VSRD International Journal of Technical & Non-Technical Research, Vol.

VIII Issue XII December 2017 / 329

e-ISSN: 0976-7967, p-ISSN: 2319-2216 © VSRD International Journals: www.vsrdjournals.com

REVIEW PAPER

THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF RIVER SAND MINING

1Rupesh
Rastogi* and 2Virendra Kumar
1Assistant
Professor, Department of Business Administration,
Azad Technical Campus, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, INDIA.
2Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmacy,

Azad Institute of Pharmacy and Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

Corresponding Email Id: rastogi_mba12@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Humans race have always had a strong bonding with the rivers. All great civilization has flourished on the river banks. Humans have
derived multifarious benefits from the rivers; they are source of fresh water, dependable source of food supply, provide a cheap mode
of transportation and also supply of construction material. Human beings have also found the most lucrative livelihoods on river
banks. The riverine landmasses viz. riverbed and riverbanks are being used by humans since centuries. Initially this activity did not
cause much harm to rivers as the process was not mechanized and was within the renewal capacity of rivers. The construction boom
has fuelled the demand of sand and gravel, weak governance and prevalent corruption has facilitated the uncontrolled and
illegal mining of the rivers, threatening their very existence. In several states of India indiscriminate and extensive mining of sand is
taking place in major rivers. Beside on-site effects, uncontrolled sand mining also has off-site effects thereby causing great harm to
the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The damage to the environment is wide and encompassing from damage to the river to the loss
of the biodiversity. The present paper presents an outline of the environmental impact of river sand mining and possible means of
minimizing the impact.

Keywords: Environmental Impact, Ecosystem, Biodiversity, Sand.

materials in the form of sediments from land to ocean.

1. INTRODUCTION
Rivers are the most significant life -nourishing systems of
natural world. In times gone by, rivers, their floodplains,
estuaries, and deltas have been the centre of human
progress involving agriculture, transport, industry, waste
disposal and settlement. The earliest cultures of humans
are inseparably centred around rivers. In India, one of
earlier settlements; the lndus Valley Civilization
flourished on the valleys of Indus River dating back to
5500-4600 years before present 1. The Tigris and
Euphrates rivers in Iraq provided the support for the dawn
of civilization in Mesopotamia (literally means “between
two rivers”) over 4,000 years ago. The protracted
historical association of society and rivers is also clear in
their mystical and religious significance 2. The culture,
opulence and security of the people are directly related to
the health of rivers and neighbouring backwaters –
nearshore systems.
Rivers are the primary mechanism of landscape and
lifescape. The complex systems of flowing waters drain
through specific land areas and evolves through multiple
and complex interactions of geological,
geomorphological, climatic and hydrological processes.
Flow of River creates numerous key features of land-life
systems and it also transports particulate and dissolved
River sediments, in particular the fine particulates holding
nutrient elements and other geochemical components
transported downstream, play an vital role in maintaining
the productivity of the coastal-nearshore environments 3.
A substantial part of the total quantity of material is
detained within the channels of Rivers and adjoining
environments as fluvial deposit.
Rivers also endow with habitat for many biotic
communities throughout the length of their path.
Rivers are a part of freshwater ecosystems. Running
water has a number of advantages over stagnant water. It
is constantly mixed up by turbulence providing nutrients,
exchange of respiratory gases, and removal of wastes.
Lotic water is fundamental for the downstream and lateral
movement of plants and animals. Though, the character
of flow changes from the headwaters to the river mouth
and this leads to a characteristic zonation in the biota of
rivers. In Floodplain Rivers, the recession of the annual
flood delivers high levels of dissolved organic carbon and
detritus (wood, leaves, seeds, etc.) to the main channel.
This lateral connectivity is so important for sustaining the
integrity of large floodplain rivers.
Rupesh Rastogi and Virendra Kumar
Over exploitation by humans has threatened all the major
Fig. 1: Natural capital degradation: stress on the world’s major river basins, based on a comparison of the
amount of water available with the amount used by humans 4.
2. SAND AND GRAVEL MINING IN
RIVERS
In the developing countries, river sand is extensively used
as fine aggregates for building constructions. The demand
for construction grade sand has increased with the
expansion of transportation and construction
infrastructure in the mid-twentieth century. Sand is
extracted directly from the active river channels or from
its floodplains and / or over bank areas. Technically sand
is a loose, non-cohesive ‘granular’ material whose size
varies between 0.063 mm and 2 mm 5. The term ‘sand’ is
used to cover almost any comminuted rock or mineral,
but technically it is restricted to quartz sand with minor
impurities of feldspar, mica and iron oxides 6.
Sand can be easily extracted from rivers and it requires
almost no processing except size grading. It is now well
documented that; the continued and indiscriminate sand
mining can cause serious environmental impacts, mainly
if the river being mined is erosional. The in-channel or
near-channel mining of sand certainly alters the sediment
budget and may greatly change the channel hydraulics in
addition to negatively affecting productivity in the nearby
agricultural lands, river bank stability, engineering
structures and river ecology.
Due to the present vast amount of mining, sand and
gravel is a non-renewable resource in human life scale.
3. ADVERSE IMPACT OF SAND
MINING ON RIVERS
Sand is essential for RCC. Additionally, sand is used in
industries as raw material for making glass. The major
user of sand is by ‘construction sector’. The demand of
VSRDIJTNTR, Vol. VIII (XII) December 2017 / 330
rivers of the world.
sand is increasing and it is being over extracted at
multiple depths ranging from three to forty feet, from
various river streams and basins. For making access
roads to mining areas vegetation and ecosystems are
destroyed along river banks. Pit sand and gravel
extraction requires clearing of large open lands before
mining. There is destruction of riverbank hinterland and
flora when extraction is done close to riverbeds.
Sand is essential for health and survival of rivers.
It has been recognized that unrestrained sand mining
from the riverbed causes the destruction of the entire river
system. If sand and gravel are extracted beyond the
carrying capacity of the rivers, degradation in its
channel form, physical habitats and food webs are caused.
Large scale mining of sand and gravel several folds
higher than the natural replenishments has caused
irreparable damages to the land, water, biotic and social
/human environments of many rivers. Too much in
stream sand-and-gravel mining ruins the rivers. In stream
mining lowers the stream bottom, leading to erosion of
the bank. Reduction of sand in the streambed and in
coastal areas causes the deepening of rivers, estuaries and
the swelling of river mouths and coastal inlets. It may
also cause the saline-water to invade from the close sea.
The effect of mining is aggravated by the effect of sea
level rise. Even the slightest volume of sand exported
from streambeds and coastal areas causes’ loss to the
system.
The negative impact of river sand mining can be broadly
divided into two categories:
 Off-site impacts
 On-site impacts.
Rupesh Rastogi and Virendra Kumar VSRDIJTNTR, Vol. VIII (XII) December 2017 / 331

The off-site impacts are chiefly transport related The on- site impacts are normally channel related

Table 1: General impact of river sand and gravel mining on various components of river ecosystem
S. No System / Components Impact of Sand Mining

1 River channel
2 Surface water
3 Groundwater
4 Flora and fauna
5 Culture
6 Coast / Near shore
Erosion of river bank, river bank slumping, lowering of river channel
Rise in suspended particulate level, turbidity, and other pollutants from oil,
grease etc
Lowering of Groundwater table in areas adjacent to mining sites, damaging
the fresh water aquifer system in areas close to the river mouth zone.
Dwindling of flora and fauna diversity within river basin, decline in
terrestrial insects.
Damage to the culturally significant places and places of annual religious
congregations
Lack of replenishment of coastal beaches leading to coastal erosion and
reduction in the supply of nutrient elements from the terrestrial source
(UNEP, 1990)

Impacts of sand mining can be broadly classified into
three categories:
3.1 Physical
The extensive removal of streambed resources, mining
and dredging beneath the existing streambed, and the
modification of channel-bed form and shape causes
several impacts such as erosion of channel bed and banks,
increase in channel slope, and change in channel
morphology. These impacts may cause:
 The undercutting and fall down of river banks,
 The loss of neighbouring land and/or structures
 Upstream erosion as a consequence of an
enlargement of channel slope and changes in flow
speed
 Downstream erosion owing to increased carrying
capacity of the stream, downstream changes in
patterns of deposition, and alteration in channel bed
and habitat type.

Fig 2: Headcutting, digging of a mining crater in the active waterway lowers the bed of the stream, thus creating a
nick point that locally steepens channel slope and increases flow energy. During elevated flows, a nick point
becomes a site of bed erosion that slowly moves upstream 7.

3.2 Changes in water quality / quantity
Indiscriminate mining for construction grade sand and
gravel from the active channels and floodplains of river
systems can impose serious problems in the surface and
sub-surface (groundwater) water resources. Mining and
dredging activities, poorly planned stockpiling and
uncontrolled dumping of overburden, and chemical/fuel
spills causes reduced water quality for downstream users,
increased cost for downstream water treatment plants and
poisoning of aquatic life.
Rupesh Rastogi and Virendra Kumar
3.2.1 Surface water
High content of suspended particulates in the water
column arising as a result of clandestine sand mining
operations can cause severe impairments to the river
ecosystems. Change in water flow and water quality
increases the prevalence of communicable diseases. The
quality of water used for drinking, bathing and other
domestic purposes is deteriorated.
3.2.2 Groundwater
River recharges the groundwater; excessive mining
reduces the thickness of the natural filter materials
(sediments), through which the groundwater is recharged.
As a result of this, the groundwater table is lowered and
the drinking water wells on the embankments of these
rivers get dry. The Bed degradation due to in stream
mining lowers the height of stream flow and the water
table of the floodplain which in turn reduces water table-
dependent woody vegetation in riparian areas, and also
lowers wetted periods in riparian wetlands. Excessive
mining reduces the thickness of the natural filter materials
(sediments) through which the groundwater is recharged.
The pollutants which are released due to mining, like
washing of mining materials, wastes disposal, diesel and
vehicular oil lubricants pollutes the groundwater. The
locations which are close to the sea, saline water also
intrudes into the fresh water body.
3.3 Air Quality
The impacting actions like manual mining does not
produce much direct effect on air quality. However, the
mining related activities like movement of vehicles
through unplanned roads produces marked adverse effects
in the ambient air quality, in addition to enhancing the
noise level. Mechanical mining in the lowland areas can
also cause negative impacts at lower levels on air quality
and noise level
3.4 Biological components
Mining activities leads to the removal of channel
substrate, re suspension of streambed sediment, clearance
of vegetation, and stockpiling on the streambed. It has
serious ecological impact. In effect it could result in loss
of stream reserve habitat, trouble for the species attached
to streambed deposits, low light penetration, low primary
production, and reduced feeding prospects.
Sand mining enhances levels of suspended solids, in the
overlying water column, which in turn leads to higher
turbidity levels. The finely divided suspended matter
which does not settle quickly makes the water more
opaque/cloudy and negatively affect light penetration.
This definitely reduces the photosynthetic activity,
productivity and growth of planktonic and benthonic
animals 8.This imposes scarcity on the nature’s food
items and exerts pressure on feeding of juveniles and the
adults of higher order animals like fishes. Together, the
autotrophs and microbial heterotrophs in running waters
make energy available to consumer organisms at higher
VSRDIJTNTR, Vol. VIII (XII) December 2017 / 332
trophic levels. The most important autotrophs of running
waters consist of large plants, referred to as macrophytes,
and a variety of small autotrophs. The latter are referred
to as periphyton when found on substrates, and
phytoplankton when occur in suspension within the water
column. Heterotrophic production requires a source of
non-living organic matter and the presence of
microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) to breakdown the
organic matter and releases its stored energy.
Heterotrophic pathways are of greatest importance where
the opportunities for photosynthesis are least 9. This
diverse mix of autotrophic and heterotrophic energy
inputs provides the support for higher trophic levels.
3.4.1 Riparian vegetation
The riparian habitats are interface between the river and
the land. In the shaded riverine aquatic habitat, vegetation
that; grows at the interface of the river and adjacent
riparian habitat and shades the water. Riparian habitat
including vegetative cover on and adjacent to the river
banks controls erosion, provide nutrient inputs into the
stream and prevents intrusion of pollutants in the stream
through runoff. Erosion of the river bank and change in
the morphology of the river can destroy the riparian
vegetative cover.
Sand mining negatively effects the riparian vegetation.
The riparian canopy regulates stream temperature through
shadowing and provides organic matter via litter fall,
while their root systems stabilize the bank and filter
lateral sediment and nutrient inputs, thereby controlling
stream sediment and nutrient dynamics. Lowering of
water table due to indiscriminate sand mining can induce
loss of riparian vegetation along the banks of the rivers, if
the water table drops below the root zone. Riparian flora
and fauna suffer from serious effects caused by riverbank
slumping, channel incision, lowering of water table. The
deep pools shaded by the overhanging riparian shrubs and
trees, are vital resting sites for in stream fauna, especially
fishes. Since aquatic ecosystems are among the most
productive and diverse habitats, it is not surprising that
they are easily upset by a variety of perturbations caused
by human beings. The river itself has a variety of bottom
characteristics, temperatures, velocities, bank features,
riparian vegetation, and invertebrates that serve as fish
food. Spawning must occur in the gravel / sand beds
which act as incubators where eggs are well oxygenated
and are hidden from predators. The newly hatched fish
must escape from the gravel beds and seek out the stream
nurseries.
3.4.2 Impact on fishes
Excessive concentration of suspended solids in water
imposes respiratory disorders in fishes due to chocking up
of the gills 10. In extreme cases, gill lamellae become
blocked up and fail to function, properly. Protective
mucous of fish also gets affected, making it conducive for
infection by bacteria, fungi and other disease prone
vectors.
Rupesh Rastogi and Virendra Kumar
It is well understood that many species of fishes prefer to
hatch eggs on sandy or gravelly substrata. Removal of
sandy / gravelly substrata together with the eggs badly
affects the very survival of many of the fish species of the
basin.
Feeding biology of fishes revealed that majority of fishes
feed aquatic insects, larvae and nymph of terrestrial
insects inhabiting the aquatic environment. Terrestrial
insects like May fly (Ephemerella), Dragan fly, Damsel
fly (Odonata), Caddis fly (Rhyancophila), Chironomous
Table 2: Summary of the main consequences of extraction of aggregates
Impacts on
Biodiversity
Land losses Both inland and coastal through erosion
Hydrological function Change in water flows, flood regulation
Water supply Lowering of the water table and pollution
Climate
Landscape Changes in deltaic structures, quarries, pollution of rivers
4. IMPORTANT GUIDELINES FOR
SUSTAINABLE SAND AND GRAVEL
MINING
 The distance between sites for sand and gravel
mining should be decided on the replenishment rate
of the river. Sediment rating curve for the potential
sites should be developed and checked against the
extracted volumes of sand and gravel.
 During the dry season sand and gravel can be
extracted across the entire active channel.
 For mining abandoned stream channels on terrace
and inactive floodplains should be preferred than
active channels their deltas and flood plains. Stream
should not be diverted in a manner that an inactive
channel is formed.
 Sand and gravel shall not be extracted in the vicinity
of crucial hydraulic structure such as pumping
station, water intakes, and bridges 13.
5. REDUCING CONSUMPTION OF
SAND
Because sand is still very cheap – sand itself is freely
accessible; only extraction and transportation costs need
to be covered – there is little or no incentive to induce a
change in our consumption. Efforts should be made and
technology be developed for using recycled building and
quarry dust material as a substitute for sand.
Quarry dust could be used to replace sand in concrete
structures. The replacement of sand by up to 40% of
VSRDIJTNTR, Vol. VIII (XII) December 2017 / 333
(Diptera), Stone fly (Plecoptera) and their nymphs and
larval forms are all aquatic. May fly, Stone fly and Caddis
fly prefers substrates composed of cobbles, pebbles,
coarser clastics and sand. Chironomids prefer to finer
substrates 11. The insects and larvae, inturn, form the
major food for fish, frog, birds and man and hence
maintain the normal food web pattern. Both Odonata as
well as Hemipterans have great role to play in the
biological control of harmful insects as they voraciously
feed on the obnoxious insects like mosquito larvae, May
fly naiads, gnats, midges and other harmful insects 12.
Description
Impacts on related ecosystems
Through transport emissions
incinerator ash exhibits higher compressive strength than
regular cement mortars. Desert sand if mixed with other
material can also be used as a substitute of river sand.
In dams, sand and gravel is accumulated at the bottom.
This can be removed as it would be an additional source
of sand and would also restore the reduced capacity of the
dams.
6. RECOMMENDATIONS
 Physical, chemical and biological effects of in stream
mining on a river basin scale should be evaluated for
finding collective effects of sand extraction on the
aquatic and riparian resources.
 Multidisciplinary studies on the rivers should be
enhanced for providing adequate scientific
information to river restoration and management
activities.
 Cost of environmental impacts to be incorporated, to
know the exact cost of in stream sand and gravel.
 The deserted pits left after floodplain mining of sand
should be reclaimed by scientific land filling.
 The top soil should be stripped off before start of the
mining operation. The top soil should be kept at the
similar depth in the rehabilitated or landscaped area.
After the completion mining process the natural
vegetation and the top soil should be reintroduced.
 Mining below the water table should be avoided.
 Manual removal of sand should be done while
keeping all the environmental safeguards.
Rupesh Rastogi and Virendra Kumar VSRDIJTNTR, Vol. VIII (XII) December 2017 / 334

7. REFERENCES
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disappeared, Universities Press (India) Ltd., 116p.
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[3] Meybeck, M. (1982) Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus
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[4] G. Tyler miller jr, Scott e. Spoolman (2010) Environmental
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[5] Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P.E. and Siever, R. (1972) Sand and
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[6] Jensen, M.L. and Bateman, A.M. (1979) Economic mineral
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[7] Impacts of Sand Mining
http://ismenvis.nic.in/Database/Impacts-of-Sand-
Mining_3466.aspx last acessed 14/03/2015
[8] Nautiyal, P. 1985. Utter Pradesh. J. Zool. 5 : 14-19.
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J.R. and Cushing, C.E. (1980) The river continuum
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[10] Waters, T. F. 1995. Sediment in streams. Sources,
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[11] Ibid
[12] Sharma, B. Dhalla, N. and Renusalaria, 1996. Advances in
Fish and Wild Life Ecology and Biology Vol -1. Daya
Publishing house, New Delhi,332 p.
[13] Sustainable sand mining management guideline September
2015 Minsitry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change
Government of India
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