Presented by:

Engr. Jefril M. Amboy

In radio wave propagation, the interface
between the transmitter or receiver and
the free space is the ANTENNA.

An antenna is a device for radiating and

receiving radio waves. It is made of a
metallic conductor system that converts
electrical energy into electromagnetic
radiation or vice versa.
 Whenever voltage is applied to the
antenna, an electric field is set up.
 This voltage causes current to flow in
the antenna, producing a magnetic
field.
 These fields are radiated from the
antenna and propagate through space
at the speed of light.
The polarization of a radio wave is the
orientation of its electric field vector. For
most antennas, the polarization is the
same as the antenna axis.

The polarization of the sending end must

be the same as that of the receiving end.
 Antennas produce two sets of fields, the near field
and the far field.

The near field describes the region

directly around the antenna where the
electric and magnetic fields are distinct.

The far field is approximately 10λ from

the antenna. It is the radio wave with the
composite electric and magnetic fields.
Antenna reciprocity means that the
characteristics and performance of an
antenna are the same whether the
antenna is radiating or intercepting an
electromagnetic signal.
 A transmitting antenna takes a voltage from the
transmitter and converts it into an electromagnetic
signal.
 A receiving antenna has a voltage induced into it by
the electromagnetic signal that passes across it.
 An antenna can be a length of wire, a
metal rod, or a piece of tubing.
 Antennas radiate most effectively when
their length is directly related to the
wavelength of the transmitted signal.
 Most antennas have a length that is
some fraction of a wavelength.
 One-half and one-quarter wavelengths
are most common.
 One of the most commonly used antennas is
the half-wave dipole, formally known as the
Hertz antenna. It is also called a doublet.
 It is made up of two conductors; each are one-
quarter wavelength long at the operating
frequency.
 The dipole has an impedance of 73 Ω at its
center, which is the radiation resistance.
 To get the dipole to resonate at the frequency
of operation, the physical length must be
shorter than the one-half wavelength.
Dipole antenna: 2 wires each with length l = /4
• attach ends to terminals of a high frequency AC generator
• at time t, the generator’s right side = ‘+’ and the left side = ‘−’
++++
+++++++
+++++++++++
− + − + +++++++++++++++
A B A ------------------------
+++++++++++++++ B
l = /4
--------------------
i(t) ----------------
-----------
-----
current distribution at time t
voltage distribution at time t

• electrons flow away from the ‘−’ terminal and towards the ‘+’ terminal
• most current flows in the center and none flows at the ends
• i(t) at any point will vary directly with v(t)

¼ cycle after electrons have begun to flow → max number of electrons will be at A and min
number at B
vmax(t) is developed
i(t) = 0

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Standing Wave
• center of the antenna is at a low impedance: v(t)  0, imax(t)
• ends of antenna are at high impedence: i(t)  0, vmax(t)
• the current is max. at the center while the voltage is min. at the ends at all times.
• feedpoint is a voltage node and current antinode; terminals are voltage antinodes and
current nodes
→ Resonance condition in the antenna
• waves travel back and forth reinforcing
• maximum EM waves are transmitted into at maximum radiation

− +
A B
i(t) l = /4

EM patterns on Dipole Antenna:

• sinusoidal distribution of charge exists on the antenna that reverses
polarity every ½ cycle
• Electic field E and magnetic field H 90 out of phase with each other
• fields add and produce a single EM field
• total energy in the radiated wave is constant, except for some absorption
• as the wave advances, the power density decreases
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 Actual length is related to the ratio of length to
diameter, conductor shape, Q, the dielectric
(when the material is other than air), and a
condition known as end effect.
 End effect is a phenomenon caused by any
support insulators used at the ends of the wire
antenna and has the effect of adding
capacitance to the end of each wire.
 The actual antenna length is only about 95% of
the computed length.
 If a dipole is used at a frequency different from
its design frequency, the SWR rises and power
is lost.
Calculate the length of a half-wave dipole
for an operating frequency of
200 MHz.

Ans: l = 0.7125 m
 The bandwidth of an antenna is
determined by the frequency of
operation and the Q of the antenna
according to the relationship BW = fr/Q.
For an antenna, low Q and wider bandwidth are
desirable so that the antenna can operate over a
wider range of frequencies with reasonable SWR.

In general, any SWR below 2:1 is considered good in

practical antenna work.
The major factor for determining
bandwidth is diameter of conductor. A
smaller diameter means a narrow
bandwidth.

B = 5% to 15% of the center frequency

A lossless HW dipole does not dissipate
power; but it does radiate power into space.
 The effect is the same as if a loss had taken
place.

The portion of an antenna’s input impedance

that is due to power radiated into space is
known as the radiation resistance.

At the feed point, the half-wave dipole has a

radiation resistance of about 73 Ω.
A real antenna has losses in the conductor and
therefore, has an efficiency less than 1 given
by

Rr
=
Rt

Rr = radiation resistance
Rt = ohmic resistance
A dipole antenna has a radiation
resistance of 67 Ω and a loss resistance
of 5 Ω, measured at the feedpoint.
Calculate the efficiency.

Ans: η = 93%
 version of the dipole antenna
 center radiation resistance is much
higher than the 73 Ω
 primary advantage: increased bandwidth
 can maintain constant impedance and
gain over a 4:1 frequency range
 Most HW dipole antennas are
horizontally polarized
 Horizontal mounting is preferred at the
lower frequencies
 makes it easier to attach the
transmission line and route it to the
transmitter or receiver
Practical antennas have directional
characteristics.

The radiation is concentrated in a pattern

that has a recognizable geometric shape.

The shape of the electromagnetic energy

radiated from or received by an antenna
is called radiation pattern.
The HW dipole antenna is
a bidirectional antenna.

The field strength is at

its maximum along a line
at a right angle to the
antenna and is zero off
the ends of the antenna.
 ANTENNAS ARE PASSIVE DEVICES.

A directional antenna can radiate more

power in a given direction. In this
“favored” direction, it acts as if it had
gain.

The ability of an antenna to send and

receive signals over a narrow horizontal
direction is called its directivity.
The physical orientation of the antenna
gives it a highly directional response.

Directivity enables the antennas to

radiate power in a focused direction.

A directional antenna eliminates

interference from other signals.
A highly directional antenna acts as a
type of filter to provide selectivity.

Directional antennas provide greater

efficiency of power transmission.

Directivity, because it focuses the power,

causes the antenna to exhibit gain, which
is one form of amplification.
Real antennas have losses. The gain is
simply the directivity multiplied by the
antenna efficiency.

G = D

η = attenna efficiency
D = directivity of the antenna
Ratio of the power available at the antenna
terminals to the power per unit area of the
appropriately polarized incident EM wave

𝝀𝟐 𝑮
𝑨𝒆 =
𝟒𝝅
The gain of a lossless HW dipole is

G = 2.14 dBi

G = 0 dBd

G(dBd) = G(dBi) – 2.14 dB

A dipole antenna has an efficiency of
85%. Calculate its gain in decibels.

Ans: G = 1.43 dBi

An antenna is specified to have a gain of
13.995 dBi. Express the gain in dBd.

Ans: G = 11.81 dBd

The measure of an antenna’s directivity is
its beam width.

The beam width of an antenna is defined

as the angle between its two half-power
points.

Beam width is also defined by the points

at which the power density is 3 dB less
than its maximum value.
Lobes are regions of
high signal strength

Nulls are regions of very

low signal strength
The front of an antenna is the direction of
maximum horizontal radiation.

The direction 180° from the front is the

back of the antenna.

The ratio between the gains to the front

and back is the front-to-back ratio.
The effective isotropic radiated power
(EIRP) is defined as the product of the
power transmitted and the gain of the
antenna with respect to an isotropic
radiator.

EIRP = Gt Pt
The effective radiated power (EIRP) is
defined as the product of the power
transmitted and the gain of the antenna
with respect to a HW dipole.

ERP = EIRP − 2.14 dB

The ERP of a transmitting station is
specified as 17 W in a given direction.
Express this as an EIRP in dBm.

Ans: EIRP = 44.44 dBm

The impedance of an antennas is
completely resistive at resonance, which
occurs when the length of the antenna is
about 95% of the calculated free-space
half-wavelength.

An antenna that is too short appears

capacitive, while one that is too long is
inductive
Delta match allows impedance matching with the
transmission line. The greater the separation
between feed points, the higher the impedance.
 A popular variation of the half-wave dipole is the
folded dipole.
 The folded dipole is also one-half wavelength long.
 It consists of two parallel conductors connected at the
ends with one side open at the center for connection
to the transmission line.
 The impedance of this antenna is 300 Ω.
 Folded dipoles usually offer greater bandwidth than
standard dipoles (10% more bandwidth).
 The folded dipole is an effective, low-cost antenna
that can be used for transmitting and receiving.
Folded dipole. (a) Basic configuration. (b) Construction with twin lead.
 also called Marconi Antenna or ground
plane vertical antenna
 made using a QW vertical radiator
 similar in operation to a vertically mounted
dipole antenna
 vertically polarized; omnidirectional
 usually fed with coaxial cable
 center conductor is connected to the
radiator; shield connected to earth ground
 the earth acts as a
ground plane
 an artificial ground
can be constructed of
several one QW wires
radials
 collection of radials is
called a counterpoise
 For many applications, e.g., with portable or
mobile equipment, it is not possible to make the
antenna a full one-quarter wavelength long.
 The practical effect of this design is a decreased
inductance. The antenna no longer resonates at the
desired operating frequency, but at a higher
frequency.
 To compensate for this, a series inductor, called a
loading coil, is connected in series with the antenna
 The loading coil brings the antenna back into
resonance at the desired frequency.
 This antenna is often used vertically as either a
mobile or base antenna in VHF and UHF systems.
 It has omnidirectional response in the horizontal
plane.
 the radiation is concentrated at a lower angle,
resulting in gain in the horizontal direction, which is
often useful.
 it has a higher feedpoint impedance and therefore
does not require as good a ground.
 It is characterized by very wide bandwidth,
covering approximately a ten-to-one frequency
range.
 It has an omnidirectional pattern in the horizontal
plane.
 The signal is vertically polarized and the gain is
comparable to that of a dipole.
 The feedpoint impedance is approximately 50 Ω.
 a very popular antenna for general reception in the
VHF and UHF ranges
 Made of a spiral conductor
usually several wavelengths
long
 produces circularly polarized
waves
 Can be used to receive circularly
polarized as well as plane
polarized waves
 They are often used for VHF and UHF satellite
transmissions
 the circumference of each turn is usually one wavelength
 the turns are about one-quarter wavelength apart

2
15NS   D  52 
G= =
    D NS
A helical antenna with 8 turns is to be
constructed for a frequency of 1.2 GHz.
Calculate the (a) optimum diameter and
spacing for the antenna and find the total
length of the antenna (b) antenna gain in
dBi (c) beamwidth

Ans: 80 mm, 62.5 mm, 500 mm,

14.8 dBi, 36.6°
 This provides extremely high gain and directivity
and are very popular for microwave radio and
satellite communication links.
𝟐
𝝅𝒅
𝑮=𝜼
𝝀

𝟕𝟎𝝀
𝜼 = 𝟓𝟓% 𝜽=
𝒅
𝑮 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟖 + 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒇𝑮𝑯𝒛 𝒅𝒎
 The slot antenna is basically just a hole in a
waveguide.
 The length of the slot is one-half wavelength.
 It is seldom used alone but is usually combined with
many other slots to make phases array.
 Horn antennas can be viewed as the interface
between a waveguide and the free space. .
 The gain and directivity depends on the type of
horn and its dimensions.
 The most common type is the pyramidal horn.
7.5dE dH
G=
2

70 56
H = =
dH dE
 consists of a thin metallic patch placed a small
fraction of a wavelength above a conducting
ground plane.
 Patch antennas are low in cost, compact at UHF
and microwave frequencies, and have gain on the
order of 6 dBi.
 Most of the radiation is in the direction
perpendicular to the plane of the antenna and on
the patch side of the antenna. The ground plane
prevents the patch from radiating very much in the
opposite direction
 Can be fed by a coaxial cable.
 Can also be fed by a microstrip line.
 To create an antenna with directivity and gain, two
or more antenna elements are combined to form an
array.
 Two basic types of antenna arrays are used to
achieve gain and directivity.
 Parasitic Arrays
 Driven arrays
 A parasitic array consists of a basic antenna
connected to a transmission line plus one or more
additional conductors that are not connected to the
transmission line.
 These extra conductors are referred to as parasitic
elements and the antenna is called a driven element.
 A Yagi antenna is made up of a driven element and
one or more parasitic elements.
 The most popular type of parasitic array.
 It has one driven element and several parasitic
elements.
 One parasitic element, called reflector is placed
behind the driven element and several other
parasitic elements called directors are placed in front
of it.
 The driven element is a half-wave dipole, the
reflector is slightly longer while the directors are
slightly shorter.
 The spacing between elements is typically 0.2λ.
 A driven array is an antenna that has two or more
driven elements.
 Each element receives RF energy from the
transmission line.
 Different arrangements of the elements produce
different degrees of directivity and gain.
 The three basic types of driven arrays are the
collinear, the broadside, and the end-fire
 A fourth type is the wide-bandwidth log-periodic
antenna.
 Collinear antennas usually consist of two or more
half-wave dipoles mounted end to end.
 Collinear antennas typically use half-wave sections
separated by shorted quarter-wave matching stubs
which ensure that the signals radiated by each half-
wave section are in phase.
 Collinear antennas are generally used only on VHF
and UHF bands because their length becomes
prohibited at the lower frequencies.
Collinear Array Radiation pattern of a four-element
collinear antenna
 A broadside array is a stacked collinear antenna
consisting of half-wave dipoles spaced from one
another by one-half wavelengths.
 This antenna produces a highly directional
radiation pattern that is broadside or perpendicular
to the plane of the array.
 The broadside antenna is bidirectional in radiation,
but the radiation pattern has a very narrow beam
width and high gain.
 The end-fire array uses two half-wave dipoles
spaced one-half wavelength apart.
 The end-fire array has a bidirectional radiation
pattern, but with narrower beam widths and lower
gain. The radiation is in the plane of the driven
elements.
 A highly unidirectional antenna can be created by
careful selection of the optimal number of elements
with the appropriately related spacing.
 A special type of driven array is the wide-bandwidth
log-periodic antenna.
 The lengths of the driven elements vary from long
to short and are related logarithmically. The
spacing is also variable.
 The great advantage of the log-periodic antenna
over a Yagi or other array is its very wide
bandwidth.
 Most TV antennas in use today are of the log-
periodic variety so that they can provide high gain
and directivity on both VHF and UHF TV channels.
 Name Shape Gain (over Beamwidth - Radiation Pattern
isotropic) 3 dB

Isotropic 0 dB 360

Dipole
2.14 dB 55

Turnstile -0.86 dB 50

Full Wave Loop 3.14 dB 200

Yagi 7.14 dB 25

Helical 10.1 dB 30

Parabolic
14.7 dB 20
Dipole

Horn 15 dB 15

Biconical Horn 14 dB 360x200

92