Jl geol. Soc. Lond. Vol. 135, 1978, pp. 339-347, 7 figs, 1 table, 2 plates. Printed in Northern Ireland.

Analysis of mesoscopic fractures in the Dhruma-Nisah segment of the

central Arabian graben system

P. L. Hancock & A. Kadhi

SUMMARY: The central Arabian graben and trough system is a 560 km arcuate intraplate
fault zone cutting gently tilted Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks in eastern Saudi Arabia.
The mesoscopic fracture pattern in the 150 km Dhruma-Nisah segment provides an excellent
example of extensile brittle deformation, and is also of interest because palaeostress trajectories
inferred from it suggest that the segment evolved as a result of early Cenozoic stretching of the
Mesozoic cover above a major fault zone in the crystalline basement.
The ten sets of vertical or high-angle joints, veins, and small faults are arranged symmetrically
about the en echelon graben. During the development of the five sets comprising System 1 there
was elongation perpendicular to graben and the formation of a single set of extension fractures,
and two subsystems of small dihedral angle sets in the shear-extension fracture transition.
System 2 resulted in elongation parallel to graben, and consists of a single set of extension
fractures plus a pair of small dihedral angle sets. Conjugate shear sets enclosing a large dihedral
angle form System 3. All sets developed during several episodes of fracturing. The range of
conjugate angles is attributed to variations in rock strength, differential stress and fluid
pressure.

The gently tilted Mesozoic-Cenozoic rocks in the In-
terior Homocline of Arabia are cut by an arcuate 560
km intraplate fault zone known as the central Arabian
graben and trough system (Powers et al. 1966) (Fig. 1).
It comprises six major en echelon graben and three
large troughs, plus subsidiary graben, troughs and
flexures. The mesoscopic fractures accompanying the
150 km Dhruma-Nisah segment are of interest be-
cause they provide an excellent example of structures
developed during the extensile deformation of brittle
rocks, and because they can be used to analyse the
structural evolution of the graben system.
Wolfart (1961) and Powers et al. (1966) believe the
graben are related to regional tension, whereas Brown
(1972) considers they may be related to left-lateral
shear. One purpose of the investigation was to use the
meso-fractures to decide between the merits of the
two hypotheses.
graben. Troughs are shallow, east-plunging synclines
bounded by single or multiple inward-facing mono-
clines which are locally faulted. Outcrops are offset to
the west on the northern side of the Sahba trough and
the eastern end of the Nisah graben.
Powers et al. (1966) propose that the graben system
began to form in the Cretaceous and that movements
continued into the Eocene. The Kharj Formation, of
presumed Neogene age and lacustrine origin, uncon-
formably overlies a palaeo-relief developed in flexed
Cretaceous rocks involved in the Buayja trough ac-
cording to Kadhi & Hancock (in press). They also
demonstrate that the generally fiat-lying limestone
facies of the Kharj is gently folded around the Cre-
taceous inlier near Ashqar Maraghah. Thus the graben
system largely predates the Neogene, although there
were some late-Neogene, and possible some Quatern-
ary, movements (Wolfart 1961).

Structure o! the study area The systematic mesoscopic tracture system

The en echelon graben and offset troughs cut about
1800 m of Jurassic-Cretaceous carbonates with subor-
dinate sandstones and mudstones (Fig. 2). Away from
graben or troughs, folds are uncommon except south-
east of Riyadh where there are low-amplitude NNW-
trending folds. In the eastern subarea ~the Nisah
graben, the Sahba, Mughrah and Buayja troughs, and
the Maraghah monocline trend E-W, whilst in the
western subarea the western end of the Nisah graben
and the Awsat, Dhruma and Qaradan graben trend
WNW-ESE. Graben are bounded by high-angle nor-
mal faults, subsidiary synthetic and antithetic step-
faults and single or multiple inward-facing monoclines.
Additional small folds with axial traces parallel or
oblique to boundary faults, are also associated with
The orientations of up to seven surfaces in each set
were sampled at 102 stations in Mesozoic rocks and at
four stations in the Kharj Formation. The mean orien-
tation of each set at every station was stereographi-
cally rotated by the same amount, and in the same
sense, as required to restore bedding to the horizontal.
The rotations were carried out so that the attitudes of
sets could be compared with reference to a common
horizontal datum.
The principal types of systematic meso-surfaces are
joints, calcite or gypsum veins, small-scale faults,
stylolites and primary bedding planes. Small, non-
systematic joints oblique or parallel to layering are
also abundant (P1. la, b).
Stereographic analysis of the mean orientations of
340 P. L. Hancock & A. Kadhi

t - • ~ • - • ' ~ A R A B I A N TECTONIC
. I-Io'il Arch I /~7' I ( I@x'-'~-' ' c ' x ' x ~ ' ' '
, ~X t ,e,~ \ ~ \ ~_ ~ e ~ PROVINCES

+ + -+\ + ~ ~ + + , +',
,,~ + +~ ~CentralArobian\U/~ ~
\ \ + ~ +~. "~'~n.+~.~?'~+~ + \ ,~gr0ben system ~ ~ .L".~'O~_I~

++++++
:,,,, /
.. 1

(~,~_.~ ~ -- r e g i o n a l tilt
~ \+i + ~ +'~ ~'~'- I I Dhrumo-Nisoh
~.
" ~ ~
I [ T ... T ~. T ~ /
o . ~,m
' ' segment
or*en,st,m
of the

FIG. 1. Location of the Dhruma-NiSah segment of the central Arabian graben and trough
system.
sets, shown as strike lines in Fig. 3, shows that they are Similar apparent rotations of joint sets are known
symmetrically arranged with reference to the trend of elsewhere (Hancock 1969, Reches 1976).
the nearest graben or trough (Table 1, Fig. 4). The Joints are the dominant structures although veins
angular relationships between sets arc identical constitute up to about 20 per cent of fractures along
throughout the region, but in the western subarea they graben margins. Faults of mesoscale are restricted to
lie about 20 ° clockwise of sets in the eastern subarea. conjugate sets Jid-Jle at stations close to graben.

GEOLOGY OF THE DHRUMA-NISAH

: , :, :, : , :, :,:
~'///////~ ~ , ' , ,, ' ,' , ' , '
~oOoOoOoOoOoi
"o

~t o
o

o
o o

o o
o e l AREA, CENTRAL SAUDI ARABIA
MoJ0r a r e a s of
o q I__1 Q u a t e r n a r y cover
. ~,~.r,//////~, ~ , i , , , , ~o o o o o ol N e o g e n e (Khorj Forrncrlion)
~:i~'/J////~, ,,~" J~ ', ', ', ',
~°o°o°o°o I I ~
:', oN~OoOoOoOoI
o ~ o o o o q
Upper
Lower
Cretaceous
Cretaceous
Upper Jurassic
o%~,°o~, 0004 Middle Jurassic
o ,''.~ o o o/
o OI ~ 0 o q [::::::1 L o w e r J u r a s s i c 8= T r i a s s i c
ol ;o o ol
ll, o t,.~,,~ "~ o o o o o o o o o o o 0 o
I~) o ~ l m ~ ~ o o o o o o o o o o o o
! I1~0 0 ~ ~'q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o
I"I iO O~ v~ o o o 0 0 0 o 0 0 o o
I . ix 0 ~_ "4>-.0 0 o o 0 <;, o 0 o o o
':~'I~ o~, ",,o o o o o t ~ o o o o
i -vr . . .. ',!.~, •.',..I_._[_._Io
~"~°
o"~_
o~'~- ..':~,0o,~.
\o o o o~,ro o o o o~

~i o o ~-.:~o ~,.. - - - ~
g;'oben morg., I~/~:~-~ °orBb~)n., ° ~ ° o ~.,,.. Mug'6ioh
tick on d o w n t h r o w ~ . " - - ~ , / ~

-4--trough m a r g i n or I~"~-~--~ - o
~ - - = r ~o ."-,
o o
- " ~16bo trough ..o'~
0.90 o~ - - t - ~, .<(°07
oo?/" ~ o .~ ;7.,6 o .,~
indicates facing I~./,' 4 / . ~ G ~
,.-6"'o°o ° o0¢
- ~ re~iono~ti, " ~~.~'-'-'::~ /tO o o o o

FIG. 2. Generalised geology of the Dhruma-Nisah segment of the graben system, after
Kadhi & Hancock (in press) and Bramkamp & Ramirez (1958). Stratigraphical succession:
Triassic and Lower Jurassic--Minjur Sandstone, Marrat Formation; Middle Jurassic--
Dhruma Formation; Upper Jurassic--Tuwayq Mountain Limestone, Hanifa Formation,
Jubaila Limestone, Arab Formation, Hith Anhydrite; Lower Cretaceous--Sulaiy Formation,
Yamama Formation, Buwaib Formation, Biyadh Sandstone; Upper CretaceousmWasia
Formation, Aruma Formation; NeogenemKharj Formation.
Jl geol. Soc. Lond. V o l . 1 3 5 , 1 9 7 8 HANCOCK • KADHI

!iiiii!!iii?
.......

PLATE 1. Meso-fractures in Mesozoic rocks in the Dhruma-Nisah segment of the graben

system.
(a) Traces of set Jla joints (parallel to 25 cm scale), J2a joints (perpendicular to scale) and
J3~ joints exposed on a gently inclined bedding plane in limestones of the Sulaiy
Formation. The traces of younger joints terminate at those of older joints, and there are
non-systematic joints within blocks bounded by systematic joints. Northern margin of
the Buayja trough close to its eastern limit.
(b) Synthetic extension fault of set Jla cutting limestones of the Arab Formation in the
flexure zone associated with the northern margin of the Nisah graben, close to its
junction with the Awsat graben. The traces of joints in set Jl~ are parallel to the 25 cm
scale, and there are abundant layer-parallel non-systematic joints.
(c) Limestones of the Hanifa Formation displaced about 4.5 m by a normal fault close to
the northern boundary of the Dhruma graben. Parallel to the fault there are two
mesoscopic normal faults.
(d) Traces of conjugate joints in sets J~b and J~c exposed on a horizontal bedding plane in
limestones of the Sulaiy Formation. The 25 cm scale is parallel to the acute bisectrix
between the sets. Mesozoic inlier about 5 km east of Asquar Maraghah.
340
HANCOCK & KADHI Jl geol. Soc. Lond. V o l . 1 3 5 , 1 9 7 8

_)

)
PLATE 2. Meso-fractures in Mesozoic and Neogene rocks in the Dhruma-Nisah segment of
the graben system.
(a) Conjugate joints in sets Jla and Jle cutting gently flexed limestones of the Arab
Formation about 9 km SSE of Riyadh. Scale 25 cm.
(b) Traces of conjugate joints in sets J2b- J2c exposed on gently inclined bedding planes
in thin limestones of the Arab Formation. The 25 cm scale is parallel to the acute
bisectrix between the sets, and is approximately perpendicular to the traces of set Jla
joints. Eastern end of the Awsat graben.
(c) Traces of conjugate joints in sets J3a and Jab exposed on an inclined bedding plane in
limestones of the Arab Formation. The 25 cm scale is parallel to the acute bisectrix
between the conjugate sets and the traces of set Jla joints, which terminate at those of
System 3 joints. Non-systematic joints cut some blocks bounded by systematic joints.
About 9 km SSE of Riyadh.
(d) Nearly horizontal limestones of the Kharj Formation (Neogene) cut by non-systematic
joints. About 8 km west of the Mesozoic inlier at Ashqar Maraghah.
 Fractures of the central Arabian graben 341

Within the steep limbs of monoclines they form conju-
gate extension faults (Norris 1958). According to
whether the sense of slip on them supports, or op-
poses, that of the associated principal fault they are
antithetic or synthetic (Fig. 5, P1. lb). In unfiexed
rocks adjacent to graben there are antithetic or synth-
etic normal faults (P1. l c). All meso-stylolites are
layer-parallel surfaces which generally occur close to
graben margins. Stylolites oblique to layering are of
microscopic scale.
In many medium- or thick-bedded, well lithified
limestones systems 1 or 2 are represented by sets Jla
o r J2a, set J~a generally being dominant (P1. l a). In
some thinly bedded or less well lithified limestones,
friable sandstones or mudstones, and in many rock
types close to graben or trough margins, System 1 is

"''-,. SYSTEM I
',,,:)-,
I'OG ~,
", RIYADH ,'~-.''~.:.''::'.~.:.!.,.~
;, i
Jr "C._ ";,i:.',

?--::;:?i
0 5 I0 ~ t -!---

",, ., .,\ (.1

I "~' "'' ~~,, I '~

46*00' 4~°30' "'..,, i;i::!)].:.!!)i:)'i.':.',l

: 4~o00,

"".-i,.,.,ii\.RIYADH'~-i;'!i;:iilCi@i:i!.."..""i.'.~ SYSTEM 2

X ": "'cCi!.j::-:~.2~.,,

X~~ '%, * (b)

q 'Y-I I ,, ""-, I

FIG. 3. Arrangement of systematic meso-fracture sets at 106 stations in the Dhruma-Nisah

segment of the graben system. The mean strike of each set is shown after rotation with
bedding restored to the horizontal. (a) sets in System 1; (b) sets in System 2; (c) sets in
System 3 (overleaf). QGnQaradan graben, DGnDhruma graben, AG--Awsat graben,
NG--Nisah graben, BTwBuayja trough, MT--Mughrah trough, STwSahba trough, MM~
Maraghah monocline, AM~Ashqar Maraghah.
342 P. L. H a n c o c k & A. Kadhi

01 • ,~o' '-, ii!i~.~?:!.:.;..::~::ii~

~ 4~o'
•,.: '~-"#--:-!::---:.~;; SYSTEM :5
-,, ,,, '~:.::":~..!::.~::~;
"~ (',,.RIYADH ~"~-!~::.':~ N
,..,.~ ~.....:.~
~.-::,:,,

/~. ~':?: ~"k I

"~ ~ " :" :..:....?~,
"~,,~~ \ ."~--,.:-..:,,

.... ~) " ~ 2 " :'" . . . . ".:. :.":~::~'~'

/" ~::~' "" :" :'," :':.':::'.'.:':':-:i'
e_ -~'~:"":~ ? "."-:.:.7

9 s o
km

~-~ ~\, "~ (c)

L E G E N D

-- mean strike of vertical set d generolised scarp of Tuwoyq Mountain

Limestone at base of Upper Jurassic
mean strike of steeply inclined
set, tick in direction of dip ,./ generalised contact between dubaila Limestone
/ and Arab Formation within Upper Jurassic
graben margin, tick on
downthrow side :! surface and presumed sub-surface
distribution of Kharj Formation
trough margin or monocline,
arrow indicates facing F-] Mesozoic rocks

,,e regionaltilt
FIG. 3. (continued)

expressed by conjugate sets ]1~,- Jlc, or less commonly
J~d- Jle (PI. l d, 2a). Sets J2b- J2¢ generally represent
System 2 in these settings (PI. 2b).
The relative age of fractures was established using
cutting relationships and by regarding a joint as
younger than a neighbour if its trace terminated at
that of a neighbour (PI. l a). With reference to the
earlier formed surfaces in each system, the usual sequ-
ence of fracturing was: System 1, System 2, System 3.
The oldest fractures belong to System 3 in some
flexures and folds (PI. 2c). Not all the members of a set
were formed during the same episode of fracturing (PI.
la).
Thin sections across fractures in systems 1 or 2 show
that many of them are irregular barren cracks or
micro-veinlets with matching margins, features which
suggest that displacements across them were dilata-
tional. System 3 fractures are straight cracks or micro-
veinlets, some J3~ surfaces dextrally displacing frac-
tures in other systems. The abrupt termination of fossil
debris and grains at micro-stylolites subparallel to set
J2~ indicates there was solution transfer on them.
Most fractures in limestones of the Kharj Forma-
tion are non-systematic joints (PI. 2d), although at
some localities there are up to five sets of systematic
joints whose orientations are similar to those of sets in
Systems 1, 2 or 3.
Interpretation of the meso-fraetnre,pattern
Palaeostress directions
Fractures in sets Jla and J2a are interpreted as
extension fractures, and those in conjugate sets J3~
and Jab as shear fractures. The three subsystems J i b -
J1¢, J l d - J l e , and J2b-J2c, each of which consists of
conjugate sets enclosing a small dihedral angle, prob-
ably developed as a consequence of failure in the
shear-extension fracture transition.
 Fractures of the central Arabian graben 343

, SYSTEM I
r l
I02' f

I - ~ ,/j v :, , (o), (c)

"-
,o, a2
Jplone I I
SYSTEM 2 I I SYSTEM 3

/- , plane

FIG. 4. Schematic geometrical arrangement of sets after rotation with bedding restored to
the horizontal and with reference to an E-W graben trend. Mean dihedral angles (20) and
the relationships between sets and inferred axes of effective principal stresses ( ~ > tr~ > t~)
are also indicated.

TABLE 1" Geometry of meso-fracture sets in the Dhruma-

Nisah segment of the central Arabian graben system

Inclination after Range of Mean dihedral

rotation with dihedral angle (20)
beds restored to angles
horizontal (2e)

SYSTEM 1 - dominant at 84% of stations

Set Jla Single set striking parallel to graben 83% ~ 80 °

Sets Jlb-Jlc Sub-system of conjugate sets enclosing

an acute angle symmetrically about
graben trends 81% 9 80 ° 10-59 ° 28 °

Sets Jld-Jle Sub-system of conjugate sets striking

parallel to graben and enclosing an
acute angle about the vertical 50-80 ° 18-60 ° 36 °

SYSTEM 2 - dominant at 7% of stations

Set J2a Single set striking perpendicular to

graben 83% ~ 80 °

Sets J2b-J2c Sub-system of conjugate sets enclosing

an acute angle symmetrically about a
horizontal direction perpendicular to
graben 88% > 88 ° 15-45 ° 28 °

SYSTEM 3 - dominant at 9% of stations

Sets J3a-J3b System of conjugate sets enclosing an

angle symmetrically about graben trends 85% 9 80 ° 42-126 ° 90 °
344 P. L. Hancock & A. Kadhi
ault
FIG. 5. Schematic geometry of conjugate ex-
tension faults in a monocline associated with a
graben boundary fault.
It has been shown already that the geometrical
relationships between sets and systems are identical
throughout the region although sets in the western
subarea lie about 20 ° clockwise of their equivalents in
the eastern subarea. Because there is no field evidence
to indicate that the systems in the two subareas have
been rotated relative to each other since they were
initiated, it is concluded that the directions of the
horizontal, or layer-parallel, stress trajectories
changed across the region (Fig. 6). Although fractures
have been analysed after rotation of the mean orienta-
tions of sets with bedding restored to horizontal, this
does not imply that they were initiated in horizontal
rocks which were subsequently tilted. Field relation-
ships indicate that they probably developed either
during the final stages of flexuring, or during a post-
tectonic phase. Price (1966) has proposed that many
vertical joints in horizontal rocks are a consequence
of the release of residual strain energy during post-
tectonic uplift.
Figure 4 illustrates, with reference to an E-W gra-
ben trend, the relationships between the three princi-
pal effective stress directions (0.] > o-[ > o-~) and the sets
and subsystems. From extension fracture sets Jla and
J2~ it was only possible to determine the orientations
of 0.3! axes and the planes containing the 0.1I and 0"2t
axes. From the conjugate pairs of sets, J i b - Jl¢, J l ~ -
J~e, J2b- J2¢, and J3~- J3b, the orientations of all three
principal stresses could be determined.
Figure 4 shows that the orientations of the stress
axes are the same but that their relative magnitudes
change. The orientations and relative magnitudes of the
principal stresses during the development of conjugate
pairs Jib- Jlc and J3a- J3b were identical. With refer-
ence to graben trends, 0"~ was horizontal and parallel
to graben, 0.~ horizontal and perpendicular to graben,
and 0.~ was vertical. A stress field of this orientation
could also have been responsible for the development
of the nearly vertical micro-stylolites trending at right-
angles to graben and parallel to set J2a. During the
formation of conjugate sets J l d - J l ~ the orientations
of the stress axes were similar but their relative mag-
nitudes had changed. Again 0-~ was perpendicular to
graben but 0.~ was now vertical, and 0.~ parallel to
graben. A similarly orientated stress field was also
responsible for the development of the faults of the
graben system (Kadhi & Hancock, in press).
Fractures in the single extension set Jla were
formed when 0.~ was nearly horizontal and perpen-
dicular to nearby graben, and when the 0.[/0-[ plane
was nearly vertical and parallel to graben. Thus from
their attitude alone it is not possible to decide whether
Jla fractures developed in a stress field similarly orien-
tated to that responsible for subsystem Jib-Jac and
System J3~-J3b, or subsystem Jla-J1,. They may
have been initiated in both fields thus accounting
for their dominance.
During the development of conjugate sets J2b-J2c
the overall arrangement of the horizontal stresses was
similar to that during the formation of System 1 or 3
fractures but again their relative magnitudes had
changed. The horizontal component perpendicular to
graben was 0.1,' that parallel to graben was 0.~, and the
t
vertical stress was 0.~. The orientation of 0.3 as infer-
red from the single extension set J2a is compatible
with that inferred from the conjugate pair J2b- J2c.
The field evidence for multi-phase fracturing along
identical directions suggests the repeated action of
stress fields which were not only similarly orientated,
but in which the relative magnitudes of stresses along
particular axes were the same. The action of two
identical fields may have been separated in time by
one in which the relative magnitudes of stresses had
changed.
Systematic joint sets in the Kharj Formation may
have developed as a consequence of the continued
action of the stress fields in the Neogene or later, or
they may have been inherited from the underlying
Mesozoic rocks as a result of reflection cracking.
Interpretation of the range of dihedral angles
System 1 is expressed either by a single set of
extension fractures, which may be regarded as enclos-
ing a dihedral angle (20) of 0 °, or by one of two
subsystems of conjugate sets enclosing small dihedral
angles averaging 28 or 36 °. System 2 comprises either
a single set of extension fractures or a subsystem of
conjugate surfaces enclosing an average angle of 28 °.
Conjugate sets in System 3 enclose an average angle
of 90 °.
We relate the range of dihedral angles to the effects
of three factors: rock strength; the magnitude of the
stress difference (0.1-0.3) at the time of failure; and
 Fractures of the central Arabian graben 345

14~'00' 46a30 ' ~~.~,.'!i:i 47~00 '

// AH N

. . , , , . . . .

,,<.",~/_/ ?"~_7"--..~"!~ / # / / i i-T--v~?7~i'. ......

,'.,'
-I " 1~- I "~ " ~. / I I'::::":':'"':':":%
/
, ~ 4~L.
" !/ ,'"
I
~ 06' .-7 / --. l
i
I
I
l
,
"~;:":
..............

• -J .~ -'7'----. ' /."-. f"---r---/-~'-"---~ ~ • -~---,--- "~;~;;:~,)::-:~-~':~'-:." ~

"-4-" trough margin or / L I 1 I

.....,,,r.,~>. surface and presumed I -I-- I I - -- - I-- , ST ' I

~i~ sub-surface distribution . . . . I I - I I ~
;";;g'; of Khorj Formation 'i' o "i' I I I ! -
.," horizontal principal km
/" stress trajectories I I

FIG. 6. Generalised directions of the two horizontal stress trajectories inferred from the
meso-fracture sets in the Dhruma-Nisah segment of the graben system. Legend for graben
and troughs as in Fig. 3. The N-S trajectories represent the direction of o-5 inferred from
set Jla and subsystems Jlb-Jlc, Jld--Jle and J3a-J3b; and 0''1 from subsystem J2b-J2c.
The E-W trajectories represent the direction of 0.~ from set J2~ and subsystem J2b-J2c, 0.~
from subsystem J l a - Jle" and 0"] from System J3a- J3b.

variations in fluid pressure between layers and with for the observed range of dihedral angles in systems 1
time. The influence of the first two factors is discussed and 2 is the value of (O-l-O'3); a quantity possibly
with reference to total stresses; the effect of fluid related to the distance between a station and a graben
pressure being considered separately in terms of effec- or trough. Single extension sets Jla or J2a more com-
tive stresses. monly represent systems 1 and 2 at stations distant
Extension fractures belonging to sets Jla o r J2, are from graben or troughs, whereas conjugate subsystems
common in strong, thickly bedded, well lithified lime- J l b - Jlo J l d - Jle o r J2b- J2c are more abundant close
stones. In weak or thinly bedded limestones, or in to graben, or associated with low amplitude folds
sandstones, conjugate sets, belonging to one of the southeast of Riyadh. In a single rock type the Mohr
subsystems, Jib- Jlc, Jld -- Jle o r Jzb - J2c generally Circle will be tangential to the failure envelope at
enclose a small dihedral angle, commonly close to 30 °. different points according to the value of (O'l-O'3) and
In very weak rocks, such as some of the friable its magnitude relative to the tensile strength of the
sandstones of the Wasia Formation, and marly lime- rock (Fig. 7b).
stones in the Hanifa Formation, 20 angles commonly Secor (1965), Phillips (1972) and Price (1975) have
approach 60 °. Figure 7a illustrates how these three all discussed the influence that fluid pressure (p) has
common dihedral angles in Systems 1 and 2 might on fracturing. The total principal stresses o1, 0-2 and 0-3
arise when the value of the differential stress (o-1-o.3) are all reduced by the value of p, so that the effective
I I #
is the same in three rocks of different strength, each stresses (o.') are" 0" 1 - - O - I - - P ; 0"2 =o'2--p and; 0"3 =
characterised by its own generalised composite failure O'3-P- The result, considered in terms of a Mohr
envelope. A single set (20 = 0 °) of extension fractures diagram, is to shift any Mohr Circle to the left by an
is likely to develop in relatively strong rocks of high amount equal to p (Fig. 7c). Thus the value of (O'1-
tensile strength, small dihedral angle conjugate sur- O'3), and hence the size of the Mohr Circle is not
faces (20 = 30 °) in the shear-extension fracture transi- altered but it may become tangential to the envelope
tion in weaker rocks, and conjugate shears enclosing when the total stresses alone would not lead to failure.
an angle of about 60 ° in the weakest rocks. Although In the present area there is no reason to suppose
the value of the differential stress may be the same in that the rocks were dry at the time of fracturing, and it
each rock type its magnitude, expressed as a multiple is also likely that the value of the fluid pressure varied
of tensile strength, will vary, and, in addition, with time and from layer to layer. Thus it is possible
values of O'1 and O'3 will be different at the time of that a single set of extension fractures might form in
failure. beds containing fluid at a high pressure despite the
The second factor which may be partly responsible total minimum stress being compressive (Fig. 7c). In
346 P. L. Hancock & A. Kadhi

_ ,tO~" i ,-

~ o ~ ,'~ ., ~ , ~ . "~,

''N """
\ x~,x
\ \

6 \2e-o" +or

"TI/ 'T1/
5T 5T~I
(b) ~ _ --~ ~ (c)

// I / ~ total stresses
/ / / "rJ // effective stresses \\

it /
=

I / I I I -
/' I I/ ,
)I ,
',I~
-T, 0 / o T 2T 3T 4T 5~"-~ -T o T ZT 3T 4T 5T
IllI
i~
2O=0
(O'l- 0"3) =4T ~-
I
t o=2T
II II
I I I I
,~ (0"I - 0" 3) = 4.95T ~'-i I.,~-~ (O'l- 0"3) = 4 T

FIG. 7. Schematic representation of possible differential stresses during the development of

meso-fractures in systems 1 and 2.
(a) Stress conditions for the development of different fractures in rocks of contrasting
strength subject to differential stresses of the same value.
(b) Stress conditions for failure resulting in either a set of extension fractures or conjugate
sets enclosing 30*.
(c) Development of a set of extension fractures as a result of fluid pressure reducing the
value of the effective minimum stress.
Full explanation in text.

neighbouring beds of about the same tensile strength
and experiencing the same differential stress, the value
of the fluid pressure may have been significantly lower.
Under these conditions the beds would not have frac-
tured. With time, however, the magnitude of (o'1-o'3)
in these beds may have increased until conjugate
fracture sets developed.
Using curves published by Price (1977, fig. 11) it is
possible from measurements of 20 made in the field to
estimate the magnitude of (o'~-o'~) as a multiple of
the tensile strength (T) of a rock, and to make other
estimates of stress value. In the Dhruma-Nisah region
the abundance of extension fractures and conjugate
sets enclosing average 20 angles of less than 45 ° in
systems 1 and 2 implies that (o'~-o'~) was generally
less than 5.66T, and that fluid pressure commonly
approached the geostatic pressure. Because p values
were high in relation to geostatic pressures it follows
that o-~ was tensile during the development of frac-
tures in systems 1 and 2. Since most 20 values be-
tween conjugate sets in these systems are less than 45 °
it also follows that the effective normal stresses (or')
across them were tensile, thus accounting for the
principal components of displacement being dilata-
tional. Hence paired sets at less than 45 ° to each other
consist of conjugate extension fractures, and sets en-
closing angles exceeding 45 ° are conjugate shears. The
observation that conjugate sets in System 3
everywhere enclose a large shear angle and are gener-
ally the youngest systematic fractures, suggests that
with time there was either or both an increase in
differential stress and a fall in the value of the fluid
 Fractures o f the central A r a b i a n graben
pressure; a fall in fluid pressure is likely as a consequ-
ence of drainage being enhanced by the development
of fractures in systems 1 and 2.
Regional implications
The three graben within the Dhruma-Nisah segment
of the central Arabian graben and trough system are
arranged en echelon in an arc concave to the north-
east. Successive graben overlap each other to the
north and west as the arc is traced from southeast to
northwest. It is concluded that the geometry and
characteristics of the meso-fracture pattern developed
during the extensile deformation of a series of nearly
horizontal, or gently flexed, brittle limestones contain-
ing water at a relatively high pressure and subject to
weak stresses. The principal direction of extension was
N-S in the eastern subarea and NNE-SSW in the
western subarea. The complementary directions of
relative compression were E-W, W N W - E S E , or
vertical.
The directions of extension and compression infer-
red from the meso-fractures are consistent with the
idea that the graben system is an expression in the
sedimentary cover of early Cenozoic regional tension.
The stretching probably caused renewed movement on
an arcuate major fault zone in the underlying crys-
talline basement. Although graben are arranged en
echelon, and outcrops and structure contours are
offset left-laterally across the eastern part of the seg-
ment, the meso-fractures and palaeostresses inferred
from them do not support the idea of sinistral trans-
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PAUL LEWIS HANCOCK, Department of Geology, Queen's Building, University
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ABDULLAH KADHI, Department of Geology, University of Riyadh, Riyadh, Saudi
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347
current shear along the eastern segment. There is no
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. We wish to thank the University of
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