The Oscilloscope and the Function Generator

The oscilloscope, or scope for short, is a device for drawing calibrated graphs of voltage vs time
very quickly and conveniently. Such an instrument is obviously useful for the design and repair
of circuits in which voltages and currents are changing with time. There are also many devices,
called transducers, which convert some non-electrical quantity such as pressure, sound, light
intensity, or position to a voltage. By using a transducer the scope can make a plot of the changes
in almost any measurable quantity. This capability is widely used in science and technology.

The heart of the oscilloscope is a cathode ray tube or CRT, of the sort you have already studied.
Looking at the face of the instrument, you are viewing the screen that the electron beam strikes.
Electronic circuits in the scope apply voltages to one set of deflection plates to sweep the beam
across the screen from left to right at a constant rate, thereby providing the time axis. Other
circuits amplify or attenuate the input signal as needed, and apply voltages to the other set of
deflection plates to move the beam vertically, providing the voltage axis. Controls are provided
to select the time and voltage scales needed for any given situation.

At the end of each sweep, the beam is shut off and the horizontal deflection voltage is reset so
the beam would start at the left edge of the screen again. Since a scope is usually used to plot a
rapidly changing quantity, one sweep and therefore one plot may last only a few microseconds.
If the phenomenon we are studying can be made repetitive, we can repeat the sweep sequence
many times to get a display suitable for a more leisurely examination. A special circuit, called a
trigger circuit, examines the incoming voltage signal and starts the sweep at the same point in the
repetitive cycle for each new sweep. This results in a visually steady display of the input. Several
controls are provided to set the trigger as needed.

The scope you will use is a very flexible instrument, typical of those available in a research
laboratory. It has two channels, so that two different voltages may be plotted simultaneously for
direct comparison, and a variety of triggering options. The front panel, shown in Fig. 1, is
correspondingly formidable at first glance. Fortunately, the myriad of controls can be
considered in several independent groups, which are marked in the figure. In the remainder of
this section we will examine each group in turn, concentrating on the controls we will need in
subsequent experiments. The experimental procedure section will then take you through a series
of measurements designed to demonstrate the operation of each section.

At the left side of the instrument, the CRT screen is divided into a one centimeter grid, ruled on
the inside surface of the tube. Each solid line is one division for the horizontal and vertical
deflection. The dotted lines are provided for pulse rise-time measurements. Moving across the
panel, we come to the power switch and the CRT controls. The trace rotation and probe adjust
are used only when repairing the instrument. The intensity control should be set to give a visible
trace, but excessive brightness will defocus the spot and may damage the screen. Both the
intensity and focus may need to be adjusted when the sweep rate is changed drastically. The
beam finder is provided as an aid to setting the scope. When pushed, it reduces the deflection
voltages enough that the beam will always appear on the screen. The position controls are then
used to center the spot, and you should obtain a display suitable for final adjustments when the
beam finder button is released.
The vertical system accepts input signals and develops appropriate deflection voltages for the
CRT. Because this is a two-channel scope there are two identical sets of vertical controls, one for
each trace. The block diagram in Fig. 2 shows the flow of signals in one channel. Voltages are
applied between a grounded terminal labeled GND and either CH 1 or CH 2 for the channel
desired. The coupling switch allows the input circuit to accept all signals when set at DC, or only
the time-varying part when set for AC. The middle position, GND, connects the vertical
amplifier input to ground, so that you can see where the zero-voltage height is on the screen.
(Using the GND setting does not connect the external input terminal to ground, so your circuit
will not be disturbed.) The position control allows you to place the trace on the screen as desired,
for example aligning the zero-voltage position with one of the grid lines.

The vertical sensitivity control, labeled VOLTS/DIV is used to set the vertical scale factor. For
example, when the 50m marking is next to the 1X symbol, the scope is set for a vertical scale of
50 mV per centimeter, and a deflection of 2 cm, equal to 2 large divisions, would indicate an
input voltage of 100 mV. This control is normally set to make the vertical part of the signal a
convenient size on the screen. The red knob in the center of the control allows you to
continuously vary the vertical scale factor, rather than using the fixed settings. This feature is
occasionally useful for relative measurements, but for quantitative work you need to know the
calibration, and you must use the fixed steps. Turning the red knob fully clockwise sets the
control for the fixed steps marked on the main control.

The controls labeled VERTICAL MODE select several related functions. Starting at the left, you
can display the signal from channel 1, channel 2 or from both channels. The switch at the right
determines how the display is done when both channels are in use. In CHOP mode the beam is
switched back and forth between the channels very rapidly, drawing many short pieces of the
voltage-time graph for both channels as the sweep proceeds. In ALT mode, an abbreviation for
alternate sweep, the channel 1 signal is displayed for one full sweep, the channel 2 signal is
displayed on the next sweep, and so forth. If the sweep time is short, ALT mode appears to
display two steady graphs, but if the sweep time is long you will see an irritating flicker as one
line and then the other is swept. The CHOP mode is therefore better for slow sweeps because it
draws both traces together, although it cannot switch quickly enough to handle very fast signals.
As a general rule, use ALT mode unless the display is slow enough to be irritating, and then
switch to CHOP. The third setting, ADD, algebraically adds the input of channel 1 and 2. We
will not have much use for this feature.

The BW LIMIT (bandwidth limit) button allows you to cut off signals with frequencies higher
than 10 MHz, so that they do not appear on the display. Most of our signals are at lower
frequencies, so leaving this button in will cut out some noise without losing any information. The
CH 2 INVERT button inverts the signal from channel two, so that increasing positive voltages
are plotted downward, rather than upward. This button should be out for normal operation.

The horizontal system controls the time scale of our plots. The main control, labeled SEC/DIV,
works much like the vertical sensitivity controls, with a series of fixed settings and a red variable
control. Note that the scale is divided into regions for seconds, milliseconds and microseconds
per division. When set for 1 ms/division, as in the figure, each one centimeter division on the
screen corresponds to one millisecond. The position labeled X-Y disables the timed sweep, and
allows you to plot the voltage applied to channel 2 vs the voltage applied to channel 1. The
horizontal mode switch and the delay time controls are used only for special tricks, which we
will not need. Leave the mode switch at NO DLY for no delay. The position knob works just like
its vertical counterpart.The trigger system is used to start successive sweeps at corresponding
points on the input waveform on each successive sweep. This operation is indicated
schematically in Fig. 3. The

Function generator basics

Function generators, whether the old analog type or the newer digital type, have a few common
features:

• A way to select a waveform type: sine, square, and triangle are most common, but some will
give ramps, pulses, “noise”, or allow you to program a particular arbitrary shape.

• A way to select the waveform frequency. Typical frequency ranges are from 0.01 Hz to 10
MHz.

• A way to select the waveform amplitude.

• At least two outputs. The “main” output, which is where you find the desired waveform,
typically has a maximum voltage of 20 volts peak-to-peak, or ±10 volts range. The most
common output impedance of the main output is 50 ohms, although lower output impedances
can sometimes be found. A second output, sometimes called “sync”, “aux” or “TTL” produces a
square wave with standard 0 and 5 volt digital signal levels. It is used for synchronizing another
device (such as an oscilloscope) to the possibly variable main output signal.

A wide variety of other features are available on most modern function generators, such as
“frequency sweep”—the ability to automatically vary the frequency between a minimum and
maximum value, “DC offset”—a knob that adds a specified amount of DC voltage to the time-
varying waveform, and extra inputs or outputs that can be used to control these extra features by
other instruments.
Oscilloscope basics

All oscilloscopes share certain basic features. Refer to Fig. 1 to see where typical controls may
be found.

• The most recognizable feature: a screen. On older analog scopes this is a cathode-ray tube or
CRT; the signal creates a moving dot or “trace” across the screen. On newer digital scopes the
screen is a CRT or flat-panel display that operates like a computer monitor. The basic use of the
screen is to display the signals in a voltage versus time graph. The screen usually has a graticule
on it of about 1 cm squares.

• At least two (maybe more) signal inputs, or “channels”, typically called “CH1”, “CH2”, etc.,
and one external “trigger” input, typically called “EXT TRIG”.

• A collection of controls related to vertical part of the display associated with the input signals.
These control the kind of coupling to the input: direct—“DC”, through a capacitor—“AC”, or
disconnected—“GND”. The amount of amplification applied to the signal is controlled by a
knob, and is specified in terms of screen units: a “10mV/div” setting means that a 10 millivolt
change in the input signal will move the trace vertically by one major division.

• A collection of controls related to the horizontal part of the display. These controls set the time
axis and are calibrated in seconds per division, e.g., 1µs/div means that one major division
corresponds to 1 microsecond. The horizontal controls are sometimes called the “timebase” and
the setting is called the “sweep rate”.

• A collection of controls called the “trigger” that are used to synchronize the input signal to the
horizontal display. Because there is no fixed relationship between an external signal and the
internal timebase, the trigger makes the scope wait until some prescribed level in an input is
reached before beginning its display.
Dip Meter

A dip meter is nothing more than an oscillator with the frequency-determining coil exposed, so
that it may be coupled to other electrical circuits. A frequency control is included so the
oscillator’s approximate frequency is known and can be adjusted. A meter indicates the level of
oscillation. Most dip meters come with a set of plug-in coils for wide frequency coverage in
several ranges. Older vacuum tube units, in which the meter monitored the grid current of the
tube to indicate the level of oscillation, were called grid dip meters. With the availability of high
frequency transistors, dip meters went high-tech and battery operation became practical. The
typical dip meter is contained in a small case, with provisions for external plug-in coils. A dial to
control the oscillator frequency will be conveniently located on the unit. The meter is located for
easy reading while the frequency is being adjusted. Most dippers will also have a control to
adjust the level of oscillator activity. This control allows the operator to keep the meter
indication at a convenient level over a wide frequency range. If it is a solid-state unit, a battery is
included in the case, while vacuum tube units will have an ac power supply that may be self-
contained or separate. Sometimes there is a switch to kill the oscillator to facilitate its use as an
absorption wave meter. On others it is possible to turn the activity control down far enough to
stop the oscillator. On the front panel there may be an audio output to listen to the modulation of
a carrier. Figure 1 shows some common types of dip meters.

Using the Dipper When the coil of the dipper is placed near the resonant circuit under test, some
of the energy from the oscillating dipper is coupled to the circuit. This coupling reaches a
maximum when the frequency of the dipper and the resonant frequency of the circuit are the
same. This coupled energy is supplied by the dipper’s oscillator, which causes the amplitude of
the oscillation to drop. Since the meter indicates oscillation level, a pronounced dip in the meter
will be seen as the dipper is tuned through the resonant frequency of the circuit. The oscillator
frequency at the minimum or bottom of the dip is the frequency of resonance of the circuit under
test. The nice thing is that the circuit being tested does not have to be powered up to measure its
resonant frequency. Placing the axis of the dipper’s coil adjacent and parallel to the axis of the
coil in the circuit under test results in inductive coupling (Figure 2). This method gives the
deepest and most easily found dip on the meter. The dipper’s oscillator frequency is “pulled” by
the additional load of the resonant circuit—this is one of the major sources of error in making dip
meter measurements. Reading the dipper frequency with loose coupling
will reduce this error to acceptable levels. After the dip is found I decrease the coupling (move
the two coils apart) and recheck the frequency of the dip. A variation of inductive coupling is
link coupling. This allows the dipper to be coupled to circuits in some very cramped places. The
link I use is a 2-foot length of coax with a twoturn coil on each end (Figure 3). As the frequency
of interest increases, links with fewer coil turns on each end should be used. Two turns can be
used up to 70 MHz. Couple one link to the dipper and the other link to the circuit under test.
Capacitive coupling, in which the axis of the coil is perpendicular to the item under test, is useful
when there is no inductor present or it is difficult to get to, such as with an antenna (Figure 4).
Using capacitive coupling usually produces a shallow dip that is more difficult to see as the
dipper is tuned.

Finding the Resonant Frequency of an LC Circuit Coupling the dipper’s coil to the circuit under
test, inductive coupling will produce an easily found dip as you tune the dipper through its
frequency range (Figure 5). When you find a dip, move the coils apart to reduce coupling. If the
depth of the dip does not decrease, you may find the dip is internal to the dipper. I usually move
the coils apart so the dip is no more that 20% to 30% of the maximum meter reading. Loosening
the coupling to this point prevents the circuit under test from pulling the dipper’s oscillator too
badly, and the resonant frequency may then be read off the dipper’s dial with a fair degree of
confidence. Can’t find a dip? The LC circuit could be outside the range of your dipper. It is
helpful to have an idea where to expect resonance and to tune slowly. Occasionally I have found
the coil under test to be open, or the resonating capacitor to be faulty, when I could not find a
dip. A good way to gain some confidence in using your dipper is to make a parallel resonant
circuit from a coil and capacitor. Support the circuit on a nonconductive surface. Practice
coupling to the coil of the resonant circuit in every manner you can think of and note the
characteristics of the dip.

Logic Probe Tester

Logic testers are simple but very helpful devices in testing digital circuits. A logic probe can be
designed in many different ways. In this particular design, a combination of discrete and TTL
logic components is applied to test different logic levels. This logic tester can test and display
three different logic levels: the “0” and the “1” levels including the undefined logic state also
known as “never mind”.
If the tested voltage level is below 1 volt, the logic tester will recognize it as a logical “0”. In
that case, the emitter-collector junction of T2 conducts and the D5 LED lights up optically
displaying a “logic 0”. If the tested voltage is between 1 volt and 2 volts, both T1 and T2 does
not conduct and the XOR gate U1 receives two dissimilar logic states at its inputs. The XOR
output becomes positive and the D6 LED lights up signalling a “never mind” logical state. The
same thing happens by a open input or when testing a blind IC pin.

When the tested point is above 2 volts, the D4 LED lights up signalling a logical “1” state.
Another plus of the featured circuit is the fact that it uses a 7486 IC for the XOR gate. Since this
IC has 4 gates inside, the circuit can be expanded to build a four channel logic analyzer.

Logic probe tester circuit diagram

Logic Analyzer

Logic analyzers are test instruments that are widely used for testing complex digital or logic
circuits. They meet the need for users who need to be able to investigate and understand the
operation of these circuits.

Oscilloscopes can perform many of the functions of a logic analyser but the the logic analyzer is
able to display relative timing of a large number of signals. Essentially a logic analyser enables
traces of logic signals to be seen in such a way that the operation of several lines in a digital
circuit can be monitored and investigated.

However many oscilloscopes are now able to incorporate many logic analyzer functions in what
may be termed a mixed signal oscilloscope.

Logic analysers come in a variety of formats. Although it is possible to obtain those that use a
traditional test equipment case, many more are now linked to computers and in this way have
much greater levels of flexibility and processing power.

Logic analyser development

The first logic analysers were developed out of the need to be able de-bug and undertake fault-
finding on microprocessor based systems.

In the early 1980s when these chips first started to become widely used, the urgent need arose to
develop techniques that would enable the many lines and test points to be monitored
 simultaneously. Existing oscilloscopes were not able to provide the required levels of
functionality.

After the early introduction of the first analysers, their complexity increased in line with the
complexity of the circuits being tested. The number of channels grew, their speeds rose and the
functionality in areas such as triggering improved greatly.

Logic analyser characteristics

There are several key characteristics of a logic analyser that separate it from multi-channel
oscilloscopes and other test instruments:

 Multiple channels: Logic analyzers are designed to monitor a large number of digital lines.
As logic analyzers are optimised for monitoring a large number of digital circuits, typically
they may have anywhere between about 32 and 200+ channels they can monitor, each channel
monitoring one digital line. However some specialised logic analyzers are suitably scaled to
be able to handle many more lines, and in this way enable tracking and fault finding on much
more complex systems.
 Provide a time display of logic states: Logic analysers possess a horizontal time axis and a
vertical axis to indicate a logic high or low states. In this way a picture of the digital lines can
be easily displayed.
 Displays logic states: The vertical display on the analyser displays the logic state as a high of
low state. The signals enter the various channels and are converted into a high or low state for
further processing within the analyser. It provides a logic timing diagram of the various lines
being monitored.
 Does NOT display analogue information : These test instruments do not present any
analogue information, and in this way they differ from an oscilloscope. They are purely aimed
at monitoring the logic operation of the system. If any analogue information is required, then
an oscilloscope must be used in addition.
 Logic analyser types

Although development of these test instruments is on-going and new variants are constantly
being launched and many technology innovations are being achieved, there are some main
categories into which most logic analyzers can be split:

 Modular logic analyzers : This type of logic analyser is probably what may be thought of as
the most typical form of test instrument, although it is the highest cost option providing the
highest level of functionality. It comprises a chassis and the various modules - including
channel modules. The number of modules being larger for the higher channel counts.
 Portable logic analyzers : In a number of instances there may be a need for a smaller
analyser, possibly for restricted budgets or for field service. These test instruments incorporate
all elements of the analyser into a single box for ease of transportation.
 PC based logic analyzers: There is a growing number of PC based logic analysers. These
consist of an analyser unit that is connected to a PC. USB is an obvious option for this, but
Ethernet is also widely used because of its high speed. This form of PC based instrument uses
the processing power of the PC combined with its display to reduce the cost of the overall
system. For the future it is likely that PC based logic analyzers and in particular USB logic
analyzers will be used increasingly, especially as the cost of USB analyzers can be much
lower than other forms, and they can offer high levels of performance using the power of the
associated computer.

Logic analyzer applications

The main use for logic analyzers is to look at digital signals. They were a particularly attractive
and useful test instrument many years ago when complicated digital systems were made using
many different ICs. It was possible to gain access to the various test points and it was possible to
debug the wide busses and IO. Now with much higher levels of integration this is not always
possible because there are more embedded devices using System On a Chip, SOC designs, and
access to the required test points is not achievable.

Despite this there are still many potential measurements for a logic analyzer, particularly for use
with the many board computer systems like the Arduino, Raspberry Pi and many others.
Using a logic analyzer it is possible to time correlate a large number of signals on a single
display. This can be sued to gain a good viw other data movement and processing within many
embedded systems or within the peripherals of small computer systems.

One example of an application is to monitor the data comes into a microprocessor UART and
then back out to an SPI device, perhaps EEPROM, and then finally a piece of data out to an I2C
device. Using a logic analyzer it is possible to view all of these buses over an extended period
and this would not be viable on an oscilloscope.

As a result logic analyzers from the simple maker / hobbyist low cost USB logic analyzer
versions right up to professional development systems are all useful in their different arenas.

Logic analyzers are an important form of test instrumentation. They enable engineers and
developers to see exactly what is happening within logic circuits. Looking at the logic signals on
a variety of lines they are able to provide a much better level of insight into the operation of logic
circuits than other forms of test instrumentation.

Spectrum analyzer

A spectrum analyzer is a device that displays signal amplitude (strength) as it varies by

signal frequency. The frequency appears on the horizontal axis, and the amplitude is displayed
on the vertical axis. To the casual observer, a spectrum analyzer looks like an oscilloscope, and
in fact, some devices can function either as oscilloscopes or spectrum analyzers.

The electronics industry uses spectrum analyzers to examine the frequency spectrum of radio
frequency (RF) and audio signals. These devices display the individual elements of these signals,
as well as the performance of the circuits producing them. Through the use of spectrum
analyzers, organizations can determine what modifications may be needed to reduce interference
and thus improve the performance of Wi-Fi systems and wireless routers.
How spectrum analyzers work

Most spectrum analyzers offer users the opportunity to set a start, stop and center frequency. The
center frequency is halfway between the stop and start frequencies and is also the axis for the
frequency used to determine the span -- the range between the start and stop frequencies. With an
RF spectrum analyzer, the analyzer measures the radio "noise floor" and measures how close two
signals can be while still being resolved into two separate peaks.
Features

Today, as spectrum analysis software and digital or spectrum analyzer app offerings have
become more common, more analyzers are able to do analog-to-digital conversion and sample a
significant input signal and frequency range. A modern spectrum analyzer may be able to show
displayed average noise level, calculating the average noise level detected by the device. These
detectors are typically capable of sample detection, peak detection or average detection.

Uses for spectrum analyzers

A spectrum analyzer can be used to determine whether or not a wireless transmitter is working
according to federally defined standards for purity of emissions. Output signals at frequencies
other than the intended communications frequency appear as vertical lines (pips) on the display.
A spectrum analyzer can also be used to determine, by direct observation, the bandwidth of
a digital or analog signal.
Types of spectrum analyzers

Swept or superheterodyne

A swept-tuned, or superheterodyne, spectrum analyzer down-converts part of the input signal to

the center frequency of a band-pass filter by running a voltage-controlled oscillator across a
range of frequencies. This allows for the full frequency range of the device to be analyzed. In
this case, the resolution bandwidth is closely related to the minimum bandwidth detectable by the
device and is controlled by the band-pass filter. The smaller the bandwidth, the greater the
spectral resolution.

Fast Fourier transform, FFT

Some digital spectrum analyzers use Fourier transforms -- a way of decomposing a signal into its
individual frequencies. These analyzers need a sampling frequency at least twice the bandwidth
because frequency resolution is the inverse of the time over which the wave is measured and
Fourier transformed.

Real-time

Real-time analyzers collect real-time bandwidth and sample the incoming RF spectrum in a
limited span of time, converting the information using the fast Fourier transform (FFT)
algorithm. Because it's real-time data collection, there is no "blind time," and there are no gaps in
the calculated RF spectrum.

Audio

Spectrum analyzers can also be used in the audio spectrum, displaying volume levels of
frequency bands audible to humans. This method is aimed at analyzing the harmonics of an
audio signal. Once known as wave analyzers, these types of spectrum analyzers are widely used
by sound engineers and can run on almost any computer equipped with a sound card.
Advantages and disadvantages

Swept-tuned spectrum analyzers face tradeoffs between how rapidly the display can update a full
frequency span and the resolution. Sometimes, if engineers are working with a very weak signal,
a preamplifier is needed before analysis can begin. On the other hand, FFT analyzers can strain
the capabilities of analog-to-digital converters and require significant processing power, limiting
the possible frequency range that can be analyzed. Real-time FFT analyzers can offer good
resolution while reducing potential gaps in sampling.

Spectrum analyzer interface

A spectrum analyzer interface is a device that can be connected to a wireless receiver or a

personal computer to allow visual detection and analysis of electromagnetic signals over a
defined band of frequencies. This is called panoramic reception, and it can be used to determine
the frequencies of sources of interference to wireless networking equipment, such as Wi-
Fi and wireless routers.
References:

The XYZ’s of Oscilloscopes, Tektronix, Inc., Beaverton, OR (1992). This book gives a very
thorough introduction to oscilloscopes and their use. A copy is available online, and paper copies
can be inspected the lab.

Tektronix 2215A Oscilloscope Operators Instruction Manual, Tektronix, Inc., Beaverton, OR

(1984). Operation and specifications of one of the most common analog scopes in our lab.
Available for inspection by request.

Tektronix TDS310, TDS320 & TDS350 Two Channel Oscilloscopes Instruction Manual,
Tektronix, Inc., Beaverton, OR (1994). Operation and specifications of our most common digital
oscilloscope. Available online (large PDF) or by request.

https://g4rvh.files.wordpress.com/2008/08/waht-you-can-do-with-a-dip-meter.pdf

https://www.electroschematics.com/521/logic-probe-tester/

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-methods/logic-analyzer/basics-tutorial.php
 Colegio De San Gabriel Arcangel
Recognized by the Government: DepEd, CHED and TESDA
Area E, Sapang Palay, City of San Jose Del Monte, Bulacan
College of Computer Studies and Engineering

Research Paper (EE 33)

METERS

Prepared by:
Napoles, Mhervin
Policarpio, Janet
Caburnay, Maxine Q.
Dela Cruz, Rodelio
Tumabini, Jothameya G.

BSEE 5-1