21/05/2019 Paramagnetism and conduction electrons :: Condensed Matter Physics :: Rudi Winter's web space

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Paramagnetism and conduction electrons

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In this section:

Introduction

Concepts
What is Lattices, bases Bravais lattices Typical structure Diffraction Dispersion
Condensed and unit cells and symmetry types of crystals theory Lattice vibrations relations Heat capacity
Matter?

Collective The other side of

Phonon H field and B Diamagnetism Paramagnetism magnetism: e-mag:
spectroscopy field and and conduction ferromagnetism Ferroelectrics
paramagnetism electrons and its relatives and
piezoelectrics

Structure Determination
Transmission Scanning
Structure electron electron Scanned probe Plane groups, Group theory Scattering theory X-ray and
determination microscopy microscopy microscopies space groups neutron sources

Diffraction of Point defects, Dislocations and

disordered Small-angle defect equilibria, their motion, Strain Quasicrystals
structures scattering diffusion material strength

Materials physics

Types of phase Order of phase A hint of Landau Tracking

transition transitions theory transitions Subject index
experimentally

Home
News
Research
Paramagnetism in metals
Beamtimes
Papers Curie's law states that the susceptibility of a paramagnetic material goes with inverse
Teaching temperature. This is true for many materials, but in most metals the susceptibility
ph215
Thermodynamics doesn't depend very strongly on temperature. To understand this, we need to see how
Quantum the band structure influences the magnetisation of a metal sample.
Phys.
Partial Diff.
Eq. In a metal, the Fermi energy, E , (the energy of the highest occupied state at absolute
F

ph324/335/338 zero temperature) lies within an energy band, i.e. the conduction band. The detailed
Condensed
Matter
distribution of states within the band is governed by the density of states; here the bands
ph327 are just shown as rectangular areas in which states are available to be occupied.
Atomic Phys. Different bands are separated by band gaps in which there are no states available. The
Fourier
Y3/4 projects Fermi distribution (green curve) determines which of the available states will be
Walking in occupied at a given temperature. At T=0K, the Fermi distribution is a step function with
Wales a sharp cut-off at the Fermi energy. As the temperature rises, the curve becomes more
Other inclined, maintaining E as a fixpoint - electrons are excited from the green triangle
F

Diversions below E into the green triangle above E . The range over which electrons can be
F F

In this section excited thermally is of the order of k T . B

subject index In an external magnetic field, the potential energy of those states whose magnetic
moments are aligned with the field is reduced by the magnetic interaction energy, and
Introduction
those aligned against the field have a correspondingly higher potential energy.
Concepts Therefore, the parallel aligned states are nearer the bottom edge of the band. This means
What is Condensed that only magnetic moments within a range of k T either side of E can flip their
B F
Matter?
orientation according to the magnetic field. The 'flippable' fraction is , and the
kB T

Lattices, bases and EF

unit cells resulting magnetisation is the usual paramagnetic magnetisation term multiplied by this
fraction:
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21/05/2019 Paramagnetism and conduction electrons :: Condensed Matter Physics :: Rudi Winter's web space
Bravais lattices and
symmetry
Typical structure
types of crystals
Diffraction theory
Lattice vibrations
Dispersion
relations
Heat capacity
Phonon
spectroscopy
H field and B field
Diamagnetism and
paramagnetism
Paramagnetism and
conduction
electrons
Collective
magnetism:
ferromagnetism
and its relatives
The other side of e-
mag: Ferroelectrics
and piezoelectrics

Structure
Determination
Structure
determination N pm B
2
k BT N pm B
2

Mmetal = ⋅ = ,
Transmission k BT EF EF
electron
microscopy
Scanning electron which is indeed independent of temperature.
microscopy
Scanned probe
microscopies The discussion above
Plane groups, space
groups
makes no assumptions
Group theory about the detail of the
Scattering theory density of states within
X-ray and neutron the conduction band.
sources Despite this
Diffraction of
disordered
simplification, it predicts
structures the magnetisation
Small-angle reasonably accurately and
scattering demonstrates the fact that
Point defects,
defect equilibria,
the magnetisation of a
diffusion metal is independent of
Dislocations and temperature. We can
their motion,
material strength derive a more accurate
Strain formula if we use the
Quasicrystals density of states
according to the free
Materials physics electron gas model of a
Types of phase
transition metal, i.e. treat the
Order of phase delocalised electrons of
transitions the atom as independent
A hint of Landau from the atom cores
theory
Tracking transitions
(nuclei and localised inner-shell electrons) and allow them to move freely like a gas.
experimentally This model predicts the number N of states per volume element at a particular energy E
as
Dr Rudolf Winter
3

Materials Physics N (E) =

1
(
2m e E
)
2

,
Aberystwyth 3π
2
ℏ
2

University
Penglais

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21/05/2019 Paramagnetism and conduction electrons :: Condensed Matter Physics :: Rudi Winter's web space
Aberystwyth and thus the density of states D(E) (density here refers to how densely packed the states
SY23 3BZ
are on an energy scale) as
Wales
3

Ffiseg Defnyddiau dN 1 2m e 2
−
−
Prifysgol D(E) =
dE
=
2
(
2
) √E ,
2π ℏ
Aberystwyth
Penglais
Aberystwyth represented by the two segments of parabola in the Figure.
SY23 3BZ
Cymru When placed in a magnetic field, the potential energy of the parallel and anti-parallel
aligned moments is shifted down and up, respectively, by the magnetic interaction p B , m
ruw@aber.ac.uk resulting in a relative shift of 2p B between the parabola segments for the two different
m

orientations. The Fermi energy still applies across the whole electron gas, resulting in a
larger population of electrons with parallel aligned moments (in the lowered parabola
segment) than anti-parallel ones (in the raised segment). The (anti-)parallel population
Sunset today:
21:15 is
1'27 later than EF

y'day N ↑↑,↑↓ =
1
∫ f (E)D(E − pm B)dE
+

,
+
2 −pm B

where the density of states D has been shifted according to the strength of the magnetic
interaction, but the Fermi distribution f remains unchanged since it applies to the
electron gas as a whole. The integral consists of a part corresponding to the number of
states in the absence of an external field and an almost trapezoidal area (shown in
green) near the Fermi energy which is affected by the shift:
EF
1 + 1
N ↑↑,↑↓ ≈ ∫ f (E)D(E)dE − pm BD(E F ) .
2 0
2

The magnetisation arises from the population difference:

2
M = pm (N ↑↑ − N ↑↓) = pm D(E F )B .

The density of states at the Fermi energy D(E F ) in the free electron gas model is
D(E ) =
F , so the magnetisation becomes
3N

2E F

2
3N pm B
Mmetal = ,
2E F

confirming the result from the less sophisticated model apart from a factor . 3

Next...

Next, we'll see how individual (para-)magnetic moments interact to give rise to much
higher susceptibilities in ferromagnets.

Dr Rudolf Winter
Department of Physics, Aberystwyth University, Penglais, Aberystwyth SY23 3BZ, Wales
Adran Ffiseg, Prifysgol Aberystwyth, Penglais, Aberystwyth SY23 3BZ, Cymru
ruw@aber.ac.uk

Blame me, not my employer etc. etc.

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