wave form how symmetrical it is. It is given
by
D = ton/T
13. What is a Rectifier? Name types of rectifiers.
Rectifier is a device which converts ac to dc. Different types of rectifier
are:
Half wave rectifier, Full wave rectifier and Bridge rectifier
14. What is peak inverse voltage?
Peak inverse voltage is the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can
withstand without destroying the function.
15. What are the advantages & disadvantages of Bridge rectifier?
Advantages:
1) The need for centre tapped transformer is eliminated.
2) The output is twice that of centre tap circuit for the same secondary
voltage.
3) PIV is Vm
Disadvantages:
It requires four identical diodes.
16. What is Ripple factor?
The ratio of RMS value of ac component to the dc component in the rectifier
output is known as ripple factor.
17. What is a filter?
A filter is a device / circuit, which removes ac component of rectifier
output and allows the dc component to reach the load.
18 What are different types of filter circuits?
The commonly used filter circuits are capacitor filter, choke filter, choke
input filter, capacitor input filter etc.
19 What is Voltage Regulation?
The variation of output voltage with respect to the amount of load current
drawn and change in supply is known as voltage regulation.
Line regulation = ∆Vo/∆Vi.
Load regulation = ∆Vo/∆IL.
vi. MOV's (Metal Oxide Varistors) i. Current Transducer iii. Function/waveform generator
vii. LASCRS, Opto Couplers & ii. Voltage iv. Power supply
Photo Transistors etc iii. Speed v. Oscilloscope - Digital/Analog
iv. Temperature vi. Logic/Spectrum Analyzer etc.
v. Pressure
1. Resistor: Resistors are components with the property of the resistance used
in electronic circuits to provide proper voltages or currents to other active
components for proper working of the circuit. They allow current conduction in
either direction. They are used in voltage divider networks, Biasing circuits in
Amplifiers & Oscillators etc. The unit of resistance is Ohms & its symbol is Ω.
Fixed Resistor
Symbol:
Resistors are classified according to
i) Their characteristics: Carbon Metal film & Wire wound resistors are
Linear-resistors. Thermisters, Light Dependant Resistors, Voltage
Dependant Resistors etc are Non-Linear resistors.
ii) Resistor material: Carbon composition resistors, Metal film resistors,
Wire wound resistors & Fusible resistors.
iii) Control over the resistance value
Carbon Resistors:
Carbon resistors are available in smaller size with variety of values from 1
Ohm to 22 Mega Ohms or even more& Power ratings ranging between ¼ W, ½ W &
1W. But due to the ageing value slightly increases. They are cheaper too so are
suitable for most of the commercial entertainment field.
Since Carbon resistors are too small to have numbers printed on them and so
they are marked with a number of colour bands. Each colour stands for a number.
Three colour bands shows the resistor value in Ohms and the fourth shows
tolerance. Resistors can never be made precise value and the tolerance band
(fourth band) tells us using a percentage, how close the resistor is to its coded
value. However, for more precise Industrial & Defense applications, the tolerances
in the range of 10%, 5% and 2% are commercially available. The absence of 4th band
on the resistor indicates a tolerance of +/- 20%. They are available in 4 Band, 5
Band & 6 Bands.
E12 Series:
• 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82.
• 100, 120, 150, 180, 220, 270, 330, 390, 470, 560, 680, 820.
E24 Series:
• 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 43, 47, 51, 56, 62, 68,
75, 82, 91.
• 100, 110, 120, 130, 150, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 270, 300, 330, 360, 390, 430,
470, 510, 560, 620, 680, 750, 820, 910.
DRB (Decade Resistance Box): These are the standard value of variable resistance
boxes available in different values of resistances ranging from 1 Ohm to several
Mega Ohms. These are having decade dials to vary resistances and available in 3,
4, 5.6 Dials, depending upon our requirement. Generally we are using 5 Dial or 6
Dial DRB in basic labs and the power rating is 3W.
Fig:
Rheostat: They are used in high power applications. They have sliding contacts by
which the value of resistances can be varied. The wire wound sliding rheostats are
wound with the best quality Cu/Ni (Manganin) or Ni/Cr (Nichrome) Alloy resistor
wire having negligible Temperature co-efficient on vitreous enameled drawn steel
tube or Ebonite tube. A slider is made of Phosphorous Bronze contacts Fitted over
Cast iron stand.
The Value of resistance & Power rating is printed in the Slider casing. The value of
resistance can be measured by using Multimeter in suitable resistance range.
Fig:
3. Inductors: When a current flows through a coil magnetic field generates & the
generated magnetic reacts & opposes any change in current through the coil. An
inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, this
property is known as inductance & an inductor tries to keep current flowing
through it to a steady rate. Unit of inductance is Henry. Small Inductors with few
micro henries are available similar to Carbon resistors.
Inductors are one of the basic electronic components used in electronics
where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to
delay and reshape alternating currents
Symbol:
DIB (Decade Inductance Box): These are the standard value of variable inductance
boxes available in different values of resistances ranging from milli Henrys to
several Henrys. These are having decade dials to vary resistances and available in
3, 4, 5.6 Dials, depending upon our requirement. Generally we are using 5 dial or 6
dial DIB in basic labs.
Fig:
1N4001 1A 50V
1N4002 1A 100V
1N4007 1A 1000V
1N5401 3A 100V
1N5408 3A 1000V
They may be regarded as one way valves and they are used in various
circuits like Rectifiers, clippers, clampers etc and sometimes as a form of
protection. Different rating diodes are available. Different types of diodes are
available like Signal diode, Zener diode, Light Emitting Diode, Point contact diode,
Varactor diode, Tunnel diode, Varactor diode etc. Generally 1N4001 to 4007 diodes
are used in laboratories. A silver band is marked on the body near the cathode.
Symbol:
Zener Diodes: Normally a current does not flow through a diode in the reverse
direction. The Zener diode is specially designed to begin conducting in the
opposite direction when the reverse voltage reaches a voltage threshold. Zener
diodes are sometimes used as a voltage sensitive switch or regulator. Zener diodes
are available in different voltage & power specifications. A Black ring is marked
near the Cathode of Zener diode. For Ex: BZX6V8 or BZY6V8 is written on the
diode, means that it is a 6.8V Zener. The minimum voltage available is 2.7V power
ratings of 400mW to 1.3W are available. Zener diodes are used a lot in power
supplies to keep the voltage constant.
Symbol:
Fig:
Applications: Amplifiers, Oscillators, Electronic switches for High power & Low
power circuits. Logic circuits, Etc.
Testing of Transistors using DMM:
The assumption made when testing transistors is that a transistor is just a
pair of connected diodes. Therefore it can be tested for shorts, opens or leakage
with a simple analog or digital multimeter. Gain, frequency response, etc. tests
can be made only with expensive specialized instruments. The bipolar transistor
junction model is as shown below:
Note: When connecting/testing a FET hold it by the case or the tab and don't
touch the metal parts of the test probes with any of the other FET's terminals until
needed. Do not allow a FET to come in contact with your clothes, plastic, etc.
because of the high static voltages they can generate which may damage the FET.
Applications: Buffer Amplifiers, RF linear amplifiers, phase shift Oscillators,
Electronic switches like chopper, analog gate, Communicator. Low leakage
protection diodes, Mixer circuits, Voltage controlled resistors Etc.
Familiarization of Instruments used in Analog Electronics Lab.
Introduction: The purpose of this experiment is to familiarize you with the
electronic instruments that will be required for future experiments. The proper
methods of measurements and technique are important in all experimental work
and this experiment will provide you an opportunity to 'brush-up' on some the skills
you learned in the past and introduce you to new ones.
Multimeter: A Multimeter is used to measure multiple electrical quantities. It can
measure voltage (AC & DC), Current (AC & DC), Resistance. Thus a multimeter is a
Ammeter Voltmeter, & Ohmmeter combined together. It is also known as AVO
meter. In addition it has got various ranges of measurements. It can measure
Temperature, Checking diode, Continuity test can be done, hfe of transistors can
be measured.
Digital multimeters give you measurements on a digital display.
To select the mode of measurement, a Rotary function selector switch is
provided. By suitably adjusting this switch a multimeter can be converted into
Ammeter, Voltmeter or Ohmmeter. Each position of the switch is labeled
accordingly.
There are different CRO’s are available in market with various specifications
like No. of channels, Bandwidth, Voltage rating, Component test mode, Z-mode
etc.
Precautions:
Probes: These are the coaxial cables used to connect signal to be measured to
CRO, which one end is connected with BNC male connector and other end with
Alligator clips/ BNC male connector as shown by the fig below. These have polarity
RED clips are +ve terminals and BLACK clips are –ve terminals.
Coaxial cable
Fig:
Function generator Aplab make, Model 2011A have the following functions:
Display: Function generator with the display in the upper left hand corner. It will
only display an integer and like the DMM Display. So the display on its own tells us
nothing of the shape or amplitude of the output.
Display mode selector: The function generator having display mode switch on top
row. It is used to switch the function generator to different modes i.e. Int, Mains &
Ext. The Int. mode is selected to get different functions at the output. Mains mode
is selected to measure supply frequency & Ext. mode is selected to use the
function generator as counter.
Range Selection Switch: and the Range Selection Switches. Range Selector Switch
is on the top row of the Function Generator to select a required frequency range.
Just by pressing the switch and the corresponding LED will glow.
Frequency Control switch: To set the frequency output of the Function Generator
we use the Frequency Control switch. Frequency control Coarse & Fine switches on
the bottom row of the function generator to vary the frequency for a required
value i.e. Hz / kHz / MHz etc.
Function selector switch: These are used to control the shape of the function
generator. By pressing this switch we can access different types of functions like
Sine, Triangle, Square, Pulse etc. The operation of this switch is very simple just
by pressing the switch and the corresponding LED will glow.
The other important point to remember is that the Function Generator does
not display any information about signal amplitude so we must use the CRO to view
the amplitude when we set it to the required level.
The output terminals: The Output Terminal on the Function Generator is a BNC
Connection which can be used directly with a Coaxial Cable. Where the output of
function generator is available.
The external terminals: The Output Terminal on the Function Generator is a BNC
Connection which can be used directly with a Coaxial Cable, Where the external
input to the function generator can be applied.
Symmetry: This is used to set the output of function generator, which is not
symmetry.
D.C. Offset: This is used to apply D.C. offset voltage to the circuits when required.
The direct current (DC) offset control on a function generator varies the average
voltage of a signal relative to the ground.
DC Regulated Power Supply: These are used to connect power to circuits. The
rating of power supply depends on Voltage & Current. These come with single
output & Multi Output. Generally in laboratories we use 0-30V/2A, 0-15V/2A, +/-
12V/1A, 5V/1A etc. depending on circuit requirement. Some of the power supplies
are variable & others are fixed type power supplies.
These are connected to 230V ac supply which is transformed, rectified and
regulated to different voltages, depending on the designs. They have polarities +ve
& -ve, Take care of polarity while connecting these power supplies. Take care
while connecting multi output & High voltage power supplies. The Voltage variable
knob, Current limit knob, Digital voltage/current readout display are fitted on
front panel. Keep current limit knob in maximum position & Voltage variable knob
in minimum position before turning “ON” the Power supply.
Ratings of FET’s
Please note: the data in this table is from several sources which may be modified
or changed. Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please refer data sheets from
supplier if you require precise data. The above table contents are explained
below:
Structure: This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of the two
types are different, so if you are looking for a substitute it must be the same type.
Case style: There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most common
case styles in the Connecting section above. This information is also available in
suppliers' catalogues.