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Basics among other electromagnetic NDE


techniques, this technique finds larger
number of applications. This
technique finds versatile applications
Eddy Current Testing: in power, aerospace
petrochemical industries. It is not
and

incorrect to say that worldwide


Basics almost all the heat exchangers and
aircrafts are inspected using this
B.P.C. Rao
Non-destructive Evaluation Division, Metallurgy and Materials Group technique. Two main aspects behind
Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam – 603 102, TN, India this widespread use are excellent
e-mail: bpcrao@igcar.gov.in
sensitivity to surface as well as sub-
surface defects and testing speed of
Eddy current technique is an Barkhausen emission, micromagnetic,
as high as 10 m/s which no other
important electromagnetic non- potential drop, microwave, AC field
NDE technique can match. This is
destructive evaluation technique that measurement techniques etc. [1]. In
especially profitable to industries as
is widely used in power, aerospace, these techniques, material under
it enables rapid examination during
petrochemical and other industries for investigation is excited
manufacturing stages, while it
detection of surface cracks and sub- electromagnetically and the
drastically reduces the down time of
surface damage in components made manifestation of electromagnetic
operating plant components.
of metallic materials. Besides, it is fields due to material discontinuities
also used traditionally for assessing affecting electrical conductivity or Many developments are taking place
the adequacy of heat treatment of magnetic permeability or dielectric in this existing NDE technique
alloys, as eddy currents are sensitive permittivity are measured using a incorporating the rapid progress in
to changes in microstructure and sensor, with the exception of the fields of microelectronics,
stresses, which alter the electrical magnetic particle testing in which instrumentation, sensors, computers,
conductivity and magnetic magnetic particle are used in place numerical modelling, digital signal &
permeability of the material. This of a sensor [2]. image processing (Fig.1) [2]. The
paper gives a brief account of basic way EC testing is practised now is
principle, features, applications, EC technique is the most popular and
different from that it was four
limitations of the eddy current widely used electromagnetic NDE
decades ago. These concurrent
technique. It also covers instruments technique. In industrial scenario,
advances in other fields have
and sensors to enable better
appreciation of the technique and its
capabilities.

INTRODUCTION
Early detection and quantification of
defects, microstructural variations and
stresses is utmost important to ensure
high quality manufacturing and safe
operation of engineering components.
The role played by non-destructive
evaluation (NDE) techniques is well
known from their wide spread use
during manufacture and assembly
stages and during service life of
components.
NDE techniques that use some form
of electromagnetic excitation are
termed as electromagnetic NDE
techniques and some of these include
eddy current (EC), magnetic particle, Fig. 1 : Recent advances in eddy current testing that are responsible for its enhanced
magnetic flux leakage, magnetic use by the industry.

Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation vol 10 issue 3 December 2011
8 Basics

enhanced the capabilities of the PRINCIPLE These eddy currents also generate a
traditional EC technique enabling secondary magnetic field, but in the
detection and sizing of incipient EC testing works on the principles opposite direction to the primary
surface defects as well as sub- of electromagnetic induction. In this magnetic field following the Lenz’s
surface defects, changes in technique, a coil (also called probe law and this field in turn, changes
microstructures and accumulated or sensor) is excited with sinusoidal the coil impedance, Z which is a
plastic deformation, stress or damage alternating current (frequency, f, ~ complex quantity with real
e.g. prior to crack formation etc. 50 Hz-5 MHz, ~ 100 mA). Following component, R and imaginary
Such possibilities allow efficient the Ampere’s law, this current component, X L. Defects such as
preventive actions to be taken generates primary magnetic field in cracks, voids, inclusions, corrosion
avoiding catastrophic failure of the vicinity of the coil. When an wall loss, microstructure degradation,
components. Possibilities to inspection electrically conducting material is localised stresses alter the local
of large areas with automation, brought close to this coil, eddy electrical conductivity, σ , and
elimination of operator fatigue & currents are induced in the material magnetic permeability, µ, of the
uncertainty, inspection of inaccessible according to the Faraday’s law (refer material and cause distortion of the
as well remote areas, and on-line Fig. 2) [3]. eddy currents and change the coil
inspection ensuring high probability The eddy currents have very unique impedance. This impedance change,
of detection and accurate sizing, all and interesting properties such as: usually of the order of micro ohms,
have further enhanced the is measured using high-precision
Ø They are induced currents that exist
acceptability of the EC technique by only in electrically conducting bridge circuits, analysed and
the industry. This technique richly materials correlated with defect dimensions.
benefited by the wisdom and Ø They are always in closed loops, Alternately, the secondary magnetic
knowledge and contributions from usually parallel to the coil winding field can be detected using a
scientists, engineers and other experts (Fig. 2) separate receiver coil or a solid state
from physics, electrical engineering, Ø They are distorted by defects such field detection sensor. Discontinuities
material technology, micro- as cracks and corrosion wall loss or defects that cause maximum
electronics, computers, automation and by discontinuities such as edge- perturbation to eddy currents flow,
effect, end-effect as shown in
and robotics domains. For better Fig. 2 in other words, distortion produce
appreciation of the EC technique and large change in impedance. The
Ø They attenuate with depth (also
correctly choose it for an application axially or laterally) impedance change is also affected
at hand, it is essential to know the Ø Their intensity depends on material
by excitation frequency (effect of XL
basic principles, features, capabilities properties, electromagnetic or 2πfL) and electromagnetic
and limitations of the technique. That coupling (lift-off/fill-factor) and coupling.
forms the objective of this paper. excitation frequency, but maximum
on the surface

Fig. 2 : Principle of eddy current testing (left) and distortion of eddy current due to crack, edge-effect, surface crack, and sub-surface
void (right).

vol 10 issue 3 December 2011 Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation
Basics 9

The flow of eddy currents in the test The locus of impedance change The electrical conductivity is usually
material is not uniform at different during the movement of an EC coil expressed as percentage IACS
depths. The eddy currents are quite system over the test object is called (International Annealed Copper
denser at the surface as compared EC signal. While the amplitude of Standard) in which the electrical
to the deep inside, an effect referred the EC signal provides information conductivity of pure copper at 25°C
to as skin effect [4]. Theoretical about the defect severity, the phase is taken as 5.8 x107 Siemens/meter.
standard depth of penetration of eddy angle provides information about the For example, the IACS% value of
currents, δ, that describes the skin- defect depth. As depicted in Fig. 4, austenitic stainless steel (type 304)
effect, can be expressed as the impedance change can be is 2.5 with an absolute electrical
displayed in a complex plane (real, conductivity of 1.45x106 and that of
(1) X – imaginary, Y) as impedance Admiralty brass is 24% with a
plane trajectory or as a time-domain conductivity of 1.392x107 [5].
where is f is excitation frequency, signal viz. X(t) or Y(t). In the
Hz, µ0 is magnetic permeability of impedance plane, magnitude and The electromagnetic coupling
free space, 4π10-7 H/m, µr is relative phase can be seen; however, the between coil and test object is very
magnetic permeability, dimensionless, signal extent or defect length cannot important. For reliable detection of
and σ is electrical conductivity, mho/ be seen. On the contrary, in time- defects, it is always preferable to
m. δ is the depth at which the domain signals, phase angle minimise and maintain uniform lift-
surface eddy current density has information that is essential for depth off or fill-factor which will be
fallen to 37%. EC technique estimation is absent. discussed later in this paper. Failing
capability, applicability, selection of to do so will result in degradation of
test frequency etc. can be readily Selection of test frequency is very signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
understood using equation (1). For important in the EC tests and in
general, it is chosen such that a Instead of continuous A.C. if the
example, depth of penetration of
maximum amplitude signal is formed exciter is driven with a repetitive
eddy currents, in other words,
for defects and with a decent phase broadband pulse, such as a square
interaction of electromagnetic fields,
separation from the lift-off axis. A wave which induces transient eddy
is very low in highly conducting (e.g.
simpler way to determine the working currents associated with highly
Copper) as shown in Fig. 3, as
test frequency range involves attenuated magnetic pulses
compared to that of austenitic
assuming value of 1 and 2 for δ in propagating through the material, a
stainless steel which is less
equation (1) and calculating the new technique called pulsed eddy
conducting. Due to the skin effect,
extreme frequencies upon current (PEC) technique is formed.
with EC test one can readily detect
substituting σ, µ0 and µr values of the The signals reflected from defects
the surface-breaking defects as
test object. in the object are picked up by a
compared to the sub-surface defects
sensor. At each probe location, a
or buried defects.

Fig. 3 : Interaction of magnetic fields from a coil at different test conditions.

Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation vol 10 issue 3 December 2011
10 Basics

Fig. 4 : Two types of eddy current signals viz. Impedance plane (X-Y) and time-domain (right) from three surface cracks (a, b, c) in a
steel plate.

series of voltage-time data pairs are treatment inadequacies, coating § Ability to perform tests on regular
produced as the induced field decays, thickness measurements, and as well as irregular geometries
without the need for using any
analogous to ultrasonic A-scan data. detection of defects in tubes, rods, couplant
Defects close to the surface will bars, multi-layer structures, discs,
§ Ability to carry out tests at more
affect the eddy current response welds, blades and other regular as than 10 m/s speed
earlier in time than deep surface well as irregular geometries [6].
§ Ability to measure coating
defects. PEC technique is useful for Some of the attractive features of thickness as small as 5µ
detection of hidden corrosion in EC technique include the following: § Possibility to carry out high
layered structures such as aircraft § Ability to distinguish metallic temperature testing, even up to
lap-splices and corrosion under materials from non-metallic ones 1000°C
insulation in insulated components. and sorting of materials based on § Computer based automated testing,
difference in heat treatment, data storage, analysis and
FEATURES microstructure and material interpretation without the need for
properties (refer Fig. 5) an operator
EC technique is a preferred
§ Ability to easily detect tight hairline § Possibility to perform numerical
technique for material sorting, cracks which cannot be seen by modelling for optimisation of the
determination of hardness, heat naked eye technique, probes and test
parameters [7]

INSTRUMENTS
In EC technique the alternating
current through the coil is kept
constant (~ few hundred mA) and
the changes in the coil impedance
are measured. Since the impedance
change is very small (< micro-ohms),
high precision A.C. bridge (refer Fig.
6) circuits are employed. The bridge
imbalance is correlated with the
defect or material attribute
responsible. Typical analogue EC
instrument consists of an oscillator
(excitation frequency, ~ 50 Hz-5
MHz), constant current supply (step
down from 230 V AC), a bridge
circuit, amplifier, filters, oscilloscope
Fig. 5 : Response on the impedance plane for different metallic materials, enabling (to display the impedance changes
material sorting and determination of conductivity and permeability. in a 2-D graph or as a vector) or

vol 10 issue 3 December 2011 Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation
Basics 11

of the test material, different probes temperature changes etc. Differential


such as surface probes (for plates), probes have two sensing coils wound
encircling probes (for rods and tubes) in opposite direction investigating two
and bobbin probes (for tubes) with different regions of a material. They
coil configurations shown in Fig. 8 are good for high sensitive detection
are used. Appropriate selection of of small defects. They are
probe coil is important in eddy current reasonably immune to changes in
testing, as even an efficient EC temperature and the operator-induced
instrument cannot achieve much if it probe wobble [5]. The most simple
doesn’t get the right (desired) and widely used probe types are:
information from the coils. · Surface or pancake or pencil probes
(with the probe axis normal to the
EC probes are induction based and surface), are chosen for testing
Fig. 6 : A.C. bridge circuit used to are made up of a few turns of copper plates and bolt-holes either as a
measure small changes in EC coil single sensing element or an array
wire usually wound around a ferrite
impedance. - in both absolute and differential
core with or without shielding. Every
(split-D) modes.
probe has an operating frequency
· Encircling probes for inspection of
meter display unit or decision making range and impedance value matching
rods, bars and tubes with outside
unit. the bridge circuit of the instrument. access and
It is desirable to operate the probe · Bobbin probes for pre-and in-
With the micro-electronic revolution within that range. It is essential to service inspection of heat exchanger,
digital EC instruments have replaced avoid operating near the resonance steam generator, condenser tubes
the analogue EC instruments. These frequencies. & others with inside access. Phased
instruments are smart, high-sensitive, array receivers also possible for
low-cost, automated, modular and The probes are operated in absolute enhanced detection and sizing.
efficient (Fig. 7). They are, in many (single coil), differential (two coils While pancake or surface probes are
instances, interfaced to personal wound opposite) or send-receive used for testing plates and regular
computers, industrial computers, and (separate coils for excitation and geometries, encircling or bobbin type
laptops with possibility for easy detection) modes. Their design is probes are employed for testing tubes,
measurements, adjustments, controls, dependent on the object geometry rods, and other cylindrical objects.
data storage, analysis and viz. tube, plate, bar etc. As shown in The EC probes possess directional
management, all performed by Fig. 8 and the expected type and properties i.e. regions of high and low
suitable software. location of discontinuity. sensitivity (impedance change).
Absolute probes are good for Defects that cause maximum
PROBES
detection of cracks (long or short) perturbation to eddy currents are
EC probe forms the basic link as well as gradual variations. detected with high sensitivity. For
between EC instrument and the test However, absolute probes are good sensitivity to small shallow
material. Depending on the geometry sensitive also to lift-off, probe tilt, defects, a small probe should be used.

Fig. 7 : Advanced general purpose digital instruments for static as well as dynamic EC tests and for multi-frequency EC inspection of
non-ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic heat exchanger tubes (Courtesy: M/s. Technofour, Pune).

Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation vol 10 issue 3 December 2011
12 Basics

Fig. 8 : Basic configuration of coils in eddy current probes.

Similarly, in order to detect sub- Figure 9 shows some typical EC of tube diameter to square of coil
surface and buried defects, large probes developed for specific diameter for encircling coils and is
diameter high throughput probes applications [3, 8]. expressed as percentage
operating at lower frequencies are (dimensionless)
necessary. As a general rule, the Coupling of magnetic field to the
probe diameter should be less than material surface is important in EC
Fill factor = ( D2t / D2p )* 100 (2)
or equal to the expected defect length testing. For surface probes, it is called
and also comparable to the thickness “lift-off” which is the distance where Dp is the probe inner diameter
of the test object. The sensing area between the probe coil and the and Dt is the tube outer diameter
of a probe is the physical diameter material surface. In general, uniform [3,5]. Usually, 70-90% “fill-factor” is
of the coil plus an extended area of and very small lift-off is preferred targeted for reliable inspection.
4d due to the magnetic field spread. for achieving better detection
sensitivity to defects. The The encircling probes exhibit reduced
Hence, it is common to use ferrite sensitivity for shallow and localised
cores as well as shields with high m electromagnetic coupling in the case
of tubes/bars/rods is referred to as defects and for such applications,
and low s, to contain the field without motorised rotating probe coil
affecting the depth of penetration. “fill-factor”. It is the ratio of square

Fig. 9 : Different types of EC probes.

vol 10 issue 3 December 2011 Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation
Basics 13

(MRPC), phased-array, plus-point frequency, gain, phase angle etc. are sensitivity, versatility, speed
etc. are used. The inspection data optimised for a desired performance. (~ 10 m/s) and repeatability. This
from these probes can be displayed In general, signal phase is rotated technique can detect wall thinning,
as images which allow easy such that it is parallel to lift-off or cracks, pitting, stress corrosion
identification of circumferential wobble axis and phase separation cracking, hydrogen embrittlement,
location of defects. For inspection of between ID and OD defects is carburization, denting and crude
irregular and inaccessible regions, nearly 90 degrees. A suitable EC deposits etc. Typical EC signals from
flexible and conformal sensors are signal parameter, e.g. signal peak- an ID defect, OD defect and hole in
employed. The pancake type probes to-peak amplitude or phase angle is a heat exchanger tube and a
show reduced sensitivity for sub- identified and an appropriate surrounding steel support plate are
surface and buried defects and for threshold is determined for shown in Fig. 10 for absolute and
such needs, integrated probes with incorporating accept/reject criterion. differential bobbin probes.
coils for excitation and solid state When defect sizing is required, a
sensors for reception are very calibration graph between signal Using phase discrimination, it is
attractive [2]. Such integrated probes parameter and defect size is possible to readily distinguish various
are useful for inspection of rivets and generated and used [3]. During actual defects as well as support plates.
multi-layer structures in aircrafts and testing, any region that produces EC However, single frequency EC
for detection of deeply located (> 10 signals with parameter greater than technique is inadequate for detection
mm) defects in steel components. the threshold is recorded defective, of defects under support plates,
while its equivalent size is determined baffle plates and in the presence of
TEST PROCEDURE probe wobble. Many a time, it is
using the calibration graph. Similar
General EC test procedure for procedure is followed for material under the support plates corrosion
detection of defects involves sorting, conductivity measurement, damage takes place. To eliminate
calibration of EC instrument using microstructure characterisation, and signals from support plates, multi-
reference standard defects in a coating thickness measurement. frequency technique is employed.
material with similar chemical This technique involves simultaneous
composition and geometry as that of TESTING NON- excitation of two or more frequencies
the actual component. Artificial FERROMAGNETIC TUBES in an EC coil and processing of the
defects such as saw cuts, flat bottom corresponding signals to suppress the
For periodic monitoring of corrosion contributions from disturbing sources,
holes, electro-discharge machining
of tubes in heat exchangers, steam similar to solving a system of linear
(EDM) notches are used while well
generators and condensers in power, equations [4, 6, 8]. The multi-
characterised natural defects, cracks
petrochemicals, fertiliser and other frequency test procedure is described
in failed or withdrawn components
industries, EC technique is employed in detail in ASME Section V, Article
are always preferred. Instrument test
because of its ease of operation, 8, Appendix 1.
parameters such as excitation

Fig. 10 : Typical absolute (left) and differential probe (right) EC signals for an ID defect (A), OD defect (B) and hole (C) in a heat
exchanger tube and for a steel support plate (D).

Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation vol 10 issue 3 December 2011
14

TESTING FERROMAGNETIC with equal sensitivity to internal and in microstructure, precipitate size and
TUBES external wall loss and linear distribution, cold work, deformation,
relationship between wall loss and dislocation pile-up etc. alter the coil
Examination of ferromagnetic tubes measured phase lag. RFEC technique impedance or induced voltage in a
is difficult using conventional EC test can achieve inspection speeds of 1 pick-up coil. The magnitude and
procedures due to high relative m/s. It is used for inspection of phase of induced voltage or
magnetic permeability which restricts carbon steel and other ferromagnetic impedance change are used for
penetration of eddy currents and tubes in process industry. One recent quantitative characterisation of
produces disturbing signals due to application of this technique is in- microstructures and to estimate the
continuously varying permeability. service inspection of steam generator volume fraction of various phases
This disturbance can be eliminated tubes of sodium cooled prototype fast present. Cold worked and annealed
by employing bias or saturation direct breeder reactors with 23 m long conditions, e.g. in stainless steel 316
current (D.C) which saturates the modified 9Cr-1Mo ferromagnetic or 304 effect electrical conductivity
material magnetically and makes the steel tubes For this application, a in opposite directions and strain-
tube material behave non- comprehensive RFEC technology induced martensite, being a magnetic
ferromagnetic, thus, allows comprising of instrumentation, probes, phase, increases the magnetic
conventional EC testing after which robotic device has been developed permeability. This phase can be
the tubes are to be demagnetised. as a solution to the problem of smaller detected using EC technique.
Typical test set up is shown in diameter, expansion bends, support Specimens subjected to heat
Fig. 11. However, in the case of plates, one-side access and treatments are used to simulate the
installed tubes of smaller diameters, electrically conducting sodium service exposed conditions and the
saturation units cannot be deposits. expected microstructures. Usually,
accommodated due to limited access. EC measurements for microstructure
For mildly magnetic materials, partial CHARACTERISATION OF
MICROSTRUCTURES characterisation are location-based.
saturation using high-energy In general, absolute probes are used
permanent magnets such Nd-Fe-B During manufacturing stages of and analysis is based on impedance
is a possibility. The other technique components made of alloys, heat plane signal interpretation. Reference
possible is remote field eddy current treatment is given to ensure required standards with known electrical
(RFEC) technique [2]. levels of mechanical and physical conductivity and magnetic
This technique uses low frequency properties and desired permeability are used also for
excitation and a separate receiver coil microstructures. Likewise, during establishing calibration graph, apart
kept at two to three tube diameters service life of components, it is from specimens heat treated to
away from exciter coil. The phase essential to ensure that there is no different ageing conditions through
lag of induced voltage in the receiver undesirable degradation in measurement of conductivity and
coil with respect to the exciter is microstructures. EC technique is permeability.
measured using lock-in amplifiers and useful for assessing these two
situations as it exploits measurement EC technique has been used to
correlated with wall loss or defect characterise microstructures in
depth. The advantages of RFEC of changes in electrical conductivity
and magnetic permeability. Changes titanium alloy (VT 14 alloy Ti-4.5Al-
technique include ability to test tubes 3Mo-1V) subjected to a series of
heat treatments consisting of
solutionizing for 1 h at selected
temperatures in the range of 923-
1303 K at an interval of 50 K,
followed by water quenching. This
treatment produces variety of
microstructures due to controlled α-
β transformation and formation of
various phases. The experimentally
measured EC response for various
specimens is shown in Fig. 12 along
with that of the reference standards
viz. Hastelloy-X, Hastelloy-B and Ti-
6Al-4V. It has been found that, both
Fig. 11 : D.C. Saturation based EC testing of ferromagnetic steel tubes.
magnitude and phase angle of

vol 10 issue 3 December 2011 Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation
Basics 15

REFERENCE STANDARDS
Reference standards are used for
adjusting the eddy current instrument
sensitivity to enable detection of
desired size of defects and
quantification of conductivity,
permeability and material thickness
etc. They are also used for sizing
defects [2]. Some commonly used
standards in EC testing by ASME
(American Society for Mechanical
Engineers), BS (British Standards),
ASTM (American Society for
Testing of Materials) and IS (Bureau
of Indian Standards) are:
· ASME, Section V, Article 8, Appendix
1 and 2), Electromagnetic (EC) testing
of heat exchanger tubes
· ASTM B 244 Method for measurement
of thickness of anodic coatings of
Fig. 12 : Impedance plane response for various heat treated specimens at 150 kHz. aluminum and other nonconductive
coatings on nonmagnetic base materials
with EC instruments
impedance change decrease with · Detection of surface as well as sub- · ASTM B 659 Recommended practice
increasing solutionizing temperature surface defects in multi-layer for measurement of thickness of metallic
aircraft structures (single frequency, coatings on nonmetallic substrates
up to 1123 K and this is attributed to multi-frequency & pulsed
decrease in α phase (reduction in techniques)
· ASTM E 215 Standardising equipment
for electromagnetic testing of seamless
electrical conductivity). Beyond · On-line automated saturation based aluminium alloy tube
1123K, formation of α′ martensite quality assurance of steel
· ASTM E 243 Electromagnetic (EC)
dominates the interactions and results (ferromagnetic) tubes.
testing of seamless copper and copper
in increase in effective electrical · Location of garter springs in alloy tubes
conductivity and hence, the PHWRs and measurement of gap
· ASTM E 309 EC examination of steel
impedance change. Beyond 1273K, in coolant channels
tubular products using magnetic
magnitude and phase angle reach a · Detection of intergranular corrosion saturation
constant maximum, due to 100% (IGC) in stainless steels (316, 316L
· ASTM E 376 Measuring coating
and 304 L)
formation of α′ martensite. thickness by magnetic field or EC
· Detection of weld centre line in (electromagnetic) test methods
Comparison of impedance magnitude
austenetic stainless steel welds at
and phase angle with hardness · ASTM E 426 Electromagnetic (EC)
high temperature
measurements has established that testing of seamless and welded tubular
· Measurement of coating thickness products austenitic stainless steel and
EC technique can be implemented in of SiC on carbon-carbon similar alloys
production line to quickly assess the composites
· ASTM E 566 Electromagnetic (EC)
adequacy of heat treatment. · Sorting of materials based on sorting of ferrous metals
electrical conductivity and magnetic
· ASTM E 571 Electromagnetic (EC)
APPLICATIONS permeability
examination of nickel and nickel alloy
· Characterisation of heat treated as tubular products
A few specific practical applications well as degraded microstructures in
of EC technique are given below for · ASTM E 690 In-situ electromagnetic
alloys
(EC) examination of non-magnetic heat-
better appreciation of the technique. · Non-contact detection of metallic exchanger tubes
· Quality assurance of austenitic objects, land mines, security metal
· ASTM E 703 Electromagnetic (EC)
stainless steel tubes, plates and detectors
sorting of nonferrous metals
welds. · Monitoring of liquid levels and for
· Inspection of installed heat · BS 3889 (part 2A): 1986 (1991)
position encoding
exchanger/steam generator/ Automatic EC testing of wrought steel
condenser tubes (single and multi- tubes
frequency) · BS 3889 (part 213): 1966 (1987) EC
testing of non-ferrous tubes

Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation vol 10 issue 3 December 2011
16

· IS 6398:1983 Code of practice for EC SUMMARY REFERENCES


testing of ferrous seamless pipes and
tubes Working on the principle of 1. B.P.C. Rao and T. Jayakumar,
· IS 11612: 2004 Code of practice for EC electromagnetic induction, eddy Discontinuity characterisation using
testing of non-ferrous seamless pipes electromagnetic methods, J of Non-
current technique is a widely used Destructive Testing & Evaluation, Vo.2,
and tubes
NDE technique for detection of No.2, 2002, pp 23-29
· IS 13190: 1991 Recommended practice surface and sub-surface damage.
for EC examination by rotating probe 2. B.P.C. Rao, T. Jayakumar, Baldev Raj,
The attractive features of this
method of round steel bars. Electromagnetic NDE Techniques for
technique include ease of operation, Defect and Microstructural
· IS15540:2004 Recommended practice for
EC testing of installed non-ferromagnetic
high sensitivity to tight cracks, Characterization, in Ultrasonic and
heat exchanger tubing using duel versatility, extremely high testing advanced methods for non-
frequency method. speeds (up to 10 m/s), repeatability destructive testing and material
characterisation, Ed. C.H. Chen, World
LIMITATIONS and reliability. This technique can Scientific Publishing Co. (Singapore),
detect wall thinning, cracks, pitting, June 2007, pp. 247-278.
Like other NDT technique EC stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen
technique has certain limitations too. 3. B.P.C. Rao, Introduction to Eddy
embrittlement, carburization, denting
Current Testing, Narosa Publishing,
But interestingly, most of the original and crud deposits etc. This technique New Delhi, India, February, 2007.
limitations of the technique in 60s and finds a lot of applications in
70s have been overcome by the engineering industry including 4. H.L. Libby, “Introduction to
Electromagnetic Non-destructive Test
advances in instrumentation, sensors, material sorting, determination of Methods”, Wiley-Interscience, New
computer and signal and image hardness, heat treatment adequacy York, 1971
processing techniques. Some of the assessment, material property
important limitations include: 5. V.S. Cecco V.S, G. Van Drunnen and
determination, coating thickness
F.L. Sharp, “Eddy current manual: test
· Applicability to only electrically measurements, and detection of method”, Vol.1, AECL-7523, Chalk
conducting (metallic) materials defects in tubes, rods, bars, multi- River, Ontario, Nov., 1983.
· Inspection of installed ferromagnetic layer structures, discs, welds, blades
6. D.J. Hagemaier, “Fundamentals of
components with the exception of tubes and other regular as well as irregular Eddy Current Testing”, ASNT,
can be inspected by remote field EC geometries. Successful testing Columbus, OH, USA, 1990.
technique
requires selection of proper instrument
· Difficulty to separate the influence of 7. W. Lord, “Electromagnetic methods
and probes, optimisation test
one desired variable in the combined of Non-destructive Testing”, Gordon
presence (at the same location beneath frequency and use of reference and Breach, New York, 1985.
the probe) of several other disturbing calibration standards. When
variables such as stress, microstructure, appropriate standards are used, not 8. Moore Patrik, Udpa S.S, Non-
texture, anisotropy etc. that destructive testing handbook. 3rd
only detection of defects but also edition. Vol.5: Electromagnetic testing,
simultaneously change conductivity and
their sizing is possible using eddy ASNT, Columbus, OH, USA, 2004.
permeability.
current technique.
· Inability to identify circumferential
location of a defect when encircling or
bobbin coils are used. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
· Difficulty in detection of a small defect Author expresses special thanks to
under a large defect
Dr. T. Jayakumar, Mr. S.
· Inability to detect defects at the centre Thirunavukkarasu, Mrs. B. Sasi of
of rods using encircling coils
NDE Division, India Gandhi Center
· Need for skilled personnel for for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam,
interpretation of signals and results
India.

vol 10 issue 3 December 2011 Journal of Non Destructive Testing & Evaluation

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