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Rukmini Educational

Charitable Trust

Analog Electronic Circuits


Laboratory
Manual
BTEC15F3700
III Semester

School of Electronics and


Communication Engineering
www.reva.edu.in

Campus Address: Rukmini Knowledge Park, Kattigenahalli, Yelahanka, Bengaluru - 560 064
REVA University School of ECE

CONTENTS

Sl.
Title Page No.
No.
1. Course Objectives, Course Outcomes 02

2. Syllabus 03

3. Laboratory Safety 04

4. Study Experiment: Measurements using CRO 07

Experiments

5. Demonstration of Clipping & Clamping using Diodes. 11

6. Design a Single Stage RC Coupled BJT Amplifier. 19

7. Design a BJT RC Phase Shift Oscillator. 28

8. Design a BJT Hartley / Colpitt’s Oscillators 31

9. Design a Crystal Oscillator. 36

10. Design a BJT Darlington Emitter Follower. 38

11. Design a BJT Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier. 41

12. Demonstrate the working of Rectifier circuits. 45


Demonstrate the working of Transformer- Less Class B
13 51
push pull power amplifier.
14. List of Challenge Experiments 53
Introduction to Analog Discovery2 Module & Digilent
15. 54
WaveForms.
16. Trouble Shooting/ Frequently Asked Questions. 64

17. Basic VIVA Questions with Answers. 82

18 Familiarisation of Components & Equipments 97

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REVA University School of ECE

BTEC15F3700 L T P C
Analog Electronic Circuits Lab
Duration :14 Weeks 0 0 2 2

Prerequisites:

Semiconductor Physics, Basics of Electrical & Electronics, Principles of Electronics.

Course Objectives:

Course objectives are to:


1. Demonstrate the basic operation of diode and diode circuits like rectifiers,
clippers and Clampers (Single and Double ended clipper circuits and Positive
and Negative Clamping circuits).
2. Present the detailed design steps of (a) RC coupled Single stage BJT amplifier
(b) BJT Darlington Emitter Amplifier(c) Voltage series feedback amplifier
3. Present the procedures to determine of the BW, input and output
impedances.
4. Present methods to verify Thevinin’s Theorem and Maximum Power Transfer
theorem for DC Circuits.
5. Demonstrate Characteristics of Series and Parallel resonant circuits.
6. Demonstrate the designing and testing of (a)BJT R-C Phase shift Oscillator for
f0 ≤ 10 KHz, (b)BJT/FET Hartley and Colpitt’s Oscillators f0 ≥100KHz (c)FET
Crystal Oscillator.
7. Introduce the design and testing procedures of Class-B Push-Pull Amplifier and
for a given conversion efficiency.
8. Present Simulation of all the above experiments.

Course Outcomes:

On completion of this course the student will be able to:


1. Design and test various diode circuits like rectifiers, clippers and clampers(a, c,
f)
2. Design different BJT amplifiers like RC coupled Single stage, Darlington
Emitter follower, Voltage series feedback amplifiers(a, c, e, f)
3. Assess the amplifier parameters like gain, BW, Zin and Zout etc. (a, c, d, e, f)
4. Compare experimental results with analytical results of different network
theorems like Thevinin’s , Maximum Power Transfer theorem for DC Circuits by
comparing experiments(a, c, d, f)
5. Distinguish RLC series and LC parallel circuit from the view point of bandwidth,
resonant frequency and Q-factor.(c, d, e, f)
6. Describe and Design low frequency and high frequency oscillators like RC-phase
shift, LC and crystal oscillators.(a, c, f)
7. Design Class-B Push-Pull Amplifier and determine its conversion efficiency.(c,
d, f)
8. Simulate all the above experiments using suitable simulation software. (c, d, e)

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REVA University School of ECE

Syllabus
List of Analog Electronic Circuit Design Lab experiments:

1. Demonstration of Clipping & Clamping using Diodes.


2. Design a Single Stage RC Coupled BJT Amplifier.
3. Design a BJT RC Phase Shift Oscillator.
4. Design a BJT Hartley / Colpitt’s Oscillators.
5. Design a Crystal Oscillator.
6. Design a BJT Darlington Emitter Follower.
7. Design a BJT Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier.
8. Demonstrate the working of Rectifier circuits.
9. Demonstrate the working of Transformer- Less Class B push pull power
amplifier.

Note: The above experiments could be performed using MultiSim /Analog


Discovery2 Module along with Digilent WaveForms/Hardware Components.

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REVA University School of ECE

Laboratory Safety

Safety is always an important topic whenever laboratory work is being considered,


and it is certainly true in the case of ECE labs. Safety is important. The
experiments in the laboratory use low voltages and low currents. However, the lab
equipment is powered by the 220V, 50Hz, line voltage. Be careful with the line
voltages. Do not touch exposed prongs on the equipment plugs when connecting
the equipment to the Sockets.
Before using this laboratory, read, understand and follow the Safety Precautions.
This is an educational laboratory where high-voltage terminals and large current-
carrying components and circuits are exposed for ease of measurements.
Take care when using power supplies, which may be low voltage but can supply
currents in the ampere range. Shorting such a supply can lead to a serious burn as
high currents arc and can ignite flammable material.
The equipment is heavy enough to be generally stable on the bench. Be sure to
keep the equipment away from the edges of the benches to avoid having a piece of
equipment fall off the bench. Besides endangering people who might be struck,
falling equipment endangers everyone in vicinity by stressing the power cords,
possibly causing a line short or live fault on the equipment, not to mention damage
to the expensive lab equipment. In general electronic equipment does not
survive harsh treatment.
The capacitors furnished in your lab kits are electrolytic capacitors with positive
and negative terminals. Be sure to always connect the positively marked terminal
to the most positive terminal in your circuit. An excess negative voltage applied to
these capacitors can cause the device to overheat and explode.
Safety Precautions
Attention and adherence to safety considerations is even more important in a
electronics laboratory, the voltages in many teaching laboratories rarely exceed
30V and the currents hardly ever exceed a few hundred milliamp.
In order to minimize the potential hazards, we will use DC power supplies that
never exceed voltages above 30V and will have maximum current ratings of 2A or
less.
Potential problems presented by Electronic circuits
Electrical shock may take a life.
Exploding components (especially electrolytic capacitors) and arcing circuits
can cause blindness and severe burns.
Burning components and arcing can lead to fire.
Safety precautions to minimize the following hazards
General Precautions
Be calm and relaxed, while working in Lab
Keep the work area neat and clean.
No paper/water lying on table or nearby circuits.
Be sure about the locations of fire extinguishers and first aid kits in School.

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REVA University School of ECE

Precautions to be taken when preparing a circuit


Use only isolated power sources (either isolated power supplies or AC power
through isolation power transformers). This helps in using a grounded
oscilloscope. This reduces the possibility of risk of completing a circuit
through your body. This also reduces the possibility of destroying the test
equipment.
Precautions to be taken before powering the circuit
Check for all the connections of the circuit and scope connections before
powering the circuit, to avoid shorting or any ground looping that may lead
to electrical shocks or damage of equipment.
Check any connections for shorting two different voltage levels.
Check if you have connected load at the output. This is very important.
Double check your wiring and circuit connections. It is a good idea to use a
point- to point wiring diagram to review when making these checks.

Precautions while switching ON the circuit


Apply low voltages or low power to check proper functionality of circuits.
Once functionality is proven, increase voltages or power, stopping at
frequent levels to check for proper functioning of circuit or for any
components is hot or for any electrical noise that can affect the circuit’s
operation.

Precautions while switching on or shutting down the circuit


Reduce the voltage or power slowly till it comes to zero.
Switch of all the power supplies and remove the power supply connections.
Let the load be connected at the output for some time, so that it helps to
discharge capacitor or inductor if any, completely.

Precautions while modifying the circuit


Switch off the circuit as per the procedure
Modify the connections as per your requirement.
Again check the circuit and switch ON as per procedure

Other Precautions
No loose wires or metal pieces should be lying on table or near the circuit,
to cause shorts and sparking.
Avoid using long wires, that may get in your way while making adjustments
or changing leads.
Keep high voltage parts and connections out of the way from accidental
touching and from any contacts to test equipment or any parts, connected
to other voltage levels.
Be Aware of bracelets, rings, metal watch bands, and loose necklace (if you
are wearing any of them), they conduct electricity and can cause burns. Do
not wear them near an energized circuit.

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REVA University School of ECE

When working with energized circuits (while operating switches, adjusting


controls, adjusting test equipment), use only one hand while keeping the
rest of your body away from conducting surfaces

Construction of the experiment


All of the students in each group should be participate in experiment. The
following are considered to evaluate the experiment.
Approach to the problem
The accuracy of the results obtained
The success of the questioning and interpreting the results (detect
unrealistic results and have an idea about the causes)
The use of instruments/components/tools (experiment material)
The ability to deal with emerging challenges
Efficient use of time
The attention given to the experiment

Note: Each of the students in group is evaluated separately for these matters.

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REVA University School of ECE

Study Experiment: Measurements using Cathode Ray Oscilloscope


(CRO)
Uses of CRO:
1. To measure D.C. or A. C. Voltages.
2. To measure D.C. or A. C. Currents.
3. To measure the frequency.
4. To measure the phase difference between A. C. signals of same
frequency.
5. To display hysteresis loops.
6. Z mode measurements. (This facility is available in special purpose
CRO’s)
7. Measurement of phase difference - Current differentials & Voltage
differentials are measured by using differential oscilloscopes & power
scopes. Current & Voltage differential probes are also available in
market for different specifications.
8. Testing of Diodes & Transistors. (This facility is available in selected
models)
Different panel controls of CRO:
Intensity: For correct brightness of the trace on the screen.
Focus: For sharp focus of the trace.
Horizontal centering: For providing the ground line/waves right & left
on the screen. (X position)
Vertical centering: For moving ground line/waves up & down on the
screen. (Y position)
Time/Div.: For adjusting pattern (wave) width. It is also known as
Horizontal gain.
Volt/Div.: For adjusting pattern (wave) height. It is also known as
Vertical gain.
Coupling: For selecting A.C./D.C./Gnd.

Setting up an oscilloscope: Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many


controls and they require some care to set up and use successfully. It is quite easy
to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are set wrong.

1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).


2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
5. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
6. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
7. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
8. Turn the time-base control to moderate Value.
9. Select Channel (CH1/CH2/Dual)
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the
middle of the screen.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
The oscilloscope is now ready to use.

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REVA University School of ECE

Procedure: To measure D. C. Voltage:


Switch ON the CRO & Set Calibration.
Select Channel-1 and release the AC/DC switch to DC and select voltage
base knob to maximum value of voltage.
Set the trace line to Ground line.
Apply D.C. Voltage to CRO probes with proper polarity & measure the level
shift in trace from the original position.
Multiply this by the scale indicated on Volts/Div. knob. This gives the DC
Voltage.
Vary the D. C. Voltage levels. Measure the level shifts & Record in Tabular
Column.
Tabular Column:
Sl. Shift in Volts/ Measured D. C. Voltage= Shift in Measured Voltage
# Division Division Division X Volts/ Division in Volts. by DMM in Volts.
1
2
3
4

To measure Amplitude of A. C. signal:


Set the CRO.
Connect the voltage to be measured to any one channel & measure vertical
units.
Multiply the vertical units with Volts/Div. knob. This gives the Peak to Peak
amplitude or Voltage. Calculate the RMS value by using formula Vrms= Vp-
p/2√2.
Measure for different values of amplitude, calculate RMS value & record in
tabular column.

Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y
AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it
can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half
the peak-peak voltage.

Voltage = distance in cm × volts/cm


Time = distance in cm × time/cm

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Tabular Column:
p-p p-p Voltage=p-p RMS Voltage Measured RMS
Sl. Volts/
Division in div. in Y axis X = Vp-p/2√2.in Voltage by DMM
# Division
Y axis Volts/div. in Volts Volts in Volts
1
2
3
4
5

To measure Frequency of Signal:


Set the CRO
Apply signal whose frequency to be measured to any one channel & observe
the signal on CRO.
Count the no. of divisions in one cycle of the waveform & multiply this with
Time/Div. knob. Thos gives the Time period of the signal.
Reciprocal of time period will give the frequency of signal.
Repeat the same for different values of signal frequency.

Tabular Column:
No. of Time period= No. of
Frequency on
Sl. divisions Time/ divisions per cycle X f= 1/T
Function
# per cycle Division Time/div. in Hz.
Generator in Hz.
on X axis Seconds(mS Or µS)
1
2
3
4
5

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REVA University School of ECE

Current measurement by a Test Resistor:

Set the CRO


Connect 1 kΩ Resistor to a D. C. supply as shown in fig.
Measure the voltage across the resistor on the scope i.e. level shift.
Calculate current as I=V/R

Phase difference measurement using Lissajous patterns:


Note: To measure the phase difference of sine waves, their frequencies must be
equal.
Set the CRO
Connect 2Vp-p, 1 kHz. Sine wave signal from the Function Generator to the
CRO & circuit shown,
Connect the output of the circuit to Y channel i.e. vertical input channel of
CRO.
Switch X-Y button (Lissajous pattern)
Select both channels to Ground. & set the dot to the origin on trace.
Release both ground knobs to AC side & observe the lissajous pattern.
Calculate phase angle Ø.

A=Distance between the points where the ellipse crosses the Y axis & the
origin.
B=Distance between the origin & the Y coordinate of the maxima of the
ellipse.
Calculate the theoretical phase difference as Ø = tan-1 (f1/f2). Where f2=
1/2πRC & f1= input Signal frequency.

Do it yourself
Know the specifications of CRO, Function Generator & DC Regulated Power
Supply.

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Experiment # 1: Demonstration of Clipping & Clamping using Diodes.


i. Diode Clipping (Single and Double ended) circuits.

Aim: To demonstrate diode clipping (Single/Double ended) circuits for peak


clipping.

Components/Instruments Required: Function generator, Power supply, CRO,


Diode (IN4007), Resistor, Capacitor, Connecting Wires, Terminal Board, etc.

Single ended Clipping Circuits:


1. Diode Shunt Clipping above Vr (Reference voltage) or Positive Peak Clipping:
Circuit Diagram:

Analysis:
For Vin ≤ VR + VT Diode is “OFF”
For Vin> VR + VT Diode is “ON”
Rf= Forward resistance of the Diode Rr = Reverse resistance of the Diode
VT = Diode threshold voltage (0.6 for Silicon Diode) Vr = Reference Voltage
Design:
To find the Value of R
R = √(Rf + Rr) ( Rf = 10Ω & Rr = 10MΩ)
Therefore R = √(10 x 10 X 106) = 10kΩ
Clipper:
Let the output to be clipped is 3Volts.
Therefore Vo = 3 Volts
Vo = VT + Vr (where VT is Diode drop approximately 0.6 Volts for Silicon Diode)
Therefore Vr=Vo - VT = 3 – 0.6 = 2.4 Volts.
Note: If the input voltage is less than clipping voltage, the output will be same as
input. So apply input voltage mare than clipping voltage to get clipping effect.

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Waveforms:

Mandatory Exercise (Do it yourself and observe the variation at output):


Connect the Positive Peak Clipping circuit and compare the output waveforms at
different frequencies i.e. 1 KHz, 200 KHz, and 2 MHz.

2. Diode Shunt Clipping below Vr (Reference voltage) or Negative Peak Clipping:


Circuit Diagram:

Analysis:
For Vin ≤ Vr - VT Diode is “ON” Therefore Vo = Vr - VT
For Vin>Vr - VT Diode is “OFF” Therefore Vo = Vin
Design: Calculation of resistance is as same as part 1
Let the output to be clipped is -3Volts.
Therefore Vo = -3 Volts
Vo = Vr - VT (where VT is Diode drop approximately 0.6 Volts for Silicon Diode)
Therefore Vr=Vo + VT = -3 + 0.6 = -2.4 Volts.

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Waveforms:

3. Double ended clipper to generate a symmetrical square wave or Squarer (Double


ended shunt clipping circuit):
Circuit Diagram:

Design:
To generate a symmetrical amplitude of ±4Volts (Output to be clipped above 4
Volts & below 4 Volts)
To find Vr1
Since Vomax is 4 Volts
We have Vomax = Vr1 + VT (where VT is Diode drop approximately 0.6 Volts for Silicon
Diode)
Vr1 = Vomax - VT = 4 – 0.6 = 3.4 Volts.
To find Vr2
Vomin is 4 Volts
We have Vomin = Vr2 - VT
Vr2 = Vomin + VT = 4 - 0.6 = 3.4 Volts.

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Waveforms:

Procedure:
1. Test the components & probes for their working & Set the calibration of
CRO.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Apply input sine wave @ 1kHz. with an amplitude of 8-12V ( Depending
on Circuit) through Function Generator & set the D. C. RPS value as per
the design.
4. Observe the input & output waveforms on CRO & sketch it on a graph
sheet.
5. Also observe the transfer characteristic & sketch it on a graph sheet.

Result Analysis:

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REVA University School of ECE

Mandatory Exercise:
To demonstrate the difference between resistor & Diode in a voltage divider
network using MultiSim:
Example: To drive a 6 Volts Load with a 9 Volts Power supply.
Case 1: Using Resistors:

For the above circuit if the load Resistor RL = 1kΩ, V = 6Volts.


If RL varies say RL=600Ω, the output reduces from 6 Volts to 4.9 Volts. So the
Output voltage varies with the Load.
Case 2: Using Diodes.

For the above circuit if the load Resistor R L = 1kΩ, V = 6.2Volts, If RL varies say
RL=600Ω, the output remains unchanged i.e. 6.2Volts.
From the above two cases we can say that by using diode circuit the output does
not vary with the load and remains stable.

Do it yourself
Identify different types of diodes & its Applications. Learn to analyze
specifications
Go through the specification sheet of 1N4001 and 4007 and know about the
peak reverse voltage and also learn the applications of Zener diode.
Learn to test Diodes by using DMM
Activity
Design all the clipper circuits for different values of clipping levels & sketch
Input, Output & Transfer Characteristic curves on a graph sheet. And verify
with the design

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REVA University School of ECE

ii) Demonstrate Diode Clamper Circuits (Positive and Negative)

Aim: To demonstrate Diode clamping circuits: positive clamping /negative


clamping.

Components/Instruments Required: Function generator, Power supply, CRO,


Diode (1N4007), Resistor, Capacitor, Connecting Wires, Terminal Board, etc.
1. Positive Clamper:

Analysis:
During +ve Half cycle
D=OFF, Vin=6V, VO=Vin+Vc/2=+9V
During -ve Half cycle
D=ON, Vin=-6V, Vo = VT + VR = -3V
Design:
Let the output to be clamped is +3V
VO=3 = VR + VT
VR = VOUT-VT = 3-0.6 = 2.4Volts
To design R & C
Let f = 1kHz. Therefore T = 1ms.
Time constant T=RC (During charging, time constant is small as it charges through
diode & During discharging, time constant is large as it discharges through R,)
Discharging: R>T, Say RC = 10T. Therefore RC = 10ms. Choose R = 10kΩ & C = 1µF.
Charging: RC>>T, Rf=100Ω (forward resistance of diode), R = Rf || R = 100Ω
RC= 0.1ms. Therefore C = 1µF.

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REVA University School of ECE

Waveforms:

2. Negative Clamper:

Analysis:
During +ve Half cycle
D=ON, VC=V/2 + VR, VO=-VR
During -ve Half cycle
D=OFF, Vo = Vin + VC = -(V/2 + V/2 + VR), = -(V+VR)

Design: Let the output to be clamped is -3V


-VO = -VR - VT Therefore VR= -VO + VT
VR = -3 + 0.6 = -2.4Volts

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REVA University School of ECE

Waveforms:

Procedure:
1. Check all the components
2. Connect the circuit as shown.
3. Apply a 1 kHz. sine wave of 12V p-p @ 1kHz. Set the D.C. RPS value as per
the design.
4. Verify the Input & Output waveforms on CRO (By keeping the input & output
waveforms on same axis with coupling released to Gnd.), observe the level
shift in output waveform
5. Sketch the waveforms on a graph sheet. Compare input and output
waveforms.

Result:
Do it yourself
By changing the function to Square wave & Triangular wave observe the
changes in output.
Learn the importance of Peak Reverse Voltage & how it is helpful in
designing the circuits
Activity
Design all the clamper circuits for different values of clipping levels &
sketch Input & Output Characteristic curves on a graph sheet. And verify
with the design

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REVA University School of ECE

Experiment # 2: Design of Single Stage RC Coupled BJT Amplifier


Aim: To Design an R-C coupled single stage BJT amplifier and determination of the
gain-frequency response, input and output impedances.

Components/Instruments Required: Transistor, Capacitors, Resistors, Power


supply, Signal Generator, Multimeter, DRB, CRO Probes, Connecting wires etc.

R-C Coupled BJT Amplifier


Circuit Diagram:

Design: Design a voltage divider bias amplifier for Ic=4mA by choosing transistor
having hfe=100
Given IC = 4 mA and hfe = 100 Let Vcc = 12 V . VCE= 1/2VCC
Assuming VE= Vcc 12
2V
6 6

We Know VE=IE x RE =2V


RE = 2 2 2 500Ω
IE IC 4mA

Choose RE = 470Ω
Applying KVL to the Collector Emitter loop to find R C
VCC ICRC VCE VE 0
VCC VCE VE
RC
IC

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REVA University School of ECE

RC 12 6 2 = 1kΩ
4mA
VB VBE VE = 0.7+2 = 2.7V
R2
VB VCC
R1 R2
2.7 R2
12 R1 R2
R2
0.225
R1 R2
R2=0.225R1+0.225R2
0.775R2=0.225R1
Let R2 = 4.7kΩ
R1 = 16.18kΩ Choose 15kΩ
Bypass capacitor CB and Coupling capacitors CC1 and CC2
1
Let XCE = RE at frequency f = 100 Hz
10
1 R
= E
2 f C E 10
CE = 72.3 F
Select CE = 100 F
Also use CC1 and CC2 = 0.47 F (Ceramic)
Ideal Graph:
Low Mid High
Frequency Frequency Frequency
range range range

Power
Gain
dB

3dB Maximum
Gain

Bandwidth

(f2 – f1)

f1 f2

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Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Measure the D.C. condition.
3. The input voltage Vin is adjusted to a convenient value (Approximately 20 to
40 mV) within the distortion less limit and value must be kept constant
throughout the experiment.
4. Frequency of the input signal is varied from 100Hz to 2MHz in steps and at
each step, corresponding output Vo is noted down.
5. All readings are tabulated and graph of Voltage gain in dB V/s frequency is
drawn on a semi-log sheet.
6. 3dB bandwidth is determined from the frequency response curve.

Observations:
VBE= ________Volts. VCE=_______Volts. (Q – Point Voltage)

Tabular Column:
Input Voltage Vin= ________mV.

Gain Gain
Sl. Frequency Vo in dB=20 Sl. Frequency Vo in dB=20
# in Hz. Volts. log10 # in Hz. Volts. log10
(Vo/Vin) (Vo/Vin)
1 100 Hz 20 20 kHz
2 200 Hz 21 30 kHz
3 300 Hz 22 40 kHz
4 400 Hz 23 50 kHz
5 500 Hz 24 60 kHz
6 600 Hz 25 70 kHz
7 700 Hz 26 80 kHz
8 800 Hz 27 90 kHz
9 900 Hz 28 100 kHz
10 1kHz 29 200 kHz
11 2 kHz 30 300 kHz
12 3 kHz 31 400 kHz
13 4 kHz 32 500 kHz
14 5 kHz 33 600 kHz
15 6 kHz 34 700 kHz
16 7 kHz 35 800 kHz
17 8 kHz 36 900 kHz
18 9 kHz 37 1 MHz
19 10 kHz 38 2 MHz

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To measure Input Impedance:

1. A DRB is connected in series with the input as shown in figure.


2. In the mid frequency region (where the gain is constant) with R i= 0, (i.e., all
the knobs of DRB in Zero position.) the output voltage is measured.
3. Now the DRB resistance is increased till the output voltage falls to half of
the initial value.
4. The corresponding DRB value gives the input impedance.

To measure Output Impedance:

1. A DRB is connected across the output as shown in figure.


2. In the mid frequency region (where the gain is constant) with R o = max,
(i.e., all the knobs of DRB in Maximum position.) the output voltage is
measured.
3. Now the DRB resistance is decreased till the output voltage falls to half of
the initial value.
4. The corresponding DRB value gives the input impedance.
Result:
Bandwidth in Output impedance
Input impedance in Ω
Hz. in Ω

Transistor Specifications sheet:


Since the specification sheet is the communication link between the
manufacturer and user, it is particularly important that the information
provided be recognized and correctly understood.
The following is an example of 2N4123 a general purpose npn transistor with the
casing and terminal identification appearing in the top right corner of fig. Most
specification sheets are broken down into maximum ratings, thermal

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characteristics and electrical characteristics. The electrical characteristics are


further broken down into “on” and “off” and small signal characteristics. The
“on” and “off” characteristics refers to dc limits where as the small signal
characteristics include the parameters of importance to ac.

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Do it yourself
Identify the values of Resistors by Color Coding.
Identify the values of Capacitors
Identify the terminals of Transistor
Know the specifications of Transistor
Download the specification sheet of Transistor on internet and read the
Specification Parameters
Learn to test Transistor by using DMM
Learn the applications of the circuit & Importance of Impedance
measurement.
Activity
Design Amplifier circuits for different values of Ic / Vcc Rig up the circuit &
Measure DC Condition. Find bandwidth by plotting frequency response
curve. Measure Input & Output Impedances.

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Experiment # 3: Design of BJT R-C Phase shift oscillator.

Aim: Design a BJT R-C Phase shift Oscillator for frequency fo = 2 kHz. And test the
circuit in MultiSim

Circuit Diagram:

Construction: RC phase shift oscillator consists of an amplifier with 3 sets of RC -


Lead network in the feedback pattern. Since an amplifier introduces 180 0 phase
shift between input & output, the remaining 1800 phase shift is compensated by
connecting R-C combinations (1800/3=600 each). Therefore tuned circuit is not an
essential parameter for oscillations. The essential requirement is that there must
be a 1800 phase shift around the feedback network & loop gain should be greater
than unity. The 1800 phase shift in feedback signal can be achieved by a suitable R-
C network consisting of 3 R-C sections.

Circuit Working: when a sinusoidal voltage of frequency f is applied to a circuit


consisting of resistor R & capacitor C in series, then the alternating current in the
circuit leads the applied voltage by certain angle. The value of R & C may be
selected in such a way that for the frequency fr the phase angle is 60 0. So using a
ladder network of 3 R-C sections, desired 1800 phase shift can be produced. The R-
C phase shift networks serve as frequency determining circuit. Since only at a
single frequency, the net phase shift around the loop will be 360 0, a sinusoidal
waveform at this frequency is generated there by satisfying Barkhausen criterion.
The frequency of oscillations is given by;
1 Rc which is usually <1
f Where K
2 RC 6 4 K R

These types of oscillators are used to produce low frequency range i.e. audio
frequency range.

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Advantages:
It does not require inductors or transformers.
It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
The circuit provides good frequency stability.

Dis-Advantages:
It is difficult for the circuit to start oscillations as feedback is generally
small.
The circuit gives only low frequencies.

Design of Phase-Shifting Network:


The frequency of oscillation is determined by phase shifting network.
The oscillating frequency for the above circuit is given by:
1
f
2 RC 6 4K

Where K Rc which is usually <1


R
Let fo = 2kHz
Consider R = 2.2kΩ
Rc 1k
K 0.454
R 2.2k
1
f
2 RC 6 4(0.454)

C=0.0129uF Choose C=0.01uF

Note:
The last resistor in the phase shifting network is chosen to be a 10k Pot.
This is done to get an overall phase shift of 1800 at frequency of oscillations.
The maximum hfe required for the Transistor to operate is
R Rc
h fe min 23 29 4
Rc R
Where Rc = 1KΩ & R = 2.2KΩ (Phase shifting network)
2.2 K 1K
h fe min 23 29 4 89
1K 2.2 K
The transistor should be chosen to have a value of h fe greater than 89.

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Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Switch on the power supply and the Output Vo (sine wave) is obtained on
CRO. The 10 kΩ POT is adjusted to get a stable output on the CRO.
3. Note down the practical frequency and compare it with the theoretical
value.
4. Measure phase shift.

To observe the Phase Shift:


1. The output is kept to Channel 2 (Y)
2. The other probe is kept at Adjacent phase shifting Capacitor &
connected to Channel 1 (X)
3. Keep the CRO in X-Y Mode & Lissajous Pattern is observed.

Model Graph:

Result Analysis:
Designed frequency f = __________Hz.
Simulated frequency fo= __________Hz.

Do it yourself
Identify the values of Resistors by Color Coding.
Identify the terminals of Transistors & Test it by DMM.
Learn Circuit operation.
Know the frequency Range & Applications of the circuit
Activity
Design the Oscillator circuit for different values of frequencies & measure
the frequency of Oscillations on CRO verify with design & Plot the
waveforms on a graph sheet.
Design an Oscillator circuit & Implement it on a General Purpose PCB & Test
it

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Experiment # 4: Design of BJT Hartley and Colpitt’s Oscillators.


1. Hartley oscillator
Aim: Design a BJT – Hartley Oscillator for fo = 100 kHz. And simulate the circuit in
MultiSim

Circuit Diagram:

Construction: The Hartley oscillator consists of a BJT- CE amplifier with tank


circuit. The resistors R1, R2, RC& RE provide necessary bias conditions for the
circuit. Capacitor CE provides A. C. ground thereby preventing any signal
degeneration. This also provides temperature stabilization. The function of CC1&
CC2 is to block D. C. and to provide an A. C. path.
The frequency network is a parallel resonant circuit consisting of Inductors L 1, L2&
Capacitor C. the junction of L1& L2 is earthed. One side of L1 is connected to base
via CC1 and other end is connected to emitter via CE. So L1 is in the input circuit.
Similarly one end of L2 is connected to oscillator via CC 2 and other end is
connected to emitter via CE. So L2 is in the output circuit. The two parts are
inductively coupled & forms an auto transformer.

Circuit Working: When a collector voltage is switched “ON”, a transient current is


produced in the tank circuit. The oscillating current in the tank circuit produces
A.C. voltage across L1. In this way a feedback between output and input circuits is
accomplished through auto transformer action. So there is a phase reversal of 180 0
between output & input. The common emitter amplifier also produces a further
1800 phase shift between input and output voltages. Thus total phase shift
becomes 3600. Ultimately a state of equilibrium is reached where the losses in the
circuit are made by consuming power from the power supply. This makes the

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feedback +ve which is the essential condition for oscillations. When the loop gain
Aβ of the amplifier is greater than 1, oscillations are sustained and frequency of
oscillations is determined in the circuit. The frequency of oscillations is given by:
f = 1 / 2 √ LeffX C where Leff= L1 + L2
Hartley oscillator is very popular and is commonly used as a local oscillator in
Radio receivers. The Hartley oscillator is extensively used in all broadcast bands
including FM 88 to 108MHz.
Dis-Advantages:
Harmonic rich content at the output due to inductances.

Design of Amplifier:
VCE=5V, IC=2mA, VCC=2VCE=10V.
1 1
VRE VCC 10 1V
10 10
VRE 1
R E= 500Ω . Choose 470Ω.
IC 2mA

RC = = 2kΩ. Choose 2.2 kΩ

Assume hfe =50


IC 2mA
IB 0.04mA 40μ A
h fe 50
VR2 = VRE - VBE = 1V + 0.6V = 1.6V. & VR1 = VCC - VR2 = 10 - 1.6V = 8.4V.
VR2 1.6 1.6 1.6
R2 = 4.7kΩ.
IR2 9IB 9 0.04mA 0.36mA
VR1 8.4 8.4 8.4
R1 = 22k Ω
IR1 10IB 10 0.04mA 0.4mA

Design of Tank Circuit:


Let L1 = 1mH, L2 = 2.2mH
L1+L2 = 3.2mH
Let fo= 100 kHz.

fo = 1 / 2 L effC where Leff = L1 + L2

Then C = 1/4π2Leff F2
C =791.5pF, Choose 800pF, (The value of L & C may be changed as per the
design frequency.)

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Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. Measure the D.C. bias condition & vary the POT to get the output.
3. Observe the output on CRO & measure the Frequency & Amplitude and
draw waveforms on graph sheet.
4. Compare the designed values of frequency with practical values of
frequency.

Observations:
VBE =______Volts. VCE =______Volts.

Result Analysis:
Designed frequency f =___________Hz.
Simulated frequency fo =_________________ Hz.

2. Colpitt’s oscillator
Aim: Design a BJT – Colpitt’s Oscillator for frequency fo = 100 kHz. And simulate
the circuit in MultiSim

Circuit Diagram:

Construction: Colpitt’s oscillator consists of a BJT – CE amplifier with tank circuit.


The resistances R1, R2, RC& RE bias the BJT. The frequency determining network is
a parallel resonant circuit consisting of capacitors C 1, C2& Inductor L. The junction
of C1& C2 is grounded. The voltage developed across C 1 provides the regenerative
feedback required for the sustained oscillations.

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Circuit Working: The voltage VCC is responsible for the charging of the capacitors.
When the capacitors are fully charged to their rated voltages, they discharge
through the inductor L of the tank circuit, which produces damped harmonic
oscillations. The oscillations across C1 are applied to the Base-Emitter junction &
appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit and supply losses to the tank
circuit, which is then coupled to tank circuit through C 2 to neutralize the losses in
the tank circuit. The starting end of C 1& finishing end of C2 are 1800 out of phase.
The further phase shift of 180 0 is produced by BJT-CE amplifier. In this way the
energy is supplied to the tank circuit in phase with the oscillations & Aβ is
greater than one, the oscillations are sustained in the circuit.
The Colpitt’s oscillator is named after its inventor Edwin H. Colpitt’s. One of the
key features of this type of oscillator is simplicity & robustness.
The Colpitt’s oscillator is an LC oscillator generally LC oscillators are designed to
operate in the Radio frequency range above 1 MHz. however they can also be
designed to produce oscillations in Low audio frequency range. The frequency of
oscillations is given by:
f= 1/2 LCeff
Where Ceff = C1 x C2 / (C1+ C2)
Since Colpitt’s oscillator is a high frequency oscillator, the capacitors will be
selected in Pico-Farads range. Real time circuits will oscillate at a slightly lower
frequency due to Junction capacitances of the BJT & for other stray capacitances.
Sinusoidal oscillators are used for various applications in Electronics &
Telecommunications like Sine wave used as a carrier signal in modulation circuits,
testing frequency response of various Amplifiers, Filters & in Closed loop control
systems etc.

Observations:
VBE =______Volts. VCE =______Volts.

Note: Design of Amplifier is as same as Hartley oscillator

Design of Tank Circuit:


Let fo = 100 kHz.
Choose C1 & C2 =1000pF
fo= 1/2 LCeff
Where Ceff = C1 x C2 / (C1+ C2)
L = 1/4π2Ceff x fo2
L = 5mH
Procedure is as same as Hartley oscillator

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Result:
Designed frequency f =_________________ Hz.
Simulated frequency fo =_________________ Hz.

Do it yourself
Identify the values of Resistors by Color Coding.
Identify the terminals of Transistors & Test it by DMM.
Learn Circuit operation.
Know the frequency Range & Applications of the circuit
Activity
Design the Oscillator Tank circuit for different values of frequencies &
measure the frequency of oscillations on CRO verify with design & Plot the
waveforms on a graph sheet.

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Experiment # 5: Design of Crystal Oscillator.

Aim: Design & Test a BJT -Crystal oscillator for frequency f0 = 2MHz.

Components/Instruments Required: BJT SL-100, Crystal 2MHz. (Metal Case),


Capacitors, Resistors, POT, CRO, Power supply, Multimeter, CRO probes,
Connecting Wires, Terminal Board etc.
Circuit Diagram:

Observations:
VBE =______Volts. VCE =______Volts.

Design of Amplifier is as same as Hartley oscillator

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Measure the D.C. bias condition.
3. Vary the 10k Potentiometer so as to get an un-distorted sine wave at the
output.
4. Note down the amplitude & frequency of the output wave & frequency
and draw waveforms on a graph sheet. The frequency of oscillator has to
match with the crystal frequency.

Result Analysis:

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Frequency = __________Hz. Vo (Peak to Peak) =_________Volts.


Do it yourself
Identify the values of Resistors by Color Coding.
Identify the terminals of Transistors & Test it by DMM.
Learn Circuit operation.
Know the frequency Range & Applications of the circuit

Activity
Rig up the circuit with different Crystal values & measure the frequency of
oscillations on CRO verify with Crystal value & Plot the waveforms on a
graph sheet.

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Experiment # 6: Design a BJT Darlington Emitter Follower.

Aim: Design & Test a BJT Darlington emitter follower and determine gain, input
and output impedances.

Components/Instruments Required: Transistors, Capacitors, Resistors, Power


supply, Analog Discovery2 Module & Accessories.
Circuit Diagram:

Design:
Given: VCC=10V, IC=4mA. Assume hfe= 50
VCC 10
Then VCE = ½ VCC= 5V.
2 2
To design emitter resistance:
VRE = 5V
IE X RE = 5V
5
Therefore RE = (Since IE=IC)
4mA
Therefore RE = 1.2KΩ.

To design biasing resistances:


IC
We know that hfe
IB
= IC
4 10 -3
hfe 50
But IB2 = IC1

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1.6µA.

From the circuit voltage at the base of Q 1 is


VB = 0.7 + 0.7 + 5 = 6.4 V
VCC VB 10 6.4
R1 = 225kΩ Choose R1 = 220kΩ.
10 IB 1 10 0.0016mA
VCC VB 10 6.4
R2 = 444.4kΩ Choose R2 = 470kΩ.
9 IB 1 9 0.0016mA
Choose RL as 10kΩ.
Design of coupling capacitors CC:
1 hfe
We know that RS
ω CC 10
At f = 50Hz, The value of CC>0.30µF & Use CC=0.47µF.

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The input voltage Vin is adjusted to a convenient value within the
distortion less limit by using Digilent waveform generator and connected
through W1(Waveform Generator1) of Analog Discovery2 Module.
3. Frequency of the input signal is kept constant & Vi and Vo should be
connected to Scope Ch. 1 & Ch. 2 of Analog Discovery2 Module. The
output can be observed in Digilent WaveForm. Calculate gain by using
formula G = Vo/Vin.

Observations:
Vin=_____Voltsp-p Vo==_____Voltsp-p

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To measure Input Impedance:

1. A DRB is connected in series with the input as shown in fig.


2. Keep the frequency f = some value (say 10 KHz) with DRB = 0, (i.e., all
the knobs of DRB in zero position) the input and output voltage are
measured.
3. Now the DRB resistance is increased till the output voltage falls to half of
the initial value.
4. The corresponding DRB value gives the input impedance.

To measure Output Impedance:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.


2. Set the DRB to maximum value.
3. Set the signal generator amplitude say 2V p-p sine wave at f = mid band
frequency and observe the input and output signal of the circuit
simultaneously on the CRO.
4. Decrease the DRB value till Vo becomes half of the initial value.
5. The corresponding DRB value gives the output impedance.

Result Analysis:
a) Gain =
b) Input impedance =
c) Output impedance =

Do it yourself
Know the applications of the Circuit and the importance of Input & Output
Impedances

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Experiment # 7: Design a Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier.

Aim: To Design & Test a two stage BJT voltage series amplifier and determine the
gain, Frequency response, input and output impedances with and without
feedback.

Components/Instruments Required: Transistors, Capacitors, Resistors, CRO,


Power supply, Signal generator, Analog Discovery2 Module & Accessories.etc.

Circuit diagram:

Design: Design the voltage divider bias circuit for Ic=4mA & Vcc=12V
Given IC = 4 mA and Vcc = 12 V, Choose hfe = 100, VCE = ½ Vcc = 6V
Assuming VE= Vcc 12
2V
6 6

We Know VE=IE x RE =2V


RE = 2 2 2 500Ω
IE IC 4mA

For I stage Split RE into Two Parts. RE = 180Ω + 330Ω


Applying KVL to the Collector Emitter loop to find R C
VCC ICRC VCE VE 0
VCC VCE VE
RC
IC

RC 12 6 2 = 1kΩ
4mA
VB VBE VE = 0.7+2 = 2.7V

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R2
VB VCC
R1 R2
2.7 R2
12 R1 R2
R2
0.225
R1 R2
R2=0.225R1+0.225R2
0.775R2=0.225R1
Let R2 = 4.7kΩ
R1 = 16.18kΩ Choose 15kΩ
Design for II stage is same as that of first stage Use 470Ω as RE
Let CE=47µF (Emitter by-pass Capacitor) for both the stages.
Coupling Capacitors CC1 = CC2 = CC3 = 0.47µF
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. With Rf disconnected from first stage, Vi from Waveform generator 1 of
Analog Discovery2 Module is fed to first stage with an amplitude within
the distortion less limit (Say 20mV) and value must be kept constant
throughout the experiment. And measure the V in and Vout at frequency
say 2kHz. Using Scope Ch.1 & Ch.2 of Analog Discovery2 Module and
Digilent WaveForms. Calculate the gain without feedback by A=Vo/Vin
3. Frequency of the input signal is varied from 100 Hz to 2 MHz in steps and
at each step, corresponding output Vo is noted down.
4. With Rf connected in the circuit i.e. with feedback the steps 2 & 3 are
repeated Gain with feedback Af is Calculated.
5. Plot the Graphs of frequency versus Gain in dB for both the cases i.e.
with Rf and Without Rf.
6. Go to Welcome in WaveForms choose Network Analyzer and observe the
Bode Plot.

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Tabular Column:
Vi =___________mV
Vo p-p Gain dB=20 GainfB
Frequency Vo p-p with
without log10 dB=20 log10
in Hz. Rfin Volts.
Rfin Volts. (Vo/Vin) (Vo/Vin)

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Ideal Graph:

From the Graph Calculate:


Bandwidth without Feedback: B.W. without FB = f2-f1
Bandwidth without Feedback: B.W. without FB = f2f-f1f

To Measure Input And Output Impedance:


Procedure is same as in Experiment No.1
Measure Zi and Zo with & without Feedback and compare the values.

Result:

Gain Av without feedback =


Gain Av with feedback =
Bandwidth without feedback =
Bandwidth with feedback =
Input Impedance Ziwithout
=
feedback
Input Impedance Ziwith feedback =
Output Impedance Zo without
=
feedback
Output Impedance Zo with
=
feedback

Do it yourself
Learn the effects of cascading amplifiers. Learn cascoding effects also.
Know the importance of Impedance without & with feedback.

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Experiment # 8: Demonstrate Rectifier circuits

Aim: Rig up the following circuits with & without filter & find the Ripple factor.
Also Determine Efficiency and Regulation for rectifier circuits without filter.
1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier
3. Bridge rectifier

Components/Instruments Required: Diodes, Resistors, Capacitors, Step-down


transformer, CRO etc.
Half Wave Rectifier
Circuit diagram:

Design:
To design a half wave rectifier for the following specifications:
Let the output DC voltage = 5V &IL(max) =100mA.
For Half wave Rectifier V Vm
DC
π
Vm π VDC π 5 15.70V
Transformer secondary Voltage Vm 15.70
11.10V
2 2
Choose230V/12V-500mA Transformer
VDC 5
RL 50Ω
IL(max) 100mA
Power dissipated in RL is PL VDC IL(max) 5 100mA 0.5Watts.
Choose RL = 50Ω/5W in series with DRB
To design a half wave rectifier with C – Filter:
Ripple factor 1
γ
2 3fRL C

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1
γ 1.15
2 3 50 50 100μ
Procedure:
1. Do the connections as shown in the fig.
2. Set the DRB value to maximum value & note down value of currents I AC& IDC
with the same Ammeter (Use Multimeter) also note down the value of
voltages VDC& VAC with the same Voltmeter (Use Multimeter).
3. By varying DRB in steps repeat above procedure for other set of readings.
4. Display the input & output waveforms on CRO & plot the same on a graph
sheet.
5. For each value of I DC determine the values of Ripple factor, Efficiency and
Regulation.
6. Now connect a capacitor filter across load RL& repeat steps 2, 3 & 4 and for
each value of IDC Ripple factor, Efficiency and Regulation are calculated &
tabulated.
7. Compare theoretical & practical ripple factor.

Tabular column:
RL = IDC in VDC in VAC in IAC in Ripple % %
mA Volts Volts mA γ Efficiency Regulation
R+DRB
50+Max(NL)

50+450

50+0(FL)

Ripple factor γ VAC IAC Note: Ripple factor for half wave rectifier should be less
or
VDC IDC
than 1.21
I2 DC
% Efficiency η 2 100
I DC I2 AC
VDC(NL) VDC(FL)
% Regulation 100
VDC(FL)

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Waveforms:

Result Analysis:

Full Wave Centre-Tap Rectifier


Circuit Diagram:

Design:
To design a Full wave rectifier for the following specifications:
Let the output DC voltage = 10V & IL (max) = 100mA.

For Full wave Rectifier V 2Vm


DC
π
π VDC π 10
Vm 15.70V
2 2
Transformer secondary Voltage Vm 15.70
11.10V
2 2
Choose230V/12V-500mA Transformer

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VDC 10
RL 100Ω
IL(max) 100mA

Power dissipated in RL is PL VDC IL(max) 10 100mA 1.0Watt.


Choose RL = 100Ω/5W in series with DRB

Procedure: Same as part 1.


Tabular Column:
RL = IDC VDC in VAC in IAC Ripple % %
in Volts Volts in γ Efficiency Regulation
R+DRB
mA mA
100+Max(NL)
100+400
100+0(FL)

Ripple factor γ VAC IAC (Note: Ripple factor for Full wave should be less than
or
VDC IDC
0.483)

% Efficiency η I2 DC
100
I2DC I2 AC
% Regulation VDC(NL) VDC(FL)
100
VDC(FL)
Waveforms:

Result analysis:

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Full Wave Bridge Rectifier


Circuit Diagram:

Design:Same as part 2.
Procedure:Same as part 1.
Tabular Column:
RL = IDC VDC in VAC in IAC Ripple % %
in Volts Volts in γ Efficiency Regulation
R+DRB
mA mA
100+Max(NL)

100+400

100+0(FL)

Ripple factor γ VAC IAC (Note: Ripple factor for Full wave should be less than
or
VDC IDC
0.483)

% Efficiency η I2DC
100
I2DC I2 AC
% Regulation VDC(NL) VDC(FL)
100
VDC(FL)

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Waveforms:

Result Analysis:

Do it yourself
Learn the applications of the circuit & Limitations of the circuit.
Activity
Design Rectifier circuits for different values of Voltages/Load Currents &
Measure Ripple factor, Efficiency & Percentage of Regulation.
Design Rectifier circuits for different values of Filter Capacitors & Measure
Ripple factor, Efficiency & Percentage of Regulation
Design a 3 Pin Voltage Regulator circuit & Implement it on a General
Purpose PCB & Test it

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Experiment # 09: Demonstrate the working of Transformer- Less


Class B push pull power amplifier

Aim: Demonstrate working of a transformer less class-B push pull power amplifier
& determine its conversion efficiency.
Components/Instruments required: Transistors, Resistors, Power supply, Milli
Ammeter, Function generator, DRB, CRO, Connecting wires, CRO probes etc.
Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
1. Rig-up the circuit as shown above.
2. Switch on Power Supply
3. Observe the output on CRO. Sketch the cross-over distorted output on a graph
sheet.
4. Adjust the input amplitude to get undistorted output at a frequency less than
1 kHz.
5. Measure output peak-to-peak voltage. Calculate efficiency (Efficiency Should
be <78.5% for Class C Amplifiers) by varying RL (DRB).

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Tabular Column: Vcc=9V.


RL in Po=(Vop-p)2/8RL Pin = Vcc*
Vop-p Idc in mA %ŋ=Po/Pin*100
Ω mWatts IdcmWatts
100
200
300
400
500
600

Waveforms:

Result:

Do it yourself
Learn about the class of operation of power amplifiers.
Learn about Dual Power Supplies(+/- sources)
Know the Maximum Efficiency & Cross-over distortion effects of the Class
B Amplifier.
Know the Applications of the circuit & Limitations

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List of Challenge Experiments


1. Unity Gain Phase Splitter
Sometimes it is useful to generate a signal & its inverse, i.e. two signals 1800 out
of phase. That is easy to do by using an emitter de-generated amplifier with a gain
of -1. The quiescent collector voltage is set to 0.75Vcc, rather than the usual
0.5Vcc, in order to achieve same result. Maximum symmetrical output swing
without clipping at either outputs. The collector can swing from 5.5 Vcc to Vcc,
whereas the emitter can swing from Ground to 0.5 Vcc.
Note: The phase splitter outputs must be loaded with equal (Very High)
impedances at the two outputs in order to maintain gain symmetry.

2. Seat Belt Buzzer Circuit

Design a Buzzer circuit using transistors & diodes which sounds a buzzer if either
car door is open, and the driver is seated and not wearing a seat belt using Analog
Discovery2 Module.

3. Realize Basic Gates using Diode Transistor Logic.

4. Design a Transistor Switch Circuit which allows to switch two loads to


ground via saturated NPN Transistors

Ref:

1. The Art of Electronics by Paul Horowitz, Winfield Hill, Cambridgepress , 2 nd


Edition.

2. Electronic Principles by Albert Malvino & David J. Bates, Mc GrawHill


Publication, 7th Edition.

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Introduction to Analog Discovery 2

The Digilent Analog Discovery 2, developed in conjunction with Analog Devices, is a


multi-function instrument that allows users to measure visualize, generate, record,
and control mixed signal circuits of all kinds. The low-cost Analog Discovery 2 is
small enough to fit in pocket, but powerful enough to replace a stack of lab
equipment, providing engineering students and hobbyists the freedom to work
with analog and digital circuits in virtually any environment, in or out of the lab.

Features:

The analog and digital inputs and outputs can be connected to a circuit using
simple wire probes; alternatively, the Analog Discovery BNC Adapter and BNC
probes can be used to connect and utilize the inputs and outputs. Driven by the
free Waveforms software, the Analog Discovery 2 can be configured to work as any
one of several traditional instruments, which include:

Two-channel oscilloscope
Two-channel arbitrary function generator
Stereo audio amplifier to drive external headphones or speakers with
replicated AWG signals
16-channel digital logic analyzer.
16-channel pattern generator.
16-channel virtual digital I/O including buttons, switches, and LEDs.
Two input/output digital trigger signals for linking multiple instruments.
Two programmable power supplies (0…+5V, 0…-5V). The maximum available
output current and power depend on the Analog Discovery 2 powering
choice:
o 250mW max for each supply or 500mW total when powered through
USB
o 2.1W max for each supply when powered by an auxiliary supply
o 700mA maximum current for each supply
Single channel voltmeter (AC, DC, ±25V)

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Network analyzer – Bode, Nyquist, Nichols transfer diagrams of a circuit.


Range: 1Hz to 10MHz
Spectrum Analyzer – power spectrum and spectral measurements (noise
floor, SFDR, SNR, THD, etc.)
Digital Bus Analyzers (SPI, I²C, UART, Parallel)

The Analog Discovery 2 was designed for students in typical university-based


circuits and electronics classes. Its features and specifications, as well as the
additional requirements of operating from USB or external power.

Pinout Diagram

Architectural Overview and Block Diagram

Analog Discovery 2's high-level block diagram is presented in Fig. below. The core
of the Analog Discovery 2 is the Xilinx® Spartan®-6 FPGA (specifically, the
XC6SLX16-1L device). The Waveforms application automatically programs the
Discovery’s FPGA at start-up with a configuration file designed to implement a
multi-function test and measurement instrument. Once programmed, the FPGA
inside the Discovery communicates with the PC-based Waveforms application via a

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USB 2.0 connection. The Waveforms software works with the FPGA to control all
the functional blocks of the Analog Discovery 2, including setting parameters,
acquiring data, and transferring and storing data.

Signals in the Analog Input block, also called the Scope, use “SC” indexes to
indicate they are related to the scope block. Signals in the Analog Output block,
also called AWG, use “AWG” indexes, and signals in the Digital block use a D index
– all of the instruments offered by the Discovery 2 and Waveforms use the circuits
in these three blocks. Signal and equations also use certain naming conventions.
Analog voltages are prefixed with a “V” (for voltage), and suffixes and indexes are
used in various ways: to specify the location in the signal path (IN, MUX, BUF, ADC,
etc.); to indicate the related instrument (SC, AWG, etc.); to indicate the channel
(1 or 2); and to indicate the type of signal (P, N, or diff).

The Analog Inputs/Scope instrument block includes:

o Input Divider and Gain Control: high bandwidth input


adapter/divider. High or low-gain can be selected by the FPGA
o Buffer: high impedance buffer
o Driver: provides appropriate signal levels and protection to the ADC.
Offset voltage is added for vertical position setting
o Scope Reference and Offset: generates and buffers reference and
offset voltages for the scope stages
o ADC: the analog-to-digital converter for both scope channels.
The Arbitrary Outputs/AWG instrument block includes:
o DAC: the digital-to-analog converter for both AWG channels
o I/V: current to bipolar voltage converters
o Out: output stages
o Audio: audio amplifiers for headphone
A precision Oscillator and a Clock Generator provide a high quality clock
signal for the AD and DA converters.
The Digital I/O block exposes protected access to the FPGA pins assigned for
the Digital Pattern Generator and Logic Analyzer.
The Power Supplies and Control block generates all internal supply
voltages as well as user supply programmable voltages. The control block
also monitors the device power consumption for USB compliance when
power is supplied via the USB connection. When external power supply is
used, the control block allows more power for the user supplies. Under the
FPGA control, power for unused functional blocks can be turned off.

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The USB Controller interfaces with the PC for programming the volatile
FPGA memory after power on or when a new configuration is requested.
After that, it performs the data transfer between the PC and FPGA.
The Calibration Memory stores all calibration parameters.

Except for the “Probe Calibration” trimmers in the scope Input divider, the Analog
Discovery 2 includes no analog calibration circuitry. Instead, a calibration
operation is performed at manufacturing (or by the user), and parameters are
stored in memory. The Waveforms software uses these parameters to correct the
acquired data and the generated signals

Analog Discovery 2 block diagram.

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Discovery BNC Reference

The Discovery BNC adapter board is intended to be used with the Analog Discovery
tool to enable the use of standard BNC terminated test leads and probes. The
adapter board enables the user to AC couple or DC couple signals to the
oscilloscope in the Analog Discovery

The Discovery BNC Adapter board


Features:
Standard BNC interface to BNC terminated test leads and oscilloscope
probes.
Selectable AC and DC coupling to oscilloscope probes.
Selectable 50-ohm or 0-ohm output impedance on Arbitrary Waveform
Generator (AWG) channels

Functional Description
The Discovery BNC adapter board has BNC terminations to each of the two
oscilloscope channels on the Analog Discovery. Each channel of the oscilloscope
can be selected as AC or DC coupled by adjusting the jumper that is located behind
that channel's BNC input connector.

The two AWG channels are equipped with BNC terminations for use with BNC style
test leads. Each of the two channels can have either the 50Ω or the 0Ω termination
selected. This enables the user to match the Analog Discovery’s output impedance
with either standard 50-ohm test leads or to be directly tied to the lead.

All the remaining signals from the Analog Discovery pass through the adaptor to a
female header located on the outer edge of the board.

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Waveforms 2015 Software

The Waveforms 2015 software should be preinstalled on the computers


https:// digilent.com/waveforms2015

Oscilloscope

The AD2's oscilloscope has two channels each capable of ±25V input at 30MHz
bandwidth. Using the software for the oscilloscope is very similar (if not identical)
to using a typical dedicated bench scope. All of the standard controls are available
including:

Channel enables
Offset
Range
Time position
Time base
Single capture
Repeated capture
Screen shift
Triggering

Select the appropriate operating system (Windows, MAC OS X, or Linux).

1. Attach the Analog Discovery using the included USB cable to a USB port on
the computer. If this is the first time, it sometimes takes a few minutes
while it installs the proper USB driver, so you may have to be patient.
2. Start the Waveforms 2015 software. If everything is working properly, you
should see the window like Figure 1 with the device serial number displayed
in the bottom of the window.

Figure 1 Waveforms 2015 Main Window

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3. If you have problems, try unplugging and reconnecting the Analog Discovery
from the USB port and restarting the Waveforms 2015 software.

Using Oscilloscope and Wavegen (Function generator)


One of the most frequent uses of electronic test equipment is to be able to
observe constantly varying signal voltages, typically on a two-dimensional plot,
with the horizontal axis representing time and the vertical axis representing the
voltage of the signal(s). This function is referred to as “Scope” (which is an
abbreviated form of the term “Oscilloscope”).
For test purposes, it is also very important to be able to generate various
“waveforms”, for example a sinusoid, and be able to set both the amplitude (in
volts) and the frequency (in Hz) of the waveform(s). This function is referred to as
“Wavegen”.
In this section, we will use the Analog Discovery to generate a waveform using one
of its two “Wavegen” functions and view the waveform on one of its two “Scope”
channels.
1. Connect "Waveform Generator 1" ("W1", yellow wire,) to "Scope Channel 1
Positive" ("1+", orange wire) and connect "Ground" (any one of the four black wires)
to "Scope Channel 1 Negative" ("1-", orange-white wire) using one of the male to
male connectors which came with your Analog Discovery (should look similar to
Figure 2).

Figure 2 Analog Discovery Connections


To set up Wavegen Channel 1 (there are two independent waveform generators on
the Analog Discovery), click the "WaveGen" button on the main WaveForms 2015
screen:
2. The screen should look similar to Figure 3.
3. Set "Frequency" to "2 kHz" and "Amplitude" to "2 V". Note that the time for one
complete cycle of the sinusoid is shown as 500 μs (which corresponds to 2 kHz) and
that “Disabled” appears with a red outline in the top-left corner of waveform plot
(indicating that no signal is currently being output).
4. Make sure that Wavegen Channel 1 is generating its output by clicking on "Run".
Note that the red “Disabled” should now be a green “Running”.
Note: The plot of the waveform shown is NOT the actual measured waveform, but
rather a plot of waveform that the Analog Discovery is attempting to generate. To
actually see the waveform, we use the “Scope” as outlined in the next section.

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Figure 3 Wavegen Channel 1 Screen


To set up Scope Channel 1 (there are two independent scope channels on the
Analog Discovery although they are displayed on the same plot), click the
“Welcome” tab on the Waveforms 2015 window to get back to the main screen and
then click on "Scope”:
a. The screen should look similar to Figure 4.
b. Channel 1 is displayed in yellow and Channel 2 is displayed in blue. For now,
turn off Channel 2 by unchecking “Channel 2” in the blue outlined panel on the
right side of the screen.
c. Click on the "Single" button. This will attempt to capture one screen of
waveform measurement. If everything is hooked up correctly and working, the
screen should look similar to Figure 5. Note that the waveform is going from a
maximum of 2 V to a minimum of -2 V as expected given the setting in Wavegen.
d. In the figure, the “Time Base” is set to “1 ms/div” with 10 divisions across the
horizontal axis. Given we have a 2 kHz signal, we have two cycles per division. To
be able to “zoom in” and see the signal a bit more clearly, we change the “Time
Base”. Change “Time Base” to “200 us/div” and the screen should look similar to
Figure 6.
e. Note that the waveform looks a bit “fuzzy”. This is due to the Waveforms 2015
software indicating the “noise” on the signal. To get a cleaner display, click on the
setting button for Channel 1 (looks like a gear in the upper right corner of the
yellow outlined panel) and uncheck “Noise”. Your screen should now look similar
to Figure 7.

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Figure 4: Initial Scope Screen

Figure 5 Scope with initial Single Capture

Other Analog Tools

The AD2 also includes a spectrum analyzer and a network analyzer with Bode
plot capabilities. Each of these tools can be used for analysis up to 10MHz and
are available for each oscilloscope channel input.

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WaveForms 2015 showing two channels of spectrum analysis.

The spectrum analyzer has the following capabilities:

Noise floor
SFDR
SNR
THD

The network analyzer has the following capabilities:

Bode plots
Nyquist plots
Nichols transfer diagrams

Summary

The AD2 is a compact USB-based test-and-measurement device that is


compatible with Windows, Mac, and Linux. It offers a diverse collection of tools
at a reasonable price and in some cases could be an effective replacement for
typical bench-top equipment.

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Troubleshooting / Frequently Asked Questions


Clippers & Clampers
Diodes can be used in wave shaping circuits either to limit or clip portion of a
signal e.g. clippers & to shift the D.C. voltage level of a signal e.g. clampers.
These clippers & clampers are the application circuits of diodes.
Clippers: Eliminate signal portions that are above or below a specified level.
Application: Limit voltage to an electronic circuit to prevent component damage.
Clampers: Shifts the entire signal voltage by a D.C. voltage level.
Application: Restoring lost D.C. levels in signals from transmission (in Television).
Clippers
Brief theory: The diode clipping circuits have the ability to “clip off” a portion of
the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the alternating waveform.
Diode clippers can remove signal voltage above or below specified levels. A
clipping circuit is one in which a small section of input waveform is missing or cut
or truncated at the output section.
Clipping circuits basically limit the amplitude of the input signal either
below or above certain voltage level. They are referred as voltage or current
limiters or slicers or amplitude selectors. Thus clippers are used for transmission of
a selected portion of an arbitary waveform which lies above or below some
reference level and used in Radar, Digital & other Electronic systems.
A clipping circuit consists of linear elements like resistors and non linear
elements like junction diodes or transistors, but it does not contain energy storage
elements like capacitors. Several clipping circuits are developed to change the
wave shape.
Types of Clippers: There are several types of clippers & themain clippers are as
follows:
1. Positive Clipper
2. Biased Clipper
3. Combinational clipper

Further they can be classified according to the working principle of clippers like
Depending on Diode position with the load:
1. Series clippers
2. Shunt/ Parallel Clippers

The series configuration is made by connecting a diode in series with the load &
the parallel configuration is made by connecting diode across the load.
By clipping action
1. Positive Clippers
2. Negative Clippers
3. Combinational Clippers

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Positive clippers are designed to clip only positive half cycle of the signal to be
clipped & the negative clippers are designed to clip only the negative half cycle of
the wave to be clipped. Combinational clippers are designed to clip both the half
cycles for specified values (e.g. Slicer/squarer, Clipping at two independent levels,
clipping at two extremities of signals, / noise clippers etc.).
Based on biasing:
1. Biased Clippers
2. Non-biased Clippers

Biased clippers need external D.C. Power source for its functioning & Non-biased
does not require external D.C. source (these are designed for specific
applications).
Theanalysis of any clipping circuit involves the following stages:
Study of the working of Diodes.
Formulation of the transfer characteristic equations. &
Plotting the output waveform Vo by transfer characteristic.
Note: Transfer characteristic is the plot of output voltage V o V/s input voltage Vin.
It depends upon whether the diode is “ON” or “OFF”. By the switching action of
non-linear element, definite relationship can be obtained between V o & Vinin
practical clipper circuits. The equation connecting Vo & Vin is termed as transfer
character equation.
Clampers
In certain applications, a periodic waveform needs to be shifted above or below
reference level without changing the appearance of the signal, thus the clamping
circuit or clampers keep the amplitude of the output signal same as that of the
input signal except that the D. C. level (offset) has been changed. A clamper shifts
the D. C. level or in other words it introduces a D. C. level to an A. C. signal or
component. It is also called as D. C. restorer.
The clampers consist of junction Diode, Capacitor and Resistor, but it employs an
independent D. C. supply to introduce an additional shift. The magnitude of R & C
must be chosen to ensure time constant.
There are two types of clampers
1. Positive Clamper (-ve peak Clamper)
2. Negative Clamper(+ve Peak Clamper)

A Clamping circuit should not change Peak-to-Peak value of the signal. It should
only change the D. C. level.
1. Positive Clamper: The clamper which adds the D. C. component and pushes the
input signal above the reference line i.e. upward so that the –ve peak fall on zero
level. The shape of signal will not change but there is an upward shift in the signal,
such clamper is termed as Positive Clamper. These are also termed as –ve peak
clampers, since the circuit clamps the –ve peak of the input signal. The –ve peak
clamper introduces a positive D. C. Value hence the name +ve clamper.

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2.Negative Clamper: Negative clamper is a circuit which pushes the input


waveform/signal below the reference line i.e. downward so that +ve peak fall on
zero level. There is a downward shift in signal. Such clamper is known as –ve
clamper. These are also termed as +ve peak clampers, since the circuit clamps the
+ve peak of input signal. This type of clamper introduces a –ve D. C. value hence
the name –ve clamper.
It is used in Analog Television receiver for restoring D. C. Component of video
signal.
Construction:Clamping networks have a capacitor connected directly from input to
output with a resistance in parallel with output signal & have a D. C. supply as an
added element in series.
We know that a capacitor blocks the passage of D. C. Hence when a non –
sinusoidal periodic signal is transmitted through a capacitive coupling circuit, it
loses its D. C. component. If it is necessary to restore the signal, its D. C.
component at the later stage, the signal needs to be passed through the clamping
circuit. Since the clamping circuit restores or re-inserts the lost D. C. component.
It is also termed as D. C. restorer or D. C. inserter. A clamping circuit also finds
use when the D. C. value of the signal is to be shifted from one level to another.

Operation: The operation of a clamper is based on the principle that, the charging
time of a capacitor is made very small as compared to its discharge time. The
input signal is assumed to be a sine wave with time period T. The clamped output
is obtained across RL. The circuit design incorporates two main features, firstly the
Values of C & RL are so selected that Time constant is very large i. e. T = RLC
This means that the voltage across the capacitor will not discharge significantly
during the interval, the diode is non-conducting. Then RLC Time constant is
deliberatively made much greater than the Time period T of the incoming signal.
Troubleshooting:
Test the components & probes.
Check the values of components & choose designed values.
Adjust CRO & set calibration.
Rig-up the circuit properly.
Set function generator voltage & frequency as specified in procedure.
Set nature of input wave (Sine, Square, Triangle etc.) properly.
Do not connect wire from output to ground.
Set DC RPS voltage & polarities properly.
Keep function generator DC offset knob in “OFF” position.
Do not switch on “symmetry” switch of function generator.
While observing transfer characteristics set CRO to X-Y mode.
Always connect output to channel 2 & input to channel 1 of CRO.
Measure the waves properly on CRO.

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Oscillators
An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequency is
known as sinusoidal oscillator.
Types of Sinusoidal Oscillations
1. Damped Oscillations
2. Undamped Oscillations

1. Damped Oscillations-The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on


decreasing with time are called damped oscillations.
2. Undamped Oscillations- The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains
constant with time are called undamped oscillations.

Fig. Damped oscillations Fig.Undamped oscillations

Oscillatory circuit: A circuit, which produces electrical oscillations of any desired


frequency, is known as an oscillatory circuit or tank circuit.
A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor C and inductance coil L in
parallel as shown in figure below. This electrical system can produce electrical
oscillations of frequency determined by the values of L and C.

Circuit operations- Assume capacitor is charged from a d. c. source with a polarity


as shown in figure 1.
When switch S is closed as shown in fig. 2, the capacitor will discharge through
inductance and the electron flow will be in the direction indicated by the
arrow. This current flow sets up magnetic field around the coil. Due to the
inductive effect, the current builds up slowly towards a maximum value. The
circuit current will be maximum when the capacitor is fully discharged. Hence
the electrostatic energy across the capacitor is completely converted into
magnetic field energy around the coil.

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Once the capacitor is discharged, the magnetic field will begin to collapse and
produce a counter emf. According to Lenz’s law the counter emf will keep the
current flowing in the same direction. The result is that the capacitor is now
charged with opposite polarity making upper plate of capacitor –ve and lower
plate +ve as shown in fig. 3
After the collapsing field has recharged the capacitor, the capacitor now
begins to discharge and current now flows in the opposite direction as shown in
fig. 4
The sequence of charge and discharge results in alternating motion of
electrons or an oscillating current. The energy is alternately stored in the
electric field of the capacitor C and the magnetic field of the inductance coil
L. This interchange of energy between L and C is repeated again and again
resulting in the production of Oscillations.

Waveform- In practical tank circuit there are resistive and radiation losses in the
coil and dielectric losses in the capacitor. During each cycle a small part of the
originally imparted energy is used up to overcome these losses. The result is that
the amplitude of oscillating current decreases gradually and eventually it becomes
zero. Therefore tank circuit produces damped oscillations.
Frequency of oscillations- The expression for frequency of oscillation is given by,
1
fr
2 LC
Undamped Oscillations from Tank Circuit
A tank circuit produces damped oscillations. In practice we need continuous
undamped oscillations for the successful operation of electronics equipment. In
order to make the oscillations in the tank circuit undamped it is necessary to
supply correct amount of energy to the tank circuit at the proper time intervals to
meet the losses.
The following conditions must be fulfilled:
1. The amount of energy supplied be such so as to meet the losses in the tank
and the a.c. energy removed from the circuit by the load. For example if
losses in LC circuit amount ot 5 mW and a.c. output being taken is 100 mW,
then power of 105mW should be continuously supplied to the circuit.
2. The applied energy should have the same frequency as the oscillations in
the tank circuit.
3. The applied energy should be in phase with the oscillations set up in the
tank circuit.

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Positive feedback Amplifier-Oscillator


1. A transistor amplifier with proper +ve feedback can act as an oscillator.

2. The circuit needs only a quick trigger signal to start the oscillations. Once
the oscillations have started, no external signal source is necessary.
3. In order to get continuous undamped output from the circuit, the following
condition must be met;
mvAV =1
where AV = voltage gain of amplifier without feedback.
mv = feedback fraction.
This relation is also called Barkhausen criterion

Essentials of Transistor Oscillator


Fig. below shows the block diagram of an oscillator. Its essential components are:
1. Tank Circuit: It consists of inductance coil(L) connected in parallel with
capacitor(C ). The frequency of oscillations in the circuit depends upon the
values of inductance of the coil and capacitance of the capacitor.
2. Transistor Amplifier: The transistor amplifier receives d.c. power from the
battery and changes it into a.c. power for supplying to the tank circuit. The
oscillations occurring in the tank circuit are applied to the input the
transistor amplifer. The output of the transistor can be supplied to the tank
circuit to meet the losses.
3. Feedback circuit: The feedback circuit supplies a part of collector energy to
the tank circuit in correct phase to aid the oscillations. i.e. provides
positive feedback.

Fig. Block diagram of Transistor Oscillator

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Frequency stability of oscillators: It is the ability of the oscillator to maintain the


required frequency constant over a long time interval as possible. Following
factors are responsible for the change in frequency:
The transistor parameters change due to Power supply variations & Change
in climatic conditions.
The Values of Resistance, Inductance & Capacitance which form the
frequency determining device of the oscillator circuit change with
temperature.
The load coupled to tank circuit increases the effective resistance of the
circuit by transformer action. This produces a change in frequency.
The frequency stability of an oscillator can be made very high using piezoelectric
crystals as parallel resonant circuits.
Crystal Oscillator: In case of the LC & RC oscillators, the frequency of operation
does not remain strictly constant. The reason is that the values of Resistors &
Inductors, which are frequency determining factors change with temperature. For
high degree of frequency stability, Crystal oscillators are used. Quartz crystals are
generally used in crystal oscillators. The principle of crystal oscillators depends
upon piezoelectric effect.
Piezoelectric effect: The natural shape of quartz crystal is Hexagonal. When a
wafer is cut such that the flat surfaces are perpendicular to X axis, it is called X
cut crystal. On the other hand a wafer is cut such a way that flat surfaces are
perpendicular to Y axis, it is called as Y cut crystal. The X cut & Y cut crystals are
shown in fig below.

The crystal exhibits the property that when a mechanical stress is applied across
one faces of crystal, a potential difference is developed across the opposite faces
of the crystal. Conversely, when the potential difference is applied across one
faces, a mechanical stress is produced along with other faces. This is known as
piezoelectric effect. When a piezoelectric crystal is subjected to a proper
alternating potential, it vibrates mechanically. The amplitude of mechanical
vibrations becomes maximum when the frequency of alternating voltage is equal to
the natural frequency of the crystal.
Working of crystal: In order to use the crystal in the electronic circuit, it is placed
between two metal plates. The arrangement is equivalent to a capacitor with
crystal as dielectric as shown. When an alternating voltage is applied, the crystal
starts vibrating with the frequency of applied voltage. If the frequency of applied
voltage is made equal to the natural frequency of crystal, resonance takes place &
crystal vibrates with maximum value.

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Equivalent circuit of crystal: The equivalent circuit of crystal is shown in fig.


when the crystal is not vibrating; it is equivalent to capacitance Cm. This is due to
the fact that two metal plates are separated by a dielectric (crystal). The vibrating
crystal can be represented by a series LCR circuit shunted by Cm. The inductance L
is electrical equivalent of mass of vibrating crystal. C is electrical equivalent of
mechanical compliance & Resistance R represents the electrical equivalent of
mechanical friction. The symbol & equivalent circuit of crystal are as shown
below.

Crystals are available in the frequencies of 15 kHz & above. Commercially


available crystals are of range 15 kHz to 10MHz. The values of L, C, R & Cm are
such that the parallel & series resonant frequencies i.e. f p& fs differ by very small
amount. This fact gives rise to great frequency stability of crystal oscillator.
Troubleshooting:
Test the components & probes.
Check the values of components (R, C & test transistor by using multimeter)
& choose designed values.
Adjust CRO & set calibration.
Rig-up the circuit properly (check for loose connections & missing
connections).
Do not connect wire from output to ground.
Set DC RPS voltage to designed value.
Measure supply voltage by using multimeter.
Measure DC condition (Bias condition).
Set Tank circuit component values properly.
Do not connect function generator (Since oscillator circuit itself a function
generator).
Take the readings properly on CRO.

Getting output but not matching designed values


Check for loose connections in tank circuit.
Ground wire from tank circuit may not connected- check it.
Check design for the values of L & C.
Check & set tank circuit values properly.
Operate decade box knobs properly.
Set sine wave properly by varying POT & operate POT gently.
Measure the waves properly on CRO.

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Getting output but lissajous figure is not proper


While observing transfer characteristics set CRO to X-Y mode.
Always connect output to channel 2(Y Channel) & input to channel 1 (X
Channel) of CRO.
Connect CRO probes to proper points.
Adjust dot to origin properly.
Vary POT to adjust lissajous figure.
Measure the waves properly on CRO.

Push Pull Power Amplifier


Power amplifier is a large signal amplifier which is capable of providing large
amount of power to the load (output). Power amplifiers generally used in last
stage of multistage amplifier system. The signal level present in the power
amplifier is large & the excursion of the operating point extends beyond the linear
range of an amplifier active device characteristic. Power amplifiers may operate
under Class – A, B, AB & C conditions.

Difference between Voltage Amplifier & Power Amplifier


Voltage Amplifier: The function of voltage amplifier is to raise the voltage level of
the signal. The voltage amplification is given by AV=β (RC/Rin) so the voltage
amplifier should have the following characteristics:
The transistor with high β should be used. i.e. the base of the transistor
should be thin.
The input resistance Rin should below in comparison to collector load Rc.
Collector load should be high. To permit high collector load, the voltage
amplifiers are always operated at low collector current.
They are used for small signal voltages. Hence for their analysis, small signal
equivalent model can be used.
Power Amplifier: The function of Power amplifier is to raise the power level of
input signal in order to achieve high power amplification. The following features
are incorporated in power amplifiers:
The transistor with comparatively low β is used i.e the base of the transistor
is made thicker to handle large current.
In order to dissipate heat produced in transistor during operation, the size
of the transistor is made considerably larger.
Collector resistance is made low.
Generally transformer coupling is used.

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The following table gives the comparison between Voltage Amplifier & Power
amplifier:
Sl.
Characteristic Voltage amplifier Current amplifier
#
1 β High ≥ 100 Low(20 to 50)
2 Rc High ≥ 10kΩ Low(≥20Ω)
3 Input Voltage Low (Few milli Volts) High(Few Volts)
4 Power Output Low High
5 Collector current Low(1mA) High (>100mA)
6 Input Impedance High Low
Usually R-C Invariably Transformer
7 Coupling
amplifier

Class B Push-Pull Power Amplifier: In Class - B power amplifier, the output


current flows for any one half cycle (for 1800) of the input signal. So the Q point
lies at the cut-off region of the load line. The transistors are biased at cut-off.
When the D. C. bias voltage is zero, the input signal voltage must exceed the
barrier voltage before a transistor conducts & it causes a distortion in the output
signal called cross-over distortion. This is eliminated in Class AB operation.
The circuit consists of two complementary transistors. One NPN & other PNP & two
transistors are driven with input signals that are equal in magnitude & of opposite
phase. Only one transistor is active over each half cycle of the input signal. As a
result, the output current is pushed in one way & then pulled by the other through
the load by a similar value, hence the name Push-Pull.
Cross-over distortion: For silicon transistors, the base voltage must reach atleast
0.6 V before the transistor starts to conduct. This causes a delay between the first
transistor turning “OFF” & the second transistor turning “ON” resulting in an effect
generally known as cross-over distortion. This occurs during the transition when
the transistors are switching over from one to the other as each transistor does not
start or stop conducting exactly at the zero cross-over point.
Cross-over distortion reduces the overall Peak-Peak value of the output waveform
causing the maximum power output to be reduced. This can be considerably
reduced by applying a forward bias to the bases of the transistors. This biasing
causes one transistor to turn “ON”, exactly at the same time as the other
transistor turns “OFF”. This can be done by using class AB operation. i.e. the bias
voltage must be twice that of the normal Base Emitter voltage.

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Overall efficiency of Class-B amplifiers:

Troubleshooting:
Test the components & probes.
Check the values of components (Test transistor & DRB by using multimeter)
& choose designed values.
Adjust CRO & set calibration.
Rig-up the circuit properly (check for loose connections & missing
connections).
Do not connect wire from output to ground.
Connect D.C. RPS properly i.e. ±9V to the circuit properly, don’t forget to
connect Ground wire.
Measure supply voltage by using multimeter.
Measure DC condition (Bias condition).
Set function generator voltage & frequency properly.
Set nature of input wave (Sine, Square, Triangle etc.) properly.
Do not switch on “Symmetry” & “DC offset” switch of function generator.
Vary DRB values as specified in procedure.

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Rectifiers

“Rectifiers are the circuit which converts ac to pulsating dc” Rectifiers are
grouped into two categories depending on the period of conductions.
1. Half-wave rectifier
2. Full- wave rectifier.

Half-wave rectifier
The circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier is shown in fig. below along with the
I/P and O/P waveforms.

The transformer is employed in order to step-down the supply voltage and


also to prevent from shocks.
The diode is used to rectify the a.c. signal while , the pulsating d.c. is taken
across the load resistor RL.
During the +ve half cycle, the end X of the secondary is +ve and end Y is -ve
. Thus, forward biasing the diode. As the diode is forward biased, the
current flows through the load RL and a voltage is developed across it.
During the –ve half-cycle the end Y is +ve and end X is –ve thus, reverse
biasing the diode. As the diode is reverse biased there is no flow of current
through RL thereby the output voltage is zero.

Full-wave rectifier: Full-wave rectifiers are of two types


1. Centre tapped full-wave rectifier
2. Bridge rectifier

Centre tapped full –wave rectifier

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The circuit diagram of a center tapped full wave rectifier is shown in fig.
Above. It employs two diodes and a center tap transformer. The a.c. signal
to be rectified is applied to the primary of the transformer and the d.c.
output is taken across the load RL.
During the +ve half-cycle end X is +ve and end Y is –ve this makes diode D1
forward biased and thus a current i1 flows through it and load resistor RL.
Diode D2 is reverse biased and the current i2 is zero.
During the –ve half-cycle end Y is +Ve and end X is –Ve. Now diode D2 is
forward biased and thus a current i 2 flows through it and load resistor RL.
Diode D1 is reversed and the current i1 = 0.

Advantages
Ripple is reduced.
Efficiency is improved.

Disadvantages
Since, each diode uses only one-half of the transformer secondary voltage;
the d.c. output is comparatively small i.e. half of the secondary voltage.
Manufacturing of centre-tap transformer is quiet expensive.
The diodes used must have high Peak-inverse voltage.

Bridge rectifier:

The circuit diagram of a bridge rectifier is shown above. It uses four diodes
and a transformer.

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During the +ve half-cycle, end A is +ve and end B is –ve thus diodes D 1 and D3
are forward bias while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased thus a current
flows through diode D1, load RL ( C to D) and diode D3.
During the –ve half-cycle, end B is +ve and end A is –ve thus diodes D2 and
D4 are forward biased while the diodes D 1 and D3 are reverse biased. Now
the flow of current is through diode D4 load RL ( D to C) and diode D2. Thus,
the waveform is same as in the case of center-tapped full wave rectifier.
Advantages
The need for center-taped transformer is eliminated.
The output is twice when compared to center-tapped full wave rectifier
for the same secondary voltage.
The peak inverse voltage is one-half (1/2) compared to center-tapped full
wave rectifier.
Can be used where large amount of power is required.

Disadvantages
It requires four diodes.
The use of two extra diodes cause an additional voltage drop thereby
reducing the output voltage.

Comparison of Rectifiers
Centre-tapped
Half wave
Particulars Full wave Bridge rectifier
rectifier
rectifier
1. No. of diodes 1 2 4

2. Idc Im / Π 2Im /Π 2Im /Π

3. Vdc Vm / Π 2Vm / Π 2Vm / Π

4. Irms Im / 2 Im /√ 2 Im /√ 2

5. Efficiency 40.6 % 81.2 % 81.2 %

6. PIV Vm 2Vm Vm

7. Ripple factor 1.21 0.48 0.48

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Note:
The relation between turns ratio and voltages of primary and secondary of
the transformer is given by
N1 / N2 = Vp / Vs
RMS value of voltage and Maximum value of voltage is related by the
equation.
Vrms = Vm/ √2 (for full-cycle of ac)
If the type of diode is not specified then assume the diode to be of silicon
type.
For an ideal diode, forward resistance rf= 0 and cut-in voltage, Vγ = 0.

Ripple factor: The pulsating output of a rectifier consists of d.c. component and
a.c. component (also known as ripple). The a.c. component is undesirable and
account for the pulsations in the rectifier output. The effectiveness of a rectifier
depends upon the magnitude of a. c. component in the output: the smaller this
component, the more effective is the rectifier.
“The ratio of rms value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the rectifier
output is known as ripple factor”
Iac
r=
Idc
Ripple factor for Half-wave rectifier = 1.21
It is clear that a.c. component exceeds dc component in the output of a half-wave
rectifier.
Ripple factor for full-wave rectifier = 0.48

This shows that in the output of Full-wave rectifier, the d.c. component is more
than the a.c. component
FILTERS:
We know that the output of the rectifier is pulsating d.c.ie the output obtained by
the rectifier is not pure d.c. but it contains some ac components along with the dc
o/p. These ac components are called as Ripples, which are undesirable or
unwanted. To minimize the ripples in the rectifier output filter circuits are used.
These circuits are normally connected between the rectifier and load as shown
below.

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Filter is a circuit which converts pulsating dc output from a rectifier to a steady dc


output. In other words, filters are used to reduce the amplitudes of the unwanted
ac components in the rectifier.
Note: A capacitor passes ac signal readily but blocks dc.

Types of Filters
1. Capacitor Filter (C-Filter)
2. Inductor Filter
3. Choke Input Filter (LC-filter)
4. Capacitor Input Filter (Π-filter)
Capacitor Filter(C-filter): The capacitor filter essentially consists of capacitor C
connected across the Load resistor RL. The pulsating D.C. is applied across it and
capacitor gets charged to Vm Volts at the end if a 1/4 th cycle. As the voltage
gradually decreases the capacitor discharges and supplies current to output, As
soon as another voltage peak arrives, it again get charged. Thus the capacitor gets
charge and discharge alternately and continuously. It is seen from the waveforms
that, much of the ripple current is filtered out. This type of filter is used very
widely in practical applications.

When the Input signal rises from o to a the diode is forward biased therefore it
starts conducting since the capacitor acts as a short circuit for ac signal it gets
charged up to the peak of the input signal and the dc component flows through the
load RL.
When the input signal fall from a tob the diode gets reverse biased. This is
mainly because of the voltage across the capacitor obtained during the
period o to a is more when compared to Vi. Therefore there is no conduction
of current through the diode.
Now the charged capacitor acts as a battery and it starts discharging
through the load RL. Mean while the input signal passes through b,c,d
section. When the signal reaches the point d the diode is still reverse biased
since the capacitor voltage is more than the input voltage.

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When the signal reaches point e, the input voltage can be expected to be
more than the capacitor voltage. When the input signal moves from e to f
the capacitor gets charged to its peak value again. The diode gets reverse
biased and the capacitor starts discharging. The final output across R L is
shown in Fig.
The ripple factor for a Half-wave rectifier with C-filer is given by
r= 1/2√3fCRL
f-----the line frequency (Hz), C-----capacitance (F), RL------- Load resistance (Ω)
Ripple factor for full-wave rectifier with C-filter is given by
r = 1/ 4 √3 f C RL
Advantages of C-Filter
Low cost, small size and good characteristics.
It is preferred for small load currents ( up to 50mA)
It is commonly used in transistor radio, batteries eliminator etc.
Troubleshooting:
Test the components & probes.
Check the values of components (Test diodes by using multimeter) & choose
designed values.
Adjust CRO & set calibration.
Rig-up the circuit properly (check for loose connections & missing
connections).
Do not connect wire from output to ground.
Set DRB to Rated Value
Check the Diode Direction
Choose proper range of resistors & capacitors.
Measure transformer secondary voltages.
Choose proper ranges of currents & voltages while using multimeter.
Do not overload or short transformer secondary connections.

Amplifiers

Figure above shows a practical circuit of a single stage RC coupled amplifier. The
different circuit components and their functions are as described below.

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a. Input capacitor(Cin)- This capacitor is used to couple the input signal to the
base of the transistor if it is not used, the signal source resistance RS gets in
parallel with R2 thus changing the bias. The capacitor Cin blocks any d. c.
component present in the signal and passes only a. c. signal for
amplification.
b. Biasing circuit –The resistances R1, R2 and RE forms the biasing and
stabilization circuit for the CE amplifier. It sets the proper operating point
for the amplifier.
c. Emitter bypass capacitor (CE)-This capacitor is connected in parallel with
the emitter resistance RE to provide low reactance path to the amplified a.
c. signal. If it is not used, the amplified a. c. signal passing through RE will
cause voltage drop across it thereby reducing the output voltage of the
amplifier.
d. Coupling capacitor (Cc) - This capacitor couples the output of the amplifier
to the load or to the next stage of the amplifier. If it is not used, the biasing
conditions of the next stage will change due to the parallel effect of
collector resistor RC. i. e. RC will come in parallel with the resistance R1 of
the biasing network of the next stage thus changing the biasing conditions of
the next stage amplifier.

BJT Darlington Pair


Theory:
Darlington pair contains two transistors connected in an emitter-follower
configuration, while sharing the same collector contact.
The key advantage of the Darlington configuration is that the total current gain of
the circuit equals the product of the current gain of the two devices.
The disadvantage is the larger saturation voltage. Since the two devices share the
same collector, the saturation voltage of the Darlington pair equals the forward
bias voltage of Transistor Q2 plus the saturation voltage of transistor Q 1.
Since the forward bias voltage is much larger than the saturation voltage, the
saturation voltage of the Darlington pair is also significantly larger. This larger
voltage results in larger on state power dissipation in the device
Troubleshooting:
Test the components & probes.
Check the values of components (R, C & Test transistor by using Multimeter)
& choose designed values.
Adjust CRO & set calibration.
Rig-up the circuit properly (check for loose connections & missing
connections).
Do not connect wire from output to ground.
Set DC RPS voltage to designed value.
Measure supply voltage by using multimeter.
Measure DC condition (Bias condition).

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Connect probe to output terminal of function generator & not to Ext. in


terminal.
Set function generator voltage properly.
Set nature of input wave (Sine, Square, Triangle etc.) properly.
Keep function generator DC offset knob in “off” position.
Do not switch on “symmetry” switch of function generator.
Measure the readings properly on CRO.

Not getting Input & Output impedances


Connect DRB in proper position.
Keep frequency in mid band range where the output voltage is constant
(Starting range ≈10kHz).
Operate DRB knobs properly & adjust DRB values as specified in procedure.

BASIC VIVA QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS


1. What is a semi-conductor?
A semi-conductor is a substance which is neither a conductor nor an
insulator & whose Resistivity lies between Conductors & Insulators, Which
has almost filled with the valance band & nearly empty conduction band
with very small energy gap (1eV for Si & 72eV for Ge)
2. What are the types of semi-conductors? Explain them?
i) Intrinsic Semi-conductor: A semi-conductor is in extremely pure form
is known as Intrinsic semi-conductor.
ii) Extrinsic Semi-conductor: Impure form of a semi-conductor is known
as Extrinsic semi-conductor.
3. What is doping?
The process of adding Impurities to semi-conductor (Trivalent or
Pentavalent) is known as Doping.
4. What is p-n Junction?
A p-type semi-conductor is suitably joined to n-type semi-conductor that
contact surface is known as p-n junction.
5. What is Knee voltage?
It is a forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly.
6. What is Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of a diode?
It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the diode without
damaging it.
7. What is the Maximum Power rating?
The maximum Power which can be dissipated at the junction without
damaging the junction.

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8. What is Drift current?


The current due to drift of charge carriers in the presence of an electric
field is called Drift current.
9. What is Diffusion Current?
The current due to diffusion of charge carriers along the concentration
gradient is called Diffusion Current.
10. What is Diffusion Capacitance?
The diffusion capacitance is defined as the ratio of rate of change of
injected charge carriers to the forward voltage.
11. In what condition of the diode diffusion capacitance occurs?
Diffusion capacitance occurs under Forward biased condition.
12. What is a Diode?
Diode is a p-n junction semi-conductor device, which acts as a closed
switch, when forward biased & open switch, when reverse biased.
13. What are the characteristics of ideal diode, when it is forward biased?
i) Voltage drop is zero.
ii) Forward resistance is zero & iii) Current is infinite.
14. What are the characteristics of ideal diode, when it is reverse biased?
i) Current is ideally zero.
ii) Reverse resistance is infinite.
iii) Voltage is infinite.
15. What is a Rectifier?
Rectifier is a circuit that converts AC voltage to DC voltage. The
unidirectional conducting property of a diode is used in rectification.
16. What is meant by leakage or reverse current?
It is the current that flows through a reverse biased diode due to minority
charge carriers, is called leakage current. (<1 A for Si, & 100 A for Ge)
17. What is Ripple?
Ripple is the AC component present in the rectified output voltage.
18. What is Filter?
Filter is a circuit, which is used to minimize the ripples present in the
rectifier output.
19. What is clipping?
Clipping is a process of removing some portion of the input signal.
20. What is a Transistor?
The transistor is a two junction, three terminals, and three-layer device & is
also called current controlled device.

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21. What do you mean by Transistor biasing?


Biasing means providing suitable voltage to both junctions of a transistor to
ensure that, the transistor to be in active region.
22. Why base current is very small compared to emitter & collector current,
when transistor is biased?
Because base region is doped very lightly & very thin.
23. Why the transistor regions are doped with different impurities?
The transistor regions are doped with different levels of impurities to
incorporate the amplifying action in a transistor.
24. Name the three transistor configurations?
i) Common emitter.
ii) Common base.
iii) Common collector.
25. Mention the different method of biasing circuit in transistor?
i) Fixed bias.
ii) Voltage divider bias or Self-bias.
iii) Collector feedback bias.
26. What are the three regions of operation in transistor & explain them?
i) Cut off region: In this region, both junctions of the transistor are
reverse biased & the output current becomes almost equal to zero. In
this region the transistor acts as open switch.
ii) Active region: In this region of operation, emitter junction of the
transistor is forward biased & collector junction is reverse biased. In
this region, the transistor acts as an amplifier.
iii) Saturation region: In this region, both junctions of the transistor are
forward biased & the output current becomes almost independent of
the input parameter. In this region, the transistor acts as closed
switch.
27. What is an amplifier?
An amplifier is a circuit, which enhances the voltage, current or power level
of an input signal.
28. What is operating point or quiescent point?
Any point along the load line specifies a collector current & the
corresponding collector emitter voltage is operating point or quiescent
point.
29. What is voltage gain?
The voltage gain of the amplifier is the ratio of the output voltage to the
input voltage.

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30. What is current gain?


The current gain of the amplifier is the ratio of the output current to the
input current.
31. What is coupling?
Coupling means connection between two different stages of amplifier
circuits.
32. What are the different types of coupling?
i) Resistance Capacitance coupling. (R-C Coupling)
ii) Transformer coupling.
iii) Direct.
33. Why it is called RC-Coupled amplifier?
Because the capacitor is used for coupling & a resistance as load, hence it is
called so.
34. What type of biasing circuit is used in RC-Coupled amplifier?
Voltage divider – self-biasing circuit is used in RC-Coupled amplifier.
35. What is the function of coupling capacitor?
It blocks the DC voltage to the next stage.
36. What is the function of voltage divider resistors?
It provides the necessary bias for the amplifier to keep the device in active
region.
37. What is the function of emitter resistor?
It provides stability of the operating point.
38. What is the function of the emitter bypass capacitor?
The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides a path for the AC signal to pass it
& avoids the AC signal through RE
39. Define bandwidth?
Bandwidth is defined as the band of frequencies for which the voltage gain
is 0.707 times the mid-band gain.
40. What are the three parameters that cause the instability of transistor?
i) .
ii) VBE.
iii) ICO
41. Define stability factor?
Stability factor is defined as rate of change of collector current to the
reverse saturation current keeping & VBE constant.

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42. What is feedback?


Feedback is the process of introducing a part of the output signal into the
input. (Voltage or current)
43. What is positive feedback (regenerative feedback)?
If a feedback signal is in-phase with the input signal, the feedback is said to
be positive feedback. Positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier,
but introduces signal distortion & instability. Af>A
44. What is negative feedback?
The feedback signal is out of-phase with the input signal & reduces the gain.
45. What is Barkhausen criterion?
The product of gain & feedback factor should be equal to unity & phase shift
around the loop should be 3600
46. What is an Oscillator?
Oscillator is a circuit, which produces desired sinusoidal signal without any
input signal.
47. What type of feedback is used in Oscillators?
Positive or Regenerative feedback.
48. What type of feedback is used in Amplifiers?
Negative feedback
49. Mention the mainly used feedback networks in Oscillators?
L-C network & R-C network.
50. Give examples for high frequency Oscillators?
Hartley Oscillator, Colpitt’s Oscillator & Crystal Oscillator
51. Give examples for low frequency Oscillators?
R-C phase shift Oscillator.
52. What happens to the gain when the amplifiers are connected in cascaded
fashion?
Gain of the cascaded amplifier is equal to the product of the individual
amplifiers. (A=A1 X A2)
53. What is Field Effect Transistor?
FET is a three terminal two junctions, voltage controlled device.
54. Why FET is called Unipolar device?
The current flows through the FET only by the majority carriers.

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55. Differentiate between FET & BJT?


BJT FET
1. Current controlled device 1. Voltage controlled device
2. Bipolar device 2. Uni polar device
3. Input impedance is low 3. High input impedance
4. High gain-bandwidth 4. Small gain-bandwidth
5. More noisy than FET 5. Less noisy than BJT
6. Occupies more space in 6. Occupies less space in integrated
integrated form form
7. Low efficiency than FET 7. High efficiency than BJT

56. Define drain resistance (rd)


It is defined as ratio of small change in drain to source voltage (V ds) to the
small change in drain to source current (I ds) for a constant gate to source
voltage (Vds).
57. Define Trans-conductance?
It is defined as ratio of small change in drain to source current (I ds) to the
small change in gate to source voltage (Vgs) for a constant drain to source
voltage (Vds).
58. Define amplification factor ( )?
It is defined as the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage (V ds) to
the small change in gate to source voltage (Vgs).
= rdX gm
59. What is audio range frequency?
The audio range frequency ranges from 20Hz to 20kHz.
60. What is early effect?
The effect of increase in reverse voltage, reducing the effective base width
of a transistor is called as early effect or base width modulation.
61. Mention the different types of distortions in amplifiers?
i) Non-linear distortion.
ii) Frequency distortion.
iii) Delay or phase distortion.
62. What is figure of merit of an amplifier?
This is the frequency at which the current gain of the transistor amplifier is
unity & is denoted by fr
63. What type of amplification is used in R-C coupled amplifier?
Voltage amplification.

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64. What type of amplification is used in Darlington amplifier?


Current amplification

65. What is emitter follower?


Emitter follower is a current amplifier with unity voltage gain, in which the
output follows the input. It is used for impedance matching.

EXPERIMENT-WISE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS


Single Stage BJT Amplifier
1. What is BJT?
BJT is a Bipolar Junction Transistor since it has two types of carriers namely
electrons and holes.
2. What is the input impedance of a BJT amplifier?
The impedance is low in order of kilo ohms.
3. Application of RC coupled BJT amplifier?
It is used in all audio small signal amplifiers, radio receivers,
Television receivers etc.
4. Is BJT a voltage controlled device or current controlled device?
It is a current controlled device.
5. Why the bandwidth is measured at 3dB points?
When the range of frequencies over which gain is greater than or equal to
70.7% of the maximum gain, the change of gain cannot be detected by
human ears this means that distortion cannot be detected over this range.
But the distortion can be detected when the voltage gain falls by 3dB of the
maximum value. It is also called half power frequency. This term is used
when voltage gain falls to 70.7% of the maximum value, the power falls to
one-half of its maximum value.
BJT Darlington Pair
1. What is Darlington pair?
The Darlington pair consists of two cascaded emitter followers which are
identical in all respects which provide extremely high current gain.
2. Advantages of direct coupled amplifier?
Circuit is very simple, It uses minimum number of resistors, Low cost, It can
amplify very low frequency signals, High input impedance, Low output
impedance.
3. Disadvantages of direct coupled amplifier?
It cannot amplify high frequency signals, It has poor temperature stability.
4. Application of Darlington Pair.

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Analog computation, Linear Integrated Circuits.


5. What is the voltage gain of Darlington amplifier?
The voltage gain is less than unity.
Two Stage BJT Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier
1. What are the advantages of negative feedback?
Negative feedback stabilizes the gain of the amplifier, Reduces non-linear
distortion, Noise, Increases bandwidth and Input impedances.
2. What are the disadvantages of negative feedback?
Reduces gain, requires more number of amplifier stages to obtain required
gain.
3. What are the Applications of negative feedback?
It is used in almost all electronic amplifiers, Regulated power supplies,
Wideband amplifiers.
4. What is meant by voltage series feedback?
A voltage series feedback amplifier samples a fraction of output voltage of
the amplifier and feeds it to the input of the amplifier in series with voltage
source.
5. Which is a voltage series feedback amplifier?
Emitter follower or Common collector amplifier.
6. What is the importance of voltage series feedback amplifier?
Here sampling is taken across output load which reduces the output
impedance and signal is fed back to the input in series with the input
source, hence increases input impedance. Because of 100% feedback the
output is distortion less and bandwidth is large. It has high current and
power gain but less voltage gain.
Oscillators
1. What is an oscillator?
It is a regenerative network generating an output without any input signal.
2. What is the condition required for oscillation?
The amplifier should produce 1800 phase shift to the input signal. The
feedback network should produce an additional phase shift of 180 0 so the
total phase shift should be 360 0 and gain with feedback should be greater
than 1 to get sustained oscillations.
3. Is oscillator a positive or negative feedback amplifier?
It is a positive feedback amplifier.
4. Is oscillator a converter?
Yes. It is dc to ac converter.
5. Applications of Oscillator

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Microcomputers, Television, Oscilloscope, Clocks in digital


systems.
6. What is the disadvantage of RC phase shift oscillator?
The magnitude of feedback is very less, hence used only for audio
frequency.
7. Which oscillator is used in radio frequency?
Hartley, Colpitt's and Crystal oscillators.
8. Which oscillator has the highest stability with respect to temperature?
Crystal oscillator.
9. Which oscillator has the highest quality factor (Q- factor)
Crystal oscillator.
10. How does an oscillator operate with out an input signal?
Due to random movement of electrons inside any electronic device such as
resistors, a noise voltage is generated which is random in nature is fed back
to the amplifier input. The amplifier amplifies the noise and oscillates at
the tuned frequency. The basic amplifier gives the required gain & it gives a
phase shift of 1800. However for sustained oscillations Barkhausen criterion
should be satisfied i.e. The loop gain | A β | = 1 & the Net phase shift
around the loop =3600 ,
11. What are the ranges of frequencies for R-C Phase shift, Hartley, Colpitt's&
Crystal oscillators?
The frequency range for R-C Phase shift Oscillator is 0.1 Hz to 100 kHz.
The frequency ranges for Hartley &Colpitt’s Oscillators are up few kilohertz
to 500 MHz.
The frequency ranges for Crystal oscillator is kilo hertz to grater than
100MHz.
12. On which parameters does the frequency of oscillation of Hartley or Colpitt's
depend?
It depends on the tank circuit parameter.
13. Does the tank circuit parameter vary?
The tank circuit parameter varies with respect to change in temperature,
time.
14. What are the advantages of Colpitt's oscillator?
Simple in construction, Possible to obtain high frequency range.
15. What are the disadvantages of Colpitt's oscillator?
Difficult to adjust the feedback as it demands change in capacitance value,
Frequency stability is very poor.
16. Where Colpitt's oscillator is used?

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High frequency generator.


17. What are the advantages of Hartley oscillator?
Simple in construction, Easy to tune, Operates over a wide frequency range
(Hz to MHz), Easy to change the frequency by varying capacitor.
18. What are the disadvantages of Hartley oscillator?
Frequency stability is poor.
19. Where Hartley oscillator is used?
It is used as local oscillator in radio and television, Function
generators.
20. Name the substance which, exhibit the piezoelectric effect?
Quartz, Rochelle salt.
21. Why do you get a stable sustained oscillation in crystal oscillator?
The crystal oscillator exhibits a very important property known as
piezoelectric effect Because of this effect the vibrating crystal acts like L-C
circuit with high Q value and the values of L and C do not change with
temperature and time.
22. What are the advantages of Crystal oscillator?
Stable sustained oscillator, Easy to generate any required frequency by
replacing the crystal, Simple circuit and Compact.
23. What are the disadvantages of Crystal oscillator?
Has limited tuning range, Used in low power circuits.
24. Where Crystal oscillator is used?
Communication transmitters, Receivers, Digital clocks etc.
Clipping Circuits
1. What is a clipping circuit?
It is a circuit which removes a portion of input waveform and transmits it to
output without distortion.
2. What is a positive clipper?
A positive clipper removes positive portion of the input waveforms and
transmits it to output without distortion.
3. What is a negative clipper?
A positive clipper removes negative portion of the input waveforms and
transmits it to output with out distortion.
4. What do you mean by double ended clipper?
A double ended clipper consists of two diodes connected in parallel in back-
to-back fashion which removes both positive and negative part of input
waveforms.
5. What would be the ideal level of clipping without biasing?

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Since cut-in voltage of the diode is O.7V, so the output level will be clipped
by O.7V (peak point) depending on which type of clipper is used.
6. What is a biased clipper?
In some applications, it is required to remove only a small portion of input
signal, hence the name biased clipper. The clipping level is adjusted by
adding a bias voltage in series with diode.
Clamping Circuits
1. What do you mean by clamper?
A clamping circuit shifts the dc level or in other words it introduces a dc
level to an ac signal. It is also called dc restorer.
2. What are the circuit components of clamping circuits?
It consists of diode, capacitor and resistor.
3. What is positive clamper?
Positive clamper is a circuit which clamps the input waveform positively;
the positive peak is pushed in positive direction. It is also called negative
peak clamper.
4. What is negative clamper?
Negative clamper is a circuit which clamps the input waveform negatively.
The negative peak is pushed in negative direction. It is also called positive
peak clamper.
5. What is biased clamper?
In these types of clampers, the clamping may be done at any voltage level
other than zero.
6. Can we obtain both positive and negative clamping in a single circuit?
No, since at a time either the dc level can be shifted positively or
negatively.
7. Where the clamper circuits are used?
Used in analog television receiver for restoring dc component of
video signal.
Class-B Push Pull Power Amplifier
1. What do you mean by Class B Push-Pull Amplifier?
If we replace the single output transistor circuit of class A amplifier with
two "complementary" transistors, one a NPN and the other a PNP and the
two transistors are driven with input signals that are equal in magnitude,
but of opposite phase with each one amplifying only one half cycle of the
input we have the basis of a class B push - pull amplifier.
2. What do you mean by Push-Pull?
In this type of circuit, only one transistor is active over each half cycle of
the input signal. As a result the output current is pushed one way and then

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pulled the other through the load by a similar amount hence the name
Push-Pull
3. Advantages of Class-B over Class-A amplifier
Class-B amplifiers have the advantage over Class-A amplifiers in that no
current flows through the output when in the quiescent state (i.e. no input
signal), so the overall conversion efficiency of the amplifier is greater than
that of the equivalent class A and efficiencies of about 75% are possible
with nearly all modem type push - pull amplifiers operated in class B.
4. Disadvantages of Class B push-pull Amplifier
One of the main disadvantages of class B type push - pull amplifiers is that
they suffer from an effect known commonly as Crossover Distortion. This
occurs during the transition when the transistors are switching over from
one to the other as each transistor does not stop or start conducting exactly
at the zero crossover point.
5. Define Crossover Distortion?
In order that there should be no distortion we must assume that each
transistor starts conducting when the base to emitter voltage is just above
zero, but we know that this is not true as for silicon transistors the base
voltage must reach at least O.6V before the transistor starts to conduct.
This causes a delay between the first transistor turning "OFF" and the second
transistor turning "ON" resulting in an effect commonly known as "Cross-over
Distortion".
6. What are the effects of Cross-over Distortion?
Cross-over distortion effect reduces the overall peak to peak value of the
output waveform causing the maximum power output to be reduced.
7. How to reduce Crossover Distortion?
Crossover distortion can be reduced considerably by applying a slight
forward bias to the bases of the transistors. This biasing cause's one
transistor to turn ON exactly at the same time as the other transistor turns
OFF. To achieve this bias voltage must be at least twice that of the normal
base to emitter voltage.
8. Which of the push-pull configuration is commonly used in audio power
amplifier?
Class-B push pull or Class-AB push pull amplifier is commonly used.
Rectifiers
1. What do you mean by a rectifier?
A rectifier is a circuit which converts ac voltage into pulsating
dc voltage.
2. What is a half wave rectifier?
An half wave rectifier conducts for only half cycle of ac input and delivers
power to the load.

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3. What is a full wave rectifier?


A full wave rectifier conducts for complete cycle of ac input.
4. What is a bridge wave rectifier?
It is also a full wave rectifier consisting of four diode arranged in the form
of a bridge.
5. What is the purpose of having a filter in the rectifier circuit?
A filter is nothing but a electrolytic capacitor of high value. It is used to
remove ac components or pulsating dc output.
6. What do you mean by ripple?
The ac component present in the output dc voltage.
7. What are the disadvantages if ripple persist in any electronic
circuits?
It produces hum / noise and generates harmonics (unwanted
signals).
8. What does the ripple factor indicate?
The ripple factor indicates how close the rectified output is to pure ideal
dc voltage.
9. What do you mean by regulation?
It is the variation in dc output voltage of the rectifier as a function of dc
load current.
10. What are the essential requirements in a bridge rectifier?
All the four diodes used in the circuit should have identical
parameters.
Resonance Circuits
1. What is resonance?
When the input frequency is increased and when the reactance of both
inductor and capacitor are equal, the circuit acts as purely resistive in
nature called resonance.
2. What is parallel resonance?
In a parallel resonant circuit we have Land C connected in parallel, when
input frequency is increased and if the both the reactance become equal
the current flow through the parallel tank circuit is minimum and
impedance offered will be maximum, hence parallel resonance.
3. What is series resonance?
In a series resonant circuit we have L and C connected in series, when input
frequency is increased and if the both the reactance become equal the
current flow through the series tank: circuit is maximum and the impedance
offered will be minimum, hence series resonance.
4. Application of parallel L-C circuits.

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It is used in radio, television receivers, and tuned amplifiers.


5. Application of series L-C circuits.
It is used in radio and TV receivers to tune different stations.
General Questions
1. What are Clippers and Clampers?
Circuits that transfer a selected portion of input waveform to the output are
called Clippers circuits. The Clamper shifts a signal positively or negatively
by adding a dc voltage to the signal. Clampers are used in analog television
receiver. Other name for clamper is dc inserter or dc restorer.
2. What do you mean by transformer?
The input transformer is a step - down transformer, in which voltage steps
down to a designed value.
3. How do you classify Clippers?
Clippers are classified as Positive clipper & negative clipper.
4. What is an amplifier?
An amplifier is used to boost the weak signal.
5. What do you mean by Bandwidth?
The range of frequency over which the gain is equal to or greater than 70.7%
of max gain
6. What is Gain?
The ratio of output quantity to the input of the amplifier is called gain.
7. What is frequency response?
The voltage gain of an amplifier varies with signal frequency because of
reactance of the capacitors in the circuit changes with signal frequency &
hence affects the output voltage. The curve between voltage gain and
signal frequency of an amplifier is known as frequency response.
8. What is decibel gain?
The common logarithm of power gain is known as bel power gain.
Power gain= log10 Pout /Pin bel
9. Why does RC coupling give constant gain over minimum frequency range?
The effect of coupling capacitor in this frequency range is such as to
maintain a uniform voltage gain. Thus, as frequency increases, reactance of
Cc decreases which tends to increase gain. At the same time, lower
reactance means higher loading of first stage and hence lower gain. These
two factors almost cancel each other, resulting in a uniform gain at mid
frequency.
10. What is the function of CE?
The emitter bypass capacitor offers low reactance path to the signal.
Without it, the voltage gain of each stage decreases due to negative

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feedback.
11. What is the function of C c?
The coupling Capacitor Cc transmits ac signal but blocks de. This prevents dc
interference between various stages & the shifting of operating point.
12. What is Duty cycle?
Duty cycle is a measure of the wave form how symmetrical it is. It is given
by
D = ton/T
13. What is a Rectifier? Name types of rectifiers.
Rectifier is a device which converts ac to dc. Different types of rectifier
are:
Half wave rectifier, Full wave rectifier and Bridge rectifier
14. What is peak inverse voltage?
Peak inverse voltage is the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can
withstand without destroying the function.
15. What are the advantages & disadvantages of Bridge rectifier?
Advantages:
1) The need for centre tapped transformer is eliminated.
2) The output is twice that of centre tap circuit for the same secondary
voltage.
3) PIV is Vm
Disadvantages:
It requires four identical diodes.
16. What is Ripple factor?
The ratio of RMS value of ac component to the dc component in the rectifier
output is known as ripple factor.
17. What is a filter?
A filter is a device / circuit, which removes ac component of rectifier
output and allows the dc component to reach the load.
18 What are different types of filter circuits?
The commonly used filter circuits are capacitor filter, choke filter, choke
input filter, capacitor input filter etc.
19 What is Voltage Regulation?
The variation of output voltage with respect to the amount of load current
drawn and change in supply is known as voltage regulation.
Line regulation = ∆Vo/∆Vi.
Load regulation = ∆Vo/∆IL.

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Familiarization of Components & Equipments.


Introduction: Use of electronic devices in electric circuits is at increase due to a
number of advantages. In any applications be it domestic or Industrial, the
selection of electrical and electronic components based in terms of circuit design,
specifications and the circuit performance. The overall specifications &
performance depends upon the choice of components. It is therefore very
important to have an in-depth knowledge about various electrical & electronic
components. This includes a small electronic fan regulator to a large on-line UPS
or a Frequency variable device. The components are categorized as under.
1. Active components.
2. Passive components.
The components which follow common electrical circuit laws such as ohm’s law
are known as passive components. These include Resistors, Capacitors & Inductors.
The components such as Diodes, Transistors, SCR’s etc. do not obey Ohm’s law are
known as active components. The accessories like Wires, Cables, Terminal boards.
Tools like Pliers, Wire cutters, Screw drivers, Spanners, Allen keys. Instruments
namely Ammeters, Voltmeters, Analog/Digital Multimeters, Oscilloscopes, Power
supplies, Function generators etc. are known as Circuit Hardware.
The following table refers to categorization of electronic components.
Other Accessories &
Active components Passive Components
Instruments
(a) Solid State Device (a) Resistors (a) Basic Accessories
i. Diodes i. Fixed i. Wires & Cables
ii. Zener diodes ii. Variable ii. Connectors & Lugs
iii. BJT (b) Capacitors iii. PCB's
iv. JFET i. Fixed iv. Terminal boards, Tag boards
v. MOSFET ii. Variable (b) Basic Tools
vi. Integrated circuits etc. (c) Inductors i. Common Tools: Pliers, Wire
Cutters, Strippers, Spanners.
(b)Power semiconductors i. Fixed Screw
& other devices ii. Variable drivers, Allen keys, Files etc.
i. Thyratrons (d) Transformers ii. Soldering Iron
ii. Triacs, Diacs SCR's i. Power Transformers (c) Instruments
i. Ammeter, Voltmeter,
iii. BJT Darlington modules ii. IF & RF Transformer Ohmmeter, Wattmeter,
iv. Controlled Rectifier Modules iii. Pulse Transformer Multimeter, Megger etc.
v. Power MOSFET's (e) Transducers ii. Tachometers

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vi. MOV's (Metal Oxide Varistors) i. Current Transducer iii. Function/waveform generator
vii. LASCRS, Opto Couplers & ii. Voltage iv. Power supply
Photo Transistors etc iii. Speed v. Oscilloscope - Digital/Analog
iv. Temperature vi. Logic/Spectrum Analyzer etc.
v. Pressure

1. Resistor: Resistors are components with the property of the resistance used
in electronic circuits to provide proper voltages or currents to other active
components for proper working of the circuit. They allow current conduction in
either direction. They are used in voltage divider networks, Biasing circuits in
Amplifiers & Oscillators etc. The unit of resistance is Ohms & its symbol is Ω.
Fixed Resistor

Symbol:
Resistors are classified according to
i) Their characteristics: Carbon Metal film & Wire wound resistors are
Linear-resistors. Thermisters, Light Dependant Resistors, Voltage
Dependant Resistors etc are Non-Linear resistors.
ii) Resistor material: Carbon composition resistors, Metal film resistors,
Wire wound resistors & Fusible resistors.
iii) Control over the resistance value

Carbon Resistors:
Carbon resistors are available in smaller size with variety of values from 1
Ohm to 22 Mega Ohms or even more& Power ratings ranging between ¼ W, ½ W &
1W. But due to the ageing value slightly increases. They are cheaper too so are
suitable for most of the commercial entertainment field.
Since Carbon resistors are too small to have numbers printed on them and so
they are marked with a number of colour bands. Each colour stands for a number.
Three colour bands shows the resistor value in Ohms and the fourth shows
tolerance. Resistors can never be made precise value and the tolerance band
(fourth band) tells us using a percentage, how close the resistor is to its coded
value. However, for more precise Industrial & Defense applications, the tolerances
in the range of 10%, 5% and 2% are commercially available. The absence of 4th band
on the resistor indicates a tolerance of +/- 20%. They are available in 4 Band, 5
Band & 6 Bands.

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Colour coding of 4 Band Carbon Resistors.

B.B. ROY of Great Britain had a Very Good Wolf.


The above mnemonics for the order: Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue
Violet Grey and White.

Decoding the value of Carbon resistors:


1. Hold the resistor so that the colour bands are at the left end of the
resistor.
2. Write down the numeric value of the First Band.
3. Write down the numeric value of the second band at the right of the first
numeric.
4. Read the numeric value of the third band & write down those many zeros
at the right of the third numeric.
The most common types of resistors are the E12 and E24 series. The E12 series of
resistors are available in twelve resistance values per decade. The E24 series are
available in twenty four resistance values per decade.

E12 Series:
• 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82.
• 100, 120, 150, 180, 220, 270, 330, 390, 470, 560, 680, 820.

E24 Series:
• 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 43, 47, 51, 56, 62, 68,
75, 82, 91.
• 100, 110, 120, 130, 150, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 270, 300, 330, 360, 390, 430,
470, 510, 560, 620, 680, 750, 820, 910.

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Standard Values of commercially available E12 & E24 Carbon resistors:


Ohms Kilo Ohms Mega Ohms
1 10 100 1 10 100 1 10
1.2 12 120 1.2 12 120 1.2 12
1.5 15 150 1.5 15 150 1.5 15
1.8 18 180 1.8 18 180 1.8 18
2.2 22 220 2.2 22 220 2.2 22
2.7 27 270 2.7 27 270 2.7
3.3 33 330 3.3 33 330 3.3
3.9 39 390 3.9 39 390 3.9
4.7 47 470 4.7 47 470 4.7
5.6 56 560 5.6 56 560 5.6
6.8 68 680 6.8 68 680 6.8
8.2 82 820 8.2 82 820 8.2
Wire wound Resistors:
When large power dissipation or a small value of resistance is required, wire
wound resistors are preferred. Wire wound resistors are available in Open wound,
Cement coated, Vitreous enamelled & Ceramic or Porcelain encased. Ceramic
encased types are non inflammable & are also available as fusible resistors.
Wire wound resistors in power ratings of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 75, 100 & 200
Watts are generally used in industry. The values of resistances are ranging
between 1-100 Kilo Ohms with the tolerance of 5 to 10%.

Decoding the value of Wound resistors:


The value of resistance, Power Rating & Tolerance is printed on the resistors
as shown in the fig.
Variable Resistor
These are available in different types like Potentiometers, Presets, Rheostats, and
DRB etc. as explained below.
Symbol:
Potentiometers (POT): Potentiometers are variable resistors usually made of
Carbon or Wire wound. These have a carbon or wire wound track over which a
slider is made to move. Potentiometer can be rotary or slider type.

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It is a three terminal variable resistor. A rotating shaft is used to vary the


resistance between the fixed end and the variable end. Resistance between leads
is the maximum value of resistance of the potentiometer. For miniature
applications Presets are available.

DRB (Decade Resistance Box): These are the standard value of variable resistance
boxes available in different values of resistances ranging from 1 Ohm to several
Mega Ohms. These are having decade dials to vary resistances and available in 3,
4, 5.6 Dials, depending upon our requirement. Generally we are using 5 Dial or 6
Dial DRB in basic labs and the power rating is 3W.
Fig:

Rheostat: They are used in high power applications. They have sliding contacts by
which the value of resistances can be varied. The wire wound sliding rheostats are
wound with the best quality Cu/Ni (Manganin) or Ni/Cr (Nichrome) Alloy resistor
wire having negligible Temperature co-efficient on vitreous enameled drawn steel
tube or Ebonite tube. A slider is made of Phosphorous Bronze contacts Fitted over
Cast iron stand.
The Value of resistance & Power rating is printed in the Slider casing. The value of
resistance can be measured by using Multimeter in suitable resistance range.
Fig:

2. Capacitors: Capacitors is an electrical device that can store energy in the


electric field between a pair of closely spaced plates (conductors). When current is
applied to the capacitor, electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite
polarity build up on each plate.
Capacitors are used in electronic circuits as energy storage devices. It is
used to store & release charge when desired. They are used with resistors in
Timing circuits, Filter circuits. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by
acting as reservoir of charge. They can also be used to differentiate between High
frequency & Low frequency signals & this makes them useful in electronic filters.
The unit of capacitance is Farad.
Symbol:

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Disk Capacitors: Chips of alternating layers of metal and ceramic. Depending on


their dielectric, whether class 1 or class 2, their degree of temperature/capacity
dependence varies. They often have high dissipation factor, high frequency
coefficient of dissipation, their capacity depends on applied voltage, and other
capacity changes with aging. However they find massive use in common low-
precision coupling and filtering applications.

Electrolytic capacitors: Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and It can be


damaged with reverse polarity, which makes the capacitor less suitable for use
with alternating currents. In high frequency applications, the oxide layers inside
the capacitor dose not have time to form. Therefore the capacitor takes an
unpredictable value which leads to poor stability in the capacitor and the
associated circuitry.
Fig:

Advantages & Disadvantages of Electrolytic & Non electrolytic capacitors:


Electrolytic Non electrolytic
Advantages: Advantages:
High capacitance Do not lose charge
Polarity dose not
Can have high working matter, Stable in high
voltages. frequencies
Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
Polarity important Low capacitance
High leakage current
Not stable in high
frequencies
Can be damaged by AC
DCB (Decade capacitance Box): These are the standard value of variable
capacitance boxes available in different values of capacitances ranging from 1pF to
several Farads. These are having decade dials to vary resistances and available in
3, 4, 5.6 Dials, depending upon our requirement. Generally we are using 5 Dial or 6
Dial DCB in basic labs.

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Applications: Energy storage, Power factor correction, Filtering, Signal de


coupling, Snubbers, Transducers, Noise filters, Tuned circuits, Sensing circuits etc.
Decoding the value of Capacitors:
A large capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is
measured in Farads. Symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to
show the similar values. Usually the value of capacitor will be written on it in a
coded version.
1. If the number written on the capacitor has one or two digits, the value of
capacitor will be in picofarads.
Ex: 5 means 5pF.
10 means 10pF
2. If three in the number, the third number indicates the number of zeros to
be put after first two digits and the value will be in picofarads.
Ex: 204 means 20,0000pF or 0.2µF
104 means 10,0000pF or 0.1 µF
474 means 470000pF or 0.47 µF
3. If the letter k follows the digits, the value will be in kpF (kilo pico farad)
Ex: 47k means 47kpF or 0.047 µF
4. If the letter M or k is between two numerals, the value of the capacitor
can be obtained by putting a decimal in place of the letter and multiplying
it by the factor µF or kpF respectively.
Ex: 4k7 means 4.7kpF
2M2 means 2.2 µF
The following table refers tolerance limits for different letters printed on
disk capacitors

Letter Tolerance Letter Tolerance


B ± 0.10% J ± 5%
C ± 0.25% K ± 10%
D ± 0.50% M ± 20%
E ± 0.75% N ± 0.05%
F ± 1% P +100%, -0%
G ± 2% Z +80%, -20%
H ± 3%

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Table giving commonly used multiples is as follows:


Preferred In pF In nF In µF
1pF 1 0.001 0.000,001
10pF 10 0.01 0.000,01
100 pF 100 0.1 0.000,1
1nF 1000 1 0.001
10nF 10000 10 0.01
100nF 100000 100 0.1
1µF 1000000 1000 1
10µF 10000000 10000 10
100µF 100000000 100000 100

3. Inductors: When a current flows through a coil magnetic field generates & the
generated magnetic reacts & opposes any change in current through the coil. An
inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, this
property is known as inductance & an inductor tries to keep current flowing
through it to a steady rate. Unit of inductance is Henry. Small Inductors with few
micro henries are available similar to Carbon resistors.
Inductors are one of the basic electronic components used in electronics
where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to
delay and reshape alternating currents
Symbol:

DIB (Decade Inductance Box): These are the standard value of variable inductance
boxes available in different values of resistances ranging from milli Henrys to
several Henrys. These are having decade dials to vary resistances and available in
3, 4, 5.6 Dials, depending upon our requirement. Generally we are using 5 dial or 6
dial DIB in basic labs.
Fig:

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Applications: They are used in Oscillators, Filters, Chokes, Resonance circuits,


SMPS, Tuned circuits, Transducers, and Sensors etc.
Active Components
1. Diodes: A diode allows electricity to flow in one direction only and blocks the
flow in the opposite direction. Every diode leaks (allows a little amount of current
to pass through) in the wrong direction, but when there is more than about 60
Volts on the all rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have a
forward voltage drop of 0.7V. The table shows maximum current and maximum
reverse voltage for some popular rectifier diodes.

Diode Maximum current Maximum Reverse Voltage

1N4001 1A 50V
1N4002 1A 100V
1N4007 1A 1000V
1N5401 3A 100V
1N5408 3A 1000V

They may be regarded as one way valves and they are used in various
circuits like Rectifiers, clippers, clampers etc and sometimes as a form of
protection. Different rating diodes are available. Different types of diodes are
available like Signal diode, Zener diode, Light Emitting Diode, Point contact diode,
Varactor diode, Tunnel diode, Varactor diode etc. Generally 1N4001 to 4007 diodes
are used in laboratories. A silver band is marked on the body near the cathode.

Symbol:

Zener Diodes: Normally a current does not flow through a diode in the reverse
direction. The Zener diode is specially designed to begin conducting in the
opposite direction when the reverse voltage reaches a voltage threshold. Zener
diodes are sometimes used as a voltage sensitive switch or regulator. Zener diodes
are available in different voltage & power specifications. A Black ring is marked
near the Cathode of Zener diode. For Ex: BZX6V8 or BZY6V8 is written on the
diode, means that it is a 6.8V Zener. The minimum voltage available is 2.7V power
ratings of 400mW to 1.3W are available. Zener diodes are used a lot in power
supplies to keep the voltage constant.

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Symbol:

Testing of Diodes & Zener diode using DMM:


1. Connect the test lead (Black) of multimeter to COM terminal and Red lead
to V/Ω terminal.
2. Set the range selector switch to and connect test leads
across the diode.
3. Meter displays knee voltage Vk in V when the diode is forward biased (0.6 to
0.7 Volts) and OL when the diode is reverse biased.

Applications of Diodes: Clippers, Clampers, Rectifiers, Voltage


regulators/multipliers, Detectors, frequency multiplying devices in RF circuits,
mixing devices in RF circuits, Sensors, Logic gates etc. There are also diodes which
emit light these are known as light emitting diodes.
2. Transistors: A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a type of transistor. It is a
three-terminal device constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be
used in amplifying or switching applications. Transistors are current controlled
devices.
Transistors of two types NPN and PNP with different circuit symbols. The
letters refers to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor.
It has three terminals namely Emitter, Base & Collector. SL 100, BC 107 and
2N2222 are popular NPN transistors and SK 100 and BC178 are popular PNP
transistors used in basic labs. Transistors are available in different specifications
according to the circuit requirements and are available in different packages.
It has a metal cover with a small “tab” to identify terminals. The terminal
near “tab” is Emitter. Next comes the Base and then the Collector in clockwise
direction.

Symbol: PNP NPN

Fig:

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Terminal identification: SL/SK-100, BC-107, CL/CK-100

Applications: Amplifiers, Oscillators, Electronic switches for High power & Low
power circuits. Logic circuits, Etc.
Testing of Transistors using DMM:
The assumption made when testing transistors is that a transistor is just a
pair of connected diodes. Therefore it can be tested for shorts, opens or leakage
with a simple analog or digital multimeter. Gain, frequency response, etc. tests
can be made only with expensive specialized instruments. The bipolar transistor
junction model is as shown below:

A bipolar transistor has two junctions, which can be considered simply as


two diodes for our testing purposes. To test a transistor you just need to check the
forward and reverse resistance of both junctions, by referring above diode model
of Transistors. If the negative lead (black lead connected to the COM on most
digital multimeters) is placed on the Base when measuring the B-C and B-E voltage
drops - you have a PNP transistor. Similarly - if the positive meter lead is placed on
the base, you have a NPN transistor. The following is an easy way to test a
transistor by using DMM

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1. Test the resistance between collector and emitter.


2. Then reverse the positive and negative meter connections and test again.
If the meter reads zero or a few ohms in tests 1 and 2, there is a short
circuit between collector and emitter and the transistor is faulty. If both
readings are infinity, continue with test 3.
3. Now connect the positive meter lead to the base and test the voltage drop of
both junctions by connecting the negative meter probe to one of the other two
pins. It doesn't really matter whether this is the collector or the emitter; in our
test we are simply testing a junction.
4. Now leave the positive lead on the base and move the negative lead to the
other untested (collector or emitter) pin and measure the voltage drop of this
junction.
For tests 3 and 4 you should get a typical voltage drop reading of less than 0.6
to 0.7V in both cases.
5. Now connect the negative lead of your meter to the base and the positive lead
to another pin as shown at 5 in the diagram above.
6. Lastly connect the positive probe to the other untested pin as shown at 6 in
the diagram above. In tests 5 and 6 both junctions should read infinity. If
all of these six tests are ok you have a good transistor. If one or more of the
tests has failed, the transistor is faulty.
FET’s: The Field Effect Transistor (FET), sometimes called a unipolar transistor,
uses either electrons (N-channel FET) or holes (P-channel FET) for conduction. The
four terminals of the FET are named Source, Gate, Drain and Shield (Shield is
connected to body/Substrate). FET’s are voltage controlled devices and having
high bandwidth than BJT.
It has a metal cover with a small “tab” to identify terminals. The terminal near
“tab” is Source. Next comes the Drain and then the Gate and the fourth terminal is
Shield in clockwise direction.
Symbol:

Terminal identification: BFW-10/11

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Note: When connecting/testing a FET hold it by the case or the tab and don't
touch the metal parts of the test probes with any of the other FET's terminals until
needed. Do not allow a FET to come in contact with your clothes, plastic, etc.
because of the high static voltages they can generate which may damage the FET.
Applications: Buffer Amplifiers, RF linear amplifiers, phase shift Oscillators,
Electronic switches like chopper, analog gate, Communicator. Low leakage
protection diodes, Mixer circuits, Voltage controlled resistors Etc.
Familiarization of Instruments used in Analog Electronics Lab.
Introduction: The purpose of this experiment is to familiarize you with the
electronic instruments that will be required for future experiments. The proper
methods of measurements and technique are important in all experimental work
and this experiment will provide you an opportunity to 'brush-up' on some the skills
you learned in the past and introduce you to new ones.
Multimeter: A Multimeter is used to measure multiple electrical quantities. It can
measure voltage (AC & DC), Current (AC & DC), Resistance. Thus a multimeter is a
Ammeter Voltmeter, & Ohmmeter combined together. It is also known as AVO
meter. In addition it has got various ranges of measurements. It can measure
Temperature, Checking diode, Continuity test can be done, hfe of transistors can
be measured.
Digital multimeters give you measurements on a digital display.
To select the mode of measurement, a Rotary function selector switch is
provided. By suitably adjusting this switch a multimeter can be converted into
Ammeter, Voltmeter or Ohmmeter. Each position of the switch is labeled
accordingly.

DC Ammeter: These are portable instruments to measure DC current. These are


available in different ratings varies from µA to Several Amps. Generally in basic
labs milli Ammeters are used. These are having polarity & should always be
connected in series with the circuit since they are built to measure current only. If
connected across the circuit immediately it will burn.

CRO: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is an instrument which gives the visualization of


electrical signals. It displays the signals on a screen in X & Y axis, represents the
time and voltage of the signal respectively. It can be used to measure two signals
using the two channels of the CRO. Transfer characteristics(X-Y) can be measured.

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There are different CRO’s are available in market with various specifications
like No. of channels, Bandwidth, Voltage rating, Component test mode, Z-mode
etc.

Precautions:

An oscilloscope should be handled gently to protect its fragile (and


expensive) vacuum tube.
Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the electron beam and these
remain for some time after switching off - for your own safety do not
attempt to examine the inside of an oscilloscope.

Specifications of EZ os5020 Analog Oscilloscope


Bandwidth 20MHz Time Base 0.2us/div to 0.2sec/div
Input 5mV/Div to 20V/Div Triggering Auto, Normal, TV-V, TV-
Sensitivity H,
Inputs 2 Channels + Ext. Source CH1, CH2, Line, Ext,
Trigger VERT (Dual, Alt)
Magnification X5 (1mV/Div to X-Y Yes
4V/Div) Ch1
Modes CH1, CH2, ADD, Dual

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Probes: These are the coaxial cables used to connect signal to be measured to
CRO, which one end is connected with BNC male connector and other end with
Alligator clips/ BNC male connector as shown by the fig below. These have polarity
RED clips are +ve terminals and BLACK clips are –ve terminals.

BNC to Alligator Probes BNC to BNC Probes

Coaxial cable

Attenuation Probe: These are available in different attenuation levels generally


1X-10X (1:10) probes are used in laboratories.
Professionals use a specially designed lead and probes kit for
best results with high frequency signals and when testing high resistance circuits,
but this is not essential for simpler work at audio frequencies (up to 20 kHz).

Fig:

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Function generator: A function generator is a device that can produce various


patterns of voltage at a variety of frequencies and amplitudes. It is used to test
the response of circuits to common input signals. In the laboratory the device we
use to produce A.C. signals of various types is called the Waveform or Function
Generator.
After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be
configured to the desired shape. Typically, this means connecting the signal and
ground leads to an oscilloscope to check the controls. Adjust the function
generator until the output signal is correct, then attach the signal and ground
leads from the function generator to the input and ground of the device under
test.

Function generator Aplab make, Model 2011A have the following functions:

Display: Function generator with the display in the upper left hand corner. It will
only display an integer and like the DMM Display. So the display on its own tells us
nothing of the shape or amplitude of the output.

Display mode selector: The function generator having display mode switch on top
row. It is used to switch the function generator to different modes i.e. Int, Mains &
Ext. The Int. mode is selected to get different functions at the output. Mains mode
is selected to measure supply frequency & Ext. mode is selected to use the
function generator as counter.
Range Selection Switch: and the Range Selection Switches. Range Selector Switch
is on the top row of the Function Generator to select a required frequency range.
Just by pressing the switch and the corresponding LED will glow.

Frequency Control switch: To set the frequency output of the Function Generator
we use the Frequency Control switch. Frequency control Coarse & Fine switches on
the bottom row of the function generator to vary the frequency for a required
value i.e. Hz / kHz / MHz etc.

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Function selector switch: These are used to control the shape of the function
generator. By pressing this switch we can access different types of functions like
Sine, Triangle, Square, Pulse etc. The operation of this switch is very simple just
by pressing the switch and the corresponding LED will glow.

Amplitude attenuation knob: Before we connect the output of the Function


Generator to a circuit we must first be able to set the Amplitude of the Output
signal. This is done using the Amplitude Control.

The knob which at extremely right corner is amplitude control attenuator


knob. It has a max. of -60dB attenuation which is achieved by "turning the knob to
extreme left" other levels are -40dB, -20dB & 0 we can select attenuation levels
depending on level of attenuation required.

The other important point to remember is that the Function Generator does
not display any information about signal amplitude so we must use the CRO to view
the amplitude when we set it to the required level.

Level (Amplitude) of output voltage can be adjusted by varying Level knob.

The output terminals: The Output Terminal on the Function Generator is a BNC
Connection which can be used directly with a Coaxial Cable. Where the output of
function generator is available.

The external terminals: The Output Terminal on the Function Generator is a BNC
Connection which can be used directly with a Coaxial Cable, Where the external
input to the function generator can be applied.

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Symmetry: This is used to set the output of function generator, which is not
symmetry.

D.C. Offset: This is used to apply D.C. offset voltage to the circuits when required.
The direct current (DC) offset control on a function generator varies the average
voltage of a signal relative to the ground.

DC Regulated Power Supply: These are used to connect power to circuits. The
rating of power supply depends on Voltage & Current. These come with single
output & Multi Output. Generally in laboratories we use 0-30V/2A, 0-15V/2A, +/-
12V/1A, 5V/1A etc. depending on circuit requirement. Some of the power supplies
are variable & others are fixed type power supplies.
These are connected to 230V ac supply which is transformed, rectified and
regulated to different voltages, depending on the designs. They have polarities +ve
& -ve, Take care of polarity while connecting these power supplies. Take care
while connecting multi output & High voltage power supplies. The Voltage variable
knob, Current limit knob, Digital voltage/current readout display are fitted on
front panel. Keep current limit knob in maximum position & Voltage variable knob
in minimum position before turning “ON” the Power supply.

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Ratings of NPN & PNP Transistors

Ratings of FET’s

Please note: the data in this table is from several sources which may be modified
or changed. Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please refer data sheets from
supplier if you require precise data. The above table contents are explained
below:
Structure: This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of the two
types are different, so if you are looking for a substitute it must be the same type.
Case style: There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most common
case styles in the Connecting section above. This information is also available in
suppliers' catalogues.

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IC max. : Maximum collector current.


VCE max. : Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction. You can ignore
this rating in low voltage circuits.
hFE: This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed
minimum value is given because the actual value varies from transistor to
transistor - even for those of the same type! Note that current gain is just a
number so it has no units.
The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually
in the middle of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is
at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum values are given. Since
the gain is roughly constant for various currents but it varies from transistor to
transistor this detail is only really of interest to experts.
Ptot max: Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor, note
that a heat sink will be required to achieve the maximum rating. This rating is
important for transistors operating as amplifiers. The power is roughly IC × VCE.
For transistors operating as switches the maximum collector current (IC max.) is
more important.
Category: This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting point
when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have separate tables for different
categories.
Possible substitutes: These are transistors with similar electrical properties which
will be suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may have a different
case style so you will need to take care when placing them on the circuit board.
Ratings of Diodes
Operating and storage Temperature -500 c to +1750C

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