Soil and its classification

Irrigation and its classification

foundation and its classification
introduction of hydraulic structure

Civil department
 SOIL AND ITS CLASSIFICATION
• Soil • AASHOT,HRB,PRA
• Organic soil
• GI
• Inorganic soil
• Weathering • Unifies soil classification
• Physical weathering • I.S particle size distribution
• Chemical weathering • Course grained soil
• Biological weathering • Fine grained soil
• Geological cycle
• GW,GP,GM,GC
• Types of soil depends up
on the source of • SW,SP,SM,SC
transportation
 Irrigation and its classification
• Irrigation engineering
• Base period(B)
• Duty(D)
• Delta
• Rabi season
• Kharif season
• Relation between duty and delta
• Mixed cropping
• Night irrigation
• Crop rotation
• Main concerns of irrigation
• Types of irrigation
• Methods of irrigation
 Drip irrigation
• Drip irrigation is a type of micro-irrigation
system that has the potential to save water
and nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly
to the roots of plants, either from above the
soil surface or buried below the surface. The
goal is to place water directly into the root
zone and minimize evaporation.
FLOODING IRRIGATION
furrow irrigation
CONTOUR FARMING
Free field flooding
Check flooding
Levee flooding
Basin flooding
Zigzag flooding
Border strip flooding
 foundation and its classification
• Foundation in construction. A
foundation is a lower portion of
building structure that transfers its
gravity loads to the earth.
• Foundations are generally broken
into two categories: shallow
foundations and deep foundations
 Shallow Foundation

• Shallow foundation are those foundations in

which the depth at which the foundation is
placed is less than the width of the foundation
(D < B).
• Shallow foundations are generally termed as
spread footing as they transmit the load of the
super structure laterally into the ground.
• On the basis of design, the shallow
foundations are classified as:
1. Wall Footing
2. Isolated column or Column Footing
3. Combined Footing
4. Cantilever (Strap) Footing
5. Mat (Raft) Foundation
 Wall Footing
• This type of foundation runs continuous along
the direction of the wall and helps to transmit
the load of the wall into the ground.
• Wall footing are suitable where loads to be
transmitted are small and are economical in
dense sands and gravels.
• In this type of foundation the width is 2-3 times
the width of the wall at ground level.
• Wall footing may be constructed through stone,
brick, plain or reinforced cement concrete.
 Column Footing

• Column footing are suitable and economical

for the depth greater than 1.5m.
• In this type of foundation the base of the
column is enlarged.
• Column footing is in the form of flat slab and
may be constructed through plain or
reinforced concrete.
 Combined Footing
• Combined footings are those foundations that
are made common for two or more columns in a
row.
• It is used when the footing for a column may
extend beyond the property line.
• It is also suitable when the two columns are
closely spaced and the soil on which the
structure resist is of low bearing capacity.
• It may be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.
 Strap Footing
• When an edge footing
cannot be extended beyond
the property line the edge
footing is linked up with the
other interior footing by
means of a strap beam.
• Such footings are called as
strap footing. It is also know
as cantilever footing.
 Mat Foundation
• A mat foundation is a combined footing which covers the entire area
beneath of a structure and supports all the walls and columns.
• It is also known as raft foundation. Mat foundation is applicable
when:
• Allowable bearing pressure is low.
• The structure is heavy.
• The site is with highly compressible layer.
• The mat foundation can be further classified into following types:
 Flat slab type.
 Flat Slab thickened under column.
 Two way beam and slab type.
 Flat slab with pedestals.
 Rigid frame mat.
 Piled mat.
 Deep Foundation
• Deep Foundation are those foundations in which
the depth of the foundation is greater than its
width (D>B).
• The D/B ratio is usually 4-5 for deep foundation.
Unlike shallow foundation, the deep foundation
transmits the load of the superstructure vertically
to the rock strata lying deep.
• Deep foundations are used when the shallow
foundation cannot support the load of the
structure.
 Classification of Deep Foundation

The mat foundation can be further classified

into following types:
• Pile Foundation
• Pier Foundation
• Well (Caissons) Foundation
 Pile Foundation
• Pile is a slender member with small area of cross-
section relative to its length.
• They can transfer load either by friction or by
bearing.
Pile foundation are used when:
• The load is to be transferred to stronger or less
compressible stratum, preferably rock.
• The granular soils need to be compacted.
• The horizontal and the inclined forces need to be
carried from the bridge abutments and the
retaining walls.
 Pier Foundation
• Pier foundation are underground cylindrical
structural member that support heavier load of
the structure which shallow foundations cannot
resist. Unlike pile foundation, pier foundation can
only transfer load by bearing.
• Pier foundation are shallower in depth than the
pile foundation. Pier foundation are used when:
• The top strata is a decomposed rock underlying
as sound rock strata.
• The soil is a stiff clay that occurs large resistance
for driving the bearing pile.
 Well (Caissons) Foundation
• The term caisson refers to box or a case. These
are hollow inside and are usually constructed at
the site and sunk in place into a hard bearing
strata.
• As they are expensive in construction, they are
usually restricted to major foundation works.
• Well foundation are suitable when the soil
contains large boulders obstructing the
penetration during installation of pier or pile
foundations.
• Caissons are used for bridge piers, abutments
in rivers and lakes and other shore protection
works.
• They are used to resist heavy vertical and
horizontal loads and are used in the
construction of large water front structures as
pump houses.
Classification of Well Foundation
• Open Caissons
• Pneumatic Caissons
• Box Caissons
introduction of hydraulic structure

• Canals
• Siphons
• Weirs
• Dams
• Reservoir
 Canals
• Canals, or navigations, are human-made channels
or artificial waterways, for water conveyance, or
to service water transport vehicle.
• In most cases, the engineered works will have a
series of dams that create reservoirs of low speed
current flow.
• A canal is also known as a navigation when it
parallels a river and shares part of its waters and
drainage basin, and leverages its resources by
building dams and locks to increase and lengthen
its stretches of slack water levels while staying in
its valley.
• In contrast, a canal cuts across a drainage divide
top a ridge, generally requiring an external water
source above the highest elevation.
 Siphons
• In a canal siphon, drainage is carried over canal but the
full supply level of canal is above than the drainage
trough.
• So the canal water flows under syphonic action and there
is no presence of atmospheric pressure in canal.
• When compared, super passage is more often preferred
than canal Siphon because in a canal Siphon, big
disadvantage is that the canal water is under drainage
trough so any defective minerals or sediment deposited
cannot be removed with ease like in the case of a Siphon
Aqueduct.
• Flooring of canal is depressed and ramp like structure is
provided at upstream and downstream to form syphonic
action. This structure is a reverse of Siphon aqueduct.
 Weirs
• weir or low head dam is a barrier across the
horizontal width of a river that alters the flow
characteristics of water and usually results in a
change in the height of the river level.
• There are many designs of weir, but
commonly water flows freely over the top of
the weir crest before cascading down to a
lower level.
• Weirs are commonly used to prevent flooding,
measure water discharge, and help render rivers
more navigable by boat.
• A common distinction between dams and weirs is
that water flows over the top (crest) of a weir or
underneath it for at least some of its length.
Accordingly, the crest of an overflow spillway on a
large dam may therefore be referred to as a weir.
• Weirs can vary in size both horizontally and
vertically, with the smallest being only a few
inches in height whilst the largest may be
hundreds of meters long and many meters tall.
Some common weir purposes are outlined below.
 Dams
• Dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of water
or underground streams.
• Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but
also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human
consumption, industrial use and navigability,
hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to
generate electricity.
• A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of
water which can be evenly distributed between
locations.
• Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining
water, while other structures such as floodgates or (also
known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water
flow into specific land regions
dike
 Masonry Dam
Masonry dams are built
using either stone
masonry or brick
masonry. Cement
mortar is used to join
the masonry blocks.
Gravity dam, arch dam
etc. are examples of
masonry dams.
 Concrete Dam
Concrete is most commonly used material to
construct a dam. Most of the major dams in the
world are built using concrete. Gravity dams, arch
dam, Buttress dam etc. can be constructed using
concrete.
 Timber Dam
Timber dams generally used for temporary
purposes such as to divert the water for the
construction of main dam, to control flood
water flow etc. Timber dams are suitable up to 9
meters height.
 Steel Dam
Steel dams are also used for temporary
requirements like timber dams. Steel plates and
inclined struts are used for the construction of
steel dam. This type of dams are suitable up to
15 to 18 meters of height.
 Earthen Dam
Earthen dams are made of ordinary soil which is cheaply
available. This type of dams are suitable where the foundation
soil is very weak and not strong enough to carry the weight of
masonry dam. Since it is constructed using soil the cost of
construction is very less compared to rigid type dam.
Rock Fill Dam
Rock fill dams are constructed using rocks and boulders.
Upstream side of dam is built with dry rubble masonry and
loose rock fill is provided on the downstream side. A
reinforced concrete slab layer is also provided on the
upstream side to make it water tight.
It is more stable than earthen dams and its flexible nature
helps it better against earthquake forces.
 Gravity Dam
A Gravity dam is a structure which resists the
external forces by its own weight or self-weight.
Gravity dams are generally constructed by using
masonry or concrete.
Arch Dam
An arch dam is curved in plan with its convex upstream.
Various forces coming onto the dam are resisted by its
arch action. It is constructed using masonry or concrete
but requires less material compared to gravity dam.
 Hydro-power Dam
Hydro-power dam is used to generate electricity
by rotating turbines with the help of water
falling from upstream side to downstream side
of dam.
 Large Dam
A dam is said to be large dam if its gross storage
capacity is above 60 MCM. Hydraulic head of a
large dam is greater than 30 meters.
 Medium Dam
If gross storage
capacity of a dam is
in between 10 to
60 MCM then it is
said to be medium
storage dam. Its
hydraulic head is 12
to 30 meters.
 Small Dam
A dam is called as small dam if its gross
storage capacity is in between 0.5 to 10
MCM (million cubic meters). Hydraulic
head of small dam is generally about 7.5
to 12 meters.