AEES-14

The Use of Ethanolas an UnmixedFuel

for lnternalCombustionEngines

by
JosephL. Taraba
Extension istfor Agricultural Engineering
Special
GeorgeM. Turner
Extensi
on Special
istf or Agricultural Engineering
RobertRazor
Undergrad
uateStudent,Department
of Agricultural Eng ineering

Department
of Agricultural
Engineering
University
of Kentucky
Lexington,Kentucky

February1981

U N I V E R S I T Yo f K E N T U C K Y KENTUCKY
COLLEGEof AGRICULTURE in
coogerolion DEPARTMENT
OEPT.of AGRIC.ENGINEERING with of
COOPERATIVE EXTENSIONSERVICE ENERGY
 Preface

A committeeof the AgriculturalEngineeringDepartment,Universityof Kentucky,of

which the authorsare members,is investigatingthe feasibilityof certainfarmersbecoming
e n e r g yi n d e p e n d e nbt y p r o d u c i n gt h e i ro w n e n g i n ef u e l .
A part of this investigationconcernsjust how low a proof of ethanolcan be toleratedby
internalcombustionenginesfrom severalaspects.Naturally,the lowerthe proofthe easierthe
p r o d u c t i o nw i l l b e .
This paperdescribesthe resultsof a literaturesearchon the effect of water dilution in
ethanolon the combustionprocessin internalcombustionengines.

CONTENTS

I n t r o d u c t i o .n. . . ... . ... . 3

Proof of EthanolTolerableby InternalCombustionEngines . .. . 3

l o d i f i c a t i o nR
M e c h a n i c aM s e q u i r e df o r U s e o f E t h a n o a
l s a F u e li n a S l E n g i n e .... 5

M e c h a n i c aMl o d i f i c a t i o n s R e q u i r e d f o r U s E
e ot hf a n o l a s a F u ei ln a D i e s e lE n g i n e . . . . . 1 0

C o m p a r i s o n oEf n g i n e P e r f o r m a n c e o n E t h aannodl C o n v e n t i o n F
a lu e l s . ........11

S a f e t yi n H a n d l i n gE t h a n o l .. . . 13

D e t e r i o r a t i oonf M a t e r i a l si n C o n t a c tw i t h E t h a n o l. . . . .. ... .. . 14

P o l l u t a nE
t m i s s i o n sL e v e l so f E n g i n e sU s i n gE t h a n o l . .. 14

E n g i n eD u r a b i l i t U
y s i n gE t h a n o l .... 16

D e p o s i t si n E n g i n e sU s i n g E t h a n o l .. . . . . .. 17

Conclusion ...... 17

yf Terms
Glossaro ...... 18

Bibliography..... ......19
 In tro d u cti o n
T h e u s e o f e t h a n o l( e t h y la l c o h o l )a s a f u e l f o r
s p a r ki g n i t e d( S l ) . i n t e r n acl o m b u s t i o ne n g i n e sh a s
been evaluatedand consideredsatisfactorysince
the early1900s.Today due to the increasingcost of
p e t r o l e u ma n d t h e c u r r e n t w o r l d o i l u n c e r t a i n t y ,
w h i c h m a y g r e a t l ya f f e c tt h e f u t u r e a v a i l a b i l i t yo f
p e t r o l e u ms, o m ea l t e r n a t i v feu e l sf o r i n t e r n acl o m -
b u s t i o ne n g i n e sa r e n e e d e d .E t h a n o li s o n e o f t h e
f u e l st h a t h a ss h o w np r o m i s ea sa p e t r o l e u ms u b s t i -
tute. Today the country of Brazilhas chosena path
o f l e s sd e p e n d e n c e o n p e t r o l e u mb y d e v e l o p i n ga n
e t h a n o lf u e l t e c h n o l o g y I. n t h e s p r i n go f 1 9 8 0 ,c a r s
designedto run exclusivelyon ethanolwereoffered
f o r s a l e t o t h e B r a z i l i a np u b l i c . B r a z i l h a s a l s o
e n c o u r a g e di t s c i t i z e n st o u s ee t h a n o lb y m a k i n gi t
a v a i l a b l et o t h e c o n s u m e ra t h a l f t h e c o s t o f g a s o -
line.
T h i s p a p e r r e v i e w st h e u s e o f e t h a n o l a s a n
u n m i x e df u e l f o r i n t e r n a cl o m b u s t i o ne n g i n e s A . n-
h y d r o u s e t h a n o l ( n o w a t e r p r e s e n t )i s r e q u i r e d
w h e nf u e l m i x t u r e sa r em a d ew i t h g a s o l i n eo r d i e s e l
f uel.Presenceof greaterthan 1.50/o waterin ethanol
w i l l c a u s es e p a r a t i o no f t h e e t h a n o lf r o m t h e p e -
t r o l e u m f u e l . O n - f a r m p r o d u c t i o no f e t h a n o lw i l l
yield ethanolf uel with at least50/o water presentor
up to 50%water present. Thus,on-farmethanolf uel
p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d n e c e s s i t a t ea d a p t i n g i n t e r n a l
c o m b u s t i o ne n g i n e sf o r u s e o f u n m i x e d e t h a n o l
fuel.
Severalbasicf uel propertiesof ethanolin com-
oarison to other conventionalfuels need to be
noted becauseof theireffectson the use of ethanol
a s a f u e l f o r i n t e r n a cl o m b u s t i o ne n g i n e s S . o m eo f
t h e f u e lp r o p e r t y c o m p a r i s o nasr es h o w ni n T a b l e1 .
C o n v e n t i o n ahl y d r o c a r b o nf u e l s( g a s o l i n ea n d
d i e s e l o i l ) c o n t a i n 1 8 , 9 0 0a n d 1 8 , 2 5 0B t u / l b i n
c o m p a r i s o nt o e t h a n o l , w h i c h c o n t a i n s 1 1 , 5 0 0
B t u / l b .I n o r d e rt o a c h i e v ee q u i v a l e net n g i n ep o w e r
o u t o u t f o r d i f f e r e n tf u e l s t h e r e m u s t b e s i m i l a r
e n e r g y i n p u t , a s f u e l . F o r e x a m p l e ,p u r e e t h a n o l
c o n t a i n s6 1 % o f t h e e n e r g y o f g a s o l i n ep e r u n i t
weight, thereforemore pounds of ethanol are re-
q u i r e d t h a n g a s o l i n ef o r e q u i v a l e net n g i n e p u w e r
o u t p u t .l f a n e t h a n o fl u e l c o n t a i n sw a t e r ,w h i c h h a s
n o c o m b u s t i o ne n e r g y ,t h e r em u s t b e a n i n c r e a s e d
f u e l r a t e t o t h e e n g i n e t o s u p p l y s u f f i c i e n ti n p u t
energy.
Anotherimportantdifferencebetweenconven-
t i o n a lf u e l sa n d e t h a n o li s t h e h e a to f v a p o r i z a t i o n .
E t h a n o lr e q u i r e s3 6 1 B t u / l b t o v o l a t i l i z ew , hich is
a p p r o x i m a t e l y2 . 5 t i m e s t h e h e a t r e q u i r e d p e r
p o u n do f g a s o l i n eo r d i e s e fl u e l .W a t e rh a sa h e a to f
v a p o r i z a t i o 2n . 7t i m e st h a t o f a l c o h o l .
T h e a u t o - i g n i t i o np r o p e r t yo f a f u e l b e c o m e s
i m p o r t a n tf o r t h e t y p e e n g i n ei n w h i c h t h e f u e l i s
u s e d .T h e o c t a n en u m b e rm e a s u r e st h e r e s i s t a n c e
to self-ignition w h i l e t h e c e t a n en u m b e rm e a s u r e s
t h e e a s eo f s e l f - i g n i t i o nL.o w a u t o - i g n i t i o n proper-
ties ( h i g h o c t a n en u m b e ra n d l o w c e t a n en u m b e r )
a r ed e s i r a b l e f o r s p a r ki g n i t i o ne n g i n e sE . t h a n oal n d
g a s o l i n eb o t h i n d i c a t eh i g h o c t a n ea n d l o w c e t a n e
n u m b e r s .B u t d i e s e le n g i n e sr e q u i r ea h i g h a u t o -
i g n i t i o nv a l u ef u e l ( h i g hc e t a n en u m b e r ,l o w o c t a n e
number)w , h i c h d i e s e lf u e l d o e sp o s s e s s .
F i n a l l yt h e a i r - fu e l r a t i ot o a c hi e v et h e c o mp l e t e
b u r n i n g o f t h e f u e l ( s t o i c h i o m e t r i cA / F r a t i o ) i s
1 4 . 7 : 1' f o rg a s o l i n eb u t o n l y 9 : 1f o r e t h a n o l T . h i sf u e l
propertyrequi res carburetor f uel-rateadjustments
t o a c h i e v em a x i m u me n g i n ee f f i c i e n c y .
Proofof EthanolTolerableby
InternalGombustionEngines
T h e p r o o f o f a l c o h o lt o l e r a b l eb y a n i n t e r n a l
c o m b u s t i o ne n g i n e i s o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

Table 1.-Fuel Properties.

Heatof Heat of
Combusion Density Vaporization Octane Cetane Stoichiometric
Btu/lb lb/gal Btu/lb Number Number A i r / F u e lR a t i o

Gasoline 18,900 6.2 142 77-86 10-20 14.7

D i e s e lF u e l 18,250 7.3 115 10-30 AE, 15.0
Ethanol 11,500 o.o 361 89 20-10 9.0
Water 8.3 970

- A b b r e v i a t i o n sa r e
d e f i n e da t t h e e n d o f t h e p u b l i c a t i o n .
f a c t o r s t h a t m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e di n t h e u s e o f
e t h a n o lE . t h a n o il s c o n c e n t r a t e d u r i n gt h e d i s t i l l a -
t i o n o f a m i x t u r eo f e t h a n o a l n d w a t e r .E a c ht i m e t h e
m i x t u r e i s d i s t i l l e d ,i t s p r o o f ( t w o t i m e s t h e p e r -
c e n t a g ec o n t e n to f t h e a l c o h o li n t h e a l c o h o lw a t e r
solution) increases.Therefore, the lower proof
( h i g h e rt h e w a t e r c o n t e n t )e t h a n o l i s c h e a p e rt o
p r o d u c e a n d e c o n o m i c a l l ym o r e a t t r a c t i v ea s a
o e t r o l e u ms u b s t i t u t e .
T h e u s e o f e t h a n o li n a n i n t e r n a lc o m b u s t i o n
e n g i n ew i t h a p r o o fa s l o w a s 7 0 h a s b e e nr e p o r t e d
( S c h r o c k ,1 9 7 9 ) . B u t i n a t e s t d o n e o n a 1 9 4 7
P l y m o u t he n g i n ea t w i d e o p e n t h r o t t l e( W O T )w i t h
t h e i g n i t i o n ,s p a r kt i m i n g a n d a i r - f u e lr a t i oc a r b u -
retoradjustedfor maximumpower,and usinghotter
s p a r kp l u g s t h a n f o r n o r m a lg a s o l i n eo p e r a t i o n i,t
was f ound that as the proof of alcohol decreases,
the horsepower and thermal efficiency decrease
whilethe f uel consumptionincreases. The results of
t h i s t e s ta r e s h o w n i n T a b l e2 ( S c h r o c k 1, 9 7 9 ) .
A n o t h e rt e s t o e r f o r m e do n a n O l i v e ri n - l i n es i x -
c y li n d e re n g i n ew i t h a h e a t e rf o r t h ea ir - fu e l m i x t ur e
s h o w e d s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n tr e s u l t sf o r t h e t h e r m a l
e f f i c i e n c yT. h e r e s u l t si n d i c a t e dt h a t a s w a t e rw a s
a d d e dt o 2 0 0 p r o o f a l c o h o lt h e t h e r m a le f f i c i e n c y
i n c r e a s e du n t i l t h e m i x t u r e w a s 1 8 0 p r o o f , t h e n
d e c r e a s e da s i n c r e a s i n ga m o u n t s o f w a t e r w e r e
a d d e d .H o w e v e r ,t h e p o w e r o u t p u t o f t h e e n g i n e
was maximumat 200 proof (Deardorff,1979).
fhese testsindlcate that the higher proof etha-
nol is a more desirable fuel. But as before, the
e c o n o m i c sm u s tc o n s i d e rm o r et h a nj u s tt h ec o s to f
t h ef u e l .
Lower proof ethapol also has caused some
e n g i n ep r o b l e m s P . u r d e t h a n o rl e q u i r e sm o r e h e a t
per gallon for vaporizationthan gasolineor diesel
f u e l .F u r t h e r t, h e l o w e rt h e p r o o fo f t h e e t h a n o lt h e
more Btu of heat per gallon for vaporizationare
r e q u i r e db e c a u s eo f t h e h i g h h e a to f v a p o r i z a t i o on f
water.Therefore,more heatis neededfor the intake
m a n i f o l d( H u n t ,1 9 7 9 ) .I n t h e t w o t e s t sm e n t i o n e d
p r e v i o u s l y t, h e f a c t t h a t t h e O l i v e re n g i n e h a d a
h e a t e rf o r t h e a i r - f u e lm i x t u r e a n d t h e P l y m o u t h
e n g i n ed i d n o t ,m a y h a v ec a u s e dt h e d i s c r e p a n c iyn
t h e t h e r m a le f f i c i e n c yr e s u l t s F. u r t h e r l, o w e rp r o o f
ethanolfuels (168proof) havealso producedstart-
i n g p r o b l e m s( H u n t ,1 9 8 0 ) .
O i l d i l u t i o nh a s a l s o b e e n r e p o r t e dd u r i n g u s e
of lower proof ethanol. ln a test performedon the
1 9 4 7P l y m o u t he n g i n e o, i l d i l u t i o nw a se n c o u n t e r e d
w h e nu s i n g7 0 p r o o fe t h a n o lA . t W O T t h ee n g i n er a n
s m o o t h l yo n 7 0 p r o o fe t h a n o lb u t w a s i n c o n s i s t e n t
i n i t s o o e r a t i o n .B u t u n d e r t h e s es a m e c o n d i t i o n s
r u n n i n g t h e e n g i n e f o r o n e h o u r r e s u l t e di n t h e
c r a n k c a s eo i l v o l u m ei n c r e a s i n g from6 to 8 quarts,
d u e t o t h e d i l u t i o no f t h e o i l b y t h e a l c o h o la n dw a t e r
( S c h r o c k ,1 9 7 9 ) .O i l d i l u t i o nc a n b e o v e r c o m eo r
g r e a t l yr e d u c e db y r a i s i n gt h e c o o l i n gw a t e rt e m -
perature by changing thermostats(Deardorff,
19 7 9 ) .
W i t h o u t h e a t a d d i t i o nt o t h e f u e l - a i rm i x t u r e ,
the temperature o f t h e c h a r g ee n t e r i n gt h e e n g i n e
c y l i n d e ri s l o w e r f o r e t h a n o lo r e t h a n o l - w a t efru e l
t h a n g a s o l i n e .T h i s r e s u l t s i n a d e n s e r f u e l - a i r
charge to the cylinderand a higher volumetric
e f f i c i e n c yf o r a n e n g i n ef u e l e d w i t h e t h a n o lo v e r
gasoline.

Table 2.-Engine Performanceon VariousProof Alcohol.

Blend Ethanol
Brake Consumption Consumption Thermal Optimum
Proof Horsepower Gal/hr lb/bhp-hr Efficiencya SparkAdvance

200 47.67 6.85 .944 21.2 17.5

190 46.18 7.53 1.029 19.4 zu.+
180 46.67 7.94 1.042 19.2 21.3
160 45.07 9.52 1.127 t t.o 27.0
140 45.58 11.33 1.162 17.2 29.0
120 43.60 12.90 1.207 to.o 33.0
110 42.00 14.53 1.278 15.6 35.0
100 42.94 19.00 1.490 13.4 36.0
90 42.35 17.90 1.277 15.6 41.5
80 41.40 20.87 1.341 14.9 47.O
70 '1.853
34.10 26.70 10.8 50.0

a H i g h e r h e a t i nvga l u eu s e db y t h i s s t u d y ( D u c k e t a l 1. ,9 4 5 t)o c a l c u l a t e t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y
 One interesting fact about the lower proof
ethanol is that it may be able to withstandgreater
i n c r e a s e si n t h e c o m p r e s s i o nr a t i ot h a n t h e h i g h e r
p r o o f ( H u n t ,1 9 8 0 ) .l f t h i s i s t r u e t h e p o w e ro u t p u t
a n d t h ee n g i n e e f f i c i e n c y w o u b l de i n c r e a s e fdo r t h e
l o w e r o r o o fe t h a n o l .
Ethanol is more suitable for use in spark ig-
nition engines than in diesel engines because of
ethanol'shigh octanenumber (the octanenumber
and the cetane number are inverselyrelated).The
c e t a n en u m b e ro f e t h a n o lc a n b e r a i s e db y t h e u s e
o f a d d i t i v e s .A m y l n i t r a t e i s a n a d d i t i v et h a t i s
popular in the UnitedStates.A 1.50/o mixtureof amyl
n i t r a t ei n e t h a n o li n c r e a s e st h e c e t a n en u m b e ro f
e t h a n o lb y 1 5 p o i n t s .H o w e v e r ,n o r e p o r t so n t h e
p e r f o r m a n c eo f a d i e s e le n g i n eu s i n g e t h a n o la n d
a m y l n i t r a t eh a v eb e e nf o u n d ( S c h r o c k 1, 9 7 9 ) .
C y c l o h e x a n oils a n a d d i t i v et h a t i s p o p u l a ri n
Europe.When it makes up 100/o of a mixture with
e t h a n o l ,t h e c e t a n en u m b e r o f e t h a n o l i s c o m p a -
r a b l et o t h a to f d i e s e fl u e l .A d i e s e el n g i n ec a n b e r u n
o n t h i s m i x t u r ew i t h n o m a j o rc h a n g e st o t h ee n g i n e
(Schrock,1979).
MechanicalModificationsRequiredfor
U s e o f Et h a n o la s a F u e l i n a S l E n gine
W h e n g a s o l i n et h a t c o n t a i n sm o r e t h a n 2 5 %
e t h a n o li s u s e d i n a S l e n g i n e ,s o m e m o d i f i c a t i o n
m u s t b e m a d et o t h e e n g i n e( F l o w e r se t a l . , ' 1 9 7 9 ) .
T h i s o f c o u r s ei n c l u d e se t h a n o l - w a t ebr l e n d st h a t
c o n t a i nn o g a s o l i n eT. h e m o d i f i c a t i o n ds e p e n do n
t h e e n g i n ea n d w h a t i s r e q u i r e do f t h e e n g i n e .
But before mechanical modifications are
undertakenon an engine,a choicemust be madeas
to the ease of reversibility of the engine changes.
This choice must be based on the availabilityof
alcoholfuelf or all anticipatedvehicleuses,fhe cost
of the engine modifications, and the expertisere-
quired to make the engine changes.
Reversible Modifications
T h e f i r s t t y p e so f e n g i n em o d i f i c a t i o nt h a t w i l l
be discussed are reversible.The cost is a few
h u n d r e dd o l l a r so r l e s sd e p e n d i n go n t h e m o d i f i c a -
t i o n u n d e r t a k e nA . s i m p l i e d ,t h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s
can be undonewith relativeeaseto permitoperation
o n c o n v e n t i o n af u l e l s .T h e s em o d i f i c a t i o nisn c l u d e :
1 . c h a n g i n gt h e s p a r kt i m i n g ,
2 . c h a n g i n gt h e v a c u u ma d v a n c e ,
3 . m o d i f y i n gt h e c a r b u r e t i o n for increased fuel
flow,
4 . h e a t i n gt h e a i r - f u e l m i x t u r et o e n s u r et h e
vaporizationof the alcohol,and
5 . u s i n gv a r i o u sm e t h o d st o e n h a n q et h e c o l d -
s t a r t i n ga b i l i t yo f t h e e n g i n e .
SparkTiming
A s a g e n e r a lr u l et h e s p a r kt i m i n go f a n e n g i n e
m u s tb e a d v a n c e dt o r u n o n e t h a n o l T . h i s i s d o n et o
p r o v i d et h e e t h a n o lw i t h e n o u g ht i m e t o c o m p l e t e
c o m b u s t i o ns, i n c ee t h a n o lb u r n ss l o w e rt h a n g a s o -
l i n e .O n e s t u d yr e c o m m e n d e ad d v a n c i n g thetiming
a p p r o x i m a t e l2yO o( F l o w e r se t a l . ,1 9 7 9 ) .
l n a n o t h e rs t u d y ,d o n e r e c e n t l yi n t h e U n i t e d
States,a 1979 Ford Fiestawas modifiedto run on
e t h a n o l( A D M C o r p . ,1 9 8 0 ) .I n t h i s t e s t t h e i g n i t i o n
timing was changedfrom 12" lo 6' BTC. The
i g n i t i o na l s o w a s r e d u c e do n a f o u r - c y l i n d e r1, . 6
l i t e re n g i n eu s e di n a t e s to n e t h a n o li n B r a z i l( P a u l ,
1979)T . h e i g n i t i o nt i m e , b e f o r eB T C ,w a s r e d u c e d
in the lattertwo tests becauseof the differencesin
t h e m o d i f i c a t i o ndso n e t o t h e d i f f e r e n et n g i n e s .
T h e s p a r k t i m i n g o f a n e n g i n eo p e r a t i n go n
ethanolcan be set two differentways.A tachometer
c a n b e h o o k e d u p t o t h e e n g i n ea n d t h e t i m i n g
a d j u s t e du n t i l t h e m a x i m u mR P M r e a d i n gi s f o u n d
with the engineon fast idle.Anotherway to set the
t i m i n g i s t o s t a r t w i t h a n a d v a n c ei n t h e i g n i t i o n
t i m i n g o f 4 ' B T C ( M i n g l e ,1 9 7 9 ) T . h e n u s ea s t o p
watchto determine the time it takesfor the vehicleto
a c c e l e r a t ef r o m 3 0 t o 5 5 m p h i n h i g h g e a r a t f u l l
throttle.This procedureis repeatedin 4o of advance
i n c r e m e n t su n t i l t h e m i n i m u ma c c e l e r a t i o tni m e i s
reached.
F r o m t h e d i f f e r e n tc h a n g e sm a d e i n t h e s p a r k
timing in the tests reviewedand the procedures
usedto set the timing,it can be seenthat thereis no
general rule about setting the spark timing for all
engines using ethanol as a f uel. The correct settlng
of the timing depends on the engine and the other
modificationsdone to the engine. lt must be deter-
mined by experiment.
Vacuum Advance
C h a n g i n gt h e s e t t i n go f t h e v a c u u ma d v a n c ei s
a n o t h e r r e v e r s i b l em o d i f i c a t i o nT. h e v a c u u m a d -
v a n c ea f f e c t st h e f u e l e c o n o m yo f t h e e n g i n eo p e r -
a t i n go n e t h a n o lF. r o mF i g u r e1 ,( C h u ie t a l . ,1 9 7 9 i)t
i s s h o w nt h a t t h e b e s tf u e l e c o n o m yo n t h e e n g i n e
t e s t e do c c u r s w h e n t h e v a c u u ma d v a n c ei s s e t t o
g i v e a n a d d i t i o n a l1 0 o o f a d v a n c eo v e r t h e i d l e
i g n i t i o nt i m e .
 T a b l e3 s h o w st h e s er e s u l t su s i n ga n a r b i t r a r y
V A C U U MA D V A N C E s c a l ef o r t h e f l o a tl e v e la t d i f f e r e n R
t P M sa n d o r o o f s
2.3 LITER ENGINE o f e t h a n o l .I n t h i st e s ta n i n c r e a s ei n j e t s i z eo f 1 0 t o
IOO "h ETHANOL
150/o wds sufficient,but the conclusionreachedwas
that the actualjet sizeneededin the carburetormust
be found by experiment.
Adjusting the carburetor also adjusts the
equivalence r a t i o ,t h a t i s ,
actual airlfuel ratio
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
t-? o T h e e q u i v a l e n c er a t i o a f f e c t st h e f u e l e c o n o m y ,
PRODUCTION t h e r m a le f f i c i e n c ya n d p o w e ro u t p u to f t h e e n g i n e .
lrJ F i g u r e2 ( U n i v e r s i t yo f S a n t a C l a r a ,1 9 7 8 )s h o w s
z
<l
t h a tt h e f u e le c o n o m yo f a n e n g i n eo p e r a t i n go n 2 0 0
p r o o f e t h a n o li s b e s tw h e n t h e e q u i v a l e n c er a t i oi s
a p p r o x i m a t e l y .w Sh, i c hi s i n t h el e a nr e g i o nF. i g u r e
f, BEST ECONOMY 3 ( U n i v e r s i t oy f S a n t aC l a r a ,1 9 7 8 )s h o w st h a tt h i si s
()l
a p p r o x i m a t e l yt h e s a m e e q u i v a l e n c er a t i o f o r
m a x i m u mt h e r m a le f f i c i e n c yT. h e p o w e ro u t p u t o f
a n e n gi n e i s a l s og r e a t e rw h e nt h ee q ui v a l e n c er a t i o
i s t h e l e a n r e g i o n ( < 1 0 ) H o w e v e r ,i t s h o u l d b e
noted that running an engineon too lean a mixture
E T H A N O LA N DI N D O L E N F
EU E L
E C O N O MSYI M U L A T E DURBAN
(
D R I V I N GH O T I 9 7 2 F T P )
?34 F O R DP t NT 0 ( 2 , 3 O OCC)
INTAKE VACUUM (KPA)
@ osn ETHANoL
O O E MI N D O L E N E
F i g .1 . - F o r t h e
S le n g i n ue s i n g
e t h a n oals f u e tl h
, eo p t i m u m ( ) = M A L O I S T R I E U T II O
NNOEX
sparkadvance foreconomy isf oundto bebelowtheproduc- 2to
tion vacuumadvance overthe full rangeof enginein the
vacuum thatis related to engine RPM. :)
(-l-r
LEAN I RICH
F
(D

Carburelor Modifications o t90

o
In allof the testsreviewedthe enginesrequired u
J
more volume of f uel when operatedon ethanolas =
compared to operation on gasollne. The correct y lTO
=
s t o i c h i o m e t r i ca i r - f u e lm i x t u r ef o r e t h a n o l i s 9 : 1 , z (c.o23)
w h i l e t h e c o r r e c t m i x t u r e f o r g a s o l i n ei s 1 4 . 7 : 1 O
( H u n t ,1 9 7 9 ) T . h e r e a s o nf o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e si n t h e U
-: l5o
ratiosis that ethanolhasa lowerenergycontentper U
l

v o l u m et h a ng a s o l i n e .
The f uel-flow increaseis achievedby modifying
the carburetor.The generalprocedurefor the fuel-
f l o w i n c r e a s ei s t o e n l a r g et h e c a r b u r e t o rf u e l j e t
d i a m e t e r' 11 / 2 t i m e s .T h i s c a n b e d o n e b y d r i l l i n g
o u t t h eo r i g i n ajle t o r r e p l a c i n gt h ej e t .H o w e v e ro, n e
r e c e n t s t u d y ( E n g l e m a n ,1 9 8 0 )s h o w e d d i f f e r e n t o.7 o.8 0.9 r.o
r e s u l t s .I n u s i n g a s i n g l e - c y l i n d eer n g i n e ,a d j u s t - E o u t v A L E N c En a r r o Q
m e n to f t h e c a r b u r e t ofrl o a tw i l l i n c r e a s et h e f l o w o f
e t h a n o l .I n c r e a s e df l o w w a s a c h i e v e db e c a u s eo f
F i g . 2 . - T h e f u e l e c o n o m y f o r a nS l e n g i n eu t i l i z i n ge t h a n o li s
i n c r e a s e dl i q u i d h e a d a s w e l l a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e si n higher than one using indolene (a standardgasoline mix)
v a p o r p r e s s u r e s, u r f a c et e n s i o n a n d v i s c o s i t yo f o v e r a l l t e s t e d e q u i v a l e n c er a t i o s u n d e r s i m u l a t e d u r b a n
e t h a n o la s c o m p a r e dt o g a s o l i n e . d r i v i n gc o n d i t i o n s .
 Table 3.-Effect of CarburetorFloat Adiustment on Fuel Flow.

Carb
Float lndolene 190 Proof 180 Proof

9OORPM
F u e ll b l h r 2.60'1 3.404 4.291
1.0 A/F 11.79 8.93 9.18
IHP 3.47 4.51 4.20
F u e ll b l h r 2.484 2.984 2.874
2.0 A/F 12.44 10.27 10.60
IHP 4.93 3.91 3.45
F u e ll b / h r 2.270 2.678 (Rough
'11.54 r u n n i n ga n d
2.6 A/F 13.50
IHP 3.55 2.30 m i s fi r i n g )

1 , 2 0 0R P M
F u e ll b / h r 2.829 4.513 4.155
1.0 A/F 12.72 8.09 8.50
IHP 6.41 5.93 5.45
F u e ll b / h r 2.516 4.105 3.863
2.0 A/F 14.30 9.10 8.90
IHP 6.43 5.58 7.17
F u e ll b / h r 2.410 3.862 3.749
2.6 A/F 14.75 9.67 9.29
IHP 6.43 5.79 4.78

1 , 5 0 0R P M
F u e ll b / h r 2.996 4.947 4.884
1.0 A/F 13.12 8.18 8.45
IHP 6.39 6.55 6.01
F u e ll b / h r 2.811 4.728 4.622
2.0 A/F 14.05 8.71 9.23
IHP 6.50 6.33 5.67
F u e ll b / h r 2.411 5.547 4.476
2.6 A/F 16.47 8.97 9.53
IHP 6.23 6.08 5.57

can resultin burnt valves.A lot of practicalexperi-
e n c ea t t e s t st o t h i s c o n c l u s i o nR. u n n i n ga n e n g i n e
o n a r i c h m i x t u r es t i l l d o e sn o t e l i m i n a t et h e a d v a n -
t a g eo f e t h a n o lo v e rg a s o l i n ef o r t h e r m a le f f i c i e n c y
a n d e c o n o m ya s s e e ni n F i g u r e s2 a n d 3 .
PreheatingAir-Fuel Mixture
As mentionedpreviously,heatingthe air-etha-
n o l f u e l m i x t u r e r e q u i r e s2 . 5 t i m e s m o r e h e a t f o r
v a p o r i z a t i o nt h a n d o e s g a s o l i n e .F o r t h i s r e a s o n
some additionalheat may be desirablefor the air-
f uel mixturebeforeit entersthe cylinder.Two of the
tests reviewedused some additionalheat and two
did not.
In a test performedin 1948,a gasolinet{actor
was modifiedto run on 950/o ethanol(Meyer,1948).
In this test the exhaust gases were recycled to
providethe extra heat in two differentways. In one
part of the test the recycled exhaust gases were
m i x e dd i r e c t l y w i t ht h e i n t a k ea i r .T h e o t h e rm e t h o d
used was to heat the intake air with the exhaust
t h r o u g h a h e a t e x c h a n g e r .T h i s s e c o n d m e t h o d
seemedto be more satisfactory.
In another test from Brazil the exhaust gases
were also recycled to provide more heat for the
i n t a k ea i r o n a f o u r - c y l i n d e r1, . 6l i t e re n g i n e( P a u l ,
1979). However, in this test it was shown that
 A n o t h e r s i m p l e c o l d - s t a r ts y s t e m h a s b e e n
u s e d .T h i ss y s t e mi ss h o w ni n F i g u r e4 . l t c o n s i s t so f
--
LEAN Ir a s e c o n c i a rgya st a n kf o r g a s o l i n e( t h es t a r t i n gf u e l ) ,
a s e c o n d a r ye l e c t r i cf u e l p u m p ,a n d a t o g g l es w i t c h
to engagethe cold-startsystemand needlevalvesto
c o m p l e t e l ys h u t o f f t h e c o l d - s t a r ts y s t e m .V o l k s -
w a g e nh a sc o m eu p w i t h a s i m i l a rc o l d - s t a rst y s t e m .

E X A M P L E O F A D U A L -F U E L S Y S T E M
o U S I N G G A S O L I N EA S T H E C O L D -S T A R T I N GF U E L
z
U
gto
L
L
U

4. 32 N€EOLE FUEL UAIN FUEL

VALVE FILTER PUMP

UJ T- JOINT
I
F
(TO POWER)
50 + 5 GALLON PROPANE
o T A N X ( G A S O L I N €)
U
F

eza PINTO 2,3OO CC ENGINE ELECTRIC NEEOLE

M B T S P A R KT I M I N G FUEL PUMP VALVE

2 O O OR P M - W O T

- F i g . 4 . - T h i s i s a d i a g r a mo f a d u a l J u e ls y s t e mu s i n g g a s o -
DSR ETHANOL
l i n e a s a c o l d - s t a r t i n gf u e l . T h e s y s t e m r e q u i r e sa s e p a r a t e
__- O E M I N D O L E N E( O . 0 6 ) s t o r a g et a n k , f u e l p u m p a n d f u e l f i l t e r .

0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 r.o t.l

E Q U I V A L E N C ER A T I O,
Fig.3.-The indicated thermal efficiency of an Sl engine
u s i n ge t h a n o li s h i g h e rt h a n o n e u s i n g i n d o l e n e( a s t a n d a r d
g a s o l i n e m i x ) o v e r a l l t e s t e d e q u i v a l e n c er a t i o s a t W O T o f
2 , 0 0 0R P M .
p r o b l e m sc a n r e s u l tf r o m e x c e s s i v e l yp r e h e a t i n g
t h e i n t a k ea i r . I n t h e e a r l y t e s t st h e i n t a k ea i r w a s
e x c e s s i v e l yp r e h e a t e d ,c a u s i n g s e v e r e e n g i n e
k n o c k ,r e s u l t i n gi n t h e d e s t r u c t i o nof the engine.
Other methods that have been used to over-
c o m e t h e c o l d - s t a r tp r o b l e m i n c l u d eu s i n g a 3 5 0
w a t t r e s i s t a n c eh e a t e r i n t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d
( S c h r o c k ,1 9 7 9 ) ;u s i n g e l e c t r i cg l o w p l u g s i n t h e
m a n i f o l d( H u n t ,1 9 7 9 ) o; r u s i n ga n e l e c t r i cs c r e e n
g r i d b e t w e e nt h e c a r b u r e t o a
r n d i n t a k em a n i f o l dt o
h e a t t h e a i r - f u e l m i x t u r e ( H i l l , 1 9 8 0 ) .T h i s l a s t
s y s t e mi s s h o w n i n F i g u r e5 . W h e n e v e rc o l d - s t a r t
p r o b l e m sa r e e n c o u n t e r e dt,h e d r i v e rt u r n s o n t h e
k e yf o r 3 0 s e c o n d st o l e tt h e g r i d w a r m u p .T h e nt h e
car is startedas usual.

Cold Start Modification

S C R E E N - G R I DW A R M U P S Y S T E M

O n eo f t h em a i np r o b l e m si n u s i n ge t h a n oiln a n
e n g i n ei s l o w t e m p e r a t u r eT.h i sp r o b l e ma r i s e s f r o m SCREEN GRIO

t h e f a c t t h a t e t h a n o lr e o u i r e sm o r e h e a tf o r v a o o r i - PLAT€

zationthan gasoline.Saturafedethanolvaporsare
too lean to ignite below 50"F and starting problems CARAURETOR

becomesignificant below 40" F (Keller,1979).

T h e c o l d - s t a r to r o b l e m w i t h e t h a n o l c a n b e SCAEEN GRIO

o v e r c o m ei n s e v e r adl i f f e r e n w t a y s .F i r s ti s t h e u s e PLATE

o f a d d i t i v e sI .n o n e t e s ti t w a s f o u n d t h atth ea d d i t i o n
o f 1 0 0 /goa s o l i n et o 2 0 0 p r o o f e t h a n o le x t e n d e dt h e
c o l d - s t a r ta b i l i t y f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l4 0 o F d o w n t o
3 2 " F ( C h u i ,1 9 7 9 )A. n o t h e ra d d i t i v e t h a tr e p o r t e d l y
h a s g o o d r e s u l t si n o v e r c o m i n gc o l d s t a r t si s e t h e r
( K e l l e r ,1 9 7 9 ) .T h e r e i s c o m m e r c i a l l ya v a i l a b l ea n F i g . 5 . - T h i s i s a d i a g r a m o f a c o l d - s t a r ts y s t e m t h a t u s e s a
e t h e r i n j e c t i o ns y s t e m f o r d i e s e l e n g i n e s ( H i l l , g r i d o f h e a t e rw i r e t o h e a t t h e a i r J u e l m i x t u r e a f t e r i t l e a v e s
19 8 0 ) . t h e c a r b u r e t o ra n d b e f o r e e n t e r i n ot h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d .
 Another problem encountered with ethanol at c y l i n d e rh a s 1 2 1o f o r c o m b u s t i o na n d e x p a n s i o nt o
very high temperaturesvvasvapor lock. ln one study t a k e p l a c e ,w h i l e t h e e n g i n e m o d i f i e dt o r u n o n
it was f ound that vaporlock in the f uel pump became e t h a n o lh a d 1 3 2 ' f o r c o m b u s t i o na n d e x p a n s i o nt o
a problem at temperaturesabove 173"F (Keller, take place.
1979). Changein CompressionRatio
I rreversible Modif ications In all of the tests reviewed,the compression
Modificationsthat are irreversible are onesthat ratio was increasedto take advantageof the high
are hard to remove. They also are usually more octane rating of ethanol to produce more power.
expensive,require more expertise,and can be very One study suggestedincreasingthe compression
hazardouswhen the engine fails. Modificationsin r a t i ot o s o m e w h e r eb e t w e e n1 0 t o 1 5 : 1( F l o w e r se t
t h i s c a t e g o r yi n c l u d e : al.. 1979).Two of the studiesreviewedf ollowedthis
1 . c a m s h a f ct h a n g e , r e c o m m e n d a t i o nT. h e s t u d y o n t h e F o r d F i e s t a
2 . i n c r e a s i n tgh ee n g i n ec o m p r e s s i o rna t i o a
, nd ( A D MC o r p . ,1 9 8 0 )i n c r e a s e tdh e c o m p r e s s i o nr a t i o
3. using turbochargersor superchargers. s t u d y( P a u l 1
f r o m 8 . 6 : 1t o 1 2 . 5 : .1T h e B r a z i l i a n , 979)
'l
increasedcompressionratio trom 7 .2:1 to 1.'1.
CamshaftChange The study performed on the tractor in 1948
I n t h e s t u d y o n t h e 1 9 7 9 F o r d F i e s t a( A D M ( M e y e r e ta l . ,1 9 4 8 )d i d n o t f o l l o w t h i sr e c o m m e n d a -
C o r p . ,1 9 8 0 )t h e c a m s h a fw t a sc h a n g e dA . ccording tion. Rather,the compressionratio was increased
t o t h e s t u d yt h i sw a sd o n et o p r o v i d em o r el o w R P M f r o m 6 . 4 : ' 1t o 7 . 3 5 : 1 T . h e r e a s o nf o r t h i s r e l a t i v e l y
torque,easierstartingand betterf uel economy.The l o w e r c o m p r e s s i o nr a t i o w a s t h a t a l l e n g i n ec o m -
d e t a i l so f t h i s c h a n g ea n d t h e o t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n s pressionratios at that time were much lower than
made are shown in Table4. those of today.
The comoressionratiocan be increasedseveral
Table 4.-1979 Ford FiestaSpecifications. d i f f e r e n tw a y s . T h e y i n c l u d e i n s t a l l i n gd i f f e r e n t
p i s t o n s ,s h a v i n gt h e h e a d o r u s i n g a t h i n n e rh e a d
Original Modified g a s k e t .E v e nt h o u g h s o m e o f t h e s em o d i f i c a t i o n s
a r e e a s ya n d i n e x p e n s i vteo d o , o n e t h i n g m u s t b e
P r i m a r yF u e l Unleaded Ethyl emphasized.The increasein compresslonratiocan
Gasoline Alcohol- damageor even destroy an engine if the other parts
of the engine are not strong enough to handle the
Bore 3.188 3.000
increasedpower or cylinder pressures.
Stroke 3.056 3.056
A l l o f t h e t e s t sm e n t i o n e dp r e v i o u s l yi n c r e a s e d
T o t a lC u b i c I n c h 97.6(1,600cc) 86.4
the compressionratioto takeadvantageof ethanol's
(1,416cc)
h i g h o c t a n er a t i n gt o i n c r e a s et h e p o w e ro u t p u to f
Compression t h e e n g i n e .A n o t h e rw a y t o t a k e a d v a n t a g eo f t h e
Ratio 8.6:1 12.5:1
h i g h o c t a n er a t i n go f e t h a n o lt o i n c r e a s et h e p o w e r
C a mT i m i n g
o u t p u t o f t h e e n g i n e i s t o r a i s et h e c o m p r e s s i o n
Intake: p r e s s u r eo f t h e e n g i n e b y t u r b o c h a r g i n gT. a b l e 5
Open 29" (BeforeTDC) 16"
s h o w s t h e t h e o r e t i c a le q u i v a l e n tc o m p r e s s i o n
Close 63' (After BDC) 540
r a t i o s f o r d i f f e r e n ti n c r e a s e si n t h e a i r p r e s s u r e
Exhaust ( G o e r i n g1 , 979).
Open 7 1 " ( B e f o r eB D C ) 540
Table 5.-EquivalentCompressionRatiosof Tu rbo-
Close 2 1 " ( A f t e rT D C ) 16" chargedEngine.
' 1 2 "( B e f o r e
l g n i t i o nT i m i n g TDC) o-
Actual Equivalentcompressionratio
(static)
compression at boost pressureof:
.180proof(900/o
ethylalcohol:
10o/o or 200proofethyl
water) ratio 5 psi 1 0p s i 1 5p s i
Otherratiosmavalsobetried.
alcohol.
7 8.8 10.4 12.0
8 10.0 11.9 13.7
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n gt o n o t e t h a t e v e n t h o u g h t h e o 11.3 13.4 15.5
i g n i t i o nt i m i n gw a s r e t a r d e di n t h i st e s t ,t h e r ei s s t i l l 10 12.5 14.9 17.2
m o r e t i m e f o r c o m b u s t i o nt o t a k e p l a c ew i t h t h e 11 13.8 16.4 18.9
e t h a n o lT . h i s e x t r at i m e i s n e e d e db e c a u s ee t h a n o l 12 16n 17.9 20.6
b u r n s s l o w e r t h a n g a s o l i n e .T h e o r i g i n a l e n g i n e
 A t u r b o c h a r g e ru s e se x h a u s tg a s e st o d r i v e a lems caused by the increasedheat entering the
t u r b i n e c o n n e c t e dt o a n o t h e rt u r b i n e t h a t f o r c e s e n g i n e ,w h i l e i n c r e a s i n gt h e p r o b l e m sc a u s e db y
o u t s i d ea i r t h r o u g h t h e c a r b u r e t o rT . he air that is the increasedheat leavingthe engine.
f o r c e dt h r o u g ht h e c a r b u r e t ocr a u s e sa n i n c r e a s ei n
t h e c o m b u s t i o np r e s s u r e .O n e d r a w b a c ko f t h e
t u r b o c h a r g e ri s t h a t t h e e x h a u s t d o e s n o t h a v e
e n o u g hp o w e rt o e f f e c t i v e l yr u n t h e s y s t e mu n t i l a
ALCOHOL
r e l a t i v e l hy i g he n g i n eR P Mi s r e a c h e du, s u a l l y2 , 5 0 0
t o 3 , 0 0 0R P M ( L y n c h ,1 9 7 9 ) . t.
S u p e r c h a r g i n go v e r c o m e st h e t u r b o c h a r g e r <
uJ 50 To EXxHxAaUuSsTr\ -. =
O E
.'1^{',^o,
_ / /- -- 4eetaot
---/ I
drawback.A superchargeroperateson the same I

p r i n c i p l ea s a t u r b o c h a r g e rb u t i n s t e a do f b e i n g J

---"t
/-''-'t"
-
t

d r i v e nb y t h e e x h a u s tg a s e s ,i t r u n s o f f t h e e n g i n e F

u s i n g a b e l t - d r i v e m e c h a n i s m .T h e r e f o r e , t h e ^L 40
superchargeroperatesat all RPM levels. -
z
T h e r ea r ed r a w b a c k si n u s i n ga t u r b o c h a r g eor r U
O r=:-----
s u p e r c h a r g et ro i n c r e a s et h e c o m p r e s s i o p nressure E.
- --=-4 .ro rHp
Hso -
i n o r d e rt o i n c r e a s ep o w e r .O n e i s t h e c o s t .T h e k i t s {---'-
- -:\_
z.
c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l ec o m m e r c i a l l yr a n g e i n p r i c e
F -----=_- .- \
f r o m $ 6 0 0t o $ 1 , 2 0 0( L y n c h ,1 9 7 9 ) T . h i s m a k e st h e ----r_

-------7 .-
-

t u r b o c h a r g eor r s u p e r c h a r g ear m a j o r i n v e s t m e n t . 420

_

F
T h e o t h e r d r a w b a c k so f t h e s e u n i t s a r e m e - I To cooLrNG ureFA-r-
- -
o
c h a n i c a lT . h e i n c r e a s ei n c y l i n d e rp r e s s u r ed u r i n g F
c o m b u s t i o nm a y c a u s e i n c r e a s e dw e a r o n m a n y U
rto
e n g i n ep a r t s .H o w e v e r i, n o n e t e s t p e r f o r m e do n a
f o u r - c y l i n d eer n g i n e i, t w a sf o u n dt h a ta s l o n ga st h e
pressureincreasewas kept moderate(overallpres-
sure of 55 to 60 bars) no harm was done to the 4
b e a r i n g sp, u s h r o d so r c r a n k s h a f(t S p i n d l e r1, 9 7 8 ) . r.o r.t t.2 r.3
In addition to the increasedpressure there is an E Q U I V A L E N C ER A T I O , O
increasein the heat neededto be dissipatedfrom
t h e e n g i n e .T h e t e s t m e n t i o n e dp r e v i o u s l y( S p i n d - F i g .6 . - H e a t d i s t r i b u t i o ni n a n S l e n g i n eu s i n ge t h a n o o l r
l e r ,1 9 7 8 )u s e da s p e c i a ls, t e e lc y l i n d e rh e a dg a s k e t , g a s o l i n eA. h i g h e rp e r c e n t a goef h e a ti s f o u n di n t h ee x h a u s t
increasedthe valvestemclearanceto avoid bu rnt o r a n d i n e n g i n eh o r s e p o w e b r ,u t a l o w e rp e r c e n t a goef h e a ti s
s t i c k i n gv a l v e sa, n d m o d i f i e dt h e c o o l i n gs y s t e mt o f o u n d i n c o o l i n gw a t e rw h e n f u e l e dw i t h e t h a n o lo v e r a l l
a v o i dp r o b l e m sw i t h t h e c y l i n d e rh e a d c r a c k i n g .l t e o u i v a l e n crea t i o s .
h a sa l s ob e e nf o u n d t h a t u s i n gb r o n z ev a l v eg u i d e s A g a i n , a s w i t h t h e c o m p r e s s i o n r a t i o i n c r e a s e ,i f
o v e r c a m et h e v a l v ep r o b l e m s( L y n c h ,1 9 7 9 ) . the parts of the engine are not strong enough to
T h e h i g h a m o u n t o f h e a t d i s s i p a t e df r o m t h e handle the increased power, the engine may be
e x h a u s tm a n i f o l da l s o c a u s e dp r o b l e m s( S p i n d l e r , damaged or destroyed.
1 9 7 8 ) .I n i t i a l l yt h e i n c r e a s ei n h e a tc a u s e db o t h t h e
e x h a u s tm a n i fo l d a n dt h e t u b i n gu s e dt o r e c y c l et h e
M echanicalModificationsRequi r ed
exhaustto crack. This problem was overcomeby for Use of Ethanolas Fuel in a
m o d i f y i n gt h e e x h a u s tm a n i f o l da n d t u b i n g .E v e n DieselEngine
t h o u g ht h e r ea r e s e v e r am l e c h a n i c apl r o b l e m sw i t h A s m e n t i o n e db e f o r e ,t h e d i e s e le n g i n ei s n o t
u s i n gt u r b o c h a r g e rosr s u p e r c h a r g e r tsh, e y a l l c a n w e l l - s u i t e dt o t h e u s e o f e t h a n o l .B u t , f o u r b a s i c
be overcomeas they were in this test. l n g i n eh a v e
a p p r o a c h e st o u s i n ge t h a n o li n a d i e s e e
O n e f a c t w o r t h m e n t i o n i n gi s t h a tt h e f u e l u s e d b e e nf o u n d :
i n t h e p r e v i o u s l ym e n t i o n e dt e s t w a s g a s o l i n e .
F i g u r e6 ( P y r e ,1 9 3 7 )s h o w st h a ta l c o h o l( 1 9 5p r o o f ) 1. c o n v e r td i e s e el n g i n et o a h i g hc o m p r e s s i o n ,
as compared to gasoline,gives more heat to the s p a r ki g n i t i o ne n g i n e ,
e x h a u s ta n d l e s sh e a tt o t h e c y l i n d e rw a l l s( c o o l i n g 2. modifythe dieselto toleratestraightethanol
w a t e r )w h e n r u n i n a n e n g i n ew i t h o u tt u r b o c h a r g i n g injection,
o r s u p e r c h a r g i n gF. r o mt h i s i t m i g h t b e c o n c l u d e d 3. carburetthe ethanol,and
t h a t o p e r a t i o no n a l c o h o lm i g h td e c r e a s et h e p r o b - 4 . u s ed u a l i n j e c t i o no f e t h a n o la n d d i e s e fl u e l .

10
 O n e e n g i n et h a t l e n d si t s e l ft o t h i s c o n v e r s i o n
t o s p a r ki g n i t i o ni s t h e 8 5 5C u m m i n sD i e s e lE n g i n e
( S c h r o c k ,1 9 7 9 ) .T h e a r e a st h a t r e q u i r em o d i f i c a -
t i o n i n c l u d e t h e p i s t o n s ,h e a d a s s e m b l y ,i n t a k e
m a n i f o l di g n i t i o ns y s t e m c, a r b u r e t oar n d g o v e r n o r .
P a r t s a r e a v a i l a b l ef o r t h e c o n v e r s i o n ,b u t t h e
e s t i m a t e dm i n i m u m c o s t f o r t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n si s
$3,000.
A m u l t i f u e l e n g i n ed,e v e l o p e d f o r t h e m i l i t a r yi,s
d e s i g n e dt o f u n c t i o nu s i n gf u e l sr a n g i n gf r o md i e s e l
o i l t o l o w o c t a n ec o m b a tg a s o l i n eT. h e M A N D i e s e l
( a l s ok n o w na s t h e M e u r e ro r W h i s p e rd i e s e l )h a sa
u n i q u e c o m b u s t i o nc h a m b e r d e s i g n t o f u n c t i o n
s m o o t h l y u s i n g l o w c e t a n ef u e l s a n d l o w o c t a n e
g a s o l i n e( S c h r o c k1, 9 7 9 )T. h i sd i e s e el n g i n ed e s i g n
c o u l db e t h e m o s tt o l e r a n ot f m a n u f a c t u r eedn g i n e s
t o u s e e t h a n o lw i t h o u t m o d i f i c a t i o nT. h i s e n g i n e
was offered for limited agriculture use by Inter-
nationalHarvesterand Whitein the last10 years,but
i t i s n o t p r e s e n t l ya v a i l a b l e .
A n o t h e rw a y t o u s ee t h a n o li n d i e s e e l n g i n e si s
to carburee t t h a n o li n t o t h e a i r i n t a k ei n f r o n t o f t h e
t u r b o c h a r g e (r S c h r o c k ,1 9 7 9 ) .A k i t t o d o t h i s w i l l
D I R E C T I N J E C T I O ND I E S E LE N G I N E
U S I N G A L C O H O LA N O P I L O T I N J E C T I O N
E L E C T R O N I CF U E
I N . ' E C T I O N F OR
LIOUID FUEL
I NTAKE
EXHAUST
ILOT FUEL
INJECTION
N O Z ZL E
F i g .7 . - D u a l i n j e c t o r fsu e la d i e s e l e n g i n eO.n ei n j e c t opr u t s
i n 3 0 0 /oof f u e le n e r g ya s a h i g hc e t a n ef u e lt h a ti g n i t e sd u e t o
h e a to f c o m p r e s s i o na,n d t h e na s e c o n di n j e c t o rp u t si n t h e
r e m a i n d eor f f u e le n e r g ya s l o w c e t a n ef u e l .
11
s o o n b e c o m m e r c i a l l ya v a i l a b l eb y M & W G e a r
C o m p a n y ,G i b s o n C i t y , l l l i n o i s .T h i s s y s t e mu s e s
t h e t u r b o c h a r g e rb o o s t t o p r e s s u r i z et h e a l c o h o l
f u e l t a n k i n o r d e rt o m e t e rt h e f u e l a s a f u n c t i o no f
e n g i n e l o a d .T h e a l c o h o lf u e l i s n o t a d d e d a t l o w
l o a d .R e s e a r c hh a s i n d i c a t e dr e d u c e de n g i n ee f f i -
c i e n c ya t l i g h tl o a d ,b u t i n c r e a s e tdh e r m a el f f i c i e n c y
o v e rd i e s e fl u e l m a y o c c u ro n l y a t h e a v yl o a d i n g .I n
g e n e r a tl h o u g h ,i t s h o u l db e a s s u m e dt h a t c a r b u r e -
t i o n o f a l c o h o li n t o a d i e s e le n g i n er e p l a c e sd i e s e l
f u e l o n a n e q u a lh e a tc o n t e n tb a s i sw i t h n o c h a n g e
i n e f f i c i e n c y( S c h r o c k 1, 9 7 9 ) .
T h e r ew a s a d e v e l o p m e not f a n a l t e r n a t i v de i e -
s e l e n g i n ew i t hd u a li n j e c t i o n d u r i n gW W l l i n w h i c h
t h e m a i nf u e l ,a l o wc e t a n er a t e df u e l ,i s i n j e c t e dw i t h
t h e a i r i n t o a d i e s e la n d a p i l o t f u e l ,a h i g h c e t a n e
f u e l , i s i n j e c t e dn e a r t h e e n d o f t h e c o m p r e s s i o n
cycle that ignites,from compressionheat,the total
f u e l m i x t ur e ( B r oe t a | . , 1 9 7 7 )S. e eF i gu r e7 . T h e l o w
c e t a n em a i n f u e l m a k e su p a p p r o x i m a t e l 7y 0 p e r -
cent of the total fuel energy.Researcheffortshave
u t i l i z e do n l y 2 0 0 p r o o f e t h a n o la s a m a i n f u e l , b u t
t h e r es e e m st o b e n o l i m i t a t i o no f u s i n ga n e t h a n o l
f uel that has a lower proof.
Compar isonof EnginePer for m anc e
on Ethanoland GonventionalF uel s
FuelEconomy
The volumetric fuel economy of S/ englnes
using ethanolas a fuel is not as good as that of the
same engines operating on gasoline. The maior
reason for this is that ethanol does not contain as
much energy per unit volume or per unit weight as
gasoline.Pure ethanol (200proof) contains650/o of
t h e e n e r g yp e r u n i t v o l u m ea n d 6 1 %o f t h e e n e r g y
per unit weight when comparedto gasoline
( S c h r o c k , 1 9 7 9 ) .T h e r e f o r e ,w h e n c o m p a r e d t o
g a s o l i n em , o r e e t h a n o li s r e q u i r e dt o d o t h e s a m e
work in an engine.
T h e a b o v e i s c o n f i r m e di n a l l o f t h e s t u d i e s
reviewed.But differenttests give different results
d e p e n d i n go n t h e e n g i n ea n d t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n os f
the engine.ln a test performedinBrazil,it wasfound
t h a t v o l u m e t r i cf u e l c o n s u m p t i o nw a s 5 t o 1 0 0 / o
h i g h e rf o r 2 0 0 p r o o f e t h a n o la s c o m p a r e dt o g a s o -
l i n e ( M u e l l e r ,1 9 7 8 ) .A n o t h e r t e s t , o f w h i c h t h e
r e s u l t sa r es h o w ni n F i g u r e8 ( M u e l l e r1, 9 7 8 )s, h o w s
t h a tt h e s p e c i ifc e n e r g yc o n s u m p t i o ni n t e r m so f B t u
p e r g a l l o ni s a b o u t1 2 o /loo w e ri n a l o w c o m p r e s s i o n
e n g i n ea n d 1 5 0 /l o w e ri n a h i g hc o m p r e s s i o e nngine
f o r e t h a n o la s c o m p a r e dt o g a s o l i n e T . his implies
t h a t h i g h e r c o m p r e s s i o nr a t i o e n g i n e sa r e m o r e
'190
e f f i c i e n ti n u s i n g t h e h i g h e r o c t a n e v a l u e o f
p r o o fe t h a n o l .
 Table 6.-Fuel Efficiencyol a Six-CylinderEngine.
COMPARATIVE SPECIFICENERGY
CONSUMPTION OF ENGINES USING E t h a n o lP r o o f
Gasoline
N E A T E T H A N O L ( 5 % W A T E R)
(Original
AND GASOLINE
Engine) 164 186 200

F u e l ,g a l / h r 4.3
+ ( a tm a x i m u m
I power) 7.44 7.4 6.3
lrJ
z HP - h r / g a l 11.7 T.IJ /.o 8.82
= il
U LC R HCR Thermal tt

(t
E ff i c i e n c y ,
(D
o/o 27 260/o 25o/o 27olo
lrj
z
o
an
sion ratio tor 192 proof ethanol showed an even
(9
greaterpower increase.The maximumhorsepower
= i n c r e a s e d1 8 . 7 o / 0 w,h i l e t h e m a x i m u m t o r q u e i n -
o
CE
lt -l creased20.5o/o on ethanol operation (Paul, 1979).
lrJ
T h e i n c r e a s ei n p o w e rg a i n e df r o me t h a n o li ss h o w n
o
z i n F i g u r e9 ( H u n t ,1 9 8 0 )a s a f u n c t i o no f R P M .I n t h i s
(J
t e s tt h e s i x - c y l i n d eer n g i n er u n n i n go n e t h a n o lh a d
-l
the compressionratioincreasedfrom 7.5:1to 8.45:1,
a reworkedcarburetoranda heatedintakemanifold.

LCR. LOW COMPRESSIOR NATIO ENGINE

H C R .H I G HC O M P R E S S I O
RNATIO ENGINE

F i g . 8 . - T h e c o m p a r i s o no f t h e s p e c i fi c e n e r g yc o n s u m p t i o n
o f h i g h c o m p r e s s i o na n d l o w c o m p r e s s i o nS l e n g i n e ss h o w
that the ethanolJueled engines require less energy than
g a s o l i n e -uf e l e d e n g i n e s .T h e h i g h - c o m p r e s s i o ne n g i n e r e -
q u i r e s l e s s e n e r g y t h a n t h e l o w - c o m p r e s s i o ng a s o l i n e
e n gi n e .
As the proofof ethanolincreasesthe volumetric
f u e l e c o n o m yi m p r o v e sA. s e x p e c t e dt,h i s i s d u e t o
the fact that increasingthe proof increasesthe
v o l u m e t r i ce n e r g yc o n t e n to f t h e e t h a n o l .T a b l e 6
( H u n t ,19 8 0 )i n d i c a t e st h i si n t e r m so f t h e r a n g eo f a
v e h i c l eo p e r a t i n go n e t h a n o la s c o m p a r e dt o g a s o -
l i n e .A f u e l t a n kt h a tw o u l dc a r r ya v e h i c l e2 0 0 m i l e s
o n g a s o l i n ew o u l d g o 1 3 5 m i l e s o n 2 0 0 p r o o f
e t h a n o l 9, 5 m i l e so n 1 6 0p r o o fe t h a n o a l n d6 0 m i l e s
o n 1 2 0p r o o fe t h a n o l( S c h r o c k 1, 9 7 9 ) .

Power Output

The power output of ethanol was greaterin all

of the testsreviewedwhen comparedto gasoline. r,7oo RATEDlsOO tpOO
O n e s t u d y ,w h i c h c o m p a r e d1 9 0p r o o fe t h a n o la n d R E V O L U T I O N SP E R M I N U T E
gasoline,showeda 30/o increasein poweroutput for C Y L I N D E R -2 4 0 C U B I CI N C H E S )
ethanol at the same compressionratio (Schrock,
19 7 9 ) . F i g . 9 . - T h e i n d i c a t e dh o r s e p o w e ro f a n S l e n g i n e i n d i c a t e s
Another study that used 7.2:1 compression t h a t t h e e t h a n o l f u e l e d e n g i n e a t a l l p r o o fs w a s h i g h e r t h a n
r a t i of o r g a s o l i n eo p e r a t i o na n d a n 1 1 : 1c o m p r e s - t h e g a s o l i n ee n g i n e a t t h e r a t e d R P M .

12
 F i g u r e 1 0 ( U n i v e r s i t yo f S a n t a C l a r a , 1 9 7 8 ) a t e d w i t h p r o l o n g e di n h a l a t i o ni n c l u d ec o u g h i n g ,
s h o w st h e h o r s e p o w ear s a f u n c t i o no f e q u i v a l e n c e eye irritationand headaches.
r a t i o f o r b o t h g a s o l i n e a n d c o m m e r c i a lg r a d e T h e s t o r a g eo f e t h a n o lm u s t b e h a n d l e dd i f f e r -
e t h a n o l .T h e e n g i n eo p e r a t e do n e t h a n o lu s e d t h e e n t l y fr o m t h a to f g a s o l i n eF. o r m a x i m u ms a f e t ya n d
D e r e s s e r a t oI rn d u c t i o nS y s t e m .E t h a n o lf u e l g a v e t o r e d u c el o s s e sd u r i n gs t o r a g ee, t h a n o ls h o u l db e
g r e a t e rb r a k e h o r s e p o w e ri n c o m p a r i s o nt o i n d o - s t o r e d i n w h i t e t a n k s i n a s h a d e da r e a .T h e t a n k s
l e n e( a s t a n d a r dg a s o l i n e ) . s h o u l d b e e q u i p p e dw i t h p r e s s u r e - v a c u u m relief
f i ll e rc u p s .N o r u b b e rh o s e so r s e a l ss h o u l db e u s e d
w i t h i nt h e s y s t e mi n o r d e rt o a v o i dl e a k sc a u s e db y
t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o no f r u b b e r w h e n i n c o n t a c tw i t h
e t h a n o l( R i d e re t a l . ,1 9 7 9 ) .
+lLEAN I
-)
R I CH
E t h a n o il s t o t a l l yd i f f e r e n ft r o m g a s o l i n ei n t h a t
i t d o e s m i x w i t h w a t e r . F o r t h i s r e a s o ne t h a n o l
s h o u l dn e v e rb e s t o r e di n a t a n k w h e r et h e r ei s a n y
w a t e ro r t h e r ee x i s t sa p o s s i b i l i t yo f w a t e rc o m i n g
i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e e t h a n o l .T h i s a l s o i n c l u d e s
p r o l o n g e de x p o s u r et o h i g h h u m i d i t ya i r .
tr
g 4s Ethanolburnswith a nearlyinvisibleblue flame,
o while gasoline or diesel burns with a highly visible
.L
lrJ
(t, yellow or orange tlame. Sometimesthe only de-
(E
o
-40
t e c t a b l ef e a t u r e o f b u r n i n o e t h a n o l i s t h e h e a t
waves.
UJ
I

E
(D

35 COMPARATIVEPOWER OUTPUT
O F E N G I N E SU S I N G N E A T E T H A N O L
( 5 % W A T E R )A N O G A S O L I N E

:g

0.70
lrJ
z.
J
tlJ
UI
6

F i g . 1 o . - T h e b r a k e h o r s e p o w e ro f a n S l e n g i n e f u e l e d w i t h U
e t h a n o l i s h i g h e r t h a n e n g i n e sf u e l e d w i t h i n d o l e n eo v e r t h e =
tested eouivalence ratios at 2.000 RPM.
.J'

I n F i g u r e1 1 ( M u e l l e r 1 , 9 7 8 )t h e p e r c e n t a g e o
p o w e r i n c r e a s e sa r e s h o w n f o r b o t h a h i g h c o m - E
L

p r e s s i o nr a t i oe n g i n ea n d a l o w c o m p r e s s i o nr a t i o u
z
e n g i n eo p e r a t i n go n 1 9 0p r o o fe t h a n o al s c o m p a r e d
t o g a s o l i n eT . h e e n g i n eo p e r a t i n go n e t h a n o lh a d o
LCR HCR
m o d i f i c a t i o n so n t h e c a r b u r e t o r a n d i g n i t i o n
system.

Sa f e t yi n H a n d l i n gE th a n o l L C R . L O W C O M P R E S S I OR
NA T I OE N G I N E
H C R ' H I G H C O M P R E S S I ORNA T I OE N G I N E
E t h a n o li s n o t h i g h l y t o x i c b u t s o m e d i s c o m -
forts havebeen known to occur if the fumesare F i g . 1 1 . - T h e c o m p a r a t i v ep o w e r o u t p u t o f a h i g h a n d a l o w
i n h a l e df o r a l o n g p e r i o do f t i m e i n a p o o r l y v e n t i - c o m p r e s s i o ne n g i n e f u e l e dw i t h e t h a n o l i s h i g h e r t h a n w h e n
l a t e da r e a ( M u e l l e r1, 9 7 8 ) T
. h e d i s c o m f o r t sa s s o c i - f u e l e dw i t h g a s o l i n e .

'13
 Tabfe 7.-NFPS Hazard ldentificationSignals.
Health Fire
Methanol 1a
Ethanol
Gasoline
a0 4
safe severelyhazardous
E t h a n o al l s od i f f e r sf r o m g a s o l i n ei n t h e k i n d o f
e x t i n g u i s h i nagg e n tt h a tm a y b e u s e do n i t i n c a s eo f
f ire. Listed in Table 7 are the NFPShazardidentifi-
c a t i o ns i g n a l sf o r t w o t y p e so f a l c o h o la n d g a s o l i n e
( P a u l ,1 9 7 9 ) .
of Materiatsin
Deterioration
Contactwith Ethanol
Ethanol has been found to be corrosive to
severalmaterialsthat are exposedwithin the engine
or fuel system of the vehicle. ln the fuel system,
ethanol has been found to be corroslve to polya'
mide filter housings, polyurethane and polyester
bonded fiberglass(Schrock, 1979).For this reason
it is recommendedthat allhosesand the f uel pump
diaphragm be made of neoprene rubber, a material
compatiblewith ethanol(Nerpel,1980).
Ethanol is also corrosive to metals,such as
s t e e l ,a l u m i n u ma n d c o p p e r .T h e e x t e n tt o w h i c h i t
corrodes these materials can be shown by an
exampleusing the relativecorrosionratesof these
m e t a l sw h e n i m m e r s e di n 2 0 0p r o o fe t h a n o al t r o o m
temperature(Persiantseva et al., 1980).Assuming
a n 8 - g a u g em e t a l( t h i c k n e s os f . 1 2 8i n c h e s )u s e di n
a storagetank or a pieceof tubing,it would take the
ethanol32 yearsto completelypenetratethe steel,
3 1. 17 y e a r sf o r t h ea l u m i n u ma n d 1 8 2 . 9y e a r sf o r t h e
copper.
T h e p r o o f o f t h e e t h a n o la l s o i n f l u e n c e st h e
corrosion rates of these metals in ethanol. lf the
metalsare immersedin 90 proof ethanolinsteadof
the 200 proof ethanol, the steel's corrosion rate
would increase2.3times,the copperwould increase
1 . 6 t i m e s ,a n d t h e a l u m i n u mw o u l d d e c r e a s e4 . 1
t i m e s( P e r s i a n t s e veat a l . ,1 9 8 0 ) .
Temperaturealso affectsthe corrosionrate of
metals.lf the temperatureincreasesfrom 80'F to
280"F the corrosionratefor steelin ethanolgoes up
14
Reactivity E x t i n g u i s hA g e n t
a l c o h o lf o a m ,C O zo r d r y
chemical
water.alcoholfoam, CO2or
dry chemical
0 f o a m ,C O zo r d r y c h e m i c a l
f r o m . 0 0 4i n c h e sp e r y e a rt o . 0 5i n c h e sp e r y e a r ,a n
i n c r e a s eo f 1 2 . 5t i m e s( P e r r y ,19 7 3 ) .
I t s h o u l db e n o t e dt h a tt h e r ei s a n o t h e rp r o b l e m
with having aluminum in contact with ethanol.
When ethanol and water come into contact with
a l u m i n u mt h e y p i c k u p a l u m i n u mo x i d ef o r m i n ga
m i l k y w h i t e s l u d g e( S c h n e i d e r1, 9 7 9 ) .l t i s r e c o m -
m e n d e d t h a t a n y a l u m i n u mt h a t m i g h t c o m e i n
contact with the ethanol be replacedbecausethe
s l u d g ec o u l d c l o g f i l t e r sa n d f u e l l i n e s .
Zinc is also incompatible with ethanol. In one
t e s t ,t h e v e h i c l ec o n t a i n e da z i n c - l i n e dg a st a n kt h a t
h a d t o b e r e p l a c e dw i t h a s t a i n l e s s t e e lt a n k ( H i l l ,
1 9 8 0 )S . t a i n l e s s s t e ei sl k n o w nt o b e h i g h l yr e s i s t a n t
to corrosionby ethanoleven at high temperatures.
A s a c o n s e q u e n c eo f t h e i n c o m p a t a b i l i t i e s
associatedwith ethanol,it is recommendedthat the
f ol lowing areasbe checkedf or compatabiIity before
r u n n i n ga n e n g i n eo n e t h a n o l( F l o w e r se t a l . ,1 9 7 9 ) :
r carburetorfloat,
o carburetorneedleand seat,
o cdrburetorfilter (plasticgasket),
o f u e l f i l t e r( p l a s t i c ) ,
o fuellines,
o f u e l p u m p ( p l a s t i ca n d r u b b e rp a r t s )a n d
o f u e lt a n k .
PollutantEmissionsLevelsof
EnginesUsing Ethanol
There are conflictingreportson the effectsof
e t h a n o lu s e o n t h e e x h a u s te m i s s i o n so f e n g i n e s .
T h e s ec o n f l i c t sr e s u l tm a i n l yf r o m u s i n g d i f f e r e n t
e n g i n e sa n d d i f f e r e n tm e t h o d so f e v a l u a t i n gt h e
e m i s s i o n s .I n T a b l e 8 ( P a u l , 1 9 7 9 ) t h e e x h a u s t
c o m p o s i t i o no f a n e n g i n eo p e r a t i n go n e t h a n o li s
s h o w n .T h e e n g i n eh a d a d i s p l a c e m e notf 2 . 3 l i t e r s
and a modifiedcarburetor.
 Table 8.-Exhaust Compositionf rom NeatEthanolbyFTIRSand OtherMethods.

FTIRS
A m o u n ta t
Compound 4 Hours A m o u n ta t
(ppm) Error 26Hours

Water 1.10. 0.2 o.52

C a r b o nd i o x i d e 1.08- 0.2 1.07
C a r b o nm o n o x i d e 488. 18.4 490.
Heavyhydrocarbons(Cu+1 0.3** 14.7 0.
N i t r i co x i d e 14.4 0.6 4.0
N i t r o g e nd i o x i d e 46.9 0.6 31.5
N i t r o u so x i d e 0.4 0.2 0.4
N i t r o u sa c i d 2.4 0.2 2.2
H y d r o g e nc y a n i d e 0.1 0.4 0
Ammonia 0 o.2 0.1
S u l f u rd i o x i d e 0.3 0.4 tl

Methane 8.7*" 0.2 8.8

Acetylene 4 . 6 "* 0.4 AA

Ethylene 26.0 0.9 26.0

Ethane 1.8** 0.4 1.7
Propylene '1.8 0.6
0.5**
lsobutane 3.0** 1.8 e6

Formaldehyde 8.8.- 0.2 7.8

Acetaldehyde 57.4** 1.6 55.6
F o r m i ca c i d 0.6.. 0.2 0.2
Methanol 7 . 6 ** 0.2 6.4
Ethanol 194.-. o: 168.
Total NOX 63.7 37.6
Total HC 313.3*. 280.0

* o/o
'. ppm carbon

N01 Emissions Unburned Fuel Emissions

I t w a sf o u n dt h a tN O Xe m i s s i o n w s e r eg e n e r a l l y
l e s sf o r e t h a n o la s c o m p a r e dt o g a s o l i n eT. h i s h e l d
t r u e e x c e p ti n t h e v e r y l e a n a n d v e r y r i c h r e g i o n s .
F i g u r e1 2 ( U n i v e r s i t yo f S a n t aC l a r a ,1 9 7 8 )p o i n t s
t h i s o u t i n g r a p h i c afl o r m .
T h e a m o u n t b y w h i c h t h e N O y e m i s s i o n sd e -
crease varies between tests. One test reported
r e d u c t i o no f 5 5 t o 6 0 % u s i n g e t h a n o la t t h e s a m e
e q u i v a l e n c er a t i o ( P a u l ,1 9 7 9 ) A
. n o t h e rt e s t f o u n d
that reductionto be 8 to 12 o/oal the same equiva-
l e n c er a t i o( U n i v e r s i toy f S a n t aC l a r a ,1 9 7 8 ) .
C O E mi ssi o n s
T h e C O e m i s s i o n s w e rfeo u n dt o b e l o w e r w h e n
o p e r a t i n go n e t h a n o lt h a n w i t h g a s o l i n e O
. ne test
reported that CO emi ssionswere reduced30 to 60 0/o
w h e n o p e r a t i n go n e t h a n o al t t h e s a m ee q u i v a l e n c e
ratio (Universityof SantaClara,1978).
T h e u n b u r n e df u e l e m i s s i o n sw e r ef o u n dt o b e
h i g h e rf o r e t h a n o lt h a n f o r g a s o l i n e O
. n e t e s tw i t h
t h e s a m ee n g i n e so p e r a t i n ga t t h e s a m ee q u i v a l e n c e
ratio, reportedincreasesof 6 to 25 0/o(Universityof
S a n t aC l a r a , 1 9 7 8I)n. F i g u r e1 3 ( M u e l l e r1, 9 7 8 ) t h i s
i n c r e a s ei s a l s os h o w ne x c e p ti n t h e r i c h r e g i o n .
Aldehyde Emissions
I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t a t t h e p r e s e n tt i m e
a l d e h y d ee m i s s i o n sa r e n o t f e d e r a l l yr e g u l a t e dB. u t
t h e a l d e h y d ee m i s s i o n sf r o m e t h a n o lo p e r a t i o na r e
m u c h h i g h e rw h e nc o m p a r e dt o o p e r a t i o no n g a s o -
l i n e .I n o n e t e s t ,w i t h t h e c a r b u r e t o ar n d d i s t r i b u t o r
modified,a 5Oo/o i ncreasewasf ound (Chu i, 1979).In
F i g u r e1 4 ( U n i v e r s i toy f S a n t aC l a r a ,1 9 7 8 )a l a r g e r
i n c r e a s ei s s h o w n .T h e i n c r e a s es h o w n f r o m t h i s
g r a p h r a n g e sf r o m t h r e e t o s i x t i m e s t h e g a s o l i n e

15
 P I N T O 2 , 3 O OC C E N G I N E FORDPINTO 2.5 LITER
M B T S P A R KT I M I N G M B T S P A R KT I M I N G
a O O O R P M- W O T 2 0 0 0 R P M, W o T
- DSR ETHANOL
-_-OEMINDOLENE BASIS
DATA ON PER-CYLINDER
- DSR ETHANOL
-__OEM INDOLENE

r0c
r2.o
CL

t
I
(-l
LEAN I RICH
to E 8.O
- o
o

o a
z
6
o
z a 6.O
(n
6
I r
J
q u
x |r
o 4.O
z
U
4. z

z
?.o

o.6 o.7 0.8 o9 LO t.l

o.7 o.8 0.9 t.o t .I t.2

E Q U I V A L E N C ER A T I O , ! [ E O U I V A L E N C EN A T I O , Q

Fig. 12.-The nitrogen oxides emitted f rom an Sl engine F i g .1 3 . - T h e u n b u r n e df u e l e m i s s i o nfsr o m a n S l e n g i n e

f ueled with ethanol and indoleneare nearly equal for all f u e l e dw i t h e t h a n o la r e e q u i v a l e ntto e n g i n e sf u e l e dw i t h
e q u i v a l e n c er a t i o s e x c e p t i n t h e 0 . 9 t o 1 . 0 r a n g e w h e r e t h e i n d o l e n eT. h e u n b u r n e df u e le m i s s i o nas r eg r e a t e fro r i n d o -
e t h a n o lf u e l e de n g i n e se m i t c o n s i d e r a b l yl e s s N O y . l e n ew h e nt h e e q u i v a l e n crea t i oi s h i g h e rt h a n1 . 0 .

o p e r a t i o nv a l u e s O . n e t e s tr e p o r t e dt h a ta s t a n d a r d the ethanol (Rider et al., 1979). Another study

c a t a l y t i cc o n v e r t e rc a n e l i m i n a t et h e p r o b l e m so f
a l d e h y d e m i s s i o n (sH i l l ,1 9 8 0 ) .
O n e p r o b l e mp o i n t e do u t i n t h e e m i s s i o n tse s t s
w a s t h e m a l d i s t r i b u t i obne t w e e nc y l i n d e r s( f a i l u r e
o f f u e l t o d i s t r i b u t ee v e n l ya m o n gc y l i n d e r s r) e s u l t -
i n g f r o m t h e u s e o f e t h a n o l .l t w a s f o u n d t h a t t h i s
p r o b l e m i n c r e a s e dw i t h i n c r e a s i n gv e h i c l es p e e d
( C h u i ,1 9 7 9 ) T . h e m a l d i s t r i b u t i ovna r i e dt h e e m i s -
s i o n sf r o m o n e c y l i n d e rt o t h e n e x t ,b u t i t i s n o t
k n o w nw h a t e f f e c tt h i s o r o b l e mh a s o n o t h e ra r e a s
o f e n g i n eo p e r a t i o no n e t h a n o l .
E n g i n eD u r a b i l i t y
U si n g E th a n o l
There see/ns to be some conflict between re-
portson the effectof ethanolon enginedurability.
O n e s t u d y r e p o r t e dn o d o c u m e n t e di n c i d e n c e so f
e n g i n ec o r r o s i o nd u e t o e t h a n o lu s e . l t s t a t e dt h a t
t o e t h a n o l w a sr e a l l y
t h ee n g i n ec o r r o s i o na t t r i b u t e d
a r e s u l to f t h e d e n a t u r a not r o t h e ra d d i t i v e su s e di n
c o n d u c t e dd u r i n g t h e w i n t e r , o n s h o r t t r i p s a n d
stop-and-godriving, reporteda 1800/o increasein
t h e i r o n w e a r o f t h e e n g i n e p l u s i n c r e a s e do i l
v i s c o s i t ya n d a c i dc o n t e n t .l t w e n to n t o s a yt h a t t h e
p r o b l e m sa r e n o t s e r i o u sa t h i g h e r a m b i e n tt e m -
peratures(Schrock,1979).
A s m e n t i o n e de a r l i e r ,i n s o m e t e s t st h e i n t a k e
a i r o f t h e e n g i n eu s i n ge t h a n o li s p r e h e a t e dl.t w a s
f o u n d t h a t w h e n t h e i n t a k ea i r w a s h e a t e de x c e s -
s i v e l ye n g i n ek n o c k o c c u r r e da n d t h e e n g i n ew a s
destroyedT . h e s t u d y r e c o m m e n d e dk e e p i n gt h e
t e m p e r a t u ro e f t h e e n g i n ep a r t sb e l o w2 9 0 ' C ( P a u l ,
19 7 9 ) .
A n o t h e rp r o b l e mm e n t i o n e di n o n e p a p e rw a s
t h a t v a l v e r e c e s s i o nm i g h t o c c u r i n o l d e r m o d e l
e n g r n e so p e r a t i n go n e t h a n o l( S c h r o c k1, 9 7 9 )T . his
p r o b l e mc a n a l s o o c c u r i n o l d e r m o d e l e n g i n e s
o p e r a t i n g o n u n l e a d e d g a s o l i n e .T h e p r o b l e m
occurs becauseof the absenceof tetraethyllead.
N e w m o d e lc a r sa r ee q u i p p e dw i t hv a l v es e a ti n s e r t s
t o e l i m i n a t teh i sp r o b l e ml.f t h i sp r o b l e mo c c ur s i t i s
r e c o m m e n d e dt h a t v a l v es e a t i n s e r t sb e o l a c e di n

16
 the headsorthat the headsbe replacedwith a newer o u t o f t h e e n g i n e .l t h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t e t h a n o l ,
model. b e i n ga n e x c e l l e nst o l v e n tw , i l l l o o s e nu p g u m sa n d
Friction and wear characteristicsof various d e p o s i t sa lr e a d yf o r m e di n t h ee n g in e .O n e p r o b l e m
f u e l s w e r e t e s t ebdy B a i l y e ta l .( 19 7 9 )i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h i s i s t h a t w h e n e t h a n o li s f i r s t u s e d i n a n
with ASTM standards.The lubricationperformance e n g i n e ,o n e s h o u l d e x p e c t t h a t s o m e f i l t e r s m a y
of ethanol was poorer than dieselfuel, but it was clog up due to the gums and depositsbeing
s u p e r i o rt o g a s o l i n e . cleansedfrom the engine.However,afterthe engine
I n d u a l i n j e c t i o nd i e s e le n g i n e s( o n e i n j e c t i n g i s i n i t i a l l yc l e a n s e dt h e r es h o u l d n o t b e a n y m o r e
b o t h e t h a n o la n d d i e s e lf u e l )t h e p r o b l e mo f h e a v y p r o b l e m sw i t h c l o g g e df i l t e r s ,u n l e s st h e e t h a n o l
k n o c k o c c u r r e dw h e n t h e i n t a k ea i r w a s h e a t e d c o m e s i n t o c o n t a c tw i t h s o m e o f t h e i n c o m o a t i b l e
excessively.lt was found that at air temperatures m a t e r i a l sm e n t i o n e de a r l i e r( R i d e re t a l . ,1 9 7 9 ) .
a b o v e 2 0 0 " C t h e e t h a n o l s e l f - i g n i t e dd u r i n g t h e
compressionstroke (Bro et al.,1977). Gonclusion
Ethanolseemsto be an attractivesubstitutefor
P I N T O A 3 O OC C E N G I N E o e t r o l e u mf u e l s i n t h e S l i n t e r n a l c o m b u s t i o n
M B T S P A R KT I M I N G
aOOO R PM - ALL LOADS
e n g i n e .l t s t w o m o s tp o s i t i v eq u a l i t i e sa r et h a t i t c a n
b e u s e d i n t o d a y ' se n g i n e sa n d c a n b e m a d ef r o m
( B A N D SI N C L U D E 9 5 % O F
renewableresources,such as grain.However,there
ACTUAL DATA POINTS)
E a r e p r o b l e ma r e a si n e t h a n o lu s e ,s o m eo f w h i c ha r e
I
MI l i s t e di n T a b l e 9 ( S c h r o c k ,1 9 7 9 ) .O t h e r p r o b l e m s
.L = =- OEM INDOLENE 0.06
I 2-OO with its widescaleuse are its cost, productionand
=
- DSR ETHANOL O.| | d i s t r i b u t i o nt o t h e p u b l i c .
0
l n s u m m a r y t, h e f o l l o w i n gg e n e r a l i z a t i o ncsa n
oN
r.60
be made based on the literaturereviewedin this
o paper:
U'
I
-1- 1 ) T h e h i g h e rp r o o fe t h a n o (l ) 1 8 0 ) i s a m o r e
U' LEAI{ I RICH
z s u i t a b l ef u e l f o r t o d a y ' se n g i n e sd u e t o i t s
9 t.?
an increased power output, increasedvolu-
v,
= m e t r i c f u e l e c o n o m y ,a n d t h e a b s e n c eo f
U s o m eo f t h e p r o b l e m sa s s o c i a t e w d ithlower
lrJ
o
o. p r o o fe t h a n o , .
I 2 ) E t h a n o li s m o r e a d a p t a b l et o u s e i n s p a r k
td
6 \ =\ i g n i t i o ne n g i n e st h a n i n d i e s e le n g i n e s .
J
\-- 3 ) W h e ne t h a n o il s u s e di n a S l e n g i n e m
0.40 _____..-_ , o d i if -
.-.-i..-- c a t i o n ss h o u l d b e m a d e t o t h e c a r b u r e t o r ,
.\ .\ c o m p r e s s i o nr a t i oa n d i g n i t i o nt i m i n g ,a n d
.\ someadditionalform of heatmay be needed
o.70 0.80 0.90 r.o t.l
f o r t h e i n t a k ea i r .
4 ) W h e n c o m p a r e dt o g a s o l i n e ,e t h a n o l d e -
E e u r v A L E N cnE
a r t o ,Q livers more power, betterfuel economy,
h i g h e r t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y ,b u t l e s s v o l u -
F i g . 1 4 . - T h e a l d e h y d ee m i s s i o n s o fa n S l e n g i n e f u e l e dw i t h m e t r i cf u e l e c o n o m y .
e t h a n o l s h o w v e r y s i g n i f i c a n ti n c r e a s e sa t l o w e q u i v a l e n c e 5 ) S o m ea d d i t i o n afl o r m o f h e a to r a s e p a r a t e
r a t i o s . W h e n t h e e q u i v a l e n c er a t i o i s g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 9 t h e startingfuel is neededto start engines
e t h a n o lf u e l e de n g i n e a p p r o a c h e s t h ei n d o l e n e fu e l e de n g i n e
operatingon ethanolat low temperatures.
b u t s t i l l i s s i g n i f i c a n t l yg r e a t e r .
6) E t h a n o il s l e s st o x i ct h a ng a s o l i n eb, u t m o r e
D ep o si tsi n E n g i n e s p r e c a u t i o n sm u s t b e t a k e ni n i t s s t o r a g et o
i n s u r ei t s i n i t i a lq u a l i t y .
U si n g E th a n o l 7 ) E t h a n o l i s c o r r o s i v et o s e v e r a lm a t e r i a l s
ln the studies reviewed ethanol has not been u s e d i n v e h i c l e s c u r r e n t l y o p e r a t i n go n
found to leave any unfavorable engine deposits. g a s o l i n eT. h e c o r np a t a b i l i t o
y f m a t e r i a l isn a
I n o n e s t u d y p r a c t i c a l l yn o c o m b u s t i o nc h a m b e r vehicleshould be checked before usinq
d e p o s i t sw e r ef o u n d i n a n e n g i n ea f t e r5 0 0 h o u r so f ethanol.
o p e r a t i o no n e t h a n o l ( M e y e re t a l . , 1 9 4 8 ) .I n f a c t 8) T h e N O X a n d C O e m i s s i o n sa r e l e s s ,a n d
e t h a n o ld o e s j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e .l t c l e a n sd e p o s i t s t h e u n b u r n e df u e l a n d a l d e h v d ee m i s s i o n s

17
 are greater for ethanol as compared to Eventhough there are some problemsassoci-
gasoline. ated with its use,ethanolhas been used as a gaso-
9 ) T h e r e s e e m t o b e n o m a j o r p r o b l e m si n linesubstitutebefore,andtherearenoinsurmount-
e n g i n ed u r a b i l i t yu s i n ge t h a n o lt h a t c a n n o t a b l e p r o b l e m st o k e e p i t f r o m b e i n gu s e da g a i n .A
be overcomewith minor modifications. greatnumberof barriersexist in the useof unmixed
10) There are no unfavorableengine deposits ethanolin dieselenginesbecauseof the low cetane
l e f t i n e n g i n e su s i n ge t h a n o l .I n f a c t ,t h e r e numberforethanol.Tomakeitsusepracticaltoday,
are fewer engine depositsthan found from there are active research programs around the
the use of gasoline. world investigating these problems.

Table9.-Summaryol EthanolApplications
in Engines.
Approximateo/o
Application Engine Fuel Replaced Utilize 200 Proot Potentialc
by Ethanola Low Proof? EthanolVatue Problems

1 ) Ethanol-gasoline V e h i c l e sa n d o l d e r 10 No . 7 5x g a s o l i n e 1,2,5,7
mixtures Sl tractors
2 a ) E t h a n o li n V e h i c l e sn, a t u r a lg a s 100 Yes . 6 7x g a s o l i n e 3, 4,7,I
S l S t d .C R e n g i n e s o, l d S l t r a c t o r s
2 b ) E t h a n o li n Naturag l as lrr engines, 100 Yes . 7 6x g a s o l i n e 3, 4,7,I
Sl HighCR old Sl tractors
3) E t h a n oiln S l C l t r a c t o r sc, o m b i n e s 100 Yes . 5 2x d i e s e l 4,6,7,9
c o n v e r t e dd i e s e l s
h i g hC R
4) E t h a n o li n d i e s e l s C l t r a c t o r s c; o m b i n e s 100 Yesb . 5 5x d i e s e l 4,5,7,8,10
5) Ethanol-diesel C l t r a c t o r s c, o m b i n e s 10 No . 5 1x d i e s e l 1,4,6,7,'10
m txtures
6) Carbureted C l t r a c t o r s ,c o m b i n e s 30 Yes . 5 5x d i e s e l 11
e t h a n o lC l
a A s s u m i n g10 0 o /aod o p t i o n
Dspeculative
c P o t e n t i a lP r o b l e m s
1 - P h a s es e p a r a t i o n 7 M a t e r i a l sc o m p a t i b i l i t y
2 = Driveability 8 I n j e c t o rp u m p l u b r i c a t i o n
3 = V a l v er e c e s s i o n g - o i l d i l u t i o na t l i g h tl o a d s
4 = S t a r t i n g( b e l o w4 0 " F ) l 0 C o m b u s t i o nk n o c k
5 - V a p o rl o c k 1.1 Inconvenience
6 = U n a v a i l a b i l i t yo f r e t r o fi t c o n v e r s i o nh a r d w a r e

GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A/F Air to fuel ratio
BTC Beforetop deadcenter
Cl C o m p r e s s i oing n i t i o n
DSR Dresserator inductionsystem-sonicflow fuel/airinduction
<D Equivalence ratio-actual airlfuel ratio
stoichiometric airlfuel ratio
FTIRS Fuoriertransform infraredspectroscopy
FTP Federaltest procedure
IHP Indicatedhorsepower
MBT M i n i m u ms p a r ka d v a n c ef o r b e s tt o r q u e
Ml M a l d i s t r i b u t i oi nnd e x
Ml O richestcvlinder- leanestcylinder
2 x O average
NFPS NationalFireProtectionSocietv
NOX N i t r o u so x i d e s
OEM Originalequipmentmanufacturer
Sl S p a r ki g n i t i o n
WOT Wide open throtile

18
 Bibliogr aphy
1 . A D M C o r o . 1 9 8 0 . C o r n P o w e rF u e l e d 1 9 7 9 F o r d
. e d a rR a p i d s ,l o w a .
F i e s t aC
2 . B a i l e y , B . K . a n d J . A . R u s s e l .1 9 7 9 . E m e r g e n c y
F u e l sC o m p o s i t i o na n d l m p a c t ,P h a s el l F o r m u l a -
t i o n a n d S c r e e n i n gD i e s e lE m e r g e n c yF u e l s .M E D
R e o o r t 1 0 1 . S o u t h w e s t R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e .S a n
A n t o n i o ,T e x a s .
e B r o , K l a u s a n d P . S . P e d e r s o n 1. 9 7 7 .A l t e r n a t i v e
D i e s e lE n g i n eF u e l s ;A n E x p e r i m e n t aI ln v e s t i g a t i o n
o f M e t h a n o l ,E t h a n o lM e t h a n ea n d A m m o n i a i n a
D . l . D i e s e lE n g i n ew i t h P i l o t I n j e c t i o nS. A E P a p e r
N o . 7 7 0 7 9 4P . a s s e n g ecr a r m e e t i n go f S A E ,D e t r o i t ,
Michigan.
C h u i .G . K . . R . D . A n d e r s o na n d R . E . B a k e r .1 9 7 9 .
n e h i c l eC a l i b r a t i ofno r E t h a n oFl u e l sF. o r d
B r a z i l i aV
M o t o rC o m p a n y D . e t r o i tM, ichigan.
D e a r d o r f f ,T . 1 9 7 9 .O p e r a t i o no f a S p a r k - l g n i t i o n
E n g i n ew i t h a R a n g eo f E t h a n o lo n W a t e rM i x t u r e s .
l o w a S t a t eU n i v e r s i t yA, m e s ,l o w a .
b. D u c k . J . T . a n d C . S . B r u c e . 1 9 4 5 .U t i l i z a t i o no f
N o n - P e t r o l e u mF u e l si n A u t o m o t i v eE n g i n e s N
. af/.
Bur. Std.,J. Fes 35: 439.
E n g e l m a nH, e l m u t hW . 1 9 8 0 G . asolina e n dD i s t i l l e d
A f c o h o l C o m p a r e di n a n E n g i n e .l n L o o k i n g a t
Alcohol Fuel:Farm Productionand Use.Ohio State
U n i v e r s i t yE x t e n s i o nS e r v i c e C
, o l u m b u s ,O h i o .
8 . F l o w e r sW , i l l i a mJ . a n d C . W . F l o w e r s1. 9 7 9 .E n g i n e
M o d i fi c a t i o n sf o r t h e U s e o f A l c o h o l F u e l si n S o a r k
l g n i t i o nE n g i n e sN . i c h o l l sS t a t eU n i v e r s i t yT,h i b o -
d a u x ,L o u i s i a n a .
9 . G a l l o p o u l o s ,N i c h o l a s E . A l t e r n a t i v eF u e l s f o r
R e c i p r o c a t i n gI n t e r n a lC o m b u s t i o nE n g i n e sA
. lter-
n a t i v e H y d r o c a r b o nF u e l s : C o m b u s t i o n a n d
C h e m i c a l K i n e t i c s .P r o g r e s si n A s t r o n a u t i c sa n d
Aerona utics. 62 7 4-115.
1 0 .G o e r i n g , C a r r o l l E . 1 9 8 0 . B u r n i n g E t h a n o l i n
E n g i n e s l.n L o o k i n ga t A l c o h o l F u e l sF: a r mP r o d u c -
t i o n a n d U s e . O h i o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t yE x t e n s i o n
S e r v i c eC, o l u m b u sO , hio.
1 1 . H i l l , R a y .1 9 8 0 ." A l c o h o lF u e l s - C a n T h e y R e p l a c e
Gasoline?"PopularSclence.216:25-34.
1 2 . H u n t , D o n n e l lR . 1 9 7 9 .E n g i n e M o d i f i c a t i o nfso r
B u r n i n g E t h a n o la s a F u e l .U n i v e r s i t yo f l l l i n o i s ,
U r b a n a l, l l i n o i s .
12 H u n t , D o n n e l l R . 1 9 8 0 .P e r s o n a lc o r r e s p o n d e n c e .
D e p a r t m e not f A g r i c u l t ur a l E ng i n e e rni g , U ni v e r s i t y
o f l l l i n o i sU
. r b a n a l. l l i n o i s .
1 4 . K e l l e r ,J a m e s L . 1 9 7 9 .A l c o h o l sa s M o t o r F u e l ?
Hydrocarbon Processing.58: 127-138.
Lynch,Craig O. 1979.Alcohol FuelsOur Renewable
E n e r g y .B l u e L i g h t P r e s s .C o n c o r d ,C a l i f o r n i a .
19
1 6 . M e y e rA , n d r eJ . a n d R . E . D a v i s1. 9 4 8 D . evelopment
o f a P r a c t i c a lM e t h o d o f B u r n i n g A l c o h o l i n a
G a s o l i n eT r a c t o r .U n i v e r s i t yo f K e n t u c k y ,L e x i n g -
ton, Kentucky.
1 7 M i n g l e ,J o h n G . O c t o b e r. '9l 7 9 .C o n v e r t i n gY o ur C a r
t o R u n o n A l c o h o lF u e l s .O r e g o nS t a t eU n i v e r s i t y ,
C o r v a l l i sO, r e g o n .
1 8 . M o t h e r E a r t h N e w s . 1 9 7 9 .M o t h e r s E x o e r i m e n t a l
A l c o h o l - P o w eTr r u c k .M o t h er E a r t hN e w s .S e p t e m -
b e r l O c t o b e r1 9 7 9 .
1 9 . M u e l l e r A s s o c i a t e s ,I n c . 1 9 7 8 .S t a t u s o f A l c o h o l
U t i l i z a t i o nT e c h n o l o g yf o r H i g h w a yT r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
D O E C o n t r a c tE C - 7 7 - X - 0 1 - 2 9 2 B 3 .a l t i m o r e ,M a r y -
land.
20. N e r p e l C
, h u c k .1 9 8 0 B. o o z eB u r n e r sT, h e D e b u to f
t h e A l c o h o l i cA u t o m o b i l e .A D M G a s o h o l N e w s .
F e b r u a r y2 7 , 1 9 8 0 .
21 P a u l ,J . K . 1 9 7 9 E
. t h y lA l c o h o lP r o d u c t i o n
andUse
a s a M o t o r F u e l . N o y e s D a t a C o r p o r a t i o n .P a r k
R i d g e ,N e w J e r s e y .
22. P e r r y , C h i l t o n . 1 9 7 3 . C h e m i c a lE n g i n e e r sH a n d -
b o o k , F i f t h E d i t i o n . M c G r a w - H i l lC o m p a n y , N e w
Y o r k ,N e w Y o r k .
P e r s i a n t s e v aV,. P . , l . L . R o z e nife l d ,V . E . Z o r n i a ,E .
K . E n i k e e va n d M . l . C h a r a e v a1. 9 8 0 .P r o t e c t i o no f
M e t a l s , T r a n s a c t i o n so f t h e Z a s h c h i t a M e t a l l o v ,
J a n u a r y1 9 8 0 .C o n s u l t a n t sB u r e a u ,N e w Y o r k ,N e w
York.
24 P y e , D . R . 1 9 3 7 .T h e l n t e r n a lC o m b u s t i o nE n g i n e ,
V o l u m e/ . O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t yP r e s s .L o n d o n , E n g -
land.
2 5 R i d e r ,A l l e nR . a n d D . P . S h e l t o n1. 9 7 9 .E t h a n o l - A
F u e l f o r A g r i c u l t u r aE l n g i n e s .U n i v e r s i t yo f N e -
b r a s k a ,L i n c o l n ,N e b r a s k a .
26. R o g o w s k i , AR. .1 9 5 3 E. l e m e n t s olfn t e r n a lC o m b u s -
t i o n E n g i n e s . M c G r a w - H i l lB o o k C o m p a n y , I n c .
N e w Y o r k ,N e w Y o r k .
. a f e t yf o r E t h a n o P
2 7 S c h n i e d e rR, o l l i n .1 9 7 9 S l roduc-
t i o n a n d U t i l i z a t i o nU. n i v e r s i t vo f N e b r a s k aL, i n -
c o l n ,N e b r a s k a .
28. S c h r o c k ,M a r k D . 1 9 7 9 .U s i n gA l c o h o li n E n g i n e s .
, a n h a t t a nK
K a n s a sS t a t eU n i v e r s i t yM , ansas.
29. S p i n d l e r W
, . 1 9 7 8 .M a t c h i n ga T u r b o c h a r g etro a
P a s s e n g eC r a r P e t r o lE n g i n e .C o n f e r e n c eo n T u r -
b o c h a r g i n ga n d T u r b o c h a r g e r sI.n s t i t u t i o no f M e -
c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r s H e a d q u a r t e r s .L o n d o n ,
E n g l a n dA. p r i l1 8 - 2 9 1, 978.
30. U n i v e r s i t yo f S a n t a C l a r a ,S c h o o l o f E n g i n e e r i n g .
1 9 7 8 .E t h a n o li n M u l t i c y l i n d eAr u t o m o t i v eS l E n -
g i n e s ;A s t u d yo f P e r fo r m a n c ea n d E m i s s i o n sC h a r -
s e l a t i v teo l n d o l e n ea n d M e t h a n o lD. O E
a c t e r i s t i cR
C o n t r a c tE C - 7 8 - C - 0 3 -713 7 .S a n t aC l a r a ,C a l i f o r n i a .
Office, College of Agriculture, University of Kentucky, Room S-105, Agricultutal Science Building-North, Lexington, Kentucky 40546

lssued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts ot May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Charles E. Barnhart, Director of
Cooperative Extension Service, University ot Kentucky College ol Agricullure, Lexington, and Kentucky State University, Frankfort.
l s s u e d8 - 8 1 , 1 M ; 1 M - 1 1 - 8 1