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INTRODUCTION
Early detection and quantification of
defects, microstructural variations and
stresses is utmost important to ensure
high quality manufacturing and safe
operation of engineering components.
The role played by non-destructive
evaluation (NDE) techniques is well
known from their wide spread use
during manufacture and assembly
stages and during service life of
components.
NDE techniques that use some form
of electromagnetic excitation are
termed as electromagnetic NDE
techniques and some of these include
eddy current (EC), magnetic particle, Fig. 1 : Recent advances in eddy current testing that are responsible for its enhanced
magnetic flux leakage, magnetic use by the industry.
Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation vol 10 issue 3 December 2011
8 Basics
enhanced the capabilities of the PRINCIPLE These eddy currents also generate a
traditional EC technique enabling secondary magnetic field, but in the
detection and sizing of incipient EC testing works on the principles opposite direction to the primary
surface defects as well as sub- of electromagnetic induction. In this magnetic field following the Lenz’s
surface defects, changes in technique, a coil (also called probe law and this field in turn, changes
microstructures and accumulated or sensor) is excited with sinusoidal the coil impedance, Z which is a
plastic deformation, stress or damage alternating current (frequency, f, ~ complex quantity with real
e.g. prior to crack formation etc. 50 Hz-5 MHz, ~ 100 mA). Following component, R and imaginary
Such possibilities allow efficient the Ampere’s law, this current component, X L. Defects such as
preventive actions to be taken generates primary magnetic field in cracks, voids, inclusions, corrosion
avoiding catastrophic failure of the vicinity of the coil. When an wall loss, microstructure degradation,
components. Possibilities to inspection electrically conducting material is localised stresses alter the local
of large areas with automation, brought close to this coil, eddy electrical conductivity, σ , and
elimination of operator fatigue & currents are induced in the material magnetic permeability, µ, of the
uncertainty, inspection of inaccessible according to the Faraday’s law (refer material and cause distortion of the
as well remote areas, and on-line Fig. 2) [3]. eddy currents and change the coil
inspection ensuring high probability The eddy currents have very unique impedance. This impedance change,
of detection and accurate sizing, all and interesting properties such as: usually of the order of micro ohms,
have further enhanced the is measured using high-precision
Ø They are induced currents that exist
acceptability of the EC technique by only in electrically conducting bridge circuits, analysed and
the industry. This technique richly materials correlated with defect dimensions.
benefited by the wisdom and Ø They are always in closed loops, Alternately, the secondary magnetic
knowledge and contributions from usually parallel to the coil winding field can be detected using a
scientists, engineers and other experts (Fig. 2) separate receiver coil or a solid state
from physics, electrical engineering, Ø They are distorted by defects such field detection sensor. Discontinuities
material technology, micro- as cracks and corrosion wall loss or defects that cause maximum
electronics, computers, automation and by discontinuities such as edge- perturbation to eddy currents flow,
effect, end-effect as shown in
and robotics domains. For better Fig. 2 in other words, distortion produce
appreciation of the EC technique and large change in impedance. The
Ø They attenuate with depth (also
correctly choose it for an application axially or laterally) impedance change is also affected
at hand, it is essential to know the Ø Their intensity depends on material
by excitation frequency (effect of XL
basic principles, features, capabilities properties, electromagnetic or 2πfL) and electromagnetic
and limitations of the technique. That coupling (lift-off/fill-factor) and coupling.
forms the objective of this paper. excitation frequency, but maximum
on the surface
Fig. 2 : Principle of eddy current testing (left) and distortion of eddy current due to crack, edge-effect, surface crack, and sub-surface
void (right).
vol 10 issue 3 December 2011 Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation
Basics 9
The flow of eddy currents in the test The locus of impedance change The electrical conductivity is usually
material is not uniform at different during the movement of an EC coil expressed as percentage IACS
depths. The eddy currents are quite system over the test object is called (International Annealed Copper
denser at the surface as compared EC signal. While the amplitude of Standard) in which the electrical
to the deep inside, an effect referred the EC signal provides information conductivity of pure copper at 25°C
to as skin effect [4]. Theoretical about the defect severity, the phase is taken as 5.8 x107 Siemens/meter.
standard depth of penetration of eddy angle provides information about the For example, the IACS% value of
currents, δ, that describes the skin- defect depth. As depicted in Fig. 4, austenitic stainless steel (type 304)
effect, can be expressed as the impedance change can be is 2.5 with an absolute electrical
displayed in a complex plane (real, conductivity of 1.45x106 and that of
(1) X – imaginary, Y) as impedance Admiralty brass is 24% with a
plane trajectory or as a time-domain conductivity of 1.392x107 [5].
where is f is excitation frequency, signal viz. X(t) or Y(t). In the
Hz, µ0 is magnetic permeability of impedance plane, magnitude and The electromagnetic coupling
free space, 4π10-7 H/m, µr is relative phase can be seen; however, the between coil and test object is very
magnetic permeability, dimensionless, signal extent or defect length cannot important. For reliable detection of
and σ is electrical conductivity, mho/ be seen. On the contrary, in time- defects, it is always preferable to
m. δ is the depth at which the domain signals, phase angle minimise and maintain uniform lift-
surface eddy current density has information that is essential for depth off or fill-factor which will be
fallen to 37%. EC technique estimation is absent. discussed later in this paper. Failing
capability, applicability, selection of to do so will result in degradation of
test frequency etc. can be readily Selection of test frequency is very signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
understood using equation (1). For important in the EC tests and in
general, it is chosen such that a Instead of continuous A.C. if the
example, depth of penetration of
maximum amplitude signal is formed exciter is driven with a repetitive
eddy currents, in other words,
for defects and with a decent phase broadband pulse, such as a square
interaction of electromagnetic fields,
separation from the lift-off axis. A wave which induces transient eddy
is very low in highly conducting (e.g.
simpler way to determine the working currents associated with highly
Copper) as shown in Fig. 3, as
test frequency range involves attenuated magnetic pulses
compared to that of austenitic
assuming value of 1 and 2 for δ in propagating through the material, a
stainless steel which is less
equation (1) and calculating the new technique called pulsed eddy
conducting. Due to the skin effect,
extreme frequencies upon current (PEC) technique is formed.
with EC test one can readily detect
substituting σ, µ0 and µr values of the The signals reflected from defects
the surface-breaking defects as
test object. in the object are picked up by a
compared to the sub-surface defects
sensor. At each probe location, a
or buried defects.
Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation vol 10 issue 3 December 2011
10 Basics
Fig. 4 : Two types of eddy current signals viz. Impedance plane (X-Y) and time-domain (right) from three surface cracks (a, b, c) in a
steel plate.
series of voltage-time data pairs are treatment inadequacies, coating § Ability to perform tests on regular
produced as the induced field decays, thickness measurements, and as well as irregular geometries
without the need for using any
analogous to ultrasonic A-scan data. detection of defects in tubes, rods, couplant
Defects close to the surface will bars, multi-layer structures, discs,
§ Ability to carry out tests at more
affect the eddy current response welds, blades and other regular as than 10 m/s speed
earlier in time than deep surface well as irregular geometries [6].
§ Ability to measure coating
defects. PEC technique is useful for Some of the attractive features of thickness as small as 5µ
detection of hidden corrosion in EC technique include the following: § Possibility to carry out high
layered structures such as aircraft § Ability to distinguish metallic temperature testing, even up to
lap-splices and corrosion under materials from non-metallic ones 1000°C
insulation in insulated components. and sorting of materials based on § Computer based automated testing,
difference in heat treatment, data storage, analysis and
FEATURES microstructure and material interpretation without the need for
properties (refer Fig. 5) an operator
EC technique is a preferred
§ Ability to easily detect tight hairline § Possibility to perform numerical
technique for material sorting, cracks which cannot be seen by modelling for optimisation of the
determination of hardness, heat naked eye technique, probes and test
parameters [7]
INSTRUMENTS
In EC technique the alternating
current through the coil is kept
constant (~ few hundred mA) and
the changes in the coil impedance
are measured. Since the impedance
change is very small (< micro-ohms),
high precision A.C. bridge (refer Fig.
6) circuits are employed. The bridge
imbalance is correlated with the
defect or material attribute
responsible. Typical analogue EC
instrument consists of an oscillator
(excitation frequency, ~ 50 Hz-5
MHz), constant current supply (step
down from 230 V AC), a bridge
circuit, amplifier, filters, oscilloscope
Fig. 5 : Response on the impedance plane for different metallic materials, enabling (to display the impedance changes
material sorting and determination of conductivity and permeability. in a 2-D graph or as a vector) or
vol 10 issue 3 December 2011 Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation
Basics 11
Fig. 7 : Advanced general purpose digital instruments for static as well as dynamic EC tests and for multi-frequency EC inspection of
non-ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic heat exchanger tubes (Courtesy: M/s. Technofour, Pune).
Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation vol 10 issue 3 December 2011
12 Basics
Similarly, in order to detect sub- Figure 9 shows some typical EC of tube diameter to square of coil
surface and buried defects, large probes developed for specific diameter for encircling coils and is
diameter high throughput probes applications [3, 8]. expressed as percentage
operating at lower frequencies are (dimensionless)
necessary. As a general rule, the Coupling of magnetic field to the
probe diameter should be less than material surface is important in EC
Fill factor = ( D2t / D2p )* 100 (2)
or equal to the expected defect length testing. For surface probes, it is called
and also comparable to the thickness “lift-off” which is the distance where Dp is the probe inner diameter
of the test object. The sensing area between the probe coil and the and Dt is the tube outer diameter
of a probe is the physical diameter material surface. In general, uniform [3,5]. Usually, 70-90% “fill-factor” is
of the coil plus an extended area of and very small lift-off is preferred targeted for reliable inspection.
4d due to the magnetic field spread. for achieving better detection
sensitivity to defects. The The encircling probes exhibit reduced
Hence, it is common to use ferrite sensitivity for shallow and localised
cores as well as shields with high m electromagnetic coupling in the case
of tubes/bars/rods is referred to as defects and for such applications,
and low s, to contain the field without motorised rotating probe coil
affecting the depth of penetration. “fill-factor”. It is the ratio of square
vol 10 issue 3 December 2011 Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation
Basics 13
(MRPC), phased-array, plus-point frequency, gain, phase angle etc. are sensitivity, versatility, speed
etc. are used. The inspection data optimised for a desired performance. (~ 10 m/s) and repeatability. This
from these probes can be displayed In general, signal phase is rotated technique can detect wall thinning,
as images which allow easy such that it is parallel to lift-off or cracks, pitting, stress corrosion
identification of circumferential wobble axis and phase separation cracking, hydrogen embrittlement,
location of defects. For inspection of between ID and OD defects is carburization, denting and crude
irregular and inaccessible regions, nearly 90 degrees. A suitable EC deposits etc. Typical EC signals from
flexible and conformal sensors are signal parameter, e.g. signal peak- an ID defect, OD defect and hole in
employed. The pancake type probes to-peak amplitude or phase angle is a heat exchanger tube and a
show reduced sensitivity for sub- identified and an appropriate surrounding steel support plate are
surface and buried defects and for threshold is determined for shown in Fig. 10 for absolute and
such needs, integrated probes with incorporating accept/reject criterion. differential bobbin probes.
coils for excitation and solid state When defect sizing is required, a
sensors for reception are very calibration graph between signal Using phase discrimination, it is
attractive [2]. Such integrated probes parameter and defect size is possible to readily distinguish various
are useful for inspection of rivets and generated and used [3]. During actual defects as well as support plates.
multi-layer structures in aircrafts and testing, any region that produces EC However, single frequency EC
for detection of deeply located (> 10 signals with parameter greater than technique is inadequate for detection
mm) defects in steel components. the threshold is recorded defective, of defects under support plates,
while its equivalent size is determined baffle plates and in the presence of
TEST PROCEDURE probe wobble. Many a time, it is
using the calibration graph. Similar
General EC test procedure for procedure is followed for material under the support plates corrosion
detection of defects involves sorting, conductivity measurement, damage takes place. To eliminate
calibration of EC instrument using microstructure characterisation, and signals from support plates, multi-
reference standard defects in a coating thickness measurement. frequency technique is employed.
material with similar chemical This technique involves simultaneous
composition and geometry as that of TESTING NON- excitation of two or more frequencies
the actual component. Artificial FERROMAGNETIC TUBES in an EC coil and processing of the
defects such as saw cuts, flat bottom corresponding signals to suppress the
For periodic monitoring of corrosion contributions from disturbing sources,
holes, electro-discharge machining
of tubes in heat exchangers, steam similar to solving a system of linear
(EDM) notches are used while well
generators and condensers in power, equations [4, 6, 8]. The multi-
characterised natural defects, cracks
petrochemicals, fertiliser and other frequency test procedure is described
in failed or withdrawn components
industries, EC technique is employed in detail in ASME Section V, Article
are always preferred. Instrument test
because of its ease of operation, 8, Appendix 1.
parameters such as excitation
Fig. 10 : Typical absolute (left) and differential probe (right) EC signals for an ID defect (A), OD defect (B) and hole (C) in a heat
exchanger tube and for a steel support plate (D).
Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation vol 10 issue 3 December 2011
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TESTING FERROMAGNETIC with equal sensitivity to internal and in microstructure, precipitate size and
TUBES external wall loss and linear distribution, cold work, deformation,
relationship between wall loss and dislocation pile-up etc. alter the coil
Examination of ferromagnetic tubes measured phase lag. RFEC technique impedance or induced voltage in a
is difficult using conventional EC test can achieve inspection speeds of 1 pick-up coil. The magnitude and
procedures due to high relative m/s. It is used for inspection of phase of induced voltage or
magnetic permeability which restricts carbon steel and other ferromagnetic impedance change are used for
penetration of eddy currents and tubes in process industry. One recent quantitative characterisation of
produces disturbing signals due to application of this technique is in- microstructures and to estimate the
continuously varying permeability. service inspection of steam generator volume fraction of various phases
This disturbance can be eliminated tubes of sodium cooled prototype fast present. Cold worked and annealed
by employing bias or saturation direct breeder reactors with 23 m long conditions, e.g. in stainless steel 316
current (D.C) which saturates the modified 9Cr-1Mo ferromagnetic or 304 effect electrical conductivity
material magnetically and makes the steel tubes For this application, a in opposite directions and strain-
tube material behave non- comprehensive RFEC technology induced martensite, being a magnetic
ferromagnetic, thus, allows comprising of instrumentation, probes, phase, increases the magnetic
conventional EC testing after which robotic device has been developed permeability. This phase can be
the tubes are to be demagnetised. as a solution to the problem of smaller detected using EC technique.
Typical test set up is shown in diameter, expansion bends, support Specimens subjected to heat
Fig. 11. However, in the case of plates, one-side access and treatments are used to simulate the
installed tubes of smaller diameters, electrically conducting sodium service exposed conditions and the
saturation units cannot be deposits. expected microstructures. Usually,
accommodated due to limited access. EC measurements for microstructure
For mildly magnetic materials, partial CHARACTERISATION OF
MICROSTRUCTURES characterisation are location-based.
saturation using high-energy In general, absolute probes are used
permanent magnets such Nd-Fe-B During manufacturing stages of and analysis is based on impedance
is a possibility. The other technique components made of alloys, heat plane signal interpretation. Reference
possible is remote field eddy current treatment is given to ensure required standards with known electrical
(RFEC) technique [2]. levels of mechanical and physical conductivity and magnetic
This technique uses low frequency properties and desired permeability are used also for
excitation and a separate receiver coil microstructures. Likewise, during establishing calibration graph, apart
kept at two to three tube diameters service life of components, it is from specimens heat treated to
away from exciter coil. The phase essential to ensure that there is no different ageing conditions through
lag of induced voltage in the receiver undesirable degradation in measurement of conductivity and
coil with respect to the exciter is microstructures. EC technique is permeability.
measured using lock-in amplifiers and useful for assessing these two
situations as it exploits measurement EC technique has been used to
correlated with wall loss or defect characterise microstructures in
depth. The advantages of RFEC of changes in electrical conductivity
and magnetic permeability. Changes titanium alloy (VT 14 alloy Ti-4.5Al-
technique include ability to test tubes 3Mo-1V) subjected to a series of
heat treatments consisting of
solutionizing for 1 h at selected
temperatures in the range of 923-
1303 K at an interval of 50 K,
followed by water quenching. This
treatment produces variety of
microstructures due to controlled α-
β transformation and formation of
various phases. The experimentally
measured EC response for various
specimens is shown in Fig. 12 along
with that of the reference standards
viz. Hastelloy-X, Hastelloy-B and Ti-
6Al-4V. It has been found that, both
Fig. 11 : D.C. Saturation based EC testing of ferromagnetic steel tubes.
magnitude and phase angle of
vol 10 issue 3 December 2011 Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation
Basics 15
REFERENCE STANDARDS
Reference standards are used for
adjusting the eddy current instrument
sensitivity to enable detection of
desired size of defects and
quantification of conductivity,
permeability and material thickness
etc. They are also used for sizing
defects [2]. Some commonly used
standards in EC testing by ASME
(American Society for Mechanical
Engineers), BS (British Standards),
ASTM (American Society for
Testing of Materials) and IS (Bureau
of Indian Standards) are:
· ASME, Section V, Article 8, Appendix
1 and 2), Electromagnetic (EC) testing
of heat exchanger tubes
· ASTM B 244 Method for measurement
of thickness of anodic coatings of
Fig. 12 : Impedance plane response for various heat treated specimens at 150 kHz. aluminum and other nonconductive
coatings on nonmagnetic base materials
with EC instruments
impedance change decrease with · Detection of surface as well as sub- · ASTM B 659 Recommended practice
increasing solutionizing temperature surface defects in multi-layer for measurement of thickness of metallic
aircraft structures (single frequency, coatings on nonmetallic substrates
up to 1123 K and this is attributed to multi-frequency & pulsed
decrease in α phase (reduction in techniques)
· ASTM E 215 Standardising equipment
for electromagnetic testing of seamless
electrical conductivity). Beyond · On-line automated saturation based aluminium alloy tube
1123K, formation of α′ martensite quality assurance of steel
· ASTM E 243 Electromagnetic (EC)
dominates the interactions and results (ferromagnetic) tubes.
testing of seamless copper and copper
in increase in effective electrical · Location of garter springs in alloy tubes
conductivity and hence, the PHWRs and measurement of gap
· ASTM E 309 EC examination of steel
impedance change. Beyond 1273K, in coolant channels
tubular products using magnetic
magnitude and phase angle reach a · Detection of intergranular corrosion saturation
constant maximum, due to 100% (IGC) in stainless steels (316, 316L
· ASTM E 376 Measuring coating
and 304 L)
formation of α′ martensite. thickness by magnetic field or EC
· Detection of weld centre line in (electromagnetic) test methods
Comparison of impedance magnitude
austenetic stainless steel welds at
and phase angle with hardness · ASTM E 426 Electromagnetic (EC)
high temperature
measurements has established that testing of seamless and welded tubular
· Measurement of coating thickness products austenitic stainless steel and
EC technique can be implemented in of SiC on carbon-carbon similar alloys
production line to quickly assess the composites
· ASTM E 566 Electromagnetic (EC)
adequacy of heat treatment. · Sorting of materials based on sorting of ferrous metals
electrical conductivity and magnetic
· ASTM E 571 Electromagnetic (EC)
APPLICATIONS permeability
examination of nickel and nickel alloy
· Characterisation of heat treated as tubular products
A few specific practical applications well as degraded microstructures in
of EC technique are given below for · ASTM E 690 In-situ electromagnetic
alloys
(EC) examination of non-magnetic heat-
better appreciation of the technique. · Non-contact detection of metallic exchanger tubes
· Quality assurance of austenitic objects, land mines, security metal
· ASTM E 703 Electromagnetic (EC)
stainless steel tubes, plates and detectors
sorting of nonferrous metals
welds. · Monitoring of liquid levels and for
· Inspection of installed heat · BS 3889 (part 2A): 1986 (1991)
position encoding
exchanger/steam generator/ Automatic EC testing of wrought steel
condenser tubes (single and multi- tubes
frequency) · BS 3889 (part 213): 1966 (1987) EC
testing of non-ferrous tubes
Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation vol 10 issue 3 December 2011
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vol 10 issue 3 December 2011 Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation